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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Studies in Judaism, First Series by Solomon
+Schechter
+
+
+
+This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re‐use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+http://www.gutenberg.org/license. If you are not located in the United
+States, you’ll have to check the laws of the country where you are located
+before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: Studies in Judaism, First Series
+
+Author: Solomon Schechter
+
+Release Date: May 6, 2015 [Ebook #48890]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF‐8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+
+
+
+
+
+                            Studies in Judaism
+
+                               First Series
+
+                                    by
+
+                     Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D.
+
+                               Philadelphia
+
+                The Jewish Publication Society of America
+
+                                   1911
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Preface
+Introduction
+I. The Chassidim
+II. Nachman Krochmal and the “Perplexities Of The Time”
+III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna, Gaon
+IV. Nachmanides
+V. A Jewish Boswell
+VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism
+VII. The History of Jewish Tradition
+VIII. The Doctrine of Divine Retribution in Rabbinical Literature
+IX. The Law And Recent Criticism
+X. The Hebrew Collection of the British Museum
+XI. Titles of Jewish Books
+XII. The Child in Jewish Literature
+XIII. Woman in Temple and Synagogue
+XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in Europe
+Index
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                               [Cover Art]
+
+[Transcriber’s Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter
+at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.]
+
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+THE EVER‐CHERISHED MEMORY
+
+OF
+
+THE LATE DR. P. F. FRANKL, RABBI IN BERLIN
+
+THESE STUDIES ARE REVERENTLY
+
+DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+These studies appeared originally in their first form in _The Jewish
+Quarterly_ and _The Jewish Chronicle_. To the Editors of these periodicals
+my best thanks are due for their readiness in placing the articles at my
+disposal for the purposes of the present volume. The Introductory Essay is
+new. I desire to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. J. G. Frazer, Fellow
+of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Dr. J. Sutherland Black, of London, for
+their great kindness in revising the proofs, and for many a valuable
+suggestion. To Mr. Claude G. Montefiore I am indebted for the English
+version of the Essay on “Chassidim”—my first literary effort in this
+country, written at his own suggestion.
+
+In the transliteration of Hebrew names, I have given the familiar English
+forms of the authorised version. As regards post‐Biblical names, I have
+with few exceptions followed Zedner’s _Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in
+the Library of the British Museum_. A Hebrew word will be found here and
+there in the text; I have purposely avoided bewildering devices for
+representing the actual sound of the word, contenting myself with the
+ordinary Roman alphabet, in spite of its shortcomings.
+
+The authorities used for the various Essays will be found indicated in the
+Notes at the end of the volume, where the reader will also find short
+biographical and bibliographical notices, together with brief explanations
+of technical terms for which no exact equivalent exists in English. The
+index will, it is hoped, facilitate reference.
+
+_S. S._
+
+CAMBRIDGE, _February 1896_.
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The essays published in this volume under the title of _Studies in
+Judaism_ have been written on various occasions and at long intervals.
+There is thus no necessary connection between them. If some sort of unity
+may be detected in the book, it can only be between the first three
+essays—on the Chassidim, Krochmal, and the Gaon—in which there is a
+certain unity of purpose. The purpose in view was, as may easily be
+gathered from the essays themselves, to bring under the notice of the
+English public a type of men produced by the Synagogue of the Eastern
+Jews. That Synagogue is widely different from ours. Its places of worship
+have no claims to “beauty of holiness,” being in their outward appearance
+rather bare and bald, if not repulsive; whilst those who frequent them are
+a noisy, excitable people, who actually dance on the “Season of Rejoicing”
+and cry bitterly on the “Days of Mourning.” But among all these
+vagaries—or perhaps because of them—this Synagogue has had its moments of
+grace, when enthusiasm wedded to inspiration gave birth to such beautiful
+souls as Baalshem, such fine sceptics as Krochmal, and such saintly
+scholars as Elijah Wilna. The Synagogue of the West is certainly of a more
+presentable character, and free from excesses; though it is not devoid of
+an enthusiasm of its own which finds its outlet in an ardent and self‐
+sacrificing philanthropic activity. But owing to its practical tendency
+there is too little room in it for that play of intellectual forces which
+finds its extravagant expression in the saint on the one hand, and the
+learned heretic on the other.
+
+Eight of these essays are more or less of a theological nature. But in
+reading the proofs I have been struck by the fact that there is assumed in
+them a certain conception of the Synagogue which, familiar though it be to
+the Jewish student, may appear obscure and even strange to the general
+English reader. For brevity’s sake I will call it the High Synagogue,
+though it does not correspond in all details to what one is accustomed to
+understand under the term of High Church. The High Synagogue has a history
+which is not altogether without its points of interest.
+
+Some years ago when the waves of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament
+reached the shores of this country, and such questions as the
+heterogeneous composition of the Pentateuch, the comparatively late date
+of the Levitical Legislation, and the post‐exilic origin of certain
+Prophecies as well as of the Psalms began to be freely discussed by the
+press and even in the pulpit, the invidious remark was often made: What
+will now become of Judaism when its last stronghold, the Law, is being
+shaken to its very foundations?
+
+Such a remark shows a very superficial acquaintance with the nature of an
+old historical religion like Judaism, and the richness of the resources it
+has to fall back upon in cases of emergency.
+
+As a fact, the emergency did not quite surprise Judaism. The alarm signal
+was given some 150 years ago by an Italian Rabbi, Abiad Sar Shalom
+Bazilai, in his pamphlet _The Faith of the Sages_. The pamphlet is, as the
+title indicates, of a polemical character, reviewing the work of the
+Jewish rationalistic schools; and after warming up in his attacks against
+their heterodox views, Bazilai exclaims: “Nature and simple meaning, they
+are our misfortune.” By “nature and simple meaning” Bazilai, who wrote in
+Hebrew, understood what we would call Natural Science and Philology. With
+the right instinct of faith, Bazilai hit on the real sore points. For
+though he mostly argues against the philosophical systems of Aristotle and
+his commentators, he felt that it is not speculation that will ever
+seriously endanger religion. There is hardly any metaphysical system, old
+or new, which has not in course of time been adapted by able dialecticians
+to the creed which they happened to hold. In our own time we have seen the
+glorious, though not entirely novel spectacle, of Agnosticism itself
+becoming the rightful handmaid of Queen Theology. The real danger lies in
+“nature” (or Natural Science) with its stern demand of law and regularity
+in all phenomena, and in the “simple meaning” (or Philology) with its
+inconsiderate insistence on truth. Of the two, the “simple meaning” is the
+more objectionable. Not only is it very often at variance with Tradition,
+which has its own code of interpretation, but it is constantly increasing
+the difficulties raised by science. For if words could only have more than
+one meaning, there would be no objection to reading the first words of
+Genesis, “In _a_ beginning God _evolved_.” The difficulties of science
+would then be disposed of easily enough. Maimonides, who was as bold an
+interpreter as he was a deep metaphysician, hinted plainly enough that
+were he as convinced of the eternity of matter as he was satisfied of the
+impossibility of any corporeal quality in the deity, he would feel as
+little compunction in explaining (figuratively) the contents of the first
+chapter of Genesis as he did in allegorising the anthropomorphic passages
+of the Bible. Thus in the end all the difficulties resolve themselves into
+the one great difficulty of the “simple meaning.” The best way to meet
+this difficulty was found to be to shift the centre of gravity in Judaism
+and to place it in the secondary meaning, thus making religion independent
+of philology and all its dangerous consequences.
+
+This shifting work was chiefly done, perhaps not quite consciously, by the
+historical school which followed upon that of Mendelssohn and his first
+successors. The historical school, which is still in the ascendant,
+comprises many of the best Jewish writers who either by their learning or
+by their ecclesiastical profession as Rabbis and preachers in great
+communities have acquired some important position among their brethren.
+The men who have inaugurated this movement were Krochmal (1785‐1841),
+Rapoport (1790‐1867), and Zunz (1794‐1886).
+
+It is not a mere coincidence that the first representatives of the
+historical school were also the first Jewish scholars who proved
+themselves more or less ready to join the modern school of Bible
+Criticism, and even to contribute their share to it. The first two,
+Krochmal and Rapoport, early in the second quarter of this century
+accepted and defended the modern view about a second Isaiah, the post‐
+exilic origin of many Psalms, and the late date of Ecclesiastes; whilst
+Zunz, who began (in 1832) with denying the authenticity of Ezekiel,
+concluded his literary career (1873) with a study on the Bible
+(_Gesammelte __ Schriften_, i. pp. 217‐290), in which he expressed his
+view “that the Book of Leviticus dates from a later period than the Book
+of Deuteronomy, later even than Ezekiel, having been composed during the
+age of the Second Temple, when there already existed a well‐established
+priesthood which superintended the sacrificial worship.” But when
+Revelation or the Written Word is reduced to the level of history, there
+is no difficulty in elevating history in its aspect of Tradition to the
+rank of Scripture, for both have then the same human or divine origin
+(according to the student’s predilection for the one or the other
+adjective), and emanate from the same authority. Tradition becomes thus
+the means whereby the modern divine seeks to compensate himself for the
+loss of the Bible, and the theological balance is to the satisfaction of
+all parties happily readjusted.
+
+Jewish Tradition, or, as it is commonly called, the Oral Law, or, as we
+may term it (in consideration of its claims to represent an interpretation
+of the Bible), the Secondary Meaning of the Scriptures, is mainly embodied
+in the works of the Rabbis and their subsequent followers during the
+Middle Ages. Hence the zeal and energy with which the historical school
+applied itself to the Jewish post‐biblical literature, not only
+elucidating its texts by means of new critical editions, dictionaries, and
+commentaries, but also trying to trace its origins and to pursue its
+history through its gradual development. To the work of Krochmal in this
+direction a special essay is devoted in this volume. The labours of
+Rapoport are more of a biographical and bibliographical nature, being
+occupied mostly with the minor details in the lives and writings of
+various famous Jewish Rabbis in the Middle Ages; thus they offer but
+little opportunity for general theological comment. Of more importance in
+this respect are the hints thrown out in his various works by Zunz, who
+was just as emphatic in asserting the claims of Tradition as he was
+advanced in his views on Bible criticism. Zunz’s greatest work is _Die
+Gottesdienstlichen Vorträge_—an awkward title, which in fact means “The
+History of the Interpretation of the Scriptures as forming a part of the
+divine service.” Now if a work displaying such wide learning and critical
+acumen, and written in such an impartial spirit can be said to have a
+bias, it was towards bridging over the seemingly wide gap between the
+Written Word (the Scriptures) and the Spoken Word (the Oral Law or
+Tradition), which was the more deeply felt, as most of Zunz’s older
+contemporaries were men, grown up in the habits of thought of the
+eighteenth century—a century distinguished both for its ignorance of, and
+its power of ignoring, the teachings of history. Indeed it would seem that
+ages employed in making history have no time for studying it.
+
+Zunz accomplished the task he set himself, by showing, as already
+indicated, the late date of certain portions of the Bible, which by
+setting the early history of Israel in an ideal light betray the
+moralising tendency of their authors, and are, in fact, little more than a
+traditional interpretation of older portions of Scripture, adapted to the
+religious needs of the time. Placing thus the origin of Tradition in the
+Bible itself, it was a comparatively easy matter for Zunz to prove its
+further continuity. Prophecy and Interpretation are with him the natural
+expressions of the religious life of the nation; and though by the loss of
+Israel’s political independence the voice of the prophets gradually died
+away, the voice of God was still heard. Israel continues to consult God
+through the medium of the Scriptures, and He answers His people by the
+mouth of the Scribes, the Sages, the Interpreters of the Law; whilst the
+liturgy of the Synagogue, springing up at the time when Psalms were still
+being composed, expands in its later stages through the work of the Poets
+of the Synagogue into such a rich luxuriance “that it forms in itself a
+treasure of history, poetry, philosophy; and prophecy and psalms are again
+revived in the hymnology of the Middle Ages.” This is in brief the lesson
+to be learned from Zunz’s _Gottesdienstliche Vorträge_ as far as it deals
+with the significance of Tradition; and it is in the introduction to this
+work that Zunz expresses himself to the following effect: Indispensable is
+the free Spoken Word. Mankind has acquired all its ideal treasures only by
+Word of Mouth; an education continuing through all stages of life. In
+Israel, too, the Word of Instruction transmitted from mouth to mouth was
+never silenced.
+
+The historical school has never, to my knowledge, offered to the world a
+theological programme of its own. By the nature of its task, its labours
+are mostly conducted in the field of philology and archæology, and it pays
+but little attention to purely dogmatic questions. On the whole, its
+attitude towards religion may be defined as an enlightened Scepticism
+combined with a staunch conservatism which is not even wholly devoid of a
+certain mystical touch. As far as we may gather from vague remarks and
+hints thrown out now and then, its theological position may perhaps be
+thus defined:—It is not the mere revealed Bible that is of first
+importance to the Jew, but the Bible as it repeats itself in history, in
+other words, as it is interpreted by Tradition. The Talmud, that wonderful
+mine of religious ideas from which it would be just as easy to draw up a
+manual for the most orthodox as to extract a vade‐mecum for the most
+sceptical, lends some countenance to this view by certain controversial
+passages—not to be taken seriously—in which “the words of the scribes” are
+placed almost above the words of the Torah. Since then the interpretation
+of Scripture or the Secondary Meaning is mainly a product of changing
+historical influences, it follows that the centre of authority is actually
+removed from the Bible and placed in some _living body_, which, by reason
+of its being in touch with the ideal aspirations and the religious needs
+of the age, is best able to determine the nature of the Secondary Meaning.
+This living body, however, is not represented by any section of the
+nation, or any corporate priesthood, or Rabbihood, but by the collective
+conscience of Catholic Israel as embodied in the Universal Synagogue. The
+Synagogue “with its long, continuous cry after God for more than twenty‐
+three centuries,” with its unremittent activity in teaching and developing
+the word of God, with its uninterrupted succession of prophets, Psalmists,
+Scribes, Assideans, Rabbis, Patriarchs, Interpreters, Elucidators,
+Eminences, and Teachers, with its glorious record of Saints, martyrs,
+sages, philosophers, scholars, and mystics; this Synagogue, the only true
+witness to the past, and forming in all ages the sublimest expression of
+Israel’s religious life, must also retain its authority as the sole true
+guide for the present and the future. And being in communion with this
+Synagogue, we may also look hopefully for a safe and rational solution of
+our present theological troubles. For was it not the Synagogue which even
+in antiquity determined the fate of Scripture? On the one hand, for
+example, books like Ezekiel, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, were
+only declared to be Holy Writ in virtue of the interpretation put upon
+them by the Rabbis: and, on the other hand, it was the veto of the Rabbis
+which excluded from the canon the works that now pass under the name of
+Apocrypha. We may, therefore, safely trust that the Synagogue will again
+assert its divine right in passing judgment upon the Bible when it feels
+called upon to exercise that holy office. It is “God who has chosen the
+Torah, and Moses His servant, and Israel His people.” But indeed God’s
+choice invariably coincides with the wishes of Israel; He “performeth all
+things” upon which the councils of Israel, meeting under promise of the
+Divine presence and communion, have previously agreed. As the Talmud
+somewhere expresses itself with regard to the Book of Esther, “They have
+confirmed above what Israel has accepted below.”
+
+Another consequence of this conception of Tradition is that it is neither
+Scripture nor primitive Judaism, but general custom which forms the real
+rule of practice. Holy Writ as well as history, Zunz tells us, teaches
+that the law of Moses was never fully and absolutely put in practice.
+Liberty was always given to the great teachers of every generation to make
+modifications and innovations in harmony with the spirit of existing
+institutions. Hence a return to Mosaism would be illegal, pernicious, and
+indeed impossible. The norm as well as the sanction of Judaism is the
+practice actually in vogue. Its consecration is the consecration of
+general use,—or, in other words, of Catholic Israel. It was probably with
+a view to this communion that the later mystics introduced a short prayer
+to be said before the performance of any religious ceremony, in which,
+among other things, the speaker professes his readiness to act “in the
+name of all Israel.”
+
+It would be out of place in an introductory essay to pursue any further
+this interesting subject with its far‐reaching consequences upon Jewish
+life and Jewish thought. But the foregoing remarks may suffice to show
+that Judaism did not remain quite inactive at the approach of the great
+religious crisis which our generation has witnessed. Like so many other
+religious communities, it reviewed its forces, entrenched itself on the
+field of history, and what it lost of its old devotion to the Bible, it
+has sought to make up by a renewed reverence for institutions.
+
+In this connection, a mere mention may suffice of the ultra‐Orthodox
+party, led by the late Dr. S. R. Hirsch of Frankfort (1808‐1889) whose
+defiance of reason and criticism even a Ward might have envied, and whose
+saintliness and sublimity even a Keble might have admired. And, to take an
+example from the opposite school, we must at least record the name of that
+devout Jew, Osias Schorr (1816‐1895), in whom we have profound learning
+combined with an uncompromising disposition of mind productive of a
+typical champion of Radicalism in things religious. These men are,
+however, representative of two extremes, and their followers constitute
+mere minorities; the majority is with the historical school.
+
+How long the position of this school will prove tenable is another
+question. Being brought up in the old Low Synagogue, where, with all
+attachment to tradition, the Bible was looked upon as the crown and the
+climax of Judaism, the old Adam still asserts itself in me, and in
+unguarded moments makes me rebel against this new rival of revelation in
+the shape of history. At times this now fashionable exaltation of
+Tradition at the expense of Scripture even impresses me as a sort of
+religious bimetallism in which bold speculators in theology try to keep up
+the market value of an inferior currency by denouncing loudly the bright
+shining gold which, they would have us believe, is less fitted to
+circulate in the vulgar use of daily life than the small cash of
+historical interpretation. Nor can I quite reconcile myself to this
+alliance of religion with history, which seems to me both unworthy and
+unnatural. The Jew, some writer aptly remarked, was the first and the
+fiercest Nonconformist of the East, and so Judaism was always a protesting
+religion. To break the idols, whether of the past or of the present, has
+always been a sacred mission of Judaism, and has indeed been esteemed by
+it as a necessary preliminary to the advent of the kingdom of God on
+earth. One of its daily prayers was and still is: “We therefore hope in
+Thee, O Lord our God, that we may speedily behold the glory of Thy might,
+when ... the idols will be cut off, when the world will be perfected under
+the kingdom of the Almighty.” It bowed before truth, but it had never made
+a covenant with facts only because they were facts. History had to be re‐
+made and to sanctify itself before it found its way into its sacred
+annals. Nor did Judaism make a virtue of swallowing down institutions.
+Such institutions as crept into it in course of time had, when the
+Synagogue was conscious of their claims to form part of religion, to
+submit to the laborious process of a thorough adaptation to prophetic
+notions before they were formally sanctioned. But when this process was
+deemed impossible or impracticable, Judaism boldly denounced the past in
+such fierce language as the prophets used and as still finds its echo in
+such passages of the liturgy as “First our ancestors were worshippers of
+idols and now God has brought us near to His service”; or “But of a truth,
+we and our ancestors have sinned.”
+
+However, it would be unfair to argue any further against a theological
+system which, as already said, was never avowed distinctly by the
+historical school—a school, moreover, with which speculation is a matter
+of minor importance. The main strength of this school lies in its
+scientific work, for which Judaism will always be under a sense of deep
+gratitude. And living as we do in an age in which history reigns supreme
+in all departments of human thought, we may hope that even its theology,
+as far as it goes, will “do” for us, though I neither hope nor believe
+that it will do for those who come after us. I may, however, humbly
+confess that the sixth essay in this volume was written in a spirit of
+rebellion against this all‐absorbing Catholic Israel, with its decently
+veiled scepticism on the one hand, and its unfortunate tendency with many
+people to degenerate into a soulless conformity on the other hand. There
+is, I am afraid, not much to be said in favour of this essay. It is
+deficient both in matter and in style. It proved to be a futile attempt to
+bring within the compass of an essay what a whole book could hardly do
+justice to. The Hebrew documents bearing upon the question of dogma which
+I have collected from various manuscripts and rare printed books, would
+alone make a fair‐sized volume. I only venture to offer it to the public
+in the absence of anything better; since, so far as I know, no other
+attempt has ever been made to treat the subject even in its meagrest
+outlines. I even venture to hope that, with all its shortcomings, it will
+contribute something towards destroying the illusion, in which so many
+theologians indulge, that Judaism is a religion without dogmas. To declare
+that a religion has no dogmas is tantamount to saying that it was wise
+enough not to commit itself to any vital principles. But prudence, useful
+as it may be in worldly affairs, is quite unworthy of a great spiritual
+power.
+
+Jewish mysticism in the Middle Ages and in modern times is represented in
+this volume by two essays (“The Chassidim” and “Nachmanides”). But in
+order to avoid mistakes which might be implied by my silence, I think it
+desirable to state that there are also to be found many mystical elements
+in the old Rabbinic literature. Mysticism, not as a theosophic system or
+as an occult science, but as a manifestation of the spiritual and as an
+expression of man’s agonies in his struggle after communion with God, as
+well as of his ineffable joy when he receives the assurance that he has
+found it, is not, as some maintain, foreign to the spirit of old Rabbinic
+Judaism. There was no need for the mediæval Rabbi to borrow the elements
+of such a mysticism from non‐Jewish sources. The perusal of the old
+Homilies on the Song of Songs, and on the Lessons from the Prophets, or
+even a fair acquaintance with the Jewish liturgy would, in itself, suffice
+to refute such baseless assertions. Those who are at all familiar with old
+Rabbinic literature hardly need to be told that “the sea of the Talmud”
+has also its gulf stream of mysticism which, taking its origin in the
+moralising portions of the Bible, runs through the wide ocean of Jewish
+thought, constantly commingling with the icy waters of legalism, and
+unceasingly washing the desolate shores of an apparently meaningless
+ceremonialism, communicating to it life, warmth, and spirituality. To draw
+attention to this fact a humble attempt has been made in the ninth essay,
+“The Law and Recent Criticism,” a subject which I have essayed to expound
+in a series of essays on “Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology,” now
+appearing in _The Jewish Quarterly Review_.
+
+The last five essays touch rather on certain social and familiar aspects
+of Judaism, and need no further comment. They are mere _causeries_ and
+hardly deserve the name of studies. Perhaps it may be useful for those who
+judge of the heaviness of a work by its bulk to know that there is also a
+lighter side of Rabbinic literature.
+
+But I shall be better pleased if the more serious side of this
+volume—Jewish mysticism and Rabbinic theology—should attract the attention
+of students, and so draw some fellow‐workers into a field which is utterly
+neglected. Notwithstanding the numerous Manuals and Introductions which
+all more or less touch on the subject of Rabbinic theology, there is,
+after nearly 250 years, not a single work among them which, either in
+knowledge of facts or in their interpretation, is a single step in advance
+of the Cambridge Platonist, John Smith, in his _Select Discourses_. But
+those who try so hard to determine the miraculous distance of Christianity
+by the eclipses in Rabbinism, should, if they wish to be just or prove
+themselves worthy scholars, also endeavour to make themselves acquainted
+with the numberless bright stars that move in the wide universe of Jewish
+thought. We are often told that no creed or theological system which has
+come down to us from antiquity can afford to be judged by any other
+standard than by its spiritual and poetic _possibilities_: this indulgence
+Judaism is as justly entitled to claim as any other religion. The great
+and saintly Franz Delitzsch who, born with an intellect of admirable
+temper, was also endowed by Heaven with a soul—and a beautiful soul it
+was—was one of the few theologians who, partly at least, admitted this
+claim, and sought earnestly and diligently after these spiritual and
+poetic possibilities, and was amply rewarded for his labours.
+
+
+
+
+
+I. THE CHASSIDIM(1)
+
+
+Throughout the whole of that interesting field of Theological Literature
+which deals with the genesis and course of religious movements, there is
+probably none whose history, even whose name, is so little known to
+English students, as that of the Chassidim. And yet it would be difficult
+to point, in comparatively recent times, to a Dissenting movement more
+strikingly complete in its development, more suggestive of analogy, more
+full of interest in its original purpose, more pregnant of warning in its
+decay.
+
+The Hebrew word “Chassidim”(2) merely means “the Pious,” and appears to
+have been complacently adopted by the early apostles of the sect. But the
+thing—Chassidism—was, in its inception at all events, a revolt among the
+Jews of Eastern Europe against the excessive casuistry of the contemporary
+Rabbis. It was in fact one more manifestation of the yearning of the human
+heart towards the Divine idea, and of its ceaseless craving for direct
+communion with God. It was the protest of an emotional but uneducated
+people against a one‐sided expression of Judaism, presented to them in
+cold and over‐subtle disquisitions which not only did they not understand,
+but which shut out the play of the feelings and the affections, so that
+religion was made almost impossible to them.
+
+Some account of the sect is the more necessary because, although the
+Chassidim have not been wholly ignored by historians or novelists, the
+references to them have generally, for perfectly intelligible reasons,
+been either biassed or inaccurate. The historians who have treated of them
+have been almost exclusively men saturated with Western culture and
+rationalism. To them the rude and uncouth manifestations of an
+undisciplined religious spirit could not be other than repellent; to them
+Chassidism was a movement to be dismissed as unæsthetic and irrational.
+
+To the purposes of fiction the romantic side of Chassidism lends itself
+readily, but the novelists who have used this material have confined
+themselves to its externals. Indeed, to have done more would have involved
+a tedious and unremunerative study of difficult Hebrew texts, an
+undertaking not to be expected from the most conscientious writers of this
+class. Thus Franzos in his references to the Jews of Barnow describes
+faithfully the outer signs of the man, his long coat and tangled curls,
+but the inner life, the world in which the Chassid moved and had his
+being, was unknown to him and is therefore unrecorded.
+
+As to my treatment of the subject, I confess that there was a time when I
+loved the Chassidim as there was a time when I hated them. And even now I
+am not able to suppress these feelings. I have rather tried to guide my
+feelings in such a way as to love in Chassidism what is ideal and noble,
+and to hate in it what turned out bad and pernicious for Judaism. How far
+I have been successful is another question. At least I have endeavoured to
+write this paper in such a spirit. But of one thing I must warn the
+reader—the desire to give some clear notion of the leading ideas of
+Chassidism has compelled me to quote some passages in which the Chassidim
+have spoken in very offensive terms of their opponents. In justice to
+these I must remark that unfortunately religious struggles are usually
+conducted on the most irreligious principles. Thus the Chassidim imputed
+to their antagonists, the contemporary Rabbis, many vices from which they
+were free. Certainly, there was, as one can read in every history of
+Jewish religion, something wrong in the state of Judaism. But I know
+people who maintain that there is something very wrong in the present
+state of Judaism, and who despair of a regeneration. But surely this is a
+silly exaggeration. The Chassidim also exaggerated. It would be better to
+take but little notice of their accusations and dwell more on that which
+was spoken in a kind and loving spirit.
+
+As to the literature of the subject, I can only say here that I have made
+use of every book I could consult, both in English and in foreign
+libraries. But I cannot pledge myself to be what early Jewish writers
+called “a donkey which carries books.” I exercise my own choice and my own
+judgment on many points.
+
+As an active force for good, Chassidism was short‐lived. For, as I propose
+to show, there lurked among its central tenets the germs of the degeneracy
+which so speedily came upon it. But its early purposes were high, its
+doctrines fairly pure, its aspirations ideal and sublime.
+
+The founder of the sect was one Israel Baalshem,(3) and the story of his
+parentage, birth, and childhood, and the current anecdotes of his
+subsequent career play a considerable part in Chassidic literature. But
+the authentic materials for his biography are everywhere interwoven with
+much that is pure legend and with much more that is miraculous. This was,
+perhaps, inevitable, and is certainly not an unfamiliar feature in the
+personal histories of religious reformers as presented by their followers
+and devotees.
+
+The sayings and doings of Baalshem are an essential—perhaps the most
+essential—portion of any account of the sect. For Baalshem is the centre
+of the Chassidic world, and Chassidism is so intimately bound up with the
+personality of its founder that any separation between them is well nigh
+impossible. To the Chassidim Baalshem is not a man who established a
+theory or set forth a system; he himself was the incarnation of a theory
+and his whole life the revelation of a system.
+
+Even those portions of his history which are plainly legendary have their
+uses in indicating the ideals and in illustrating the aspirations of the
+early Chassidim; while their circulation and the ready credence they
+received are valuable evidence of the real power and influence of
+Baalshem’s personality.
+
+In the tale as told by the sect little is omitted of those biographical
+accessories which are proper to an Avatar. There is all the conventional
+heralding of a pre‐ordained advent; all the usual signs and portents of a
+new dispensation may be recognised in the almost preternatural virtues of
+Baalshem’s parents, in the miraculous annunciation and exceptional
+circumstances of his nativity, and in the early indication of a strong and
+fearless individuality. Everywhere it seems to be suggested that Baalshem
+from his infancy was conscious of a lofty mission. It is already in tender
+years that he is made to give evidence of an indifference to conventional
+restraints and accepted ideals.
+
+Rabbi Eliezer and his wife, the parents of Baalshem, dwelt, as the story
+goes, in Moldavia. They are described as a pious and God‐fearing couple,
+who, when they had already reached old age, were still childless. They are
+accredited with a spotless rectitude, which was unimpaired by a long
+series of strange vicissitudes and misfortunes.
+
+Ultimately, an angel of God appeared to Eliezer and announced that, as he
+had successfully withstood all the temptations and sufferings by which he
+had been tried, God was about to reward him with a son, who was destined
+to enlighten the eyes of all Israel. Therefore his name should be Israel,
+for in him the words of Scripture were to be fulfilled, “Thou art my
+servant, Israel, in whom I will be glorified.” In due course the promise
+was fulfilled, and to the aged couple a son was born, who was named Israel
+according to the angel’s word. The date of Baalshem’s birth is about 1700;
+his birthplace, in Bukowina, in a hitherto unidentified village which the
+authorities call Ukop, then still belonging to Roumania. The child’s
+mother died soon after he was weaned, and his father did not long survive
+her. But before Eliezer died he took his child in his arms, and blessing
+him, bade him fear naught, for God would always be with him.
+
+As Eliezer had been greatly honoured in the community in which he lived,
+his orphan son was carefully tended and educated. He was early supplied
+with an instructor in the Holy Law. But though he learned with rare
+facility, he rejected the customary methods of instruction. One day, while
+still quite young, his teacher missed him, and on seeking found him
+sitting alone in the forest that skirted his native village, in happy and
+fearless solitude. He repeated this escapade so often that it was thought
+best to leave him to follow his own bent. A little later we find him
+engaged as assistant to a schoolmaster. His duty was not to teach, but to
+take the children from their homes to the synagogue and thence on to the
+school. It was his wont while accompanying the children to the synagogue
+to teach them solemn hymns which he sang with them. In the synagogue he
+encouraged them to sing the responses, so that the voices of the children
+penetrated through the heavens and moved the Divine father to compassion.
+Satan, fearing lest his power on earth should thereby be diminished,
+assumed the shape of a werewolf, and, appearing before the procession of
+children on their way to the synagogue, put them to flight. In consequence
+of this alarming incident the children’s services were suspended. But
+Israel, recollecting his father’s counsel to fear naught, besought the
+parents to be allowed to lead the children once more in the old way. His
+request was granted, and when the werewolf appeared a second time Israel
+attacked him with a club and routed him.
+
+In his fourteenth year Israel became a beadle at the Beth Hammidrash.(4)
+Here he assiduously but secretly pursued the study of the Law. Yet, being
+anxious that none should know his design, he read and worked only at
+night, when the schoolroom was empty and the usual scholars had retired.
+During the daytime he slept, so that he was popularly believed to be both
+ignorant and lazy. Despite these precautions, however, his true character
+was revealed to one person. A certain holy man, the father of a young
+student at the college, had discovered some old manuscripts which
+contained the deepest secrets. Before his death he bade his son repair to
+Ukop, Israel’s birthplace, telling him that he would find one Israel, son
+of Eliezer, to whom the precious documents were to be entrusted. They
+possessed, so the old man declared, a certain mystic and heavenly affinity
+with Israel’s soul. The student carried out his father’s instructions, and
+at last discovered the object of his search in the beadle of the Beth
+Hammidrash. Israel admitted him to his friendship and confidence on the
+condition of secrecy as to his real character. The student, however, paid
+dearly for this acquaintance with Israel. Contrary to Baalshem’s advice,
+he entered upon a dangerous incantation in the course of which he made a
+mistake so serious that it cost him his life.
+
+Upon the death of his friend, Baalshem left his native village and settled
+as a teacher in a small town near Brody. Here, although his true mission
+and character were still unknown, he became much respected for his rigid
+probity, and was frequently chosen as umpire in disputes among Jews. On
+one of these occasions he arbitrated with so much learning and
+impartiality that not only did he satisfy both parties, but one of them, a
+learned man of Brody, named Abraham, offered him his own daughter in
+marriage. Israel, to whom it had been revealed that Abraham’s daughter was
+his predestined wife, immediately accepted the offer and the act of
+betrothal was drawn up. But wishing his true character to remain unknown
+he stipulated that Abraham, although a “Talmid Chacham” (student)(5)
+himself and therefore presumably desirous that his daughter should marry a
+scholar, should omit from the betrothal‐deed all the titles of honour
+usually appended to the name of a learned bridegroom. While returning to
+Brody, Abraham died, and Gershon his son, a scholar still greater and more
+celebrated than his father, was surprised and shocked to find a deed of
+betrothal among his father’s papers, from which it appeared that his
+sister was to wed a man with apparently no claim to scholarship or
+learning. He protested to his sister, but she declined to entertain any
+objections to a marriage which her father had arranged. When the time for
+the wedding was at hand, Israel gave up his post as teacher, and repaired
+to Brody. Disguised as a peasant he presented himself before his future
+brother‐in‐law, who was then fulfilling some high judicial function.
+Gershon taking him for a beggar offered him alms, but Israel, refusing the
+money, asked for a private interview, stating that he had an important
+secret to reveal. He then, to Gershon’s surprise and disgust, explained
+who he was and that he had come to claim his bride. As the girl was
+determined to obey her father’s will the affair was settled and the day
+fixed. On the morning of the wedding Israel revealed to his bride his real
+character and mission, at the same time enjoining secrecy. Evil fortunes
+would befall them, he said, but a better time would eventually follow.
+
+After the wedding, Gershon, having in vain attempted to instruct his
+seemingly ignorant brother‐in‐law, decided to rid himself of his presence.
+He gave his sister the choice of being separated from her husband, or of
+leaving the town in his company. She chose the latter, and thereupon the
+two left Brody and began a life of hardship and suffering. Israel chose
+for his new home a spot on one of the spurs of the Carpathian Mountains.
+No Jews lived there, and Israel and his wife were thus separated from the
+society of their fellows in a life of complete and unchanging solitude.
+Israel dug lime in the ravines among the mountains, and his wife conveyed
+it for sale to the nearest town. Their life at this period seems to have
+been one of great privation, but the harder Israel’s outward lot, the more
+he increased in spiritual greatness. In his solitude he gave himself up
+entirely to devotion and religious contemplation. His habit was to climb
+to the summit of the mountains and wander about rapt in spiritual
+ecstasies. He fasted, prayed, made continual ablutions, and observed all
+the customary outward and inward exercises of piety and devotion.
+
+After seven years, Gershon, who was well aware of the bitter poverty which
+his sister endured, relented and brought her and her husband back to
+Brody. At first he employed Baalshem as his coachman, but as he proved
+wholly unfit for this work Gershon rented a small inn in a remote village,
+and there established his sister and her husband. The business of the inn
+was managed by the wife, while Baalshem passed most of his time in a hut
+in a neighbouring forest. Here he once more gave himself up to meditation
+and preparation for his future work, and here, a little later, when nearly
+forty‐two years of age, to a few chosen spirits, afterwards his most
+fervent disciples, he first revealed his true character and mission.
+
+From this point unfortunately the materials for a continuous biography are
+wanting; we next hear of Baalshem discharging the functions of an ordinary
+Rabbi at Miedziboz in Podolia, but for the remainder of his personal
+history we have to be content with detached anecdotes and fragmentary
+passages in his life, the sum total of which goes to show that he resided
+in Podolia and Wallachia, teaching his doctrines to his disciples and
+“working Wonders.” He does not seem to have figured as a public preacher,
+nor has he left behind him any written work. He appears rather to have
+used the method, familiar to students of Greek philosophy, of teaching by
+conversations with his friends and disciples. These conversations, and the
+parables with which they were largely interspersed, were remembered and
+stored up by his hearers. By his neighbours the country folk, Baalshem was
+regarded simply as “a man of God.” He was allowed to pursue his course
+undisturbed by persecution of the serious character which his more
+aggressive successors provoked. Such of the Rabbis as were aware of his
+existence despised him and his ways, but the Rabbinical world was at that
+time too much occupied in the controversy between Eybeschütz and Emden to
+concern itself with the vagaries of an obscure and apparently “unlearned”
+eccentric. Baalshem also took part in the disputes which were held in
+Lemberg, the capital of Galicia (1757?), between the Rabbis and the
+Frankists,(6) who denounced the Talmud to the Polish Government and wanted
+to have all the Rabbinical books destroyed. Baalshem suffered from this
+excitement in a most terrible way. The abrogation of the Oral Law meant
+for him the ruin of Judaism.
+
+Baalshem, in forming the little band of devoted followers who were
+destined to spread a knowledge of his creed, travelled considerably about
+Wallachia. He at one time decided to make a pilgrimage to Palestine, but
+when he reached Constantinople he felt himself inspired to return and
+continue his work at home. He died at Miedziboz on the eve of Pentecost,
+1761.
+
+After his death his disciples, of whom one Beer of Mizriez was the most
+prominent, undertook the proselytising mission for which Baalshem had
+prepared them, but from which he himself appears to have abstained. They
+preached and taught in all the provinces of Russia where Jews may reside,
+and in Roumania, and Galicia. The number of the sect at the present day is
+probably about half a million.
+
+Returning now to Baalshem the founder, it may be noted that his appearance
+as a teacher and reformer was accompanied and justified by a customary and
+adequate number of miracles. To one disciple he revealed secrets which
+could have become known to him only by divine revelation; to another he
+appeared with a nimbus round his head. On the evidence of the Chassidim we
+learn that Baalshem performed all the recognised signs and marvels which
+have ever been the customary minor characteristics of men of similar type
+in similar environment. When Baalshem desired to cross a stream, he spread
+forth his mantle upon the waters, and standing thereupon passed safely to
+the other side. Ghosts evacuated haunted houses at the mere mention of his
+name. Was he alone in the forest on a wintry night, he had but to touch a
+tree with his finger tips and flames burst forth. When his spirit wandered
+through the angelic spheres, as was frequently the case, he obtained
+access to Paradise for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited
+without through long thousands of mournful years. These and other miracles
+need not be examined. Here, as in the case of other such blissful seasons
+of grace, they were the ephemeral though important accessories in
+establishing the inspired character of his utterances and the authority of
+his injunctions. It is not as a worker of miracles, but as a religious
+teacher and reformer, that Baalshem is interesting.
+
+Properly to understand the nature and special direction of his teaching,
+it is necessary in some measure to realise the character of the field in
+which he worked; to consider, in other words, the moral and religious
+condition of the Jews in those districts where Chassidism first took root.
+
+In a Hebrew Hymn, written about 1000 A.C., and still recited in the
+synagogue on the Day of Atonement, the poet expresses the strange and
+bitter fortunes of his race in touching words of mingled sorrow and
+exultation.
+
+
+    Destroyed lies Zion and profaned,
+    Of splendour and renown bereft,
+    Her ancient glories wholly waned,
+    One deathless treasure only left;
+        Still ours, O Lord,
+        Thy Holy Word.
+
+
+And this Divine Word it was, which a persecuted religion has sought to
+preserve intact through so many centuries of persecution, and for the sake
+of which no labour seemed too severe, no sacrifice too large. “Bethink
+Thee, O God,” exclaimed one of our Jewish sages who flourished about the
+same period, “bethink Thee of Thy faithful children who, amid their
+poverty and want, are busy in the study of Thy Law. Bethink Thee of the
+poor in Israel who are willing to suffer hunger and destitution if only
+they can secure for their children the knowledge of Thy Law.” And so
+indeed it was. Old and young, weak and strong, rich and poor, all pursued
+that single study, the Torah. The product of this prolonged study is that
+gigantic literature which, as a long unbroken chain of spiritual activity,
+connects together the various periods of the Jews’ chequered and eventful
+history. All ages and all lands have contributed to the development of
+this supreme study. For under the word Torah was comprised not only the
+Law, but also the contributions of later times expressing either the
+thoughts or the emotions of holy and sincere men; and even their honest
+scepticism was not entirely excluded. As in the canon of the Bible,
+Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon found place in the same volume that
+contains the Law and the Prophets, so at a later time people did not
+object to put the philosophical works of Maimonides and the songs of Judah
+Hallevi on the same level with the Code of the Law compiled by R. Isaac
+Alfasi, and the commentaries on the Bible by R. Solomon b. Isaac.(7) None
+of them was declared infallible, but also to none of them, as soon as
+people were convinced of the author’s sincerity, was denied the homage due
+to seekers after truth. Almost every author was called Rabbi (“my master”)
+or Rabbenu (“our master”),(8) and nearly every book was regarded more or
+less as a contribution to the great bulk of the Torah. It was called
+Writ,(9) and was treated with a certain kind of piety. But, by a series of
+accidents too long to be related here, sincerity ceased and sport took its
+place. I refer to the casuistic schools commonly known by the name of
+Pilpulists(10) (the “seasoned” or the “sharp” ones), who flourished in the
+last two centuries preceding ours. To the authors of this unhappy period,
+a few glorious exceptions always allowed, the preceding Jewish literature
+did not mean a “fountain of living waters,” supplying men with truth and
+religious inspiration, but rather a kind of armoury providing them with
+juristic cases over which to fight, and to out‐do each other in sophistry
+and subtlety. As a consequence they cared little or nothing for that part
+of the Jewish literature that appeals less to the intellect than to the
+feelings of men. In short, religion consisted only of complicated cases
+and innumerable ordinances, in which the wit of these men found delight.
+But the emotional part of it, whose root is the Faith and Love of men, was
+almost entirely neglected.
+
+But it was precisely these higher religious emotions that were Baalshem’s
+peculiar province, and it was to them that he assigned in his religious
+system a place befitting their importance and their dignity. And the
+locality where his ministration lay was curiously adapted for such
+propaganda. To that universal study of the Law of which I have just spoken
+there was one exception. That exception was amongst the Jews in the
+territories which bordered on the Carpathian Mountains, and comprise the
+principalities of Moldavia, and Wallachia, Bukowina, and the Ukraine.
+
+It is historically certain that the first arrival of the Jews in Roumania
+was at a very early date, but there is no trace of any intellectual
+productivity among the immigrants until recent times, and it is admitted
+that the study of the Law was almost entirely neglected. It was in these
+districts of mental, and perhaps we might add of even spiritual, darkness
+that Chassidism took its rise and achieved its first success. “The sect of
+the Chassidim,” says one of the bitterest but most trustworthy of their
+opponents, “first gained ground in the most uncivilised provinces; in the
+wild ravines of Wallachia and the dreary steppes of the Ukraine.”
+
+Apart from the genius of its founder, Chassidism owed its rapid growth to
+the intellectual barrenness of these districts as compared with the
+intellectual fertility of the other regions where Jews most thickly
+congregated. The Roumanian Jews were to some extent under the jurisdiction
+of the Rabbis of Poland. Now the Poles were celebrated even in Germany for
+the elaboration of their casuistry. These over‐subtle Rabbis, delighting
+in the quibbles of their sophistry, and reducing religion to an unending
+number of juristic calculations and all sorts of possibilities and
+impossibilities, were but too apt to forget the claims of feeling in their
+eager desire to question and to settle everything. They may have been
+satisfactory guides in matters spiritual to the men of their own stamp,
+but they were of no avail to their Roumanian brethren who failed to
+recognise religion in the garb of casuistry. It was, therefore, not
+surprising that a revolt against the excess of intellectualism should have
+sprung up and flourished in those districts where the inhabitants were
+constitutionally incapable of appreciating the delights of argument. The
+field was ready, and in the fulness of time came the sower in the person
+of Baalshem.
+
+In the above estimate of the Polish Rabbis there undoubtedly lurks a touch
+of exaggeration. But it represents the view which the Chassidim took of
+their opponents. The whole life of Baalshem is a protest against the
+typical Rabbi thus conceived. The essential difference in the ideals of
+the two parties is perhaps best illustrated in those portions of their
+biographical literature where legend treads most closely upon the heels of
+fact.
+
+The hero of Polish Rabbinic biography at five years of age can recite by
+heart the most difficult tractates of the Talmud; at eight he is the
+disciple of the most celebrated teacher of the time, and perplexes him by
+the penetrative subtlety of his questions; while at thirteen he appears
+before the world as a full‐fledged Doctor of the Law.
+
+The hero of the Chassidim has a totally different education, and his
+distinctive glory is of another kind. The legendary stories about
+Baalshem’s youth tell us little of his proficiency in Talmudic studies;
+instead of sitting in the Beth Hammidrash with the folios of some
+casuistic treatise spread out before him, Baalshem passes his time singing
+hymns out of doors, or under the green trees of the forest with the
+children. Satan, however, says the Chassid, is more afraid of these
+innocent exercises than of all the controversies in the Meheram Shiff.(11)
+It was through external nature, the woods of his childhood, the hills and
+wild ravines of the Carpathians where he passed many of his maturer years,
+that Baalshem, according to his disciples, reached his spiritual
+confirmation. The Chassidic hero had no celebrated Rabbi for his master.
+He was his own teacher. If not self‐taught, it was from angelic lips, or
+even the Divine voice itself, that he learned the higher knowledge. From
+the source whence the Torah flowed Baalshem received heavenly lore. His
+method of self‐education, his ways of life, his choice of associates were
+all instances of revolt; not only did he teach a wholly different theory
+and practice, but he and his disciples seem to have missed no opportunity
+of denouncing the old teachers as misleading and ungodly. Among the many
+anecdotes illustrating this feature, it is told how once, on the evening
+before the great Day of Atonement, Baalshem was noticed by his disciples
+to be, contrary to his usual custom, depressed and ill at ease. The whole
+subsequent day he passed in violent weeping and lamentations. At its close
+he once more resumed his wonted cheerfulness of manner. When asked for the
+explanation of his behaviour, he replied that the Holy Spirit had revealed
+to him that heavy accusations were being made against the Jewish people,
+and a heavy punishment had been ordained upon them. The anger of heaven
+was caused by the Rabbis, whose sole occupation was to invent lying
+premisses and to draw from them false conclusions. All the truly wise
+Rabbis of the olden time (such as the Tannaim, the Amoraim(12) and their
+followers, whom Baalshem regarded as so many saints and prophets) had now
+stood forth as the accusers of their modern successors by whom their words
+were so grossly perverted from their original meaning. On this account
+Baalshem’s tears had been shed, and his prayers as usual had been
+successful. The impending judgment was annulled. On another occasion, when
+he overheard the sounds of eager, loud discussion issuing from a
+Rabbinical college, Baalshem, closing his ears with his hands, declared
+that it was such disputants who delayed the redemption of Israel from
+captivity. Satan, he said, incites the Rabbis to study those portions of
+Jewish literature only on which they can whet the sharpness of their
+intellects, but from all writings of which the reading would promote piety
+and the fear of God he keeps them away. “Where there is much study,” says
+a disciple of Baalshem, “there is little piety.” “Jewish Devils”(13) is
+one of the numerous polite epithets applied to the Rabbis by the friends
+of Baalshem. “Even the worst sinners are better than they; so blind are
+they in the arrogance of their self‐conceit that their very devotion to
+the Law becomes a vehicle for their sin.” It will be found when we deal
+with the most positive side of Baalshem’s teaching that this antagonism to
+the attitude and methods of the contemporary Rabbis is further emphasised,
+and it will readily be seen that his whole scheme of religion and of
+conduct in relation to God and man rendered this acknowledged hostility
+inevitable. In approaching this part of our subject it should be
+remembered that, as stated above, Baalshem himself wrote nothing. For a
+knowledge of his sayings we are therefore dependent on the reports of his
+friends and disciples. And it is not unfrequently necessary to supplement
+these by the teaching of his followers, whom we may suppose in large
+measure to have caught the spirit of their master. Unfortunately the
+original authorities are in a difficult Hebrew patois which often obscures
+the precise meaning of whole passages.
+
+The originality of Baalshem’s teaching has been frequently impugned,
+chiefly by the suggestion that he drew largely from the Zohar (Book of
+Brightness).(14) This mystical book, “the Bible of the Cabbalists,”
+whether we regard its subject‐matter or its history and influence, is
+unique in literature. Its pretended author is Simeon ben Yochai, a great
+Rabbi of the second century, but the real writer is probably one Moses de
+Leon, a Spanish Jew, who lived eleven centuries later. The book is one of
+the most interesting literary forgeries, and is a marvellous mixture of
+good and evil. A passage of delicate religious fancy is succeeded by
+another of gross obscenity in illustration and suggestion; true piety and
+wild blasphemy are strangely mingled together. Baalshem undoubtedly had
+studied the Zohar, and he even is reported to have said that the reading
+of the Zohar had enabled him to see into the whole universe of things.
+But, for all that, Baalshem was no copyist; and the Zohar, although it may
+have suggested a hint to him here and there, was not the source whence his
+inspiration was drawn.
+
+Its attraction for Baalshem is sufficiently explained by the fantastic,
+imaginative, and emotional nature of its contents. It lent itself more
+easily than the older Rabbinical literature to new explanations unthought
+of by its author. But even the Talmud and its early commentaries became
+apocalyptic to the heroes of Chassidism. Nay, the driest and most legal
+disquisitions about _meum_ and _tuum_ could be translated into parables
+and allegories and symbols full of the most exalted meanings. Baalshem,
+like every other religious reformer, was partially the product of his age.
+The influences of the past, the history and literature of his own people,
+helped to make him what he was. But they do not rob him of his
+originality. He was a religious revivalist in the best sense; full of
+burning faith in his God and his cause; convinced utterly of the value of
+his work and the truth of his teaching.
+
+Although there can be no real doubt of Baalshem’s claim to originality, it
+should be borne in mind that his teaching is not only distinctively
+Jewish, but that for every part of it parallels and analogies could be
+found in the older Hebrew literature. Indeed it is not wonderful that in a
+literature, extending over 2000 years, of a people whose chief thoughts
+have been religion, and who have come in contact with so many external
+religious and philosophic influences, the germs can be discovered of
+almost every conceivable system, and the outline of almost every
+imaginable doctrine.
+
+The keynote of all Baalshem’s teachings is the Omnipresence, or more
+strictly the Immanence, of God. This is the source from which flows
+naturally every article of his creed; the universality of the Divinity is
+the foundation of the entire Chassidic fabric. The idea of the constant
+living presence of God in all existence permeates the whole of Baalshem’s
+scheme; it is insisted on in every relation; from it is deduced every
+important proposition and every rule in conduct of his school.
+
+All created things and every product of human intelligence owe their being
+to God. All generation and all existence spring from the thought and will
+of God. It is incumbent upon man to believe that all things are pervaded
+by the divine life, and when he speaks he should remember that it is this
+divine life which is speaking through him. There is nothing which is void
+of God. If we imagine for a moment such a thing to be, it would instantly
+fall into nothingness. In every human thought God is present. If the
+thought be gross or evil, we should seek to raise and ennoble it by
+carrying it back to its origin. So, if a man be suddenly overwhelmed by
+the aspect of a beautiful woman, he should remember that this splendour of
+beauty is owing to the all‐pervading emanation from the divine. When he
+remembers that the source of corporeal beauty is God, he will not be
+content to let his thought abide with the body when he can rise to the
+inward contemplation of the infinite soul of beauty, which is God. A
+disciple of Baalshem has said: Even as in the jewels of his beloved the
+lover sees only the beauty of her he loves, so does the true lover of God
+see in all the appearances of this world, the vitalising and generative
+power of his divine master. If you do not see the world in the light of
+God you separate the creation from its Creator. He who does not fully
+believe in this universality of God’s presence has never properly
+acknowledged God’s Sovereignty, for he excludes God from an existing
+portion of the actual world. The word of God (to Baalshem, a synonym for
+God himself), which “is settled in heaven” and “established on earth,” is
+still and always speaking, acting, and generating throughout heaven and
+earth in endless gradations and varieties. If the vitalising word were to
+cease, chaos would come again. The belief in a single creation after which
+the Master withdrew from his completed work, is erroneous and heretical.
+The vivifying power is never withdrawn from the world which it animates.
+Creation is continuous; an unending manifestation of the goodness of God.
+All things are an affluence from the two divine attributes of Power and
+Love, which express themselves in various images and reflections.
+
+This is the doctrine of universality in Chassidism. God, the father of
+Israel, God the Merciful, God the All‐powerful, the God of Love, not only
+created everything but is embodied in everything. The necessity of
+believing this doctrine is the cardinal Dogma. But as creation is
+continuous so also is revelation. This revelation is only to be grasped by
+faith. Faith, therefore, is more efficacious than learning. Thus it is
+that in times of persecution, the wise and the foolish, the sinner and the
+saint, are wont alike to give up their life for their faith. They who
+could render no answer to the questions of the casuist are yet willing to
+die the most cruel of deaths rather than deny their faith in the One and
+Supreme God. Their strength to face danger and death is owing to that
+divine illumination of the soul which is more exalted than knowledge.
+
+We should thus regard all things in the light of so many manifestations of
+the Divinity. God is present in all things; therefore there is good,
+actual or potential, in all things. It is our duty everywhere to seek out
+and to honour the good, and not to arrogate to ourselves the right to
+judge that which may seem to be evil. In thinking therefore of a fellow‐
+man, we should above all things realise in him the presence of the spirit
+of good. Whence we have the Doctrine that each of us, while thinking
+humbly of himself, should always be ready to think well, and always slow
+to think evil, of another. This explains the Chassidic attitude towards
+erring humanity. Baalshem viewed human sin and infirmity in a very
+different light from that of the ordinary Rabbi. Ever conscious of the
+Divine side of Humanity, he vigorously combated the gratuitous assumption
+of sinfulness in man which was a fertile subject with contemporary
+preachers. They, among the Roumanian Jews as in other communities,
+delighted chiefly to dwell on the dark side of things, and found their
+favourite theme in elaborate descriptions of the infernal punishments that
+were awaiting the sinner after death. It is related how on one occasion
+Baalshem rebuked one of these. The preacher had been denouncing woe to an
+audience of whom he knew nothing whether for evil or for good. Baalshem,
+indignant at this indiscriminative abuse and conceited arrogation of the
+divine office of judgment, turned on him in the following words: “Woe upon
+thee who darest to speak evil of Israel! Dost not know that every Jew,
+when he utters ever so short a prayer at the close of day, is performing a
+great work before which the angels in heaven bow down?” Great, as it would
+seem, was the value set by Baalshem upon the smallest evidence of the
+higher nature in man, and few there were, as he believed, who, if their
+spirit was not darkened by pride, did not now and again give proof of the
+divine stamp in which God had created them. No sin so separates us from
+God that we need despair of return. From every rung of the moral ladder,
+no matter how low, let man seek God. If he but fully believe that nothing
+is void of God, and that God is concealed in the midst of apparent ruin
+and degradation, he will not fear lest God be far from him. God is
+regained in a moment of repentance, for repentance “transcends the limits
+of space and time.” And he who leads the sinner to repentance causes a
+divine joy; it is as though a king’s son had been in captivity and were
+now brought back to his father’s gaze.
+
+Baalshem refused to regard any one as wholly irredeemable. His was an
+optimistic faith. God was to be praised in gladness by the dwellers in
+this glorious world. The true believer, recognising the reflection of God
+in every man, should hopefully strive, when that reflection was obscured
+by sin, to restore the likeness of God in man. The peculiar detestability
+of sin lies in this, that man rejects the earthly manifestations of the
+Divinity and pollutes them. One of Baalshem’s disciples delighted in the
+saying that the most hardened sinners were not to be despaired of, but
+prayed for. None knows the heart of man, and none should judge his
+neighbour. Let him who burns with zeal for God’s sake, exercise his zeal
+on himself, not others. Baalshem said, “Let no one think himself better
+than his neighbour, for all serve God; each according to the measure of
+understanding which God has given him.”
+
+From this position it is a natural step to Baalshem’s view of prayer. He
+is reputed to have said that all the greatness he had achieved was the
+issue not of study but of prayer. But true prayer “must move,” as Baalshem
+phrased it, “in the realms above,” and not be concerned with affairs
+sublunary. Your prayer should not be taken up with your wishes and needs,
+but should be the means to bring you nigh to God. In prayer man must lay
+aside his own individuality, and not even be conscious of his existence;
+for if, when he prays, Self is not absolutely quiescent, the object of
+prayer is unattainable. Indeed it is only through God’s grace that after
+true prayer man is yet alive; to such a point has the annihilation of self
+proceeded.
+
+It may be necessary to caution the reader against ascribing to Baalshem
+any modern rationalistic notions on the subject of prayer. The power of
+prayer, in the old‐fashioned sense, to produce an answer from God was
+never doubted by Baalshem for a moment. Baalshem’s deity is not restricted
+towards any side by any philosophic considerations. All Baalshem meant was
+that any reference or regard to earthly requirements was unworthy and
+destructive of this communion of man with God. The wise man, says
+Baalshem, does not trouble the king with innumerable petitions about
+trifles. His desire is merely to gain admission into the king’s presence
+and to speak with him without a go‐between. To be with the king whom he
+loves so dearly is for him the highest good. But his love for the king has
+its reward; for the king loves him.
+
+It has already been implied that, with regard to our duty towards our
+fellow‐man, we must not only honour him for the good, and abstain from
+judging the evil that may be in him, but must pray for him. Furthermore we
+must work for his spiritual and moral reclamation. In giving practical
+effect in his own life to this doctrine, Baalshem’s conduct was in
+striking contrast to that of his contemporaries. He habitually consorted
+with outcasts and sinners, with the poor and uneducated of both sexes,
+whom the other teachers ignored. He thus won for his doctrines a way to
+the heart of the people by adapting his life and language to their
+understanding and sympathies. In illustration of this, as well as of his
+hatred of vanity and display, it is told how, on the occasion of his being
+accorded a public reception by the Jews on his arrival at Brody, instead
+of addressing to them in the conventional fashion some subtle discourse
+upon a Talmudical difficulty, he contented himself with conversing upon
+trivial topics in the local dialect with some of the less important
+persons in the crowd.
+
+This incident is perhaps the more noteworthy because it occurred in Brody,
+which was at that time a seat of learning and Rabbinic culture,—a place
+where, for that very reason, Chassidism was never able to gain a foothold.
+It is probable enough that Baalshem in his visits to this town kept aloof
+from the learned and the wise, and sought to gather round him the
+neglected and humbler elements of Jewish society. It is well known that
+Baalshem consorted a good deal with the innkeepers of the district, who
+were held in very low repute among their brethren. The following remark by
+one of his followers is very suggestive in this respect. Just as only
+superficial minds attach a certain holiness to special places, whilst with
+the deeper ones all places are alike holy, so that to them it makes no
+difference whether prayers be said in the synagogue or in the forest; so
+the latter believe that not only prophecies and visions come from heaven,
+but that every utterance of man, if properly understood, contains a
+message of God. Those who are absorbed in God will easily find the divine
+element in everything which they hear, even though the speaker himself be
+quite ignorant of it.
+
+This line of conduct gave a fair opening for attack to his opponents, an
+opportunity of which they were not slow to avail themselves. Baalshem was
+pointed at as the associate of the lowest classes. They avenged themselves
+for his neglect of and hostility to the learned by imputing the worst
+motives to his indifference to appearances. He was accused of idling about
+the streets with disreputable characters, and one polemical treatise draws
+the vilest inferences from his apparent familiarity with women. To this
+charge Baalshem’s conduct, innocent in itself, gave some colour; for his
+views and habits in relation to women marked a strong divergence from
+current customs. The position of women in contemporary circles was neither
+debased nor inevitably unhappy, but it was distinctly subordinate. Their
+education was almost entirely neglected, and their very existence was
+practically ignored. According to the Chassidic doctrine of Universality,
+woman was necessarily to be honoured. “All Jews,” says one Chassid, “even
+the uneducated and the women, believe in God.” Baalshem frequently
+associated with women, assigning to them not only social equality, but a
+high degree of religious importance.
+
+His own wife he reverenced as a saint; when she died he abandoned the hope
+of rising to heaven while yet alive, like Elijah of old, saying mournfully
+that undivided such translation might have happened, but for him alone it
+was impossible. Then again in a form of religion utilising so largely the
+emotions of Faith and Love there was a strong appeal to the female mind.
+The effect of this was soon evident, and Baalshem did not neglect to
+profit by it. Among the most devoted of his early adherents were women.
+One of them was the heroine of a favourite anecdote concerning Baalshem’s
+work of Love and Rescue. It is related that in a certain village there
+dwelt a woman whose life was so disgraceful that her brothers at last
+determined to kill her. With this object they enticed her into a
+neighbouring wood, but guided by the Holy Spirit Baalshem intervened at
+the critical moment, and dissuading the men from their purpose rescued the
+sinner. The woman afterwards became a sort of Magdalen in the new
+community.
+
+Above I have endeavoured to throw together in some order of sequence the
+doctrines and practical rules of conduct which Baalshem and his early
+disciples seem to have deduced from their central idea of the omnipresence
+of God. This was necessary in order to give a connected idea of their
+creed, but it is right to say that nowhere in Chassidic literature have
+these deductions been logically co‐ordinated. Perhaps their solitary
+attempt to formulate and condense their distinctive views is confined to a
+statement of their idea of piety or service of God, and an examination of
+three cardinal virtues, Humility, Cheerfulness, and Enthusiasm. What the
+Chassidim held as to true service brings into relief Baalshem’s
+characteristic manner of regarding the Law.
+
+By the service of God was generally understood a life which fulfilled the
+precepts of the written and oral law. Baalshem understood by it a certain
+attitude towards life as a whole. For, as God is realised in life, each
+activity of life when rightly conceived and executed is at once a
+manifestation and a service of the Divine. All things have been created
+for the glory and service of God. The smallest worm serves Him with all
+its power. Thus, while eating, drinking, sleeping, and the other ordinary
+functions of the body are regarded by the old Jewish moralists as mere
+means to an end, to Baalshem they are already a service of God in
+themselves. All pleasures are manifestations of God’s attribute of love;
+and, so regarded, they are at once spiritualised and ennobled. Man should
+seek to reach a higher level of purity and holiness before partaking of
+food and drink, than even before the study of the Law. For when the Torah
+had once been given by God the whole world became instinct with its grace.
+He who speaks of worldly matters and religious matters as if they were
+separate and distinct, is a heretic.
+
+Upon the continual and uninterrupted study of the Law, Baalshem lays but
+little stress. He accepted the ordinary belief that the Law (under which
+term are included not only the Pentateuch, but the whole Old Testament and
+the major portion of the old Rabbinic literature) was a revelation of God.
+But, as the world itself is equally a divine revelation, the Torah becomes
+little more than a part of a larger whole. To understand it aright one
+needs to penetrate to the inward reality—to the infinite light which is
+revealed in it. We should study the Law not as we study a science for the
+sake of acquiring knowledge (he who studies it so has in truth been
+concerning himself with its mere outward form), but we should learn from
+it the true service of God. Thus the study of the law is no end in itself.
+It is studied because, as the word of God, God is more easily discerned
+and absorbed in this revelation of Him than in any other. The Torah is
+eternal, but its explanation is to be made by the spiritual leaders of
+Judaism. It is to be interpreted by them in accordance with the Attribute
+of the age. For he regarded the world as governed in every age by a
+different Attribute of God—one age by the Attribute of Love, another by
+that of Power, a third again, by Beauty, and so on—and the explanation of
+the Torah must be brought into agreement with it. The object of the whole
+Torah is that man should become a Torah himself. Every man being a Torah
+in himself, said a disciple of Baalshem, has got not only his Abraham and
+Moses, but also his Balaam and Haman: he should try to expel the Balaam
+and develop the Abraham within him. Every action of man should be a pure
+manifestation of God.
+
+The reason why we should do what the Law commands is not to gain grace
+thereby in the eyes of God, but to learn how to love God and to be united
+to Him. The important thing is not how many separate injunctions are
+obeyed, but how and in what spirit we obey them. The object of fulfilling
+these various ordinances is to put oneself, as it were, on the same plane
+with God, and thus, in the ordinary phrase of the religious mystic, to
+become one with Him, or to be absorbed in Him. People should get to know,
+says Baalshem, what the unity of God really means. To attain a part of
+this indivisible unity is to attain the whole. The Torah and all its
+ordinances are from God. If I therefore fulfil but one commandment in and
+through the love of God, it is as though I have fulfilled them all.
+
+I have now briefly to refer to the three virtues to which the Chassidim
+assigned the highest place of honour. Of these the first is called in
+Hebrew “Shiphluth,”(15) and is best rendered by our word “Humility,” but
+in Chassidic usage it includes the ideas of modesty, considerateness, and
+sympathy. The prominence given to these qualities is in sharp contrast to
+the faults of conceit, vanity, and self‐satisfaction, against which
+Baalshem was never weary of protesting. He regarded these as the most
+seductive of all forms of sin. But a few minutes before his death he was
+heard to murmur, “O vanity, vanity! even in this hour of death thou darest
+to approach me with thy temptations: ‘Bethink thee, Israel, what a grand
+funeral procession will be thine because thou hast been so wise and good.’
+O vanity, vanity! beshrew thee.” “It should be indifferent to man,” says
+the master, “whether he be praised or blamed, loved or hated, reputed to
+be the wisest of mankind or the greatest of fools. The test of the real
+service of God is that it leaves behind it the feeling of humility. If a
+man after prayer be conscious of the least pride or self‐satisfaction, if
+he think, for instance, that he has earned a reward by the ardour of his
+spiritual exercises, then let him know that he has prayed not to God but
+to himself. And what is this but disguised idolatry? Before you can find
+God you must lose yourself.” The Chassidim treated Shiphluth from two
+sides: a negative side in thinking humbly of oneself, a positive in
+thinking highly of one’s neighbour, in other words the love for our
+fellow‐man.
+
+He who loves the father will also love his children. The true lover of God
+is also a lover of man. It is ignorance of one’s own errors that makes one
+ready to see the errors of others. “There is no sphere in heaven where the
+soul remains a shorter time than in the sphere of merit, there is none
+where it abides longer than in the sphere of Love.”
+
+The second Cardinal Virtue is “Cheerfulness,” in Hebrew “Simchah.”(16)
+Baalshem insisted on cheerfulness of heart as a necessary attitude for the
+due service of God. Once believe that you are really the servant and the
+child of God and how can you fall again into a gloomy condition of mind?
+Nor should the inevitable sins which we all must commit disturb our glad
+serenity of soul. For is not repentance ready at hand by which we may
+climb back to God? Every penitent thought is a voice of God. Man should
+detect that voice in all the evidence of his senses, in every sight and
+sound of external nature. It is through his want of faith in the
+universality of God’s presence that he is deaf to these subtle influences
+and can read only the lessons which are inscribed in books.
+
+The reader will be prepared to learn that Baalshem, taking this cheerful
+view of things, was opposed to every kind of asceticism. Judaism, or
+rather Israelitism, it is true, was not originally much of an ascetic
+religion. But there can be little doubt that in the course of history
+there came in many ascetic doctrines and practices, quite enough at least
+to encourage such tender souls the bent of whose minds lay in this
+direction. To one of these, a former disciple, Baalshem wrote: “I hear
+that you think yourself compelled from religious motives to enter upon a
+course of fasts and penances. My soul is outraged at your determination.
+By the counsel of God I order you to abandon such dangerous practices,
+which are but the outcome of a disordered brain. Is it not written ‘Thou
+shalt not hide thyself from thine own flesh?’ Fast then no more than is
+prescribed. Follow my command and God shall be with you.” On another
+occasion Baalshem was heard to observe that it is a machination of Satan
+to drive us into a condition of gloom and despondency in which the
+smallest error is regarded as a deadly sin. Satan’s object is to keep us
+away from the true service of God, and God can only be truly served from a
+happy and confident disposition. Anxious scrupulosity in details is
+therefore to be avoided. It is the counsel of the Devil to persuade us
+that we never have done and shall never do our duty fully, and that moral
+progress is impossible. Such ideas beget melancholy and despair, which are
+of evil.
+
+The third virtue is called in the Hebrew Chassidic literature
+“Hithlahabuth,”(17) and is derived from a verb meaning “to kindle” or “set
+on fire.” The substantive “Hithlahabuth,” so far as I am aware, was first
+coined by Baalshem’s followers. It is best rendered by our word
+“Enthusiasm.” Every religious action, to be of any avail, must be done
+with enthusiasm. A mere mechanical and lifeless performance of an
+ordinance is valueless. A man is no step nearer the goal if he thinks,
+forsooth, that he has done his duty when he has gone through the whole
+round of laws in every section of the code. This essential enthusiasm is
+only begotten of Love. The service of fear, if not wholly useless, is yet
+necessarily accompanied by a certain repulsion and heaviness, which
+effectually prevent the rush and ardour of enthusiasm. The inspiration of
+true service is its own end. There is no thought of this world, and there
+is none of the world to come. In the Talmud there is frequent reference to
+one Rabbi Elisha ben Abuyah, an apostate from Judaism, who, when urged to
+repent, replied that repentance was useless, and that for this mournful
+belief he had direct divine authority. For he had been told by a voice
+from heaven that even though he repented he would be excluded from sharing
+the happiness of the world to come. Of him it was said by one of the
+Chassidim, “This man indeed missed a golden opportunity. How purely could
+he have served God, knowing that for his service there could never be a
+reward!”
+
+From the conception of Enthusiasm springs the quality of mobility,
+suggesting spiritual progress, and commonly opposed by Baalshem and his
+followers to the dull religious stagnation of self‐satisfied
+contemporaries. Man should not imagine himself to have attained the level
+of the righteous; let him rather regard himself as a penitent who should
+make progress every day. Always to remain on the same religious plane,
+merely repeating to‐day the religious routine of yesterday, is not true
+service. There must be a daily advance in the knowledge and love of the
+Divine Master. Mere freedom from active sin is not sufficient; such
+negative virtue may be but another word for the chance absence of
+temptation. What boots it never to have committed a sin if sin lies
+concealed in the heart? It is only the uninterrupted communion with God
+which will raise and ennoble your thoughts and designs, and cause the
+roots of sin to die. The patriarch Abraham, without any command from God,
+fulfilled the whole Torah, because he perceived that the Law was the life
+of all created things. In the Messianic age the law will no longer seem to
+man as something ordained for him from without; but the law will be within
+the hearts of men; it will seem natural and self‐evident to them, because
+they will realise that God and life are manifested through the law.
+
+Baalshem, who dealt largely in parable, has left the following, which we
+may fitly add to our somewhat inadequate presentation of his doctrine.
+
+There was once a king who built himself a glorious palace. By means of
+magical illusion it seemed as if the palace were full of devious corridors
+and mazes, preventing the approach to the royal presence. But as there was
+much gold and silver heaped up in the entrance halls, most people were
+content to go no further, but take their fill of treasure. The king
+himself they did not notice. At last the king’s intimate had compassion
+upon them and exclaimed to them, “All these walls and mazes which you see
+before you do not in truth exist at all. They are mere illusions. Push
+forward bravely, and you shall find no obstacle.”
+
+We must not interpret the parable to mean that Baalshem denied the reality
+or even the importance of the actual phenomenal world. The very contrary
+is the truth. The world is for him full of God, penetrated through and
+through by the divine, and therefore as real as God himself. It was quite
+in Baalshem’s manner when one of his disciples declared that only fools
+could speak of the world as vanity or emptiness. “It is in truth a
+glorious world. We must only learn how rightly to make use of it. Call
+nothing common or profane: by God’s presence all things are holy.”
+
+Above we have reviewed the essential doctrines of Baalshem and his
+immediate followers; we have now to see how they fared at the hands of the
+sect which he founded. This is a sad part of our task, for the subsequent
+history of Chassidism is almost entirely a record of decay. As formulated
+by its founder the new creed amounted to a genuine Reformation, pure and
+lofty in ideal. After his death unhappily it was rapidly corrupted and
+perverted. This was due almost exclusively to the dangerous and
+exaggerated development of a single point in his teaching. That point, the
+honour due to the divine in man, was relatively a minor article in the
+original creed. But the later Chassidism has given it a distorted and
+almost exclusive importance wholly out of proportion to the grander and
+more essential features of Baalshem’s teaching, until the distinctive
+feature of the Chassidism of to‐day is an almost idolatrous service of
+their living leaders. What little there is to say of the history of the
+sect after Baalshem’s death would be unintelligible without some
+explanation of the origin and growth of this unfortunate perversion.
+
+It has been explained that Baalshem laid but little stress upon the study
+of the Law or the observance of its precepts in themselves, but regarded
+them only as means to an end. The end is union with God. Man has to
+discover the presence of God in the Divine word and will. Now this
+mystical service of God, although perhaps sufficing to sensitive and
+enthusiastic natures, is scarcely plain or definite enough for ordinary
+men. Few can realise abstractions: and yet fewer can delight in them and
+find in their contemplation sufficient nurture for their religious needs.
+What then had Chassidism to offer to the ordinary majority who could not
+recognise God in all the plenitude of His disguise? The want of something
+tangible whereon to fix the minds of the people, which has confronted the
+teachers of so many creeds, was also encountered by the Chassidim, and
+they unfortunately found their way out of the difficulty by relying on and
+developing their doctrine of man’s position in the Universe. Man’s ideal
+is to be a law himself; himself a clear and full manifestation of God.
+Now, not only is he God’s servant and child, but in highest development he
+becomes himself a part of God, albeit in human shape, so that he may
+become wholly one with his divine Father. But if man may reach this
+highest level of holiness, he is virtually a kind of God‐man, whom his
+fellow‐men of lower levels perceive by reason of his manhood, but his
+essential office consists in raising them up to God by reason of his
+Divinity.
+
+The few chosen spirits who through the successful persistency with which
+they have sought God in all things have become, though yet on earth,
+absorbed in Him, are known in Chassidic literature by the name of the
+“Zaddikim.” The Hebrew word Zaddik(18) means “just” or “righteous,” and
+the term was probably chosen in conscious opposition to the title of
+Rabbinic heroes, “disciples of the wise.” For the Zaddik is not so much
+the product of learning as of intuition: his final consummation is reached
+by a sudden and direct illumination from God. The Zaddik not only
+resembles Moses, but, in virtue of his long communion with the Divine, he
+is also the true child of God. He is, moreover, a vivifying power in
+creation, for he is the connecting bond between God and his creatures. He
+is the source of blessing and the fount of grace. Man must therefore learn
+to love the Zaddik, so that through the Zaddik he may win God’s grace. He
+who does not believe in the Zaddik is an apostate from God. Here then we
+have the fatal exaggeration to which I have alluded, and here its logical
+consequence. The step to man‐worship is short.
+
+This peculiar doctrine of the Intermediary soon became the distinguishing
+feature of Chassidism. By a Chassid was understood not a man who held such
+and such opinions in theology and religion, but a believer in the Zaddik,
+and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship of the Zaddik.
+Every other doctrine of Chassidism was rapidly pushed into the background
+and overlooked. Even the grand and fundamental doctrine of Omnipresence in
+the Creation was veiled by the special presence in the Zaddik. Chassidism
+became mere Zaddikism, and its subsequent history is identical with the
+downward development of that cult.
+
+Whether Baalshem named his successor is doubtful. But the lead after his
+death was assumed by his disciple Beer of Mizriez. This man’s conversion
+to Chassidism was an important event for the new community; his piety and
+learning were beyond dispute, and, whereas during Baalshem’s life
+Chassidism had found its chief adherents among the lower classes of
+society, Beer managed to gather round him many of the most learned among
+his contemporaries. It was to these new and ardent disciples of Beer that
+the expansion of Chassidism was chiefly due. They came together from many
+quarters, and after Beer’s death separated and preached the new doctrine
+far and wide. Many even went forth during the lifetime of their master,
+and at his command, to found fresh branches of the new sect. Like Beer
+himself, they directed their efforts mainly to winning over the educated
+sections of the Jews. The elder men paid little heed to their word, but
+the youths, just fresh from their casuistic studies, which had sharpened
+their wits and starved their souls, lent a ready ear and an eager heart to
+the new doctrine. The uneducated were by no means excluded; to them
+Chassidism held out a deeper consolation and a grander hope than the
+current Rabbinism of the age; they therefore joined the young community in
+large numbers without any special effort being necessary to gain them
+over.
+
+In their methods of Prayer the Chassidim most conspicuously differed from
+the older communities. Laying as they did supreme stress on the importance
+and efficacy of prayer, they soon found it necessary to secede from the
+existing synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves. The usual
+salaried Reader “with the beautiful voice and empty head,” who naturally
+regarded his function as a matter of business, was done away with and his
+place taken either by the Zaddik himself or by some other distinguished
+person in the community. The Chassidim also effected many changes in the
+liturgy. Instead of the German they adopted the Spanish ritual. They
+excised many prayers which, lacking the authority of antiquity, were
+cumbrous in form or objectionable in matter. They inserted new prayers and
+hymns of their own. They paid little regard to the prescribed hours at
+which public worship should be held. Prayer began when they had got
+themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind. Frequent ablutions,
+perusal of mystical writings, introspective meditation were the means by
+which they sought to gain the befitting mood. The prayers themselves were
+accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement. Some in the
+zeal of their devotion began to dance; others were rapt in a motionless
+ecstasy; some prayed aloud; others in solemn silence. They justified their
+abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that you cannot order a
+child when to speak with its father: such restraint were fit only for
+slaves.
+
+As a rule the larger number of the younger Chassidim were able to devote
+their whole time to religious exercises. It was the custom among the Jews
+in Eastern Europe for the young men to live at the expense of their own or
+their wives’ parents, in order that they might give themselves up entirely
+to religious study. According to the old notions, this meant the study of
+the Talmud and its Commentaries; the Chassidim who cared little for the
+legal side of Jewish literature betook themselves to the literature of
+edification and mysticism. No small part of their time was taken up with
+endless conversations about the Zaddik, his piety, goodness, and self‐
+sacrifice and the wonderful miracles which he had wrought. If a Zaddik was
+living in his own town, the youthful Chassid spent as many hours as he
+could in the Zaddik’s company, in order to observe and study this embodied
+Torah as constantly as possible. Where no Zaddik was at hand, periodical
+pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived, and endless were the
+tales which were afterwards repeated, to those who were obliged to stay at
+home, of the Zaddik’s marvellous wisdom and extraordinary deeds. The last
+hours of the Sabbath day were looked upon as a special season of grace,
+and the Chassidim were therefore in the habit of collecting together in
+the waning of the Sabbath and celebrating the so‐called “Supper of the
+Holy Queen.” The meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as well
+as by hymns and prayers.
+
+The Chassidim were second to no other sect in their loyalty and affection
+for each other. No sacrifice for a brother Chassid was too great. They
+knew no difference of rich and poor, old and young, wise and ignorant; for
+they all, with one accord, worshipped one common ideal, the Zaddik, who in
+his exalted position was equally raised above them all. Before him all
+minor differences of rank disappeared. When a Chassid travelled, he had no
+scruple in asking for lodging or entertainment in the house of any Chassid
+who could afford to give them. If he was in money difficulties the purse
+of his host was at his disposal. If that was not sufficient, it was
+supplemented by a grant from the fund of the community. These gifts were
+not looked upon in the light of charity either by giver or receiver; they
+were made to the Zaddik, to whom all Chassidim alike were debtors. It
+sometimes even happened that a Zaddik said that the son of some rich
+merchant was to marry the daughter of a poor schoolmaster, and both
+parties were equally delighted to fulfil the wish of their beloved chief.
+
+It may easily be imagined that the innovations of the Chassidim provoked
+the wrath of the orthodox communities. But in their detestation of the
+Rabbis the Chassidim returned in full measure all the hatred they
+received. The Zaddik is the Moses of his age: the Rabbis its Korah and
+Abiram. Where the Chassidic party in any community gained the upper hand,
+the Rabbi was deposed and a Zaddik, if that was possible, elected in his
+place. The issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the
+Jewish race was a rigorous persecution. In many places the Chassidim were
+excommunicated, in others their leaders were publicly scourged and put
+into the stocks. Their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly
+closed. But persecution produced only the usual result of increasing the
+popularity and the numbers of the sect. The devotion of the Chassidim to
+each other and to their common cause was increased a hundred‐fold by
+suffering. In one case a distinguished Zaddik was accused of treason,
+before the Russian authorities, and was thrown into prison. In Russia,
+however, the power of money is considerable, and on payment of a large
+ransom not only was the beloved Zaddik released but as an obvious
+consequence his reputation greatly profited: the day of his release was
+celebrated as a yearly festival, while his sufferings were regarded by his
+followers as a sin‐offering that atoned for the iniquities of his age.
+From this time the government maintained a purely neutral attitude towards
+the new sect, and ere long the persecution by the orthodox ceased.
+
+The cessation of persecution may possibly be accounted for by the fact
+that Chassidism as a secession soon ceased to be formidable. There were
+early divisions within the sect. Even Beer’s disciples began to quarrel
+over theological differences and to found separate communities. When once
+the course of corruption and spiritual decay had begun, it was the
+interest of the false Zaddikim to accentuate these differences. Each
+Zaddik sought to have a whole little sect to himself, from which to draw
+an undivided revenue. And each deluded little sect as it arose boasted of
+the exclusive possession of the true Zaddik.
+
+It must not be supposed that these strictures apply to the whole class of
+Zaddikim. The greater number of Baalshem’s leading disciples as well as
+Beer’s were beyond question men of pure, unalloyed piety, who would have
+rejected with scorn any idea of making a trade of their sacred profession.
+Their motives and their zeal were alike ideal. Many gave up highly paid
+posts as Rabbis when they joined the new sect. Some emigrated to Palestine
+to lead a holy life on holy ground, others sought to become religious
+specialists, following out practically, although with some exaggeration, a
+favourite doctrine of the Founder, that he who observes but one
+commandment devotedly and lovingly, may reach the goal desired: the union
+with God. Thus one Zaddik made it his business never to tell the smallest
+falsehood, whatever the cost or the inconvenience of truth might be. It is
+related that the Russian Government, suspecting the Jews of his town of
+smuggling, consented to withdraw the charge if he declared his brethren
+innocent. Having no alternative but either to bring misfortune on his
+brethren or to tell an untruth, he prayed to God to save him from this
+dilemma by sending death upon him. And lo! when the officials came to
+fetch him before the law court they found him dead. Another, thinking that
+the commandment in Exodus xxiii. 3, relating to the help that should be
+given to a neighbour or enemy when “his ass is lying under its burden,”
+was practically unobserved, devoted himself to its fulfilment. He was
+continually to be seen in the streets, helping one man to load his waggon,
+and another to drag his cart out of the mire. A third made the service of
+the oppressed his religious specialty. It is said that one day his wife,
+having had a quarrel with her maid, was setting out to the magistrate of
+the town to obtain satisfaction. Noticing that her husband was about to
+accompany her, she asked him whither he was bound. He replied, “to the
+magistrate.” His wife declared that it was below his dignity to take any
+part in a quarrel with a servant. She could deal with the matter herself.
+The Zaddik replied, “That may be, but I intend to represent your maid, who
+when accused by my wife will find no one willing to take her part.” And
+then, bursting into a passion of tears, he quoted Job xxxi. 13: “If I did
+despise the cause of my man‐servant or of my maid‐servant, when they
+contended with me, what shall I do when God riseth up?”
+
+Several Zaddikim were learned men and thinkers of no ordinary kind. The
+works of Solomon Ladier or of Mendel Witipsker, read with attention and
+without Western preconceptions, certainly give the impression of both
+originality and depth of thought. But most characteristic of all is the
+passionate yearning of authors such as these towards the Divine. The
+reader is astonished and moved by the intense sincerity and ardour of
+their longing after God. But, despite the adherence of these worthy men,
+the fate of Chassidism, as a regenerative force, was sealed from the day
+when Zaddikism replaced the original doctrines of the sect.
+
+For, apart from the obvious theological considerations already suggested,
+there are two points of inherent weakness in the cult of the Zaddik which
+naturally doomed it to perversion and failure. The necessary
+qualifications for “Zaddikship” are wholly undefined. We hear a great deal
+about what a Zaddik actually is, but we hear very little about what he
+should be. The Zaddik has many virtues, but we are nowhere told what are
+his indispensable qualifications. Moreover, the Zaddik is a being who can
+be comprehended by the understanding as little as an angel, or as God
+Himself. He is realised by faith, not conceived by thought. Hence there is
+no human test of a true Zaddik except the test of miracles; and every
+student of religious history knows the deceitful character of that test.
+
+The second source of danger arose from the Chassidim holding it to be
+their sacred duty to provide for the Zaddik a life of comfort and ease.
+The Zaddik must pursue his divine avocations undisturbed by grosser cares.
+But what were the consequences? The Chassidim believed they could win the
+grace and blessing of the Zaddik by the richness and variety of their
+gifts. A Zaddik’s career became a very profitable concern. The result of
+both defects was that not only was the opportunity given for every
+scheming charlatan to become a Zaddik, but inducements were offered to
+make the deception lucrative. Hence the anxiety of the false Zaddikim,
+already noticed, to found separate communities.
+
+Among the Chassidim of to‐day there is not one in ten thousand who has the
+faintest conception of those sublime ideas which inspired Baalshem and his
+immediate disciples. It is still the interest of the wretched ringleaders
+of a widely spread delusion to crush and keep down every trace of
+reflection and thought so that they may play at will with the conscience
+and purses of their adherents. The new scientific movement, inaugurated by
+such men as Krochmal, Zunz, and others who came under the influence of the
+German critical spirit, found in them its hottest and most fanatical
+opponents. That the cult of the Zaddikim has not led to still more
+disastrous consequences is solely due to the fact that the Chassidim in
+general have remained faithful to the Law. It is the Law, against the
+excessive study of which the original Chassidim protested, that has put
+limits to the license of its modern false prophets.
+
+Amid much that is bad, the Chassidim have preserved through the whole
+movement a warm heart, and an ardent, sincere faith. There is a certain
+openness of character and a ready friendliness about even the modern
+Chassidim which are very attractive. Religion is still to them a matter of
+life and death. Their faith is still real enough to satisfy the demands of
+a Luther, but it is diverted and wasted upon unworthy objects. If
+Chassidism is to be reformed, its worship must no longer be of man; it
+must be brought back again to the source of all Beauty, all Wisdom, and
+all Goodness; it must be restored to God.
+
+
+
+
+
+II. NACHMAN KROCHMAL AND THE “PERPLEXITIES OF THE TIME”
+
+
+In her good‐natured panegyric of mediocrity which is known under the title
+of _Scenes of Clerical Life_, George Eliot remarked: “Let us hope that
+there is a saving ignorance.”
+
+Strange as this demand may sound, the wish of the great novelist to see
+her favoured mediocrities “saved,” has been shared by the great majority
+of mankind. I know that I, at least, echo that desire with all my heart.
+And I am afraid that I am prompted by some rather selfish reasons. It
+would be somewhat hard, when one is born with small abilities, but a great
+desire for being saved, to be deprived of the hope held out by the author
+of _Adam Bede_.
+
+But there are some, I am afraid, who are not satisfied with this dictum of
+George Eliot. They show a strong tendency to make salvation a monopoly of
+ignorance. This is a little too selfish. With all due respect to every
+form of ignorance, sacred as well as profane, we ought, I think, to
+believe that there is also such a thing as a saving knowledge. Nay, we
+might go even farther. There may be certain epochs in history when there
+is hardly any other path to salvation than knowledge, and the deep search
+after truth.
+
+We all know the words of the Psalmist, “The Lord preserveth the simple.”
+But as there are periods in the life of the individual when naïveté has to
+give way to sagacity and reflection, so there are times in history at
+which Providence does not choose to leave men in simplicity. At such times
+doubts arise, as though of themselves; questions suddenly become open when
+they had been supposed solved for centuries; and the human mind is stirred
+by a sceptical breeze of which no man can tell whence it came. One may
+under those circumstances be indifferent, but one can be simple no more.
+
+Even in such cases, however, man has no cause to despair. When our dearest
+beliefs are shaken by all kinds of doubts, Providence sends us also great
+thinkers, earnest lovers of truth, who devote their lives to enlightening
+our puzzled minds. Not that these men try to answer all the questions by
+which we feel perplexed. They endeavour to satisfy us, partly by showing
+that many of our difficulties are not difficulties at all, but merely
+arise from superficiality, and partly by proving that the great cause
+about which we feel so much anxiety does not exactly depend on the
+solution of the questions that are troubling us. They give to the things
+which are dearer to us than our life a fresh aspect, which enables us to
+remain attached to them with the same devotion and love as before. To
+speak again in the words of the Psalmist: “Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit,
+and they are created, and Thou renewest the face of the earth.”
+
+This spirit that renews the face of things is what I understand by “saving
+knowledge.” As men of that saving knowledge we may regard Rabban Johanan
+ben Zaccai(19) and his disciples, who made it possible for Judaism to
+survive the destruction of the Temple, which some believed to involve the
+end of the religion. As such men we may look upon R. Saadiah Gaon and his
+followers, who worked at a time when Judaism was menaced in its inner
+life, namely in the tradition, by the attempts of the narrow‐minded
+Caraites to convert it into a bookish religion.(20) Such men were
+Maimonides and his successors, who came to the aid of religion when it had
+got into dogmatic troubles by reason of its coming into contact with
+various philosophical systems. And in order to approach the subject of the
+present essay, I venture to say that a man of such saving knowledge was
+also Nachman Krochmal, who lived and laboured in the first half of the
+present century, when Judaism had been terribly shaken by the scepticism
+of Voltaire, and the platitudes of the so‐called Mendelssohnian school.
+
+Nachman Krochmal was born on the 17th of February in the year 1785. His
+father, Solomon Krochmal, was a merchant of Brody, a commercial frontier
+town in the north‐east of Galicia in Austria. In his early years Solomon
+often used to visit Berlin for business purposes. He is said to have seen
+Mendelssohn there on one occasion, and to have learned greatly to revere
+the Jewish sage. And it is not unlikely that Nachman’s subsequent
+admiration for Mendelssohn was partly due to his father’s influence.
+
+Solomon was a man of considerable wealth, and he, therefore, endeavoured
+to give his son the best possible education. But as a respectable member
+of a Polish community a hundred years ago, Solomon had to follow the
+fashion adopted by his neighbours, and the best possible education
+consisted in affording the child an opportunity to study the Talmud and
+other Rabbinical works. All other languages and their literatures were
+sealed books to the child—a very absurd and regrettable fashion indeed.
+But let us not be too hard on Polish Jews. I have been told that there are
+countries on our globe where people have been driven by the force of
+fashion into the opposite extreme; where, with few exceptions, they think
+that the Talmud, as well as the whole Hebrew literature, must needs be
+excluded from the programme of a gentleman’s education.
+
+Happily, or the reverse, Krochmal’s childhood did not last long, for in
+the year 1798 we find that Nachman, a boy of fourteen, was already married
+to a Miss Haberman in Zolkiew. As a result of this foolish custom of
+marrying at so very early an age, Nachman was hardly ever a boy; we have
+at once to deal with him as a man.
+
+It was then customary in Poland, and perhaps is so still, for the father
+of the bride to provide for the support of the young couple for some years
+after their marriage. In order to reduce the expense of this arrangement,
+the bridegroom had to reside in the same house as his father‐in‐law. Thus
+we see Krochmal removing from Brody to Zolkiew, the native town of his
+wife. Here Krochmal lived in the house of her father for many years,
+entirely devoted to his studies; and he certainly needed all his time for
+them. For he now began to expand the sphere of his education, to embrace
+subjects quite new to him. By his marriage Nachman seems to have gained a
+certain amount of independence, and the first use he made of it was to
+study the _Guide of the Perplexed_(21) of Maimonides, the _Commentaries_
+of Ibn Ezra on the Bible,(22) and other more or less philosophical works
+written in the Hebrew language. His next step was to learn German; but, as
+his biographers inform us, he was not able to follow this course without
+undergoing many struggles, and overcoming many obstacles.
+
+It would lead us too far to give a full account of the difficulties which
+the young scholar had to conquer while pursuing his new studies. They will
+be sufficiently characterised by the following extract from a Hebrew
+letter of his disciple, Solomon Leb Rapoport, who, writing in 1841
+concerning his master and friend, remarks: “Consider this, ye inhabitants
+of Germany”—and, I may add, ye inhabitants of England—“and you will be
+astounded. It is easy for you to avoid being one‐sided, and to study
+different sciences, for you possess many schools and teachers from every
+branch of learning. It is not so in Poland and Russia even at present,
+much less was it so forty years ago. There is no teacher, no guide, no
+supporter, for the Jew who desires any sort of improvement. The Jew who
+wishes to enter on a new path of learning has to prepare the road for
+himself. And when he has entered on it, his friend will come to him and
+ask, ‘Is it true that you have got scientific books in your house? Mind
+you do not mention it to any one. There are enough bigots in the town to
+persecute you and all your family if they get scent of it.’ ” It was under
+these conditions that Krochmal pursued his studies, which were by no means
+few or easy, for he was not content with a knowledge of only the lighter
+portions of German literature. He soon began to read the works of Lessing,
+Mendelssohn, and more especially of Kant, who always remained his
+favourite philosopher. In his later years he also became acquainted with
+the writings of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. But to the last he could not
+console himself for having missed the advantages of a systematic
+university education.
+
+After having learned German, Krochmal proceeded to acquire a knowledge of
+Latin and French, and to read the best books written in those languages.
+To deepen his knowledge of Hebrew, he studied Arabic and Syraic, but we
+are unable to say how far he succeeded in mastering these languages. With
+these studies, which appear to have occupied our philosopher for an
+interval of ten years after his marriage, the first period of his life
+seems also to end. But the hard work of ten years did not pass over the
+delicate youth without undermining his health for ever. At the age of
+twenty‐four, Krochmal fell sick of an illness which compelled him to
+interrupt his work. He was forced to go to Lemberg to consult the doctors
+of that town, and he had to remain there for a long time. And now began
+Krochmal’s career as a teacher. For during his stay at Lemberg there
+gathered round him a band of young scholars whom Krochmal’s fame had
+already reached. It is useless to enumerate the names of all these
+students. Among them figured Isaac Erter, Samson Bloch, A. Bodek, and many
+others. The most gifted of them was undoubtedly Rapoport, who afterwards
+became even more famous than his master Krochmal. It is not easy to define
+accurately the relation that subsisted between these two men. Graetz, in
+his history, calls Rapoport a disciple of Krochmal. Rapoport himself, in
+his memoir of Krochmal, describes the latter as a dear friend with whom he
+was wont to discuss literary topics. Zunz does not mention Rapoport at all
+in his account of our author. It seems to me that this relation may be
+most aptly defined by the Talmudic term “Talmid‐Chaber,”(23) “disciple‐
+colleague.”
+
+Indeed, Krochmal’s whole method of teaching was rather that of a companion
+than of a professor. He gave no set lectures on particular subjects, but
+conveyed his instruction rather by means of suggestive conversations with
+his younger friends. His usual habit was to walk with his pupils in the
+neighbourhood of the town, and to try to influence their minds each in
+accordance with its bent. If any of his disciples showed an inclination
+for poetry, Krochmal sought to refine his taste by directing his attention
+to the best works in Hebrew and German literature. To another, whose fancy
+strayed into mysticism, he recommended the writings of Philo and Ibn Ezra,
+at the same time suggesting how the works of the latter should be
+interpreted. A third who, like Rapoport, was interested in historical
+researches, Krochmal instructed in the methods of critical inquiry.
+
+There must have been some fascinating charm in Nachman’s personality,
+which made him irresistible to all who came into contact with him.
+Rapoport has described his first interview with Krochmal. “It is more than
+thirty years since I first made his acquaintance, and beheld the glory of
+his presence. Though he was in weak health, still his soul was strong; and
+as soon as I conversed with him there came over me a spirit of judgment
+and knowledge. I felt almost transformed into another man.” Elsewhere the
+same writer says: “Oh, how sweet to me were these walks with
+Krochmal—sweeter than all the pleasures of this world. I could never have
+enough of his wisdom; with his every word he conveyed a new lesson.”
+
+After a lengthy stay at Lemberg, Krochmal partially, though not entirely,
+recovered from his severe illness; he remained weak and pale for the rest
+of his days. His antagonists, the Chassidim, believed him to be possessed
+by a demon who could find no better dwelling‐place than in the person of
+this arch‐heretic. Had it been in their power they would probably have
+dragged him to some exorcist for the purpose of driving out his German,
+French, Latin, and other symptoms of demoniacal heresy. Happily the
+orthodox were powerless to do this, so Krochmal was left unmolested, and
+was allowed to resume his walks and studies. It may be here remarked that
+Krochmal in general avoided giving the Chassidim any cause for reasonable
+complaint. Rapoport asserts that his master was “deeply religious and a
+strict observer of the law. He was zealously anxious to perform every
+ordinance, Biblical or Rabbinical.” The only liberty that Krochmal claimed
+for himself and his disciples was the right to study what they thought
+best and in the way they thought best. When this liberty was attacked, he
+showed a firmness and resolution which would hardly have been expected
+from this quiet and gentle man. To one of his pupils, who made concessions
+to the Chassidim and their Zaddikim worship, Krochmal wrote: “Be firm in
+this matter unless you wish to earn the contempt of every honest man. One
+who is afraid of these people, and debases himself before them bears a
+mean soul that was born to slavery. The man that wishes to rise above the
+mob, with its confused notions and corrupt morality, must be courageous as
+a lion in conquering the obstacles that beset his path. Consideration of
+what people will say, what bigots will whisper, what crafty enemies will
+scheme—questions such as these can have but one effect,—to darken the
+intellect and confuse the faculty of judgment.”
+
+So Krochmal continued his studies without interruption till 1814, when the
+death of his wife’s mother brought his period of ease and comfort to an
+end. His father‐in‐law seems to have died some time before, and Krochmal
+was forced to seek his own living. He became a merchant, but it is to be
+regretted that he did not prove as successful a man of business as he was
+a man of letters. He found it a hard struggle to earn a living. But the
+severest trial which he had to undergo was the death of his wife in 1826.
+In a letter, dating from about this time, to a friend who had asked him
+for assistance in his philosophical inquiries, Krochmal wrote—“How can I
+help you now? I am already an old man; my head is gray, and my health is
+broken. In the last three years I have met with many misfortunes. My
+beloved wife died after a long illness. My daughter will soon leave me to
+get married, my elder son will depart to seek his livelihood, and I shall
+be left alone with only a child of ten years, the son of my old age. I
+will lift up mine eyes unto the hills: From whence shall my help come?”
+
+Nachman was evidently in very low spirits at this time, but he was in too
+true a sense a philosopher to despair. He turned for comfort to his
+studies, and at this dark epoch of his life he first became acquainted
+with the Philosophy of Hegel, whose system he was wont to call the
+“Philosophy of Philosophies.”
+
+For the next ten years the works of Hegel and inquiries into Jewish
+history appear to have absorbed all the leisure that his mercantile
+occupation left him. We shall presently see what the result of these
+studies was. No fresh subjects were undertaken by Krochmal in the last
+years of his life; he had already acquired a fund of knowledge vast enough
+to engage all his thoughts. There are, however, some remaining points in
+his private circumstances which it may not be uninteresting to mention.
+
+Krochmal, as has been already related, was not prosperous in his business.
+Things went from bad to worse, and he was compelled in 1836 to seek a
+situation. “There ought to be literary men poor,” some writer has
+maintained, “to show whether they are genuine or not.” This test Krochmal
+successfully passed through. Even as a young man Nachman’s strength of
+character was admired by his contemporaries not less than his rare
+learning. In his subsequent distress, he gave evidence of the truth of
+this judgment. Despite his poverty, his friends could not prevail upon him
+to accept the post of Rabbi in any Jewish community. “I am unwilling,” he
+wrote to a friend, “to be the cause of dissensions in any Jewish
+congregation. I should prefer to die of hunger rather than become a Rabbi
+under present circumstances.” He expressed his views on this subject even
+more decidedly on a later occasion when the Berlin congregation offered
+him the post of Chief Rabbi in that town. In a letter, conveying his
+refusal of this honourable office, he says: “I never thought of becoming
+the Conscience‐counsellor (_Gewissensrath_) of men. My line of studies was
+not directed to that end, nor would it accord with my disposition and
+sentiments. The only post that I should care to accept would be that of
+teacher in the Jewish Theological Seminary, which, as I was informed, you
+were thinking of establishing in Berlin.” The plan to found such an
+institution was not realised till forty years later, and in the interval
+Nachman had to look for his living in other regions than Jewish theology.
+Being in poor circumstances, and as his children and friends had left him,
+he felt very lonely at Zolkiew. “Nobody cares for me here,” he writes,
+“and I am equally indifferent.” His one desire was to obtain a situation
+at Brody, possibly as book‐keeper with a salary of some thirty pounds a
+year, on condition that he would be expected to devote only half the day
+to his business duties, thus securing for himself leisure for
+philosophical studies.
+
+His terms were accepted, and he obtained the humble post he sought. He
+remained in Brody for the next two years, 1836‐8, but at the end of 1838
+he fell so dangerously ill that he could no longer resist the pressing
+request of his daughter to live with her at Tarnopol. She had urged him to
+take this step even previous to his removal to Brody, but he had declined
+on the plea that he preferred to live by the labour of his hands. Now,
+however, he yielded to her wish, and betook himself to Tarnopol, where for
+two years longer he lived affectionately tended by his children and
+respected by all who knew him. In May 1840, Krochmal’s illness began to
+develop fatal symptoms, and he died in the arms of his daughter on the
+31st of July (the first of Ab), at the age of fifty‐five. As Zunz happily
+remarked: “This great man was born on the 7th of Adar, the birthday of
+Moses (according to Jewish tradition), and died on the first of Ab, the
+anniversary of the death of Aaron, the High Priest.”
+
+I have tried in the foregoing remarks to give a short sketch of our
+Rabbi’s life according to the accounts of Zunz, Rapoport, and Letteris.
+There is one other point to which I must allude, as it involves a
+consideration on which Letteris seems to lay much stress. This biographer
+appears to think that Krochmal was in his youth greatly influenced by the
+society in which he moved, consisting as it did of many learned and
+enlightened men. There is, too, the oft‐quoted saying of Goethe:—
+
+
+    Wer den Dichter will verstehen
+    Muss in Dichters Lande gehen.
+
+
+And I am probably expected to give some account of the state of society in
+which Nachman grew up. I regret that I must ask to be excused from doing
+so. I cannot consent to take the reader to Krochmal’s land. And if I might
+venture to give him my humble advice, I should only say, “By all means
+stop at home.” Goethe may be right about the poet, but his remark does not
+apply to the case of the scholar. It may be true, as some think, that
+every great man is the product of his time, but it certainly does not
+follow that he is the product of his country. Nor could I name any other
+country of which Krochmal was the product. Many a city no doubt boasted
+itself a town full of “_Chakhamim_ and _Sopherim_”(24) as the Hebrew
+phrase is, or, as we would express it, “a seat of learning,” full of
+scholars of the ancient and modern schools. But neither these ancient
+scholars nor the modern were of a kind to produce a real scholar and an
+enlightened thinker like Krochmal. There were many men who knew by heart
+the whole of the Halachic works of Maimonides, the Mishnah, and even the
+whole of the Babylonian Talmud. This is very imposing. But if you look a
+little closer, you will find that with a few exceptions—such as the school
+of R. Elijah Wilna—these men, generally speaking, hardly deserve the name
+of scholars at all. They were rather a sort of studying engines. The
+steam‐engine passes over a continent, here through romantic scenery, there
+in the midst of arid deserts, by stream and mountain and valley, always
+with the same monotonous hum and shriek. So these scholars went through
+the Talmud with never changing feelings. They did not rejoice at the
+description which is given in tractate _Biccurim_(25) of the procession
+formed when the first‐fruits were brought into the Holy Temple. They were
+not much saddened when reading in tractate _Taanith_(26) of the unhappy
+days so recurrent in Jewish history. They were not delighted by the wisdom
+of _Seder Nezikin_,(27) which deals with civil law; nor were they vexed of
+_Seder Taharoth_,(28) which treats of the laws of cleanliness and
+uncleanliness, that by their exaggeration gave cause to much dissension in
+the time of the Temple. The pre‐Talmudic literature, such as the _Siphra_,
+_Siphré_, and _Mechilta_(29)—the only existing means of obtaining an
+insight into the Talmud—were altogether neglected. All that these readers
+cared for was to push on to the end, and the prayer recited at the close
+was of more importance to them than the treatise they had perused.
+
+Not less melancholy was the spectacle presented by the so‐called men of
+“Enlightenment” (_Aufklärung_). They belonged chiefly to the rationalistic
+school of Mendelssohn, but they equalled their master neither in knowledge
+nor in moral character. It was an enlightenment without foundation in real
+scholarship, and did not lead to an ideal life, though again I must add
+that there were exceptions. These men were rather what Germans would term
+_Schöngeister_, a set of dilettanti who cared to study as little as
+possible, and to write as much as possible. They wrote bad grammars,
+superficial commentaries on the Bible, and terribly dull poems. Of this
+literature, with the exception of Erter’s _Watchman_,(30) there is
+scarcely a work that one would care to read twice. Most of them despised
+Rabbinism, but without understanding its noblest forms as they are to be
+traced in the Talmud and later Hebrew literature. They did not dislike
+Judaism, but the only Judaism they affected was one “which does not oppose
+itself to anything in particular”; or, as Heine would have described it,
+“Eine reinliche Religion.” In one respect these little men were great: in
+mutual admiration, which reached such a pitch that such titles as “Great
+Luminary,” “World‐famed Sage,” were considered altogether too
+insignificant and commonplace.
+
+I will now pass to the writings of Krochmal. It must be premised that
+Krochmal was not a voluminous author. All his writings, including a few
+letters which were published in various Hebrew periodicals, would scarcely
+occupy four hundred pages. Krochmal used to call himself “der ewige
+Student” (the perpetual pupil). He did not read books, nor study
+philosophical systems, with the object of writing books of his own on
+them. He read and studied in order that he might become a better and a
+wiser man. Besides, he did not think himself competent to judge on grave
+subjects, nor did he consider his judgment, even if he formed one, worthy
+of publication. He counselled his friends to be equally slow in publishing
+their views to the world. “Be not,” he wrote to a correspondent,—“be not
+hasty in forming your opinions before you have studied the literature of
+the subject with care and devotion. This is no easy matter, for no man can
+obtain any real knowledge of the Torah and philosophy unless he is
+prepared to give himself up in single‐hearted devotion to his studies.”
+Severe though he was to his friends, he was still more severe to himself.
+Though he had been collecting materials on subjects of Jewish history and
+philosophy from his early youth, it was not until he had endured much
+persuasion and pressure from his friends that he began to write down his
+thoughts in a connected form. We thus possess only one work from the pen
+of this author; but that work is the _Guide of the Perplexed of the
+Time_,(31) a posthumous book published in 1851, eleven years after
+Krochmal’s death. His work had been much interrupted by illness during the
+last years of his life, and as a necessary consequence many parts of his
+treatise finally remained in an unfinished state. Krochmal commissioned
+his children to hand over his papers to Zunz, who was to arrange and edit
+them as best he might. Zunz, who in his reverence for Krochmal went so far
+as to call him the man of God, gladly accepted the task, in which he was
+aided by Steinschneider. Unfortunately, the work was published in Lemberg,
+a place famous for spoiling books. Even the skill of these two great
+masters did not suffice to save Krochmal’s work from the fate to which all
+the books printed in Lemberg seem inevitably doomed. Thus Krochmal’s work
+is printed on bad paper, and with faint ink; it is full of misprints and
+the text is sometimes confused with the notes. A second edition appeared
+in Lemberg in 1863; but, it is scarcely necessary to add, the reprint is
+even worse than the original issue.
+
+The work occupies some 350 pages, and is divided into seventeen chapters.
+The opening six treat of Religion in general. The author first indicates
+the opposite dangers to which men are liable. On the one hand, men are
+exposed to extravagant phantasy (_Schwärmerei_), superstition and
+ceremonialism (_Werkheiligkeit_). Some, on the other hand, in their
+endeavour to avoid this danger, fall into the opposite extreme,
+materialism, unbelief, and moral degeneracy as a consequence of their
+neglect of all law. He proceeds to say: Even in the ritual part of
+religion, such as the regulations of the Sabbath, the dietary laws and so
+forth, we find abstract definitions necessary, and differences of opinions
+prevalent. In the dogmatic aspects of religion, dealing as they do with
+the grave subjects of metaphysics, the mystery of life and death, the
+destiny of man, his relation to God, reward and punishment, the inner
+meaning of the laws,—in these spiritual matters, the difficulty of
+accurate definition must be far greater and the opportunities for
+difference of opinion more frequent and important. What guide are we to
+follow, seeing that every error involves the most dangerous consequences?
+Shall we abandon altogether the effort of thinking on these grave
+subjects? Such a course is impossible. Do not believe, says Krochmal, that
+there ever was a time when the religious man was entirely satisfied by
+deeds of righteousness, as some people maintain. On the contrary, every
+man, whether an independent thinker or a simple believer, always feels the
+weight of these questions upon him. Every man desires to have some ideal
+basis for his actions which must constitute his real life in its noblest
+moments. Krochmal here quotes a famous passage from the Midrash.(32) The
+Torah, according to one of our ancient sages, may be compared to two
+paths, the one burning with fire, the other covered with snow. If a man
+enters on the former path he will die by the heat; if he walks by the
+latter path he will be frozen by the snow. What, then, must he do? He must
+walk in the middle, or, as we should say, he must choose the golden mean.
+But, as Krochmal suggests, the middle way in historical and philosophical
+doubts does not consist, as some idle heads suppose, in a kind of
+compromise between two opposing views. If one of two contending parties
+declares that twice two make six, while his opponent asserts that twice
+two make eight, a sort of compromise might be arrived at by conceding that
+twice two make seven. But such a compromise would be as false as either
+extreme; and the seeker after the truth must revert to that mean which is
+the heart of all things, independently of all factions, placing himself
+above them.
+
+Having dealt with the arguments relating to the existence of God as
+elaborated in the philosophical systems of his time, Krochmal leads up to
+his treatment of the History of Israel by a chapter on the ideal gifts
+bestowed upon the various ancient nations, which, possessed by them
+through many centuries, were lost when their nationality ceased. We next
+come, in Chapter VII., to the ideal gifts of Israel. These are the
+religious gift and the faculty and desire for seeking the ideal of all
+ideals, namely, God. But Israel, whose mission it was to propagate this
+ideal, was, even as other nations, subject to natural laws; and its
+history presents progress and reaction, rise and decline. Krochmal devotes
+his next three chapters to showing how, in the history of Israel, as in
+other histories, may be detected a triple process. These three stages are
+the budding, the period of maturity, and the decay. As the history of
+Israel is more a history of religion than of politics and battles, its
+rise and decline correspond more or less with Israel’s attachment to God,
+and its falling away from Him. The decay would be associated with the
+adoption of either of the extremes, the dangerous effects of which have
+been already mentioned. But “through progress and backsliding, amid
+infectious contact with idolatry, amid survival of old growths of
+superstition, of the crude practices of the past; amid the solicitation of
+new aspects of life; in material prosperity and in material ruin,” Israel
+was never wholly detached from God. In the worst times it had its judges
+or its prophets, its heroes or its sages, its Rabbis or its philosophers,
+who strove to bring Israel back to its mission, and who succeeded in their
+efforts to do so. Even in its decay traces of the Divine spirit made
+themselves felt, and revived the nation, which entered again on a triple
+course and repeated its three phases. The first of these three‐fold epochs
+began, according to Krochmal’s eighth chapter, with the times of the
+Patriarchs, and ended with the death of Gedaliah after the destruction of
+the first Temple. Next, in the following two chapters, Krochmal finds the
+second triple movement in the interval between the prophets of the exile
+in Babylon and the death of Bar‐Cochba about 135 A.C. The author also
+hints at the existence of a third such epoch beginning with R. Judah the
+Patriarch, the compiler of the Mishnah (220 A.C.),(33) and ending with the
+expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492). This idea is not further
+developed by Krochmal; but it would be interesting to ask, by the way, in
+which phase of the three‐fold process—rise, maturity, or decay—are we at
+the present time?
+
+The next five chapters may be regarded as an excursus on the preceding
+two. Krochmal discusses the Biblical books which belong to the period of
+the Exile and of the Second Temple, such as the Second Isaiah, certain
+Exilic and Maccabean psalms, Ecclesiastes, certain Apocryphal books, and
+the work of the Men of the Great Synagogue. They contain, again,
+researches on the various sects, such as the Assideans, Sadducees,
+Pharisees, Essenes, the Gnostics, the Cabbalists and their relation to the
+latter, and the Minim,(34) who are mentioned in the Talmud. In another
+part of this excursus Krochmal describes the systems of the Alexandrian
+Jewish philosophers, such as Philo and Aristobulus, and discusses their
+relation to certain theosophic ideas in various Midrash‐collections. The
+author also attempts to prove the necessity of Tradition; he shows its
+first traces in the Bible, and explains the term Sopherim (scribes); and
+he points out the meaning of the phrase “A law unto Moses from Mount
+Sinai,”(35) and similar expressions. He gives a summary of the development
+of the Halachah in its different stages, the criteria by which the older
+Halachahs may be discriminated; he seeks to arrive at the origin of the
+Mishnah, and deals with various cognate topics. In another discourse
+Krochmal endeavours to explain the term Agadah,(36) its origin and
+development; the different kinds of Agadah and their relative value.
+Chapter XVI. contains the Prolegomena to a philosophy of the Jewish
+religion in accordance with the principles laid down by Hegel. In the
+seventeenth and last chapter the author gives a general introduction to
+the Philosophy of Ibn Ezra, and quotes illustrative extracts.
+
+The space of an essay does not permit me to give further details of
+Krochmal’s book. I am conscious that the preceding outline is deficient in
+quality as well as in quantity. Yet, even from this meagre abstract, the
+reader will gather that Krochmal reviews many of the great problems which
+concern religion in general and Judaism in particular. Zunz somewhere
+remarks that Krochmal was inspired in his work by the study of Hegel, just
+as Maimonides had been by the study of Aristotle. I give this statement
+solely on the authority of Zunz, as I myself have never made a study of
+the works of the German philosopher, and am therefore unable to express an
+opinion on the question.
+
+Now there is no doubt that Krochmal’s book is not without defects. The
+materials are not always well arranged, there is at times a want of
+proportion in the length at which the various points are treated, and the
+author occasionally seems to wander from the subject in hand. But we shall
+be better able to account for these and similar technical faults, as well
+as to appreciate the real value of the author’s work, if we consider the
+following fact. Nachman Krochmal’s object was to elaborate a philosophy of
+Jewish history, to trace the leading ideas that ran through it, and the
+ultimate causes that led to its various phases. But, unfortunately, at the
+time when Krochmal began to write, there did not exist a Jewish history at
+all. The labours of Zunz were conducted in an altogether different field.
+Not to mention the names of the younger scholars then unborn, Graetz, the
+author of the _History of the Jews_, and Weiss, who wrote a history of the
+Tradition, were still studying at college. Frankel’s masterly essays on
+the Essenes and the Septuagint, his well‐known work, _Introduction to the
+__ Mishnah_, and the results of Geiger’s most interesting and suggestive
+researches on the older and later Halachah, and on the Pharisees and
+Sadducees, had yet to be written. Rapoport’s great treatise, _Erech
+Millin_,(37) had not been published at that time, and Steinschneider was
+not yet working at his historical sketch of Jewish literature. It was not
+till six years after Krochmal’s death (viz. in 1846) that Landauer’s
+memorable studies on the Jewish mystics were given to the world. Even the
+bad books of Julius Fürst, such as his _History of the Canon_, and his
+still worse _History of Jewish Literature in Babylon_, were then
+unwritten. Neither the most charlatanic _History of the Opinions and
+Teachings of All the Jewish Sects_, by Peter Beer, the universal provider,
+nor Jost’s most honest but narrow‐minded and superficial _History of the
+Jews_, was of much use to Krochmal. Jost’s more scholarly works were not
+published till long afterwards. Krochmal was thus without the guidance of
+those authorities to which we are now accustomed to turn for information.
+Excepting the aid that he derived from the writings of Azariah de
+Rossi,(38) Krochmal was therefore compelled to prosecute all the necessary
+research for himself; he had to establish the facts of Jewish history as
+well as to philosophise upon them. Hence, in the very midst of his
+philosophical analysis, the author was bound to introduce digressions on
+historical subjects, in order to justify as well as to form the basis of
+that analysis. He had to survey the ground and to collect the materials,
+besides constructing the plan of the edifice and working at its erection.
+Nevertheless, it is precisely for these historical excursuses that
+Krochmal has deserved the gratitude of posterity. He it was who taught
+Jewish scholars how to submit the ancient Rabbinic records to the test of
+criticism and the way in which they might be utilised for the purpose of
+historical studies; he it was who enabled them to trace the genesis of the
+tradition, and to watch the inner germination of that vast organism. He
+even indicated to them how they might continue to connect their own lives
+with it, how they might derive nourishment from it, and in their turn
+further its growth. I may assert with the utmost confidence that there is
+scarcely a single page in Krochmal’s book that did not afterwards give
+birth to some essay or monograph or even elaborate treatise, though their
+authors were not always very careful about mentioning the source of their
+inspiration. Thus Krochmal justly deserves the honourable title assigned
+to him by one of our greatest historians, who terms him the Father of
+Jewish Science.
+
+So far, I have been speaking of the importance of Krochmal’s treatise and
+of its significance in the region of Jewish Science. It is necessary, I
+think, to add a few words with regard to the general tendency of his whole
+work. I have already alluded to the characteristic modesty of Krochmal; I
+have pointed out how little he cared for publicity, how dearly he loved
+retirement. The question accordingly presents itself—What can have been
+the real and sufficient causes that prevailed upon him to yield to the
+solicitations of his friends and to write upon what the Talmud would term
+“matters standing on the heights of the world”?
+
+The answer to this question may, I think, be found in the title of
+Krochmal’s book, the _Guide of the Perplexed of the Time_. It is indeed a
+rather unusual coincidence for the title of a Hebrew book to have any
+connection with its subject matter. The same merit is possessed by the
+_Guide of the Perplexed_ of Maimonides, the title of which undoubtedly
+suggested that of Krochmal’s treatise. There is, however, one little
+addition in Krochmal’s title that contains a most important lesson for us.
+I mean the words “of the Time.” By these words Krochmal reminds us that,
+great as are the merits of the immortal work of Maimonides—and it would be
+difficult to exaggerate its value and importance—still it will no longer
+suffice for us. For, as Krochmal himself remarks, every time has its own
+perplexities, and therefore needs its own guide. In order to show that
+these words are no idle phrase, I shall endeavour to illustrate them by
+one example at least. In the _Guide of the Perplexed_ of Maimonides, Part
+II., Chapter XXVI., occurs a passage which runs thus: “In the famous
+chapters known as the ‘Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great,’(39) I find R.
+Eliezer the Great saying something more extraordinary than I have ever
+seen in the utterances of any believer in the Law of Moses. I refer to the
+following passage: ‘Whence were the heavens created? He (God) took part of
+the light of His garment, He stretched it like a cloth, and thus the
+heavens were extending continually, as it is said (Ps. civ. 2): He
+covereth Himself with light as with a garment, He stretcheth the heavens
+like a curtain. Whence was the earth created? He took of the snow under
+the throne of glory, and threw it; according to the words (in Job xxxvii.
+6), He said to the snow be thou earth.’ These are the words given there
+(in the ‘Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great’), and I, in my surprise, ask,
+What was the belief of this sage? Did he think it impossible that
+something be produced from nothing?... If the terms ‘the light of His
+garment’ and the ‘snow of glory’ mean something eternal (as matter) they
+_must_ be rejected.... In short, it is a passage that greatly confuses the
+notions of all intelligent and religious persons. I am unable to explain
+it sufficiently.”
+
+So far Maimonides; and we are quite able to conceive his perplexity in
+dealing with this passage. On one side, Maimonides himself believed that
+Judaism is a dogmatic religion, and that one of its dogmas is the
+principle of _Creatio ex nihilo_. On the other side, he found R.
+Eliezer—one of the greatest authorities of the early part of the second
+century—apparently denying this dogma. The perplexity was indeed a serious
+one for Maimonides, but we find no difficulty whatever in extricating
+ourselves from it. In the first place, there are many who cling to the
+theory which holds that there are no dogmas in Judaism at all, and to them
+Maimonides’ difficulty would have no relevance. Secondly, those who
+believe that there are dogmas in Judaism may regard such expressions as
+those quoted above from the “Chapters of R. Eliezer” in the light of mere
+poetical metaphors, or may call them fairy tales or legends, or include
+them in some other section of literature, known under the name of
+folklore, which is an excuse for every absurdity, the fortunate authors of
+which are responsible neither to philosophy nor to religion, and sometimes
+not even to common sense. But there is a third consideration that affords
+the best solution of the difficulty. The “Chapters of R. Eliezer,” despite
+their pompous title, are not the work of R. Eliezer at all. Criticism has
+taught us to attach no importance to the heading of a chapter or the
+title‐page of a book. We are now in a position to judge from the tone,
+style, and contents of the work, that the “Chapters of R. Eliezer” is a
+later compilation of the eighth century, and that its author could not
+have been R. Eliezer, the teacher of R. Akiba, in the second century. In
+this way, these particular difficulties of Maimonides solve themselves for
+us in a sufficiently easy way. But it is just these solutions that open up
+new difficulties and perplexities which did not exist for the generation
+of the great Spanish philosopher. Suppose that we accept the view that
+Judaism is not a dogmatic religion. But how are we to conceive a religion
+without dogmas, or, if you prefer the expression, without principles or
+bases of belief? Or is Judaism, as some platitudinarians think, a mere
+national institute with some useful dietary and sanitary laws, but with
+nothing that makes for the sanctification of man, with no guidance to
+offer us in the great problems of our life, and in the greatest anxieties
+of the human soul? On the other hand, granted that we may consider certain
+things as mere legend, how are we to discriminate between these and the
+things that must be taken seriously? Does it depend on the nature of the
+subject, or on the position of the book in the canon of Hebrew literature?
+In the thirteenth century symbolical meanings were given to certain
+difficult passages in the Talmud; but the process was carried further, and
+the Biblical narratives were subjected by philosophers to a like
+treatment. R. Solomon ben Adereth and his colleagues (in the thirteenth
+century) settled the question by indiscriminately excommunicating all
+young men who should study philosophy; but this method is scarcely one to
+be commended for present use.
+
+The third, or the philological solution of difficulties, leads to fresh
+troubles. A hundred years ago men were in that happy state of mind in
+which they knew everything. They knew the exact author and date of every
+Psalm; they knew the author of each and every ancient Midrash; they knew
+the originator of every law and ordinance; they even knew the writer of
+the Zohar, and of other mystical books. There were certainly a few who did
+not know all these things, among them Ibn Ezra, Azariah de Rossi, and the
+two Delmedigos.(40) But they were merely a miserable historical blunder,
+men who had no right to be born when they were. But the philological
+method has swept away all this knowingness as by a deluge from heaven, and
+men find that they know nothing. True, there linger on a few who still
+know all these things, but it is they who are now the anachronism. These,
+and such as these, are the perplexities of our time, to the resolution of
+which the labours of Krochmal and of a noble band of scholars have been
+directed in this century.
+
+Have these perplexities, we must ask, and these puzzles been solved by
+Krochmal and his coadjutors? We may with all certainty answer: They have
+only pointed out the way, it is for ourselves to proceed by it. It would
+be unreasonable to expect that difficulties which have been accumulating
+during the course of thousands of years should be solved by the men of one
+or two generations. Again, we live in a century in which excavations and
+discoveries in other fields have added at once to our knowledge and to our
+uncertainty. Each country, we might almost say, over and above the
+perplexities that trouble mankind in general, has its own special
+difficulties which are entirely unknown to those who dwell outside its
+frontiers. I am not disposed to discuss these difficulties in this place.
+Nor have I the ability to do so. But of two things I am perfectly certain:
+the first is, that for a solution of these difficulties which, in the
+language of Maimonides, “confuse the notions of all intelligent and
+religious persons,” the only hope is in true knowledge and not in
+ignorance; and secondly, this knowledge can only be obtained by a
+combination of the utmost reverence for religion and the deepest devotion
+to truth. The poor old Rabbis who have been so foully decried by their
+calumniators as hedonists, and so foolishly praised by sorry apologists as
+materialistic optimists, strongly insisted that when a man woos the truth,
+his suit can only prosper if he is influenced by the purest and most
+single‐hearted affection. “A man,” says the Siphré, “must not say: ‘I will
+study the Torah in order that I may attain the title of Rabbi or savant,
+or that I may become rich by it, or that I may be rewarded for it in the
+world to come.’ He must study for love’s sake.” Such a knowledge, which is
+free from all taint of worldliness and of other‐worldliness, a knowledge
+sought simply and solely for pure love of God, who is Truth,—such a
+knowledge is in the highest sense a saving knowledge, and Nachman Krochmal
+was in possession of it.
+
+
+
+
+
+III. RABBI ELIJAH WILNA, GAON
+
+
+The three great stars of German literature are usually characterised by
+German scholars in the following way: Goethe they say represents the
+beautiful, Schiller the ideal, while Lessing represents truth. I think
+that we may apply the same characteristics to the three great luminaries,
+with which the Jewish middle ages ceased—for as Zunz somewhere remarked,
+the Jewish middle ages lasted till the beginning of the eighteenth
+century—and the modern age of Judaism opened. I am thinking of Mendelssohn
+in Germany, Israel Baalshem, the founder of the sect of the Chassidim in
+Podolia, and Elijah Wilna, or as he is more frequently called, the
+Gaon,(41) the Great One, in Lithuania.
+
+As to Mendelssohn, enough, and perhaps more than enough, has already been
+written and spoken about his merits in awakening the sense for the
+beautiful and the harmonious which was almost entirely dormant among the
+Jews of his age. In regard to the second, namely, Israel Baalshem, I have
+only to refer the reader to the first essay in this volume. The subject of
+the present essay will be R. Elijah Wilna, who, among the Jews, as Lessing
+among the Germans, represented truth, both by his life and by his literary
+activity.
+
+I say that the Gaon represented truth, but these words must be taken _cum
+grano salis_. For I do not mean at all to say that he was in possession of
+the whole truth, still less in _exclusive_ possession of it. It is true as
+we shall learn in the course of this essay, that the Gaon was a genius of
+the first order. But there are matters of truth, the obtaining of which
+cannot be accomplished by genius alone. R. Elijah Wilna did not know any
+other language than Hebrew. Truths, therefore, which are only to be
+reached through the medium of other languages, remained a secret to him.
+Again, records of ancient times which are buried in the shelves of remote
+libraries or under the ruins of past civilisations are not always a matter
+of intuition. Even the most gifted of men have to wait patiently till
+these are brought to light by the aid of spade and shovel, or the pen of
+some obscure copyist. But R. Elijah lived at a time when excavation had as
+yet done very little for Semitic studies, and when a Jew scarcely got
+admittance into the great libraries of Europe. Thus much truth which we
+get now in a very easy way was beyond this seer’s eye.
+
+But even if all the libraries on earth had been at his disposal, even if
+he had read all the cuneiform writings which ornament the British Museum,
+and had deciphered all the Hieroglyphics which the Louvre possesses, even
+in that case we should not be justified in terming him a representative of
+the truth, without qualifying our words.
+
+“Truth,” said the old Rabbis, “is the Seal of the Holy One, praised be
+He.” But Heaven has no Lord Chancellor. Neither men nor angels are trusted
+with the great Seal. They are only allowed to catch a glimpse of it, or
+rather to long after this glimpse. However, even the longing and effort
+for this glimpse will bring man into communion with God, and make his life
+divine. And the life of the Gaon was, as we shall see, one long effort and
+unceasing longing after the truth.
+
+Again, if I say that the Gaon represented truth, you must not think that
+he lacked the two other qualities. A life entirely devoted to such a great
+cause as that of seeking the truth is, _ipso facto_, ideal and harmonious.
+It is only in his influence on Judaism—more particularly on the Jews in
+the North of Europe—that this feature in his life becomes more prominent
+than his other admirable qualities.
+
+In what this truth consisted, how the Gaon arrived at it, and by what
+means he conveyed it to others, we shall see in the course of this essay.
+
+R. Elijah was born at Wilna in the year 1720. His father, Solomon Wilna,
+is called by his biographers the great Rabbi Solomon, and is said to have
+been the descendant of R. Moses Rivkas, the author of a learned work,
+containing notes to the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro.(42)
+
+Having quoted the biographers, I must point out that there are only two
+biographies of the Gaon: the one by Finn, in his book _Faithful City_,(43)
+on the celebrities of Wilna, the other by Nachman of Horodna, in his book
+_Ascension of Elijah_.(44) The former is a very honest account of the
+Gaon’s life, but a little too short. The latter is too long, or rather too
+much intermixed with that sort of absurd legend, the authors of which are
+incapable of marking the line which separates the monster from the hero.
+
+Even in the region of imagination we must not for a moment forget the good
+advice given to us by one of our greatest scholars who had to deal with a
+kindred subject: “He,” says this scholar, “who banishes the thought of
+higher and lower from his study, degrades it into a mere means of
+gratifying his curiosity, and disqualifies it for the lofty task which it
+is called upon to perform for modern society.” We shall thus cling to the
+higher and stop at the hero.
+
+Our hero was the first‐born of five brothers. They were all famous men in
+their little world. According to the tradition in Wilna, Elijah was a
+lovely child, with beautiful eyes, and goodly to look at, or as it is
+expressed in another place, “as beautiful as an angel!” The tradition, or
+rather the legend, relates that as a child of six years he was already the
+pupil of R. Moses Margalith, the famous author of a commentary on the
+Talmud of Jerusalem. At the age of seven years he is said to have already
+perplexed the Chief Rabbi of his native town by his controversial skill in
+Talmudical subjects. At the early age of nine he was acquainted with the
+contents of the Bible, the Mishnah, the Talmud and its ancient
+commentaries; and even the Cabbalistic works of R. Isaac Loria were no
+secret to the youthful scholar.(45) At the age of twelve years he is said
+to have acquired the seven liberal arts, and to have puzzled the scholars
+of Wilna by his astronomical knowledge. At thirteen, when according to
+Jewish law he attained his majority, he was already the accomplished or
+“the great one” (Gaon); so far tradition. I am afraid that tradition is
+here, against all experience, too exact in its dates. But we may learn
+from it that the child Elijah showed many signs of the future Gaon, and
+was therefore considered as the prodigy of his age. Again it is likewise
+pretty certain that no man could boast of having been the master of
+Elijah. He was not the product of any school, nor was he biassed by the
+many prejudices of his time. He was allowed to walk his own way in his
+struggle after truth.
+
+It is rather an unfortunate thing that history is so much made up of
+parallels and contrasts that the historian or even the biographer cannot
+possibly point out the greatness of some men without touching, however
+slightly, on the smallness of others. It is only natural that every strong
+shining object should push the minor lights of its surroundings into the
+background and darken them. Thus, when we are speaking of the superiority
+of the Gaon, we cannot escape hinting at least at the shortcomings of his
+contemporaries, as well as of his predecessors.
+
+To indicate briefly in what this superiority consisted, I will premise
+here a few words from a _Responsum_ by one of his great predecessors, the
+Gaon Rabbi Hai.(46) Consulted by a student as to the meaning of certain
+mystical passages in the tractate _Chagigah_,(47) Rabbi Hai, in warning
+his correspondent not to expect from him a long philosophical
+dissertation, writes as follows: “Know that it never was our business to
+palliate matters and explain them in a way of which the author never could
+have thought. This is fashionable with other people, but our method is to
+explain the words of this or that authority in accordance with his own
+meaning. We do not pledge ourselves that this meaning is ‘right rule’ in
+itself, for there _do_ exist statements made by the old authorities that
+cannot be accepted as norm.” Thus far the words of the Gaon of the tenth
+century, which speak volumes. The Gaon of the eighteenth century followed
+the same course. All his efforts were directed to this point; namely, to
+find out the true meaning of the Mishnah, the true meaning of the
+Gemara,(48) the true meaning of the Gaonim, the true meaning of the great
+codifiers, and the true meaning of the commentators on the ancient
+Rabbinical literature. Whether this meaning would be acceptable to us
+mattered very little to him. His only object was to understand the words
+of his predecessors, and this he obtained, as we shall soon see, by the
+best critical means. This was the method of the Gaon; that of other
+scholars (at least of the great majority) was dictated by entirely
+different considerations. They would not suffer the idea that the great
+man could be wrong at times. To them, all that he said was “right rule.”
+Now suppose a great author like Maimonides had overlooked an important
+passage in the Talmud or any other statement by a great authority, the
+alternative remaining to them was either to explain away the passage of
+the Talmud or to give the words of Maimonides a strange meaning. This led
+originally to the famous method of the _Pilpul_ (casuistry), a kind of
+spiritual gymnastic, which R. Liva of Prague in the sixteenth century, and
+many others condemned as most pernicious to Judaism and leading to the
+decay of the study of the Torah.
+
+Now it is beyond doubt that the method of the two Gaonim is the only right
+one. But, in justice to the casuistic school, which includes many a great
+name, it is only right to remember that this impartiality towards
+acknowledged authorities as maintained by our hero is not at all such an
+easy matter as we imagine. We quote often with great satisfaction the
+famous saying, _Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates, sed magis amica veritas_,
+“Plato is our friend, so is Socrates, but Truth is, or rather ought to be,
+our greatest friend.” This sounds very nicely, but let us only realise
+what difficulties it involves. To be a friend of Socrates or Plato means
+to know them, or in other words to have a thorough knowledge of the
+writings of the one and the recorded utterances of the other. But such a
+knowledge can with most men only be obtained by devoting one’s _whole_
+life to the study of their works, so that there is not left much time for
+new friendships. And the few who are able to save a few years after long
+wanderings with these Greek philosophers, seldom see the necessity of new
+friendships. For what else did those long courtships of Plato or Aristotle
+mean except that those who conducted them thought that thereby they would
+wed Truth?
+
+This impartiality is the more difficult when these friends are invested
+with a kind of religious authority where humility and submission are most
+important factors. The history of Lanfranc, the predecessor of Anselm of
+Canterbury, gives a striking example of what this submission meant in the
+Middle Ages. One day, we are told, when he was still an ordinary monk, he
+was reading at the table and pronounced a word as it ought to be
+pronounced, but not as seemed right to the person presiding, who bade him
+say it differently; “as if he had said _docēre_, with the middle syllable
+long, as is right, and the other had corrected it into _docĕre_, with the
+middle short, which is wrong; for that Prior was not a scholar. But the
+wise man, knowing that he owed obedience rather to Christ than to Donatus,
+the grammarian, gave up his pronunciation, and said what he was wrongly
+told to say; for to make a short syllable long, or a long one short, he
+knew to be no deadly sin, but not to obey one set over him in God’s behalf
+was no light transgression.”(49)
+
+But this admiration—and here we turn again to the Gaon—must not prevent us
+from believing that Providence is not confined to such ungrammatical
+Priors, and that the men who are really working on behalf of God are those
+who teach us to pronounce rightly, and to think rightly, and to take
+matters as they are, not as we desire them to be on account of our
+friends.
+
+As for the critical means to which I have alluded, the Gaon himself said
+somewhere that simplicity is the best criterion of truth, and this is the
+most characteristic feature of all his literary career. The Gaon studied
+Hebrew grammar in order to obtain a clear notion of the language in which
+the Scriptures are written. He tried to attain to the knowledge of the
+Bible by reading the Bible itself; and was not satisfied to become
+acquainted with its contents from the numerous quotations which are made
+from it in Rabbinical literature. Again, he studied mathematics,
+astronomy, and philosophy, as far as they could be found in Hebrew books.
+Certainly the Gaon did not study these subjects for their own sake, and
+they were considered by him only as a means to the end, or as the phrase
+goes, as the “hand‐maidens” of Theology, the queen of all sciences. But it
+may be looked upon as a mark of great progress in an age when Queen
+Theology had become rather sulky, continually finding fault with her hand‐
+maidens, and stigmatising every attention paid to them as conducive to
+disloyalty. To these accusations the Gaon answered that Queen Theology
+does not study her own interests. Knowledge of all arts and sciences, the
+Gaon maintained, is necessary for the real understanding of the Torah
+which embraces the whole of them. From his own writings it is evident that
+he himself was familiar with Euclid, and his _Ayil Meshulash_ contains
+several original developments of Euclid. It was at his suggestion that a
+certain Baruch of Sclow translated Euclid into the Hebrew language.
+
+Another way which led the Gaon to the discovery of many truths was his
+study of the pre‐Talmudic literature, and of the Jerusalem Talmud. By some
+accident or other it came to pass that only the Babylonian Talmud was
+recognised as a guide _in the practices of religious life_. As the great
+teachers and their pupils cared more for satisfying the religious wants of
+their flocks than for theoretic researches, the consequence was that a
+most important part of the ancient Rabbinic literature was almost entirely
+neglected by them for many centuries. And it was certainly no
+exaggeration, when R. Elijah said that even the Gaonim and Maimonides,
+occupied as they were with the practical part of the law, did not pay
+sufficient attention to the Talmud of Jerusalem and the Tosephta.(50) The
+Gaon was no official head of any Jewish community, and was but little
+troubled by decisions of questions which concern daily life. He was thus
+in a position to leave for a little while the Babylonian Talmud and to
+become acquainted with the guides of the guide. I refer to Siphra, Siphré,
+Mechilta, Tosephta, the Seder Olam,(51) the Minor Tractates,(52) and above
+all the Talmud of Jerusalem, which, regarded from an historical and
+critical point of view, is even of more importance than its Babylonian
+twin‐brother. But by this means there came a new light upon the whole of
+ancient Rabbinic literature. The words of the Torah, the Midrash says, are
+poor in one place, but we shall find them rich in another place. The Gaon
+by his acquaintance with the _whole_ of the Torah had no difficulty
+whatever in discovering the rich places. If there was a difficult passage
+in this or that Tractate, he showed, by giving a reference to some other
+place, that it was wanting in some words or lines. Obscure passages in the
+Mishnah he tried to elucidate by parallel passages in the Tosephta. The
+too complicated controversies of the Babylonian Talmud he tried to explain
+by comparing them with the more ancient and more simple Talmud of
+Jerusalem.
+
+There is little to be told of the Gaon’s private affairs. Even the date of
+his marriage with a certain Miss Anna of Kaidon is not mentioned by his
+biographers. But it may be taken for granted that, in accordance with the
+custom in Poland, he married at a very early age, say about eighteen
+years. It was also when a young man that he travelled for some years
+through Poland and Germany. It is rather difficult to say what his object
+may have been in making these travels—for the Gaon was not the man to
+travel for pleasure’s sake. Perhaps it was to become acquainted with the
+great Rabbis of these countries. It is also possible, as others maintain,
+that the Gaon considered the many privations which a traveller had to
+endure a hundred and fifty years ago, as an atonement for his imaginary
+sins. Indeed we find in many ascetic books that travelling, or as they
+term it “receiving upon oneself to be banished into the exile,”(53) is
+recommended as a very successful substitute for penance. At least it seems
+that the coachmen whom the Gaon employed on his journeys looked at it from
+this point of view. One of them went so far in adding to the privations of
+the Gaon as to run away with his carriage when the Rabbi alighted from it
+in order to read his prayers. But the reading of the Eighteen
+Benedictions(54) must not be interrupted excepting in the case of danger;
+and the Gaon did not consider it very dangerous to be left without money
+and without luggage.
+
+These travels ended in the year 1745. The Gaon left Wilna again at a later
+date with the purpose of going to Palestine and settling there. But he
+found so many obstacles on his way that he was soon compelled to give up
+his favourite plan and to return to his native town. It is not known
+whether he left Wilna again.
+
+The position which the Gaon occupied in Wilna was, as already hinted, that
+of a private man. He could never be prevailed upon to accept the post of
+Rabbi or any other office in a Jewish community. I am unable to give the
+reason for his declining all the offers made to him in this direction. But
+it may be suggested here that it was in the time of the Gaon that there
+arose a bitter struggle between the Rabbi and the Jewish wardens of his
+native town, which ended in the abolition of the office of Rabbi. The
+history of the struggle is the more irritating, as it arose from the
+pettiest reasons imaginable. People actually discovered that there was no
+light in the house of the Rabbi after the middle of the night, which fact
+might lead to the conclusion that he did not study later than 12 o’clock
+P.M. What an idle man! And this idleness was the less pardonable in the
+eyes of the community, as the Rabbi’s wife was so unfortunate as not to
+have been polite enough to some Mrs. Warden. Under such circumstances we
+must not wonder if the Gaon did not find it very desirable to meddle with
+congregational affairs in an official capacity. The relation of the Gaon
+to his contemporaries resembles rather the position in the olden times of
+a Tanna or Amora,(55) who neither enjoyed the title of Nasin or that of Ab
+Beth Din.(56) Like R. Akiba, or Mar Samuel, the Gaon became influential
+among his contemporaries only by his teaching and his exemplary life.
+
+It must be said in praise of the Jews of Wilna that, notwithstanding their
+petty behaviour towards their ecclesiastical chief, they willingly
+submitted to the authority of the Gaon (who was devoid of all official
+authority). They revered him as a saint. To converse with the Gaon was
+considered as a happy event in the life of a Jew in Wilna, to be of any
+use to him as the greatest distinction a man could attain on earth. But
+what is remarkable is the readiness with which even scholars acknowledged
+the authority of the Gaon. Scholars are usually more slow in recognising
+greatness than simple mortals. Every new luminary does not only outshine
+their minor lights and thus hurt their personal vanity, but it threatens
+also sometimes to obscure certain traditions which they wish to keep
+prominently in view. But the literary genius of the Gaon was too great to
+be opposed with success, and his piety and devotion to religion far above
+suspicion. Thus the Gaon was very soon recognised by his contemporaries as
+their master and guide; not only in literary questions, but also in
+matters of belief and conduct.
+
+It would lead me too far to name here all the Gaon’s disciples. It seems
+as if all the great scholars in his country considered themselves to be
+more or less his pupils. The Gaon used to give in the Beth Hammidrash,
+which he founded, public lectures on various subjects, and the students
+who attended these lectures also claimed the honour of being called his
+pupils. I shall mention here only his greatest disciple, R. Chayim
+Walosin, who, after the Gaon, influenced his countrymen more than any
+other scholar of that time. This R. Chayim also did not occupy any
+official post among his brethren. He was a cloth manufacturer by
+profession, and was very prosperous in his business. But it did not
+prevent him from being devoted to Hebrew literature, and he enjoyed a
+wide‐spread fame as a great scholar. But as soon as the fame of the Gaon
+reached him, he left cloth manufactory and scholarship behind, and went to
+Wilna to “learn Torah” from the mouth of the great master. It must be
+noticed that even the giving up of his claim to scholarship was no little
+sacrifice. All our learning, said some scholar in Wilna, disappeared as
+soon as we crossed the threshold of the Gaon’s house. He made every
+disciple who came into close contact with him begin at the beginning. He
+taught them Hebrew grammar, Bible, Mishnah, and many other subjects, which
+were, as already mentioned, very often neglected by the Talmudists of that
+time. R. Chayim had also to go through all this course. Some would have
+considered such treatment a degradation. R. Chayim, however, became the
+more attached to his master for it.
+
+In such a way the life of the Gaon was spent, studying by himself or
+teaching his pupils. It must be understood that to learn Torah meant for
+the Gaon more than mere brain work for the purpose of gaining knowledge.
+To him it was a kind of service to God. Contemporaries who watched him
+when he was studying the Torah observed that the effect wrought on the
+personality of the Gaon was the same as when he was praying. With every
+word his countenance flushed with joy; with every line he was gaining
+strength for proceeding further. Only by looking at matters from this
+point of view shall we be able to understand the devotion and the love of
+the Gaon for study.
+
+There has been, no doubt, among the Russian Jews a strong tendency to
+exaggerate the intellectual qualities of the Gaon. But one can readily
+excuse such a tendency. He was gifted by nature with such a wonderful
+memory that, having read a book once, he was able to recite it by heart
+for the rest of his life. Not less admirable was his sure grasp. The most
+complicated controversies in the Talmud, into which other scholars would
+require whole days and weeks to find their way, the Gaon was able to read
+by a glance at the pages. Already as a boy he is said to have gone through
+in a single night the tractates _Zebachim_ and _Menachoth_,(57) containing
+not less than two hundred and thirty pages, the contents of which are
+sometimes so difficult as to make even an aged scholar despair of
+understanding them. Again, he possessed so much common‐sense that all the
+intellectual tricks of the casuistic schools did not exist for him. And
+nevertheless his biographers tell us that he was so much occupied by his
+studies, that he could not spare more than one hour and a half for sleep
+out of twenty‐four hours. This is, no doubt, an exaggeration. But let us
+say five hours a day. He had not time to take his meals regularly. He used
+also, according to tradition, to repeat every chapter in the Bible, every
+passage in the Talmud, hundreds of times, even if they presented no
+difficulty at all. But it was, as already said, a matter of love for the
+Gaon; of love, not of passing affection.
+
+Nothing on earth could be more despicable to the Gaon than amateurs who
+dabble with ancient literature. To understand a thing clearly made him
+happy. He is said to have spent more than six months on a single Mishnah
+in the tractate _Kilayim_,(58) and felt himself the happiest man when he
+succeeded in grasping its real meaning. Not to be able to go into the
+depth of a subject, to miss the truth embedded in a single passage, caused
+him the most bitter grief. A story told by his pupil, R. Chayim, may
+illustrate this fact. One Friday, narrates R. Chayim, the servant of the
+Gaon came to him with the message that his master wanted to see him as
+soon as possible. R. Chayim went instantly. When he came into the house,
+he found the Gaon lying in bed with a bandage on his head and looking very
+ill. The wife of the Gaon also reported to him that it was more than three
+days since her husband had taken any food, and that he had hardly enjoyed
+any sleep all this time. All this misery was caused by reason of not
+having been able to understand some difficult passages in the Talmud of
+Jerusalem. The Gaon now asked his disciples to resume with him their
+researches. Heaven, he said, might have mercy upon them and open their
+eyes, for it is written, “Two are better than one”: and lo! Heaven did
+have mercy on them; they succeeded in getting the true meaning of the
+passage. The Gaon recovered instantly, and master and disciple had a very
+joyful Sabbath.
+
+He is also reported to have said on one occasion, he would not like to
+have an angel for his teacher who would reveal to him all the mysteries of
+the Torah. Such a condition is only befitting the world to come, but in
+_this_ world only things which are acquired by hard labour and great
+struggle are of any value. The German representative of truth expressed
+the same thought in other words, which are well worth repeating here: “Did
+the Almighty,” says Lessing, “holding in His right hand Truth and in His
+left Search after Truth, deign to tender me the one I might prefer, in all
+humility and without hesitation I should select Search after Truth.”
+
+This absorption of all his being in the study of the Torah may also, I
+think, account for the fact that his biographers have so little to say
+about the family of the Gaon. Of his wife, we know only that she died in
+the year 1783. Not much fuller is our knowledge about his children. The
+biographers speak of them as of the family “which the Lord has blessed,”
+referring to his two sons, Rabbi Aryeh Leb and Rabbi Abraham, who were
+known as great scholars and very pious men. The latter one is best known
+by his edition of a collection of smaller Midrashim. Mention is also made
+of the Gaon’s sons‐in‐law, especially one Rabbi Moses of Pinsk. But this
+is all, and we are told nothing either about their lives or their
+callings. From his famous letter which he sent to his family when on his
+way to Palestine, we see that he was rather what one may call a severe
+father. He bids his wife punish his children most severely for swearing,
+scolding, and speaking untruth. He also advises her to live as retired a
+life as possible. Retirement he considers as a condition _sine qua non_
+for a religious life. He even advises his daughter to read her prayers at
+home, for in the synagogue she may get envious of the finer dresses of her
+friends, which is a most terrible sin. The only tender feature in this
+letter is perhaps where he implores his wife to be kind to his mother on
+account of her being a widow, and it were a great sin to cause her the
+least annoyance. From other passages we may gather that his family had at
+times to suffer hunger and cold by the excessive occupation of their
+father with the study of the Torah and other religious works. In short,
+the Gaon was a one‐sided, severe ascetic, and would never have deserved
+the title of a good father, a good husband, an amiable man or any other
+appellation derived from those ordinary “household decencies” which, as
+Macaulay informs us, half of the tombstones claim for those who lie behind
+them. But I am very much afraid that many a great man who has made his
+mark in history could never claim these household virtues as his own. I do
+not want to enter here into the question whether Judaism be an ascetic
+religion or not. But even those who think Judaism identical with what is
+called “making the best of this life,” will not dispute the fact that
+Jewish literature contains within it enough ascetic elements to justify
+the conduct of our greatest men whose lives were one long‐continued self‐
+denial and privation. “The Torah,” says the Talmud, “cannot be obtained
+unless a man is prepared to give his life for it,” or as the Talmud puts
+it, in another place, “if it be thy desire not to die, cease to live
+before thou diest.” This was the principle by which the Gaon’s life was
+actuated. And as he did not spare himself, he could not spare others. We
+could not expect him to act differently. The Scriptures tell us: “Thou
+shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.” But how is it with the man who never
+loved himself, who never gave a thought to himself, who never lived for
+himself, but only for what he considered to be his duty and his mission
+from God on earth? Such a man we cannot expect to spend his time on
+coaxing and caressing us. As to the charge of one‐sidedness at which I
+have hinted, if the giving up of everything else for the purpose of
+devoting oneself to a scholarly and saintly life is one‐sidedness, the
+Gaon must certainly bear this charge; but in a world where there are so
+many on the other side, we ought, I think, to be only too grateful to
+Providence for sending us from time to time great and strong one‐sided
+men, who, by their counterbalancing influence, bring God’s spoilt world to
+a certain equilibrium again. To appease my more tender readers, I should
+like only to say that there is no occasion at all for pitying Mrs. Gaon.
+It would be a miserable world indeed if a good digestion and stupidity
+were, as a certain author maintained, the only conditions of happiness.
+Saints are happy in their sufferings, and noble souls find their happiness
+in sacrificing themselves for these sufferers.
+
+Another severe feature in the life of the Gaon showed itself in his
+dispute with the Chassidim. I regret not to be able to enter here even
+into a brief account of the history of this struggle. I shall only take
+leave to say that I am afraid each party was right, the Gaon as well as
+the Chassidim; the latter, in attacking the Rabbis of their time, who
+mostly belonged to the casuistic schools, and in their intellectual
+pursuits almost entirely neglected the emotional side of religion; but
+none the less was the Gaon right in opposing a system which, as I have
+shown above, involved the danger of leading to a worship of men.
+
+Excepting this incident, the Gaon never meddled with public affairs. He
+lived in retirement, always occupied with his own education and that of
+his disciples and friends. It is most remarkable that, in spite of his
+hard work and the many privations he had to endure, he enjoyed good health
+almost all his life. He never consulted a doctor. It was not until the
+year 1791, in the seventieth year of his life, that he began to feel the
+decline of his health. But he was not much interrupted by the failure of
+his powers. As a means of recovery, he esteemed very highly the
+conversation of the preacher Jacob of Dubna, better known as the Dubna
+Maggid,(59) whose parables and sallies of wit the Gaon used to enjoy very
+much. On the eve of the Day of Atonement in the year 1797, he fell very
+ill and gave his blessing to his children. He died on the third day of the
+Feast of Tabernacles, with the branch of the Lulab(60) in his hands. The
+Feast of Joy, relates a contemporary, was turned into days of mourning. In
+all the streets of Wilna were heard only lamenting and crying voices. The
+funeral orations delivered on this occasion in Wilna, as well as in other
+Jewish communities, would form a small library. His disciples wept for
+their master, the people of Wilna for the ornament of their native town,
+and the feeling of the Jews in general was that “the Ark of God was taken
+away.”
+
+After the foregoing sketch, the reader will hardly expect me to give an
+account of the Gaon’s literary productions. The results of so long a life
+and such powers of mind devoted to one cause with such zeal and fervour,
+would furnish by themselves the subject of a whole series of essays. The
+tombstone set on his grave by his pious admirers bears the inscription,
+“The Gaon gave heed and sought and set in order”—that is to say, he wrote
+commentaries or notes on—“the Bible, the Mishnah, both Talmuds, the
+Siphré, Siphra, the Zohar, and many other works.” Inscriptions on
+tombstones are proverbial for exaggeration, and we all know the saying,
+“as mendacious as an epitaph.” But a glance at the catalogue of the
+British Museum under the heading of Elijah Wilna, will show that this
+inscription makes a praiseworthy exception. We will find that this list
+might be lengthened by many other works of great importance for Jewish
+life and thought. His commentary to the Code of R. Joseph Caro, in which
+one will find that in many cases he knew the sources of the religious
+customs and usages, put together in this work, better than its compiler
+himself, would have been sufficient to place him at the head of Halachic
+scholarship, whilst his notes and textual emendations to the Tosephta and
+Seder Olam, to the restoration of which he contributed so much, would have
+sufficed to establish his fame as a critic of the first order. And this is
+the more astonishing when we consider that all this was done without
+manuscripts or any other aid, and by mere intuition. We cannot wonder that
+scholars who had the opportunity of visiting great libraries and saw how
+the emendations of the Gaon agreed sometimes with the readings given in
+the best manuscripts exclaimed very often: “Only by inspiration could he
+have found out these secrets.” We have no need to go so far; we shall
+simply say with the Talmud, “The powers of the real sage surpass those of
+the prophet.” Nay, even had we possessed only his _Gleanings_, which form
+a kind of _obiter dicta_ on various topics of Jewish literature, the Gaon
+would have remained a model of clear thinking and real ingenuity for all
+future generations.
+
+However, a real appreciation of the Gaon’s greatness as a scholar would
+only be possible either by a thorough study of his works, to which I have
+alluded, or by giving many specimens of them. The short space I am limited
+to makes such an undertaking impossible. I shall therefore use what
+remains to me to say a few words on the salutary influence the Gaon had on
+his countrymen, the Russian Jews.
+
+The Russian Jew is still a riddle to us. We know this strange being only
+from the Reports of the Board of Guardians or from bombastic phrases in
+public speeches; for he has always been the victim of platform orators,
+
+
+    So over violent or over civil,
+    That every man with them is God or Devil.
+
+
+From all, however, that I can gather from the best Jewish writers in
+Russia, I can only judge that the Russian Jew, when transplanted to a
+foreign soil, where he is cut off from the past and uncertain of his
+future, is for the time at least in a position in which his true character
+cannot be truly estimated. His real life is to be sought in his own
+country. There, amidst his friends and kinsmen who are all animated by the
+same ideals, attached to the same traditions, and proud of the same
+religious and charitable institutions, everything is full of life and
+meaning to him. Thus, a certain Russian writer addresses his younger
+colleagues who find so much fault with the bygone world: “Go and see how
+rich we always were in excellent men. In every town and every village you
+would find scholars, saints, and philanthropists. Their merits could
+sustain worlds, and each of them was an ornament of Israel.” And he
+proceeds to give dozens of names of such excellent men, who are not all
+indeed known to us, but with whom the Russian Jew connects many noble and
+pious reminiscences of real greatness and heroic self‐denial, and of whom
+he is justly proud.
+
+The focus, however, of all this spiritual life is the Yeshibah (Talmudical
+College)(61) in Walosin. I hope that a glance at its history and
+constitution will not be found uninteresting. The intellectual originator
+of this institution which bears the name _Yeshibah Ets Chayim_ (Tree of
+Life College),(62) was the Gaon himself. Being convinced that the study of
+the Torah is the very life of Judaism, but that this study must be
+conducted in a scientific, not in a scholastic way, he bade his chief
+disciple, the R. Chayim already mentioned, to found a college in which
+Rabbinical literature should be taught according to his own true method.
+It would seem that, as long as the Gaon was alive, R. Chayim preferred to
+be a pupil rather than a teacher. When, however, the Gaon died, R. Chayim
+did not rest till he had carried out the command of his master, and in the
+year 1803 the College was opened in Walosin. The cloth manufacturer and
+disciple now became Rabbi and master. He began on a small scale, teaching
+at first only a few pupils. But even for the sustenance of a small number
+he had not sufficient means, and his pious wife sold her jewellery to help
+him in accomplishing his favourite plan. This is the best refutation of
+the French proverb _Avare comme une Rabbine_. The number, however,
+increased daily, and before he died (1828), he was fortunate enough to
+lecture to a hundred students. The number of students in the year 1888
+amounted to 400, and the Russian Jews are thus right in asserting that
+they have the greatest Talmudical College in the world. It is evident that
+no private charity by a single man, however great, could suffice to
+maintain such large numbers. Thus R. Chayim was already compelled to
+appeal to the liberality of his Russian brethren. The name of R. Chayim,
+and the still greater name of his master, were recommendation enough, and
+besides private offerings, many communities promised large sums towards
+supporting the students in Walosin. From time to time also messengers are
+sent out by the committee to promote the interests of the Yeshibah. The
+writers to whom I owe these data tell us that these messengers travel to
+all parts of the world to collect offerings for Walosin: so that it is a
+standing joke with the students that the existence of the mythical river
+Sambatyon(63) may be questioned after all, otherwise it must long have
+been discovered by these messengers who explore the whole world in their
+journeys. But it would seem that this world is only a very small one. For
+the whole income of the Yeshibah has never exceeded the sum of about
+£1800. Of this a certain part is spent in providing the salaries of the
+teaching staff and proctors, and on the repairs of the building; whilst
+the rest is distributed amongst the students. Considering that no
+scholarship exceeds £13—it is only the forty immortals of Walosin who
+receive such high stipends—considering again that the great majority of
+the students belong to the poorer classes and thus receive no remittance
+from their parents, we may be sure that the words of the Talmud: “This is
+the way to study the Torah; eat bread and salt, drink water by measure,
+sleep on the earth, and live a life of care,” are carried out by them
+literally. But it would seem that the less they eat and the less they
+sleep, the more they work. Indeed the industry and the enthusiasm of these
+Bachurim (_alumni_)(64) in the study of the Torah is almost unsurpassable.
+The official hours alone extend from nine in the morning until ten in the
+evening, while many of the students volunteer to continue their studies
+till the middle of the night, or to begin the day at three in the morning.
+
+As to the subject of these studies, it is confined, as may be imagined, to
+the exploration of the old Rabbinic literature in all its branches. But it
+would be a mistake to think that the modern spirit has left Walosin quite
+untouched. It would be impossible that among 400 thinking heads there
+should not be a few who are interested in mathematics, others again in
+philosophy or history, while yet others would conjugate the irregular
+verbs of some classical language when moving to and fro over their Talmud
+folios and pretending to “_learn_.” Indeed, almost all the writers who
+demand that these subjects should be introduced as obligatory into the
+programme of Walosin, belonged themselves to this Yeshibah. And it is
+these writers who betray the secret how secular knowledge is now invading
+the precincts of Walosin, as well as of other Talmudical Colleges in spite
+of all obstacles and prohibitions. In conquering these difficulties seem
+to consist the pleasures of life of many Bachurim at Walosin. Look only at
+that undergraduate, how, after a heavy day’s work he is standing there in
+the street reading Buckle’s _History of Civilisation_ in the moonlight!
+Poor man, he is not so romantic as to prefer the moonlight to a cheerful,
+warm room, with the more prosaic light of a candle, but he has got tired
+of knocking at the door, for his landlady, to whom he has neglected to pay
+rent for the last three terms, made up her mind to let him freeze to‐
+night. But still more cruel to him is his fellow‐sufferer, who is also
+wandering in the streets with an overloaded brain and empty stomach; he
+roughly shakes him out of his dreams by telling him that Buckle is long
+ago antiquated, and that he had better study the works of Herbert Spencer,
+who has spoken the last word on every vital subject in the world. Still
+these two starving and freezing representatives of English thought in
+Walosin form only an exception. The general favourites are the
+representatives of Jewish thought. That such books as the _Guide of the
+Perplexed_, by Maimonides, the Metaphysical Researches of Levi b.
+Gershom,(65) and other philosophical works of the Spanish school are read
+by the Walosin students it is needless to say. These books now form a part
+of the Rabbinic literature, and it would be almost unorthodox to suspect
+their readers. But is worth noticing that even the productions of the
+modern historico‐critical school, such as the works of Zunz, Frankel,
+Graetz, Weiss, are very popular with the Bachurim, being much read and
+discussed by them.
+
+Thus Walosin deserves rightly to be considered as the centre of Jewish
+thought in Russia, in which the spirit of the Gaon is still working.
+
+I have very often, however, heard doubts expressed as to the continuance
+of this spirit when, as it is to be hoped, better times come for the Jews
+in Russia. Is it not to be feared that liberty and emancipation will
+render untenable ideas and notions which arose under entirely different
+circumstances? There is no need of entertaining such fears. Rabbi Jedaiah
+of Bedres(66) concludes his philosophical work _Examination of the World_,
+with the following words: “The conclusion of the whole matter is, go
+either to the right, my heart, or go to the left, but believe all that R.
+Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides) has believed, the last of the Gaonim by
+time, but the first in rank.” About five hundred years have passed away
+since these lines were written. Time, as we have seen, has brought another
+Gaon, and probably Time will favour us in future with still another. But
+times have also altered. The rebellious hearts of a liberal age are not
+likely to obey always the command, “believe all that the Gaon said.” But
+the heart of man will in all ages retain idealism enough to love and
+revere the greatest of men and to follow what was best in them.
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. NACHMANIDES(67)
+
+
+R. Chayim Vital, in his _Book of the Transmigrations of Souls_, gives the
+following bold characteristic of the two great teachers of Judaism,
+Maimonides and Nachmanides. Their souls both sprang forth from the head of
+Adam—it is a favourite idea of the Cabbalists to evolve the whole of ideal
+humanity from the archetype Adam—but the former, Maimonides, had his
+genius placed on the left curl of Adam, which is all judgment and
+severity, whilst that of the latter, Nachmanides, had its place on the
+right curl, which represents rather mercy and tenderness.
+
+I start from these words in order to avoid disappointment. For Nachmanides
+was a great Talmudist, a great Bible student, a great philosopher, a great
+controversialist, and, perhaps, also a great physician; in one word, great
+in every respect, possessed of all the culture of his age. But, as I have
+already indicated by the passage quoted by way of introduction, it is not
+of Nachmanides in any of these excellent qualities that I wish to write
+here. For these aspects of his life and mind I must refer the reader to
+the works of Graetz, Weiss, Steinschneider, Perles, and others. I shall
+mostly confine myself to those features and peculiarities in his career
+and works which will illustrate Nachmanides the tender and compassionate,
+the Nachmanides who represented Judaism from the side of emotion and
+feeling, as Maimonides did from the side of reason and logic.
+
+R. Moses ben Nachman, or Bonastruc de Portas, as he was called by his
+fellow‐countrymen, or Nachmanides, as he is commonly called now, was born
+in Gerona about the year 1195. Gerona is a little town in the province of
+Catalonia in Spain. But though in Spain, Gerona was not distinguished for
+its philosophers or poets like Granada, Barcelona, or Toledo. Situated as
+it was in the North of Spain, Gerona was under the influence of Franco‐
+Jewish sympathies, and thus its boast lay in the great Talmudists that it
+produced. I shall only mention the name of R. Zerahiah Hallevi Gerundi—so‐
+called after his native place—whose strictures on the Code of R. Isaac
+Alfasi, which he began as a youth of nineteen years, will always remain a
+marvel of critical insight and independent research. Nachmanides is
+supposed by some authors to have been a descendant of R. Isaac ben Reuben
+of Barcelona, whose hymns are still to be found in certain rituals. The
+evidence for this is insufficient, but we know that he was a cousin of R.
+Jonah Gerundi, not less famous for his Talmudic learning than for his
+saintliness and piety. Nachmanides thus belonged to the best Jewish
+families of Gerona. Various great men are mentioned as his teachers, but
+we have certainty only about two, namely R. Judah ben Yakar, the
+commentator of the prayers, and R. Meir ben Nathan of Trinquintaines. The
+mystic, R. Ezra (or Azriel), is indeed alleged to have been his instructor
+in the Cabbalah, and this is not impossible, as he also was an inhabitant
+of Gerona; but it is more probable that Nachmanides was initiated into the
+Cabbalah by the R. Judah just mentioned, who also belonged to the mystical
+school.
+
+Whoever his masters were, they must have been well satisfied with their
+promising pupil, for he undertook, at the age of fifteen, to write
+supplements to the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi. Nor was it at a much later
+date that he began to compose his work, _The Wars of the Lord_, in which
+he defends this great codifier against the strictures of R. Zerahiah, to
+which we have referred above. I shall in the course of this essay have
+further occasion to speak of this latter work; for the present we will
+follow the career of its author.
+
+Concerning the private life of Nachmanides very little has come down to
+us. We only know that he had a family of sons and daughters. He was not
+spared the greatest grief that can befall a father, for he lost a son; it
+was on the day of the New Year.(68) On the other hand, it must have been a
+great source of joy to him when he married his son Solomon to the daughter
+of R. Jonah, whom he revered as a saint and a man of God. As a token of
+the admiration in which he held his friend, the following incident may be
+mentioned. It seems that it was the custom in Spain to name the first
+child in a family after his paternal grandfather; but Nachmanides ceded
+his right in behalf of his friend, and thus his daughter‐in‐law’s first
+son was named Jonah. Another son of Nachmanides whom we know of was
+Nachman, to whom his father addressed his letters from Palestine, and who
+also wrote Novellæ to the Talmud, still extant in MS. But the later
+posterity of Nachmanides is better known to fame. R. Levi ben Gershom was
+one of his descendants; so was also R. Simeon Duran;(69) whilst R. Jacob
+Sasportas, in the eighteenth century,(70) derived his pedigree from
+Nachmanides in the eleventh generation.
+
+As to his calling, he was occupied as Rabbi and teacher, first in Gerona
+and afterwards in Barcelona. But this meant as much as if we should say of
+a man that he is a philanthropist by profession, with the only difference
+that the treasures of which Nachmanides disposed were more of a spiritual
+kind. For his livelihood he probably depended upon his medical practice.
+
+I need hardly say that the life of Nachmanides, “whose words were held in
+Catalonia in almost as high authority as the Scriptures,” was not without
+its great public events. At least we know of two.
+
+The one was about the year 1232, on the occasion of the great struggle
+about Maimonides’ _Guide of the Perplexed_, and the first book of his
+great Compendium of the Law. The Maimonists looked upon these works almost
+as a new revelation, whilst the Anti‐Maimonists condemned both as
+heretical, or at least conducive to heresy.(71) It would be profitless to
+reproduce the details of this sad affair. The motives may have been pure
+and good, but the actions were decidedly bad. People denounced each other,
+excommunicated each other, and did not (from either side) spare even the
+dead from the most bitter calumnies. Nachmanides stood between two fires.
+The French Rabbis, from whom most of the Anti‐Maimonists were recruited,
+he held in very high esteem and considered himself as their pupil. Some of
+the leaders of this party were also his relatives. He, too, had, as we
+shall see later on, a theory of his own about God and the world little in
+agreement with that of Maimonides. It is worth noting that Nachmanides
+objected to calling Maimonides “our teacher Moses” (Rabbenu Mosheh),(72)
+thinking it improper to confer upon him the title by which the Rabbis
+honoured the Master of the Prophets. The very fact, however, that he had
+some theory of the Universe shows that he had a problem to solve, whilst
+the real French Rabbis were hardly troubled by difficulties of a
+metaphysical character. Indeed, Nachmanides pays them the rather doubtful
+compliment that Maimonides’ work was not intended for them, who were
+barricaded by their faith and happy in their belief, wanting no protection
+against the works of Aristotle and Galen, by whose philosophy others might
+be led astray. In other words, their strength lay in an ignorance of Greek
+philosophy, to which the cultivated Jews of Spain would not aspire.
+Nachmanides was also a great admirer of Maimonides, whose virtues and
+great merits in the service of Judaism he describes in his letter to the
+French Rabbis. Thus, the only way left open to him was to play the part of
+the conciliator. The course of this struggle is fully described in every
+Jewish history. It is sufficient to say that, in spite of his great
+authority, Nachmanides was not successful in his effort to moderate the
+violence of either party, and that the controversy was at last settled
+through the harsh interference of outsiders who well‐nigh crushed
+Maimonists and Anti‐Maimonists alike.
+
+The second public event in the life of Nachmanides was his Disputation,
+held in Barcelona, at the Court and in the presence of King Jayme I., of
+Aragon, in the year 1263. It was the usual story. A convert to
+Christianity, named Pablo Christiani, who burned with zealous anxiety to
+see his former co‐religionists saved, after many vain attempts in this
+direction, applied to the King of Aragon to order Nachmanides to take part
+in a public disputation. Pablo maintained that he could prove the justice
+of the Messianic claims of Jesus from the Talmud and other Rabbinic
+writings. If he could only succeed in convincing the great Rabbi of Spain
+of the truth of his argument, the bulk of the Jews was sure to follow. By
+the way, it was the same Talmud which some twenty years previously was, at
+the instance of another Jewish convert, burned in Paris, for containing
+passages against Christianity. Nachmanides had to conform with the command
+of the king, and, on the 21st of July, 1263, was begun the controversy,
+which lasted for four or five days.
+
+I do not think that there is in the whole domain of literature less
+profitable reading than that of the controversies between Jews and
+Christians. These public disputations occasionally forced the Jews
+themselves to review their position towards their own literature, and led
+them to draw clearer distinctions between what they regarded as religion
+and what as folklore. But beyond this, the polemics between Jews and
+Christians were barren of good results. If you have read one you have read
+enough for all time. The same casuistry and the same disregard of history
+turn up again and again. Nervousness and humility are always on the side
+of the Jews, who know that, whatever the result may be, the end will be
+persecution; arrogance is always on the side of their antagonists, who are
+supported by a band of Knights of the Holy Cross, prepared to prove the
+soundness of their cause at the point of their daggers.
+
+Besides, was there enough common ground between Judaism and thirteenth
+century Christianity to have justified the hope of a mutual understanding?
+The Old Testament was almost forgotten in the Church. The First Person in
+the Trinity was leading a sort of shadowy existence in art, which could
+only be the more repulsive to a Jew on that account. The largest part of
+Church worship was monopolised by devotion to the Virgin Mother, prayers
+to the saints, and kneeling before their relics. And a Jew may well be
+pardoned if he did not entertain higher views of this form of worship than
+Luther and Knox did at a later period. It will thus not be worth our while
+to dwell much on the matter of this controversy, in which the essence of
+the real dispute is scarcely touched. There are only two points in it
+which are worth noticing. The first is that Nachmanides declared the
+Agadoth(73) in the Talmud to be only a series of sermons (he uses this
+very word), expressing the individual opinions of the preacher, and thus
+possessing no authoritative weight. The convert Pablo is quite aghast at
+this statement, and accuses Nachmanides of heterodoxy.
+
+Secondly,—and here I take leave to complete the rather obscure passage in
+the controversy by a parallel in his book, _The Date of Redemption_,(74)
+quoted by Azariah de Rossi—that the question of the Messiah is not of that
+dogmatic importance to the Jews that Christians imagine. For even if Jews
+supposed their sins to be so great that they forfeited all the promises
+made to them in the Scriptures, or that, on some hidden ground, it would
+please the Almighty never to restore their national independence, this
+would in no way alter the obligations of Jews towards the Torah. Nor is
+the coming of the Messiah desired by Jews as an end in itself. For it is
+not the goal of their hopes that they shall be able again to eat of the
+fruit of Palestine, or enjoy other pleasures there; not even the chance of
+the restoration of sacrifices and the worship of the Temple is the
+greatest of Jewish expectations (connected with the appearance of the
+Messiah). What makes them long for his coming is the hope that they will
+then witness, in the company of the prophets and priests, a greater spread
+of purity and holiness than is now possible. In other words, the
+possibility for them to live a holy life after the will of God will be
+greater than now. But, on the other hand, considering that such a godly
+life under a Christian government requires greater sacrifices than it
+would under a Jewish king; and, considering again that the merits and
+rewards of a good act increase with the obstacles that are in the way of
+executing it—considering this, a Jew might even prefer to live under the
+King of Aragon than under the Messiah, where he would perforce act in
+accordance with the precepts of the Torah.
+
+Now there is in this statement much that has only to be looked upon as a
+compliment to the government of Spain. I am inclined to think that if the
+alternative laid before Nachmanides had been a really practical one, he
+would have decided in favour of the clement rule of the Messiah in
+preference to that of the most cruel king on earth. But the fact that he
+repeats this statement in another place, where there was no occasion to be
+over polite to the Government, tends to show, as we have said, that the
+belief in the Messiah was not the basis on which Nachmanides’ religion was
+built up.
+
+The result of the controversy is contested by the different parties; the
+Christian writers claim the victory for Pablo, whilst the Jewish documents
+maintain that the issue was with Nachmanides. In any case, “_Der Jude wird
+verbrannt_.” For in the next year (1264) all the books of the Jews in
+Aragon were confiscated and submitted to the censorship of a commission,
+of which the well‐known author of the _Pugio Fidei_, Raymund Martini, was,
+perhaps, the most important member. The books were not burned this time,
+but had to suffer a severe mutilation; the anti‐Christian passages, or
+such as were supposed to be so, were struck out or obliterated.
+Nachmanides’ account of the controversy, which he probably published from
+a sense of duty towards those whom he represented, was declared to contain
+blasphemies against the dominant religion. The pamphlet was condemned to
+be burned publicly, whilst the author was, as it seems, punished with
+expulsion from his country. It is not reported where Nachmanides found a
+home during the next three years; probably he had to accept the
+hospitality of his friends, either in Castile or in the south of France;
+but we know that in the year 1267 he left Europe and emigrated to
+Palestine.
+
+Nachmanides was, at this juncture of his life, already a man of about
+seventy. But it would seem as if the seven decades which he had spent in
+the Spanish Peninsula were only meant as a preparation for the three years
+which he was destined to live in the Holy Land, for it was during this
+stage of his life that the greatest part of his _Commentary on the
+Pentateuch_ was written. In this work, as is agreed on all sides, his
+finest thoughts and noblest sentiments were put down.
+
+Before proceeding to speak of his works, let us first cast a glance at his
+letters from Palestine, forming as they do a certain link between his
+former life and that which was to occupy him exclusively for the rest of
+his days. We have three letters, the first of which I shall translate here
+_in extenso_.
+
+The letter was written soon after his arrival at Jerusalem in the year
+1267. It was addressed to his son Nachman, and runs as follows:—
+
+
+    “The Lord shall bless thee, my son Nachman, and thou shalt see the
+    good of Jerusalem. Yea, thou shalt see thy children’s children
+    (Ps. cxxviii.), and thy table shall be like that of our father
+    Abraham!(75) In Jerusalem, the Holy City, I write this letter.
+    For, thanks and praise unto the rock of my salvation, I was
+    thought worthy by God to arrive here safely on the 9th of the
+    month of Elul, and I remained there till the day after the Day of
+    Atonement. Now I intend going to Hebron, to the sepulchre of our
+    ancestors, to prostrate myself, and there to dig my grave. But
+    what am I to say to you with regard to the country? Great is the
+    solitude and great the wastes, and, to characterise it in short,
+    the more sacred the places, the greater their desolation!
+    Jerusalem is more desolate than the rest of the country: Judæa
+    more than Galilee. But even in this destruction it is a blessed
+    land. It has about 2000 inhabitants, about 300 Christians live
+    there who escaped the sword of the Sultan. There are no Jews. For
+    since the arrival of the Tartars, some fled, others died by the
+    sword. There are only two brothers, dyers by trade, who have to
+    buy their ingredients from the government. There the Ten Men(76)
+    meet, and on Sabbaths they hold service at their house. But we
+    encouraged them, and we succeeded in finding a vacant house, built
+    on pillars of marble with a beautiful arch. That we took for a
+    synagogue. For the town is without a master, and whoever will take
+    possession of the ruins can do so. We gave our offerings towards
+    the repairs of the house. We have sent already to Shechem to fetch
+    some scrolls of the Law from there which had been brought thither
+    from Jerusalem at the invasion of the Tartars. Thus they will
+    organise a synagogue and worship there. For continually people
+    crowd to Jerusalem, men and women, from Damascus, Zobah
+    (Aleppo),(77) and from all parts of the country to see the
+    Sanctuary and to mourn over it. He who thought us worthy to let us
+    see Jerusalem in her desertion, he shall bless us to behold her
+    again, built and restored, when the glory of the Lord will return
+    unto her. But you, my son, and your brothers and the whole of our
+    family, you all shall live to see the salvation of Jerusalem and
+    the comfort of Zion. These are the words of your father who is
+    yearning and forgetting, who is seeing and enjoying, Moses ben
+    Nachman. Give also my peace to my pupil Moses, the son of Solomon,
+    the nephew of your mother. I wish to tell him ... that there,
+    facing the holy temple, I have read his verses, weeping bitterly
+    over them. May he who caused his name to rest in the Holy Temple
+    increase your peace together with the peace of the whole
+    community.”
+
+
+This letter may be illustrated by a few parallels taken from the appendix
+to Nachmanides’ _Commentary to the Pentateuch_, which contains some rather
+incoherent notes which the author seems to have jotted down when he
+arrived in Jerusalem. After a lengthy account of the material as well as
+the spiritual glories of the holy city in the past, he proceeds to say:—
+
+
+    “A mournful sight I have perceived in thee (Jerusalem); only one
+    Jew is here, a dyer, persecuted, oppressed and despised. At his
+    house gather great and small when they can get the Ten Men. They
+    are wretched folk, without occupation and trade, consisting of a
+    few pilgrims and beggars, though the fruit of the land is still
+    magnificent and the harvests rich. Indeed, it is still a blessed
+    country, flowing with milk and honey.... Oh! I am the man who saw
+    affliction. I am banished from my table, far removed from friend
+    and kinsman, and too long is the distance to meet again.... I left
+    my family, I forsook my house. There with my sons and daughters,
+    and with the sweet and dear children whom I have brought up on my
+    knees, I left also my soul. My heart and my eyes will dwell with
+    them for ever.... But the loss of all this and of every other
+    glory my eyes saw is compensated by having now the joy of being a
+    day in thy courts (O Jerusalem), visiting the ruins of the Temple
+    and crying over the ruined Sanctuary; where I am permitted to
+    caress thy stones, to fondle thy dust, and to weep over thy ruins.
+    I wept bitterly, but I found joy in my tears. I tore my garments,
+    but I felt relieved by it.”
+
+
+Of some later date is his letter from Acra, which may be considered as a
+sort of ethical will, and which has been justly characterised as a eulogy
+of humility. Here is an extract from it:—
+
+
+    “Accustom yourself to speak gently to all men at all times, and
+    thus you will avoid anger, which leads to so much sin.... Humility
+    is the first of virtues; for if you think how lowly is man, how
+    great is God, you will fear Him and avoid sinfulness. On the
+    humble man rests the divine glory; the man that is haughty to
+    others denies God. Look not boldly at one whom you address....
+    Regard every one as greater than thyself.... Remember always that
+    you stand before God, both when you pray and when you converse
+    with others.... Think before you speak.... Act as I have bidden
+    you, and your words, and deeds, and thoughts, will be honest, and
+    your prayers pure and acceptable before God.”
+
+
+The third letter is addressed to his son (R. Solomon?) who was staying (in
+the service of the king) in Castile. It is in its chief content a eulogy
+of chastity.(78) Probably Nachmanides had some dread of the dangerous
+allurements of the court, and he begs his son never to do anything of
+which he knows that his father would not approve, and to keep his father’s
+image always before his eyes.
+
+As to his works, we may divide them into two classes. The one would
+contain those of a strictly legalistic (Halachic), whilst the other those
+of a more homiletic‐exegetical and devotional character (Agadic). As
+already indicated in the preliminary lines of this paper, I cannot dwell
+long on the former class of our author’s writings. It consists either of
+Glosses or Novellæ to the Talmud, in the style and manner of the French
+Rabbis, or of Compendia of certain parts of the Law after the model set by
+R. Isaac Alfasi or Maimonides, or in defences of the “Earlier Authorities”
+against the strictures made on them by a later generation. A few words
+must be said with regard to these defences; for they reveal that deep
+respect for authority which forms a special feature of Nachmanides’
+writings. His _Wars of the Lord_, in which he defends Alfasi against R.
+Zerahiah of Gerona, was undertaken when he was very young, whilst his
+defence of the author of the _Halachoth Gedoloth_(79) against the attacks
+of Maimonides, which he began at a much more mature age, shows the same
+deference “to the great ones of the past.” Indeed, he says in one place,
+“We bow before them (the earlier authorities), and though their words are
+not quite evident to us we submit to them”; or, as he expresses himself
+elsewhere, “Only he who dips (deeply enough) in the wisdom of the ‘ancient
+ones’ will drink the pure (old) wine.” But it would be unjust to the
+genius of Nachmanides to represent him as a blind worshipper of authority.
+Humble and generous in disposition, he certainly would bow before every
+recognised authority, and he would also think it his duty to take up the
+cudgels for him as long as there was even the least chance of making an
+honourable defence. But when this chance had gone, when Nachmanides was
+fully convinced that his hero was in the wrong, he followed no guide but
+truth. “Notwithstanding,” he says in his introduction to the defences of
+the _Halachoth Gedoloth_, “my desire and delight to be the disciple of the
+Earlier Authorities, to maintain their views and to assert them, I do not
+consider myself a ‘donkey carrying books.’ I will explain their way and
+appreciate their value, but when their views are inconceivable to my
+thoughts, I will plead in all modesty, but shall judge according to the
+sight of my eyes. And when the meaning is clear I shall flatter none, for
+the Lord gives wisdom in all times and ages.” But, on the other hand,
+there seems to have been a certain sort of literary agnosticism about
+Nachmanides which made it very difficult for him to find the “clear
+meaning.” The passage in the _Wars of the Lord_ to the effect “that there
+is in the art (of commenting) no such certain demonstration as in
+mathematics or astronomy,” is well known and has often been quoted; but
+still more characteristic of this literary agnosticism is the first
+paragraph of the above‐mentioned defences of the _Halachoth Gedoloth_.
+Whilst all his predecessors accepted, on the authority of R. Simlai,(80)
+the number (613) of the commandments as an uncontested fact, and based
+their compositions on it, Nachmanides questions the whole matter, and
+shows that the passages relating to this enumeration of laws are only of a
+homiletical nature, and thus of little consequence. Nay, he goes so far as
+to say, “Indeed the system how to number the commandments is a matter in
+which I suspect all of us (are mistaken) and the truth must be left to him
+who will solve all doubts.” We should thus be inclined to think that this
+adherence to the words of the earlier Authorities was at least as much due
+to this critical scepticism as to his conservative tendencies.
+
+The space left to me I shall devote to the second class of his writings,
+in which Nachmanides worked less after given types. These reveal to us
+more of his inner being, and offer us some insight into his theological
+system. The great problem which seems to have presented itself to
+Nachmanides’ mind was less how to reconcile religion with reason than how
+to reconcile man with religion. What is man? The usual answer is not
+flattering. He is an animal that owes its existence to the same instinct
+that produces even the lower creatures, and he is condemned, like them, to
+go to a place of worm and maggot. But, may not one ask, why should a
+creature so lowly born, and doomed to so hapless a future, be burdened
+with the awful responsibility of knowing that he is destined “to give
+reckoning and judgment before the King of kings, the Holy One, blessed be
+He”? It is true that man is also endowed with a heavenly soul, but this
+only brings us back again to the antithesis of flesh and spirit which was
+the stumbling‐block of many a theological system. Nor does it help us much
+towards the solution of the indicated difficulty; for what relation can
+there be between this _materia impura_ of body and the pure intellect of
+soul? And again, must not the unfavourable condition in which the latter
+is placed through this uncongenial society heavily clog and suppress all
+aspiration for perfection? It is “a house divided against itself,” doomed
+to an everlasting contest, without hope for co‐operation or even of
+harmony.
+
+The works _The Sacred Letter_ and _The Law of Man_ may be considered as an
+attempt by Nachmanides, if not to remove, at least to relieve the
+harshness of this antithesis. The former, in which he blames Maimonides
+for following Aristotle in denouncing certain desires implanted in us by
+nature as ignominious and unworthy of man, may, perhaps, be characterised
+as a vindication of the flesh from a religious point of view. The contempt
+in which “that Greek,” as Nachmanides terms Aristotle, held the flesh is
+inconsistent with the theory of the religious man, who believes that
+everything (including the body, with all its functions) is created by God,
+whose work is perfect and good, without impure or inharmonious parts. It
+is only sin and neglect that disfigure God’s creations. I cannot enter
+into any further details of this work, but I may be permitted to remark
+that there is a very strong similarity between the tendency of the _Sacred
+Letter_ and certain leading ideas of Milton. Indeed, if the first two
+chapters of the former were a little condensed and put into English, they
+could not be better summarised than by the famous lines in the _Paradise
+Lost_:—
+
+
+    Whatever hypocrites austerely talk
+    Of purity, and place, and innocence,
+    Defaming as impure what God declares
+    Pure, and commands to some, leaves free to all,
+    Our Maker bids increase; who bids abstain
+    But our destroyer, foe to God and man?
+    Hail, wedded love, mysterious law!...
+    Far be it that I should write thee sin or blame
+    Or think thee unbefitting holiest place,
+    Perpetual fountain of domestic sweets.
+
+
+The second of these two works, the _Law of Man_, may be regarded as a
+sanctification of grief, and particularly of the grief of griefs, death.
+The bulk of the book is legalistic, treating of mourning rites, burial
+customs, and similar topics; but there is much in the preface which bears
+on our subject. For here again Nachmanides takes the opportunity of
+combating a chilling philosophy, which tries to arm us against suffering
+by stifling our emotions. “My son,” he says, “be not persuaded by certain
+propositions of the great philosophers who endeavour to harden our hearts
+and to deaden our sensations by their idle comfort, which consists in
+denying the past and despairing of the future. One of them has even
+declared that there is nothing in the world over the loss of which it is
+worth crying, and the possession of which would justify joy. This is an
+heretical view. Our perfect Torah bids us to be joyful in the day of
+prosperity and to shed tears in the day of misfortune. It in no way
+forbids crying or demands of us to suppress our grief. On the contrary,
+the Torah suggests to us that to mourn over heavy losses is equivalent to
+a service of God, leading us, as it does, to reflect on our end and ponder
+over our destiny.”
+
+This destiny, as well as Reward and Punishment in general, is treated in
+the concluding chapter of the _Law of Man_, which is known under the title
+of _The Gate of Reward_.(81) Nachmanides does not conceal from himself the
+difficulties besetting inquiries of this description. He knows well enough
+that in the last instance we must appeal to that implicit faith in the
+inscrutable justice of God with which the believer begins. Nevertheless he
+thinks that only the “despisers of wisdom” would fail to bring to this
+faith as full a conviction as possible, which latter is only to be gained
+by speculation. I shall have by and by occasion to refer to the results of
+this speculation. Here we must only notice the fact of Nachmanides
+insisting on the _bodily_ resurrection which will take place after the
+coming of the Messiah, and will be followed by the _Olam Habba_(82) (the
+life in the world to come) of which the Rabbis spoke.
+
+Irrational as this belief may look, it is only a consequence of his
+theory, which, as we have seen, assigns even to the flesh an almost
+spiritual importance. Indeed, he thinks that the soul may have such an
+influence on the body as to transform the latter into so pure an essence
+that it will become safe for eternity. For, as he hints in another place,
+by the continual practising of a thing the whole man, the body included,
+becomes so identified with the thing that we call him after it, just as
+the Holy Singer said: I am prayer,(83) so that—
+
+
+          Oft converse with heavenly habitants
+    Begins to cast a beam on the outward shape,
+    The unpolluted temple of the mind,
+    And turns it by degrees to the soul’s essence,
+    Till all be made immortal.
+
+
+But if even the body holds such a high position as to make all its
+instincts and functions, if properly regulated, a service of God, and to
+destine it for a glorious future of eternal bliss and rejoicing in God, we
+can easily imagine what a high place the soul must occupy in the system of
+Nachmanides. To be sure it is a much higher one than that to which
+philosophy would fain admit her. A beautiful parable of the Persian poet
+Yellaladeen (quoted by the late Mr. Lowell) narrates that “One knocked at
+the beloved’s door, and a voice asked from within, ‘Who is there?’ and he
+answered, ‘It is I.’ Then the voice said, ‘This house will not hold me and
+thee,’ and the door was not opened. Then went the lover into the desert
+and fasted and prayed in solitude, and after a year he returned and
+knocked again at the door, and again the voice asked ‘Who is there?’ and
+he said ‘It is thyself’; and the door was opened to him.” This is also the
+difference between the two schools—the mystical and the philosophical—with
+regard to the soul. With the rationalist the soul is indeed a superior
+abstract intelligence created by God, but, like all His creations, has an
+existence of its own, and is thus separated from God. With the mystic,
+however, the soul is God, or a direct emanation from God. “For he who
+breathes into another thing (Gen. ii. 7) gives unto it something of his
+own breath (or soul),” and as it is said in Job xxxii. 8, “And the soul of
+the Almighty giveth them understanding.” This emanation, or rather
+immanence—for Nachmanides insists in another place that the Hebrew term
+employed for it, _Aziluth_,(84) means a permanent dwelling with the thing
+emanating—which became manifest with the creation of man, must not be
+confounded with the moving soul (or the _Nephesh Chayah_),(85) which is
+common to man with all creatures.
+
+It may be remarked here that Nachmanides endows all animals with a soul
+which is derived from the “Superior Powers,” and its presence is proved by
+certain marks of intelligence which they show. By this fact he tries to
+account for the law prohibiting cruelty to animals, “all souls belonging
+to God.” Their original disposition was, it would seem, according to
+Nachmanides, peaceful and harmless.
+
+
+                    About them frisking played
+    All beasts of earth, since wild, and of all chase
+    In wood or wilderness, forest or den.
+
+
+It was only after man had sinned that war entered into creation, but with
+the coming of the Messiah, when sin will disappear, all the living beings
+will regain their primæval gentleness, and be reinstituted in their first
+rights.
+
+The special soul of man, however, or rather the “over‐soul,” was pre‐
+existent to the creation of the world, treasured up as a wave in the sea
+or fountain of souls—dwelling in the eternal light and holiness of God.
+There, in God, the soul abides in its ideal existence before it enters
+into its material life through the medium of man; though it must be noted
+that, according to Nachmanides’ belief in the Transmigration of souls, it
+is not necessary to perceive in the soul of every new‐born child, “a fresh
+message from heaven” coming directly from the fountain‐head. Nachmanides
+finds this belief indicated in the commandment of levirate marriage, where
+the child born of the deceased brother’s wife inherits not only the name
+of the brother of his actual father, but also his soul, and thus
+perpetuates his existence on earth. The fourth verse of Ecclesiastes ii.
+Nachmanides seems to interpret to mean that the very generation which
+passes away comes up again, by which he tries to explain the difficulty of
+God’s visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their children; the latter
+being the very fathers who committed the sins. However, whatever trials
+and changes the soul may have to pass through during its bodily existence,
+its origin is in God and thither it will return in the end, “just as the
+waters rise always to the same high level from which their source sprang
+forth.”
+
+It is for this man, with a body so superior, and a soul so sublime—more
+sublime than the angels—that the world was _created_. I emphasise the last
+word, for the belief in the creation of the world by God from nothing
+forms, according to Nachmanides, the first of the three fundamental dogmas
+of Judaism. The other two also refer to God’s relation to the world and
+man. They are the belief in God’s Providence and his _Yediah_.(86)
+Creation from nothing is for Nachmanides the keynote to his whole
+religion, since it is only by this fact, as he points out in many places,
+that God gains real dominion over nature. For, as he says, as soon as we
+admit the eternity of matter, we must (logically) deny God even “the power
+of enlarging the wing of a fly, or shortening the leg of an ant.” But the
+whole Torah is nothing if not a record of God’s mastery in and over the
+world, and of His miraculous deeds. One of the first proclamations of
+Abraham to his generation was that God is the Lord (or Master) of the
+world (Gen. xviii. 33). The injunction given to Abraham, and repeated
+afterwards to the whole of Israel (Gen. xvii. 2, and Deut. xviii. 13), to
+be perfect with God, Nachmanides numbers as one of the 613 commandments,
+and explains it to mean that man must have a whole belief in God without
+blemish or reservation, and acknowledge Him possessed of power over nature
+and the world, man and beast, devil and angel, power being attributable to
+Him alone. Indeed, when the angel said to Jacob, “Why dost thou ask after
+my name” (Gen. xxxii. 29), he meant to indicate by his question the
+impotence of the heavenly host, so that there is no use in knowing their
+name, the power and might belonging only to God.
+
+We may venture even a step further, and maintain that in Nachmanides’
+system there is hardly room left for such a thing as nature or “the order
+of the world.” There are only two categories of miracles by which the
+world is governed, or in which God’s Providence is seen. The one is the
+category of the manifest miracles, as the ten plagues in Egypt, or the
+crossing of the Red Sea; the other is that of the hidden miracles, which
+we do not perceive as such, because of their frequency and continuity. “No
+man,” he declares, “can share in the Torah of our Teacher, Moses (that is,
+can be considered a follower of the Jewish religion), unless he believes
+that all our affairs and events, whether they concern the masses or the
+individual, are all miracles (worked by the direct will of God),
+attributing nothing to nature or to the order of the world.” Under this
+second order he classes all the promises the Torah makes to the righteous,
+and the punishments with which evil‐doers are threatened. For, as he
+points out in many places, there is nothing in the nature of the
+commandments themselves that would make their fulfilment necessarily
+prolong the life of man, and cause the skies to pour down rain, or, on the
+other hand, would associate disobedience to them with famine and death.
+All these results can, therefore, only be accomplished in a supernatural
+way by the direct workings of God.
+
+Thus miracles are raised to a place in the regular scheme of things, and
+the difficulty regarding the possibility of God’s interferences with
+nature disappears by their very multiplication. But a still more important
+point is, that, by this unbroken chain of miracles, which unconditionally
+implies God’s presence to perform them, Nachmanides arrives at a theory
+establishing a closer contact between the Deity and the world than that
+set forth by other thinkers. Thus, he insists that the term _Shechinah_,
+or _Cabod_(87) (Glory of God), must not be understood, with some Jewish
+philosophers, as something separate from God, or as _glory created_ by
+God. “Were this the case,” he proceeds to say, “we could not possibly say,
+‘Blessed be the glory of the Lord from his place,’ since every mark of
+worship to anything _created_ involves the sin of idolatry.” Such terms as
+_Shechinah_, or _Cabod_, can therefore only mean the immediate divine
+presence. This proves, as may be noted in passing, how unphilosophical the
+idea of those writers is who maintain that the rigid monotheism of the
+Jews makes God so transcendental that He is banished from the world. As we
+see, it is just this assertion of His absolute Unity which not only
+suffers no substitute for God, but also removes every separation between
+Him and the world. Hence also Nachmanides insists that the prophecy even
+of the successors of Moses was a direct communion of God with the prophet,
+and not, as others maintained, furnished through the medium of an angel.
+
+The third fundamental dogma, _Yediah_, includes, according to Nachmanides,
+not only the omniscience of God—as the term is usually translated—but also
+His recognition of mankind and His special concern in them. Thus, he
+explains the words in the Bible with regard to Abraham, “For I know him”
+(Gen. xviii. 19), to indicate the special attachment of God’s Providence
+to the patriarch, which, on account of his righteousness, was to be
+uninterrupted for ever; whilst in other places we have to understand,
+under God’s knowledge of a thing, his determination to deal with it
+compassionately, as, for instance, when Scripture says that God knew
+(Exod. ii. 25), it means that His relation to Israel emanated from His
+attribute of mercy and love. But just as God knows (which means loves) the
+world, He requires also to be recognised and known by it. “For this was
+the purpose of the whole creation, that man should recognise and know Him
+and give praise to His name,” as it is said, “Everything that is called by
+my name (meaning, chosen to promulgate God’s name), for my glory have I
+created it.”
+
+It is this fact which gives Israel their high prerogative, for by
+receiving the Torah they were the first to know God’s name, to which they
+remained true in spite of all adversities; and thus accomplished God’s
+intention in creating the world. It is, again, by this Torah that the
+whole of Israel not only succeeded in being real prophets (at the moment
+of the Revelation), but also became _Segulah_,(88) which indicates the
+inseparable attachment between God and His people, whilst the righteous
+who never disobey His will become the seat of His throne.
+
+The position of the rest of humanity is also determined by their relation
+to the Torah. “It is,” Nachmanides tells us, “a main principle to know
+that all that man contrives to possess of knowledge and wisdom is only the
+fruits of the Torah or the fruits of its fruits. But for this knowledge
+there would be no difference between man and the lower animated species.
+The existence of the civilised nations of the world does not disprove this
+rule both Christians and Mahometans being also the heirs of the Torah. For
+when the Romans gained strength over Israel they made them translate the
+Torah which they studied, and they even accommodated some of their laws
+and institutions to those of the Bible.” Those nations, however, who live
+far away from the centre of the world (the Holy Land) and never come into
+contact with Israel are outside the pale of civilisation, and can hardly
+be ranked together with the human species. “They are the isles afar off,
+that have not heard my fame, neither have seen my glory.”
+
+What Nachmanides meant by maintaining that all knowledge and wisdom were
+“the fruits of the Torah, or the fruits of these fruits,” will be best
+seen from his _Commentary on the Pentateuch_. I have already made use of
+this Commentary in the preceding quotations, but, being the greatest of
+the works of Nachmanides, it calls for some special attention by itself.
+Its general purpose is edification, or as he says, “to appease the mind of
+the students (labouring under persecution and troubles) when they read the
+portion on Sabbaths and festivals, and to attract their heart by simple
+explanations and sweet words.” The explanations occupy a considerable
+space. As Dr. Perles has shown in his able essay on this work of
+Nachmanides, our author neglected no resource of philology or archæology
+accessible in his age which could contribute to establish the “simple
+explanations” on a sound scientific basis. The prominent feature of this
+Commentary, however, is the “sweet words.” Indeed, how sweet and soothing
+to his contemporaries must have been such words as we read at the end of
+the “Song of Moses” (Deut. xxxii.): “And behold there is nothing
+conditional in this Song. It is a charter testifying that we shall have to
+suffer heavily for our sins, but that, nevertheless, God will not destroy
+us, being reconciled to us (though we shall have no merits), and forgiving
+our sins for his name’s sake alone.... And so our Rabbis said, Great is
+this song, embracing as it does both the past (of Israel) and the future,
+this world and the world to come.... And if this song were the composition
+of a mere astrologer we should be constrained to believe in it,
+considering that all its words were fulfilled. How much more have we to
+hope with all our hearts and to trust to the word of God, through the
+mouth of his prophet Moses, the faithful in all his house, like unto whom
+there was none, whether before him or after him.” A part of these sweet
+words may also be seen in the numerous passages in which he attempts to
+account for various laws, and to detect their underlying principles.
+
+For though “the Torah is the expression of God’s simple and absolute will,
+which man has to follow without any consideration of reward,” still this
+will is not arbitrary, and even that class of laws which are called
+_chukkim_(89) (which means, according to some Jewish commentators,
+motiveless decrees) have their good reasons, notwithstanding that they are
+unfathomable to us. “They are all meant for the good of man, either to
+keep aloof from us something hurtful, or to educate us in goodness, or to
+remove from us an evil belief and to make us know his name. This is what
+they (the Rabbis) meant by saying that commandments have a purifying
+purpose, namely, that man being purified and tried by them becomes as one
+without alloy of bad thoughts and unworthy qualities.” Indeed, the soul of
+man is so sensitive to every impurity that it suffers a sort of infection
+even by an unintentional sin. Hence the injunction to bring a _Korban_
+(sacrifice) even in this case; the effect of the _Korban_, as its
+etymology (_Karab_)(90) indicates, is to bring man back to God, or rather
+to facilitate this approach. All this again is, as Nachmanides points out,
+only an affluence from God’s mercy and love to mankind. God derives no
+benefit from it. “If he be righteous what can he give thee?” And even
+those laws and institutions which are intended to commemorate God’s
+wonders and the creation of the world (for instance, the Passover festival
+and the Sabbath) are not meant for His glorification, or, as Heine
+maliciously expressed it:—
+
+
+    Der Weltkapellenmeister hier oben
+    Er selbst sogar hört gerne loben
+    Gleichfalls seine Werke....
+
+
+“For all the honour (we give to Him), and the praising of His work are
+counted by Him less than nothing and as vanity to Him.” What He desires is
+that we may know the truth, and be confirmed in it, for this makes us
+worthy of finding in Him “our Protector and King.”
+
+The lessons which Nachmanides draws from the various Biblical narratives
+also belong to these “sweet words.” They are mostly of a typical
+character. For, true as all the stories in the Scriptures are, “the whole
+Torah is,” as he tells us (with allusion to Gen. v. 1.), “the book of the
+generations of Adam,” or, as we should say, a history of humanity written
+in advance. Thus the account of the six days of the creation is turned
+into a prophecy of the most important events which would occur during the
+succeeding six thousand years, whilst the Sabbath is a forecast of the
+millennium in the seventh thousand, which will be the day of the Lord.
+Jacob and Esau are, as in the old Rabbinic homilies generally, the
+prototypes of Israel and Rome; and so is the battle of Moses and Joshua
+with Amalek indicative of the war which Elijah and the Messiah the son of
+Joseph will wage against Edom (the prototype of Rome), before the Redeemer
+from the house of David will appear.(91) Sometimes these stories convey
+both a moral and a pre‐justification of what was destined to happen to
+Israel. So Nachmanides’ remarks with reference to Sarah’s treatment of
+Hagar (Gen. xvi. 6): “Our mother Sarah sinned greatly by inflicting this
+pain on Hagar, as did also Abraham, who allowed such a thing to pass; but
+God saw her affliction and rewarded her by a son (the ancestor of a wild
+race), who would inflict on the seed of Abraham and Sarah every sort of
+oppression.” In this he alluded to the Islamic empires. Nor does he
+approve of Abraham’s conduct on the occasion of his coming to Egypt, when
+he asked Sarah to pass as his sister (Gen. xii.). “Unintentionally,”
+Nachmanides says, “Abraham, under the fear of being murdered, committed a
+great sin when he exposed his virtuous wife to such a temptation. For he
+ought to have trusted that God would save both him and his wife.... It is
+on account of this deed that his children had to suffer exile under the
+rule of Pharaoh. There, where the sin was committed, also the judgment
+took place.” It is also worth noticing that, in opposition to Maimonides,
+he allows no apology for the attack of Simeon and Levi on the population
+of Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 25). It is true that they were idolaters, immoral,
+and steeped in every abomination; but Jacob and his sons were not
+commissioned with executing justice on them. The people of Shechem trusted
+their word, therefore they ought to have spared them. Hence Jacob’s
+protest, and his curse against their wrath, which would have been quite
+unjustified had he looked on the action of his sons as a good work.
+
+Besides these typical meanings, the matters of the Torah have also their
+symbolical importance, which places them almost above the sphere of human
+conception; they are neither exactly what they seem to be nor entirely
+what their name implies, but a reflex from things unseen, which makes any
+human interference both preposterous and dangerous. Of “the things
+_called_ Tree of Life and Tree of Knowledge,” Nachmanides tells us that
+their mystery is very great, reaching into higher worlds. Otherwise, why
+should God, who is good and the dispenser of good, have prevented Adam
+from eating the fruit (of the latter), whilst in another place he says:
+“And if thou wilt be worthy, and understand the mystery of the word
+_Bereshith_(92) (with which the Torah begins), thou wilt see that in truth
+the Scripture, though apparently speaking of matters here below (on
+earth), is always pointing to things above (heaven);” for “every glory and
+every wonder, and every deep mystery, and all beautiful wisdom are hidden
+in the Torah, sealed up in her treasures.”
+
+It is very characteristic of the bent of Nachmanides’ mind, that he is
+perhaps the first Jewish writer who mentions the apocryphal book _The
+Wisdom of Solomon_, which he knew from a Syriac version, and which he
+believed to be genuine. And when we read there (vii. 7‐25), “Wherefore I
+prayed and understanding was given to me. I called upon God and the spirit
+of wisdom came upon me.... For God has given me unmistakable knowledge to
+know how the world was made, and the operations of the planets. The
+beginning, ending, and midst of the times, the alterations and the
+turnings of the sun, the changes of the seasons, the natures of the living
+creatures and the furies of the wild beasts, the force of the spirits and
+the reasonings of men, the diversities of plants and the virtues of the
+roots. All such things that are either secret or manifest, them I
+knew”—the wise king was, according to Nachmanides (who quotes the passages
+which I have just cited), speaking of the Torah, which is identical with
+this wisdom, a wisdom which existed before the creation, and by which God
+planned the world. Hence it bears the impression of all the universe,
+whilst on the other hand when it is said, “The king brought me into his
+chambers,” those secret recesses of the Torah are meant in which all the
+great mysteries relating to Creation and to the Chariot (Ezekiel i.) are
+hidden.
+
+We must content ourselves with these few sparks struck from the glowing
+fires of these inner compartments, which, imperfectly luminous as my
+treatment has left them, may yet shed some light on the personality of
+Nachmanides, which is the main object of this essay. But I do not propose
+to accompany the mystic into the “chambers of the king,” lest we may soon
+get into a labyrinth of obscure terms and strange ways of thinking for
+which the Ariadne thread is still wanting. We might also be confronted by
+the Fifty Gates of Understanding, the Thirty‐Two Paths of Wisdom, and the
+Two Hundred and Thirty‐One Permutations or Ciphers of the Alphabet, the
+key to which I do not hold. It is also questionable whether it would
+always be worth while to seek for it. When one, for instance, sees such a
+heaping on of nouns (with some Cabbalists) as the Land of Life, the Land
+of Promise, the Lord of the World, the Foundation Stone, Zion, Mother,
+Daughter, Sister, the Congregation of Israel, the Twin Roes, the Bride,
+Blue, End, Oral Law, Sea, Wisdom, etc., meant to represent the same thing
+or attribute, and to pass one into another, one cannot possibly help
+feeling some suspicion that one stands before a conglomerate of words run
+riot, over which the writer had lost all control.
+
+Indeed Nachmanides himself, in the preface to the above‐mentioned
+Commentary, gives us the kind advice not to meditate, or rather brood,
+over the mystical hints which are scattered over this work, “speculation
+being (in such matters) folly, and reasoning over them fraught with
+danger.” Indeed, the danger is obvious. I have, to give one or two
+instances, already alluded to the theory which accepts the Torah or the
+Wisdom as an agent in the creation of the world. But the mystic pushes
+further, and asks for the Primal Being to which this Wisdom owes its
+origin. The answer given is from the great Nothing, as it is written, And
+the Wisdom shall be found from Nothing.(93) What is intended by this, if
+it means anything, is probably to divest the first cause of every possible
+quality which by its very qualifying nature must be limiting and
+exclusive. Hence, God becomes the Unknowable. But suppose a metaphysical
+Hamlet, who, handling words indelicately, should impetuously exclaim, To
+be or not to be, that is the question?—into what abyss of utter negations
+would he drag all those who despair, by his terrible Nothing.
+
+On the other hand, into what gross anthropomorphisms may we be drawn by
+roughly handling certain metaphors which some Cabbalists have employed in
+their struggling after an adequate expression of God’s manifestations in
+His attribute of love, if we forget for a single moment that they are only
+figures of speech, but liable to get defiled by the slightest touch of an
+unchaste thought.
+
+But the greater the dangers that beset the path of mysticism, the deeper
+the interest which we feel in the mystic. In connection with the above‐
+mentioned warning, Nachmanides cites the words from the Scriptures, “But
+let not the priests and the people break through to come up unto the Lord,
+lest he break forth upon them” (Exod. xix. 24). Nevertheless, when we read
+in the Talmud the famous story of the four Rabbis(94) who went up into the
+_Pardes_, or Garden of Mystical Contemplation, we do not withhold our
+sympathy, either from Ben Azzai, who shot a glance and died, or from Ben
+Zoma, who shot a glance and was struck (in his mind). Nay, we feel the
+greatest admiration for these daring spirits, who, in their passionate
+attempt to “break through” the veil before the Infinite, hazarded their
+lives, and even that which is dearer than life, their minds, for a single
+glance. And did R. Meir deny his sympathies even to Other One or Elisha
+ben Abuyah, who “cut down the plants”? He is said to have heard a voice
+from heaven, “Return, oh backsliding children, except Other One,” which
+prevented his repentance. Poor fallen Acher, he mistook hell for heaven.
+But do not the struggle and despair which led to this unfortunate
+confusion rather plead for our commiseration?
+
+Nachmanides, however, in his gentle way, did not mean to storm heaven.
+Like R. Akiba, “he entered in peace, and departed in peace.” And it was by
+this peacefulness of his nature that he gained an influence over posterity
+which is equalled only by that of Maimonides. “If he was not a profound
+thinker,” like the author of the _Guide of the Perplexed_, he had that
+which is next best—“he felt profoundly.” Some writers of a rather
+reactionary character even went so far as to assign to him a higher place
+than to Maimonides. This is unjust. What a blank would there have been in
+Jewish thought but for Maimonides’ great work, on which the noblest
+thinkers of Israel fed for centuries! As long as Job and Ecclesiastes hold
+their proper place in the Bible, and the Talmud contains hundreds of
+passages suggesting difficulties relating to such problems as the creation
+of the world, God’s exact relation to it, the origin of evil, free will
+and predestination, none will persuade me that philosophy does not form an
+integral part of Jewish tradition, which, in its historical developments,
+took the shape which Maimonides and his successors gave to it. If
+Maimonides’ _Guide_, which he considered as an interpretation of the Bible
+and of many strange sayings in the old Rabbinic homilies in the Talmud, is
+Aristotelian in its tone, so is tradition too; even the Talmud in many
+places betrays all sorts of foreign influences, and none would think of
+declaring it un‐Jewish on this ground. I may also remark in passing that
+the certainty with which some writers deprecate the aids which religion
+may receive from philosophy is a little too hasty. For the question will
+always remain, What religion? The religion of R. Moses of Tachau or R.
+Joseph Jabez(95) would certainly have been greatly endangered by the
+slightest touch of speculation, while that of Bachya,(96) Maimonides,
+Jedaiah of Bedres, and Delmedigo undoubtedly received from philosophy its
+noblest support, and became intensified by the union.
+
+But apart from that consideration, the sphere of the activity of these two
+leaders seems to have been so widely different that it is hardly just to
+consider them as antagonists, or at least to emphasise the antagonism too
+much. Maimonides wrote his chief work, the _Guide_, for the few elect,
+who, like Ibn Tibbon(97) for instance, would traverse whole continents if
+a single syllogism went wrong. And if he could be of use to one wise man
+of this stamp, Maimonides would do so at the risk of “saying things
+unsuitable for ten thousand fools.” But with Nachmanides, it would seem,
+it was these ten thousand who formed the main object of his tender care.
+They are, as we have seen, cultivated men, indeed “students,” having
+enjoyed a proper education; but the happy times of abstract thinking have
+gone, and being under a perpetual strain of persecutions and cares, they
+long for the Sabbath and Festivals, which would bring them both bodily and
+spiritual recreation. They find no fault with religion, a false syllogism
+does not jar on their ears; what they are afraid of is that, being engaged
+as they are, all the six days of work, in their domestic affairs, religion
+may be too good a thing for them. “To appease their minds,” to edify them,
+to make life more sweet and death less terrible to them, and to show them
+that even their weaknesses, as far as they are conditioned by nature, are
+not irreconcilable with a holy life, was what Nachmanides strove after.
+Now and then he permits them a glance into the mystical world in which he
+himself loved to move, but he does not care to stifle their senses into an
+idle contemplation, and passes quickly to some more practical application.
+To be sure, the tabernacle is nothing but a complete map of the superlunar
+world; but nevertheless its rather minute description is meant to teach us
+“that God desires us to work.”
+
+This tendency toward being useful to the great majority of mankind may
+account for the want of consistency of which Nachmanides was so often
+accused. It is only the logician who can afford to be thoroughgoing in his
+theory, and even he would become most absurd and even dangerous but for
+the redeeming fact “that men are better than their principles.” But with
+Nachmanides these “principles” would have proved even more fatal. Could
+he, for instance, have upset authority in the face of the ten thousand?
+They need to be guided rather than to guide. But he does not want them to
+follow either the Gaon or anybody else slavishly, “the gates of wisdom
+never having been shut,” whilst on the other hand he hints to them that
+there is something divine in every man, which places him at least on the
+same high level with any authority. Take another instance—his wavering
+attitude between the Maimonists and the Anti‐Maimonists, for which he was
+often censured. Apart from other reasons, to which I have pointed above,
+might he not have felt that, in spite of his personal admiration for
+Maimonides’ genius, he had no right to put himself entirely on the side
+where there was little room for the ten thousand who were entrusted to his
+guidance, whilst the French Rabbis, with all their prejudices and
+intolerance, would never deny their sympathies to simple emotional folk?
+
+This tender and absorbing care for the people in general may also account
+for the fact that we do not know of a single treatise by Nachmanides of a
+purely Cabbalistic character in the style of the _Book of Weight_, by
+Moses de Leon, or the _Orchard_, by R. Moses Cordovora, or the _Tree of
+Life_ by R. Isaac Loria.(98) The story that attributes to him the
+discovery of the _Zohar_ in a cave in Palestine, from whence he sent it to
+Catalonia, needs as little refutation as the other story connected with
+his conversion to the Cabbalah, which is even more silly and of such a
+nature as not to bear repetition. The _Lilac of Mysteries_(99) and other
+mystical works passed also for a long time under his name, but their claim
+to this honour has been entirely disproved by the bibliographers, and they
+rank now among the _pseudepigraphica_. It is true that R. Nissim, of
+Gerona, said of Nachmanides that he was too much addicted to the belief in
+the Cabbalah, and as a fellow‐countryman he may have had some personal
+knowledge about the matter. But as far as his writings go, this belief
+finds expression only in incidental remarks and occasional citations from
+the Bahir,(100) which he never thrusts upon the reader. It was chiefly
+when philosophy called in question his deep sympathies with even lower
+humanity, and threatened to withdraw them from those ennobling influences
+under which he wanted to keep them, that he asserted his mystical
+theories.
+
+Nachmanides’ inconsistency has also proved beneficial in another respect.
+For mysticism has, by its over‐emphasising of the divine in man, shown a
+strong tendency to remove God altogether and replace Him by the creature
+of His hands. Witness only the theological bubble of Shabbethai
+Tsebi—happily it burst quickly enough—which resulted in mere idolatry (in
+more polite language, Hero Worship) on the one side, and in the grossest
+antinomianism on the other. Nachmanides, however, with a happy
+inconsistency, combined with the belief of man’s origin in God, a not less
+strong conviction of man’s liability to sin, of the fact that he _does_
+sin—even the patriarchs were not free from it, as we have seen above—and
+that this sin _does_ alienate man from God. This healthy control over
+man’s extravagant idea of his own species was with Nachmanides also a
+fruit of the Torah, within the limits of which everything must move, the
+mystic and his aspirations included, whilst its fair admixture of 365 _Do
+not’s_ with 248 _Do’s_ preserved him from that “holy doing nothing” which
+so many mystics indulged in, and made his a most active life.
+
+Much of this activity was displayed in Palestine, “the land to which the
+providence of God is especially attached,” and which was, as with R. Judah
+Hallevi, always “his ideal home.” There he not only completed his
+_Commentary on the Pentateuch_, but also erected synagogues, and engaged
+in organising communities, whose tone he tried to elevate both by his
+lectures and by his sermons. His career in Palestine was not a long one,
+for he lived there only about three years, and in 1270 he must already
+have been dead. A pretty legend narrates that when he emigrated to
+Palestine his pupils asked him to give them a sign enabling them to
+ascertain the day of his death. He answered them that on that day a rift
+in the shape of a lamp would be seen in the tombstone of his mother. After
+three years a pupil suddenly noticed this rift, when the mourning over the
+Rabbi began. Thus, stone, or anything else earthly, breaks finally, and
+the life of the master passes into light.
+
+What life meant to him, how deeply he was convinced that there is no other
+life but that originating in God, how deeply stirred his soul was by the
+consciousness of sin, what agonies the thought of the alienation from God
+caused him, how he felt that there is nothing left to him but to throw
+himself upon the mercy of God, and how he rejoiced in the hope of a final
+reunion with Him—of all these sentiments we find the best expression in
+the following religious poem, with which this paper may conclude.
+Nachmanides composed it in Hebrew, and it is still preserved in some
+rituals as a hymn, recited on the Day of Atonement. It is here given in
+the English translation of Mrs. Henry Lucas.(101)
+
+
+    Ere time began, ere age to age had thrilled,
+    I waited in his storehouse, as he willed;
+    He gave me being, but, my years fulfilled,
+        I shall be summoned back before the King.
+
+    He called the hidden to the light of day,
+    To right and left, each side the fountain lay,
+    From out the stream and down the steps, the way
+        That led me to the garden of the King.
+
+    Thou gavest me a light my path to guide,
+    To prove my heart’s recesses still untried;
+    And as I went, thy voice in warning cried:
+        "Child! fear thou him who is thy God and King!"
+
+    True weight and measure learned my heart from thee;
+    If blessings follow, then what joy for me!
+    If nought but sin, all mine the shame must be,
+        For that was not determined by the King.
+
+    I hasten, trembling, to confess the whole
+    Of my transgressions, ere I reach the goal
+    Where mine own words must witness ’gainst my soul,
+        And who dares doubt the writing of the King?
+
+    Erring, I wandered in the wilderness,
+    In passion’s grave nigh sinking powerless;
+    Now deeply I repent, in sore distress,
+        That I kept not the statutes of the King!
+
+    With worldly longings was my bosom fraught,
+    Earth’s idle toys and follies all I sought;
+    Ah! when he judges joys so dearly bought,
+        How greatly shall I fear my Lord and King!
+
+    Now conscience‐stricken, humbled to the dust,
+    Doubting himself, in thee alone his trust,
+    He shrinks in terror back, for God is just—
+        How can a sinner hope to reach the King?
+
+    Oh, be thy mercy in the balance laid,
+    To hold thy servant’s sins more lightly weighed,
+    When, his confession penitently made,
+        He answers for his guilt before the King.
+
+    Thine is the love, O God, and thine the grace,
+    That folds the sinner in its mild embrace;
+    Thine the forgiveness, bridging o’er the space
+        ’Twixt man’s works and the task set by the King.
+
+    Unheeding all my sins, I cling to thee;
+    I know that mercy shall thy footstool be:
+    Before I call, oh, do thou answer me,
+        For nothing dare I claim of thee, my King!
+
+    O thou, who makest guilt to disappear,
+    My help, my hope, my rock, I will not fear;
+    Though thou the body hold in dungeon drear,
+        The soul has found the palace of the King!
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+The third letter of Nachmanides to which I have alluded above, is embodied
+in the following will by R. Solomon, son of the martyr Isaac. Neither the
+date nor the country of the testator is known, but style and language make
+it probable that he was a Spanish Jew, and lived in the fourteenth
+century. I give here a translation from the whole document as it is to be
+found in the Manuscripts.
+
+
+    These are the regulations which I, Solomon, the son of the martyr,
+    Rabbi Isaac, the son of R. Zadok, of blessed memory, draw up for
+    myself. That as long as I am in good health, and free from
+    accident, and think of it, I shall not eat before I have studied
+    one page of the Talmud or of its commentaries. Should I transgress
+    this rule intentionally, I must not drink wine on that day, or I
+    shall pay half a _Zehub_(102) to charity. Again, that I shall
+    every week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and once in
+    the Aramaic version. Should I intentionally omit completing the
+    Lesson as above, then I must pay two _Zehubs_ to charity. Again,
+    that I shall every Sabbath take three meals, consisting of bread
+    or fruit. Should I omit to do so, I must give in charity half a
+    _Zehub_. Again, in order to subdue my appetites, and not to enjoy
+    in this world more than is necessary for the maintenance of my
+    body, I must not eat at one meal more than one course of meat, and
+    not more than two courses altogether; nor must I drink more than
+    two cups of wine at one meal, apart from the blessing‐cup (over
+    which grace is said), except on Sabbath, Festivals, Chanukah (the
+    Maccabean Dedication Feast), New Moon, and at other religious
+    meals (for instance, wedding‐dinners and similar festive
+    occasions). Again, I must not have any regular meal on the day
+    preceding Sabbath or Festivals. I must not have during the day
+    more than one course, so that I shall enter upon the holy day with
+    a good appetite. Should I transgress this resolve intentionally I
+    shall have to fast a day, or to pay two _Zehubs_. Again, that I
+    shall not eat the fish called _burbot_,(103) if I think of it.
+    Again, even on the above‐mentioned days, I must not eat more than
+    three courses at a meal, nor drink more than three cups of wine,
+    exclusive of the blessing‐cup. Again, ... I must not swear by God,
+    nor mention the name of Heaven without a purpose, nor curse any
+    man in the name of God. Should I, God forbid, transgress it, I
+    must not drink more than one cup of wine on that day exclusive of
+    the blessing‐cup. Should I, however, transgress this after dinner,
+    I must abstain from wine the following day. Should I transgress
+    it, I have to pay half a _Zehub_. Again, that I shall get up every
+    night to praise God, to supplicate for His mercy, and to confess.
+    On those nights when confession is not to be said (Sabbaths and
+    Festivals), I shall say hymns and psalms. This I shall do when I
+    am in my house, and in good health, free from any accident. Should
+    I transgress it, I shall drink not more than one cup of wine the
+    following day, except the blessing‐cup. I again take upon myself
+    to give in charity the following proportion of my expenditure—from
+    each dress which I shall have made for myself or for one member of
+    my family, costing more than ten _Zehubs_, I must pay one
+    _Pashut_(104) for each ten _Zehubs_. Again, if I should buy an
+    animal, or a slave, or a female slave, or ground, that I shall
+    also pay at the same rate. And if I shall buy clothes for sale,
+    called _fashas_, I shall pay two _Pashuts_ for each garment. As
+    often as I have occasion to say the benediction of thanksgivings
+    for having escaped danger I shall pay a _Zehub_, except when I am
+    travelling [also involving danger in those times!], in which case
+    I shall have to pay a _Zehub_ on my arrival, and two _Pashuts_
+    daily during the journey. Again, from every kind of fish bought
+    for me, costing more than a _Zehub_, I shall pay a _Pashut_ for
+    each _Zehub_. And also, if I shall be deemed worthy by God to
+    marry my children, and to be present at their wedding, to cause
+    them to give to the poor from the dowry brought to them by their
+    wives, whether in money or in kind, at the rate of one per cent.
+    If God will find me worthy of having sons, I must give in charity
+    according to my means at the time.
+
+    I shall also, between New Year and the Day of Atonement in each
+    year, calculate my profits during the past year and (after
+    deducting expenses) give a tithe thereof to the poor. Should I be
+    unable to make an accurate calculation, then I shall give
+    approximately. This tithe I shall put aside, together with the
+    other money for religious (charitable) purpose, to dispose of it
+    as I shall deem best. I also propose to have the liberty of
+    employing the money in any profitable speculation with a view to
+    augmenting it. But in respect of all I have written above I shall
+    not hold myself guilty if I transgress, if such transgression be
+    the result of forgetfulness; but in order to guard against it, I
+    shall read this through weekly.
+
+    I also command my children to take upon themselves as many of the
+    above regulations as may be in their power to observe, and also to
+    bind them (_i.e._ the regulations), from generation to generation,
+    upon their children. And he who carries them out, and even adds to
+    them, at pain of discomfort to himself, shall merit a special
+    blessing. And this is the text of the will which I, the above‐
+    mentioned Solomon, draw up for my children, may God preserve them.
+    That they shall pray thrice daily, and endeavour always to utter
+    their prayers with devotion. Again, that this prayer shall be said
+    in the _Beth Hammidrash_, or in the synagogue together with the
+    congregation. Again, that they shall apply all their powers to
+    maintain the synagogues and the houses of study, which our
+    ancestors have built, as well as to continue the endowments
+    established by my ancestors and myself. They must always endeavour
+    to imitate them, so that goodness shall never cease from among
+    them. Again, that they shall always have a chair on which a volume
+    of the Talmud, or some other Talmudical work, shall lie; so that
+    they shall always open a book when they come home. At least, they
+    shall read in any book they like four lines before taking their
+    meal. Again, that they shall every week read the Lesson twice in
+    the Hebrew text, and once in the Aramaic version. Again, to take
+    three meals on the Sabbath....
+
+    Again, that they shall be always modest, merciful, and charitable,
+    for these are the qualities by which the children of Israel are
+    known. Let also all their thoughts and meditations be always
+    directed to the service of the Lord, and be as charitable and
+    benevolent as possible, for this is all that remains to man of his
+    labour. They shall also endeavour to regulate their diet according
+    to the rules laid down by Rabbi Moses (b. Maimon, or Maimonides),
+    so as to fulfil the words of Scripture: “The righteous eateth to
+    the satisfying of his soul.” And let them always be careful not to
+    take the name of God in vain, to be honest in all business
+    transactions, and let their yea be always yea. They shall always
+    be under the obligation to train their children to the Study of
+    the Torah, but one shall devote his life exclusively to the study
+    thereof. And it shall be incumbent upon his brothers to support
+    this one, and to invest his moneys, and to provide for him that he
+    and his family may live respectably, so that he be not distracted
+    by worldly cares from his studies. Let also the elder love the
+    younger brothers as their own children, and the younger respect
+    the elder as a parent. Thus they may always bear in mind that they
+    are of a God‐fearing family. Let them love and honour scholars,
+    thus to merit the honour of having scholars for their sons and
+    sons‐in‐law. This will they shall themselves read weekly, and
+    shall also make it incumbent upon their children, from generation
+    to generation, to read weekly, in order to fulfil what is written
+    (Gen. xviii. 19), “For I know him that he will command his
+    children,” etc., and also the words of Isaiah (lix. 21), “And this
+    is my covenant,” etc. But as often as they shall read this will,
+    they shall also read the two letters below written, which Rabbi
+    Moses ben Nachman sent to his sons, with a view of being
+    serviceable to them in many respects. Should, heaven forbid, they
+    be by any sad accident prevented from fulfilling the injunctions
+    above laid down, they must fine themselves by not drinking wine on
+    that day, or by eating one course less at the dinner, or by giving
+    some fine in charity....
+
+
+And this is the letter which the above‐mentioned Rabbi sent from the Holy
+Land to Castile, when his son was staying before the king (in his
+service):—
+
+
+    “... May God bless you and preserve you from sin and punishment.
+    Behold, our master, King David, had a son, wise and of an
+    understanding heart, like unto whom there was never one before or
+    after. Nevertheless he said to him (1 Kings ii. 2): ‘And keep the
+    charge of the Lord thy God,’ etc. He also said to him: ‘And thou,
+    my son, know the God of thy father’ (1 Chron. xxviii. 9). Now, my
+    son, if thou wilt measure thyself with Solomon, thou wilt find
+    thyself a worm—not a man, merely an insect; nevertheless, if thou
+    wilt seek God, he will make thee great; and if thou wilt forsake
+    him, thou wilt be turned out and forsaken. My son, be careful that
+    thou read the _Shema_(105) morning and evening, as well as that
+    thou say the daily prayers. Have always with thee a Pentateuch
+    written correctly, and read therein the Lesson for each
+    Sabbath.... ‘Cast thy burden upon the Lord,’ for the thing which
+    thou believest far from thee is often very near unto thee. Know,
+    again, that thou art not master over thy words, nor hast power
+    over thy hand; but everything is in the hand of the Lord, who
+    formeth thy heart.... Be especially careful to keep aloof from the
+    women [of the court?]. Know that our God hates immorality, and
+    Balaam could in no other way injure Israel than by inciting them
+    to unchastity. [Here come many quotations from Malachi and
+    Ezra.]... My son, remember me always, and let the image of my
+    countenance be never absent from before thine eyes. Love not that
+    which I hate.... Let the words of the Psalmist be always upon thy
+    lips, ‘I am a stranger in the earth: hide not thy commandments
+    from me’ (Ps. cxix. 19); and God, who is good and the dispenser of
+    good, shall increase thy peace and prolong thy life in peace and
+    happiness, and promote thy honour according to thy wish and the
+    wish of thy father who begat thee, Moses ben Nachman.”
+
+
+
+
+
+V. A JEWISH BOSWELL
+
+
+There is a saying in the Talmud “Nothing exists of which there is not some
+indication in the Torah.” These words are often quoted, and some modern
+authors have pressed them so far as to find even the discoveries of
+Columbus and the inventions of Watt and Stephenson indicated in the Law.
+This is certainly misapplied ingenuity. But it is hardly an exaggeration
+to maintain that there is no noble manifestation of real religion, no
+expression of real piety, reverence, and devotion, to which Jewish
+literature would not offer a fair parallel.
+
+Thus it will hardly be astonishing to hear that Jewish literature has its
+Boswell to show, more than three centuries before the Scottish gentleman
+came to London to admire his Johnson, and more than four centuries before
+the Sage of Chelsea delivered his lectures on Hero Worship. And this
+Jewish Boswell was guided only by the motives suggested to him in the old
+Rabbinic literature. In this literature the reverence for the great man,
+and the absorption of one’s whole self in him, went so far that one Rabbi
+declared that the whole world was only created to serve such a man as
+company.(106)
+
+Again, the fact that, in the language of the Rabbis, the term for studying
+the Law and discussing it is “to attend” or rather “to serve the disciples
+of the Wise” may also have led people to the important truth that the
+great man is not a lecturing machine, but a sort of living Law himself.
+“When the man,” said one Rabbi, “has wholly devoted himself to the Torah,
+and thoroughly identified himself with it, it becomes almost his own
+Torah.” Thus people have not only to listen to his words but to observe
+his whole life, and to profit from all his actions and movements.
+
+This was what the Jewish Boswell sought to do. His name was Rabbi Solomon,
+of St. Goar, a small town on the Rhine, while the name of the master whom
+he served was R. Jacob, the Levite, better known by his initials Maharil,
+who filled the office of Chief Rabbi in Mayence and Worms successively.
+The main activity of Maharil falls in the first three decades of the
+fifteenth century. Those were troublous times for a Rabbi. For the
+preceding century with its persecution and sufferings—one has only to
+think of the Black Death and its terrible consequences for the Jews—led to
+the destruction of the great Schools, the decay of the study of the Law,
+and to the dissolution of many congregations. Those which remained lost
+all touch with each other, so that almost every larger Jewish community
+had its own _Minhag_ or ritual custom.(107)
+
+It was Maharil who brought some order into this chaos, and in the course
+of time his influence asserted itself so strongly that the rules observed
+by him in the performing of religious ceremonies were accepted by the
+great majority of the Jewish communities. Thus the personality of Maharil
+himself became a standing Minhag, suppressing all the other Minhagim
+(customs).
+
+But there must have been something very strong and very great about the
+personality of the man who could succeed in such an arduous task. For we
+must not forget that the Minhag or custom in its decay degenerates into a
+kind of religious fashion, the worst disease to which religion is liable,
+and the most difficult to cure. It is therefore an irreparable loss both
+for Jewish literature and for Jewish history, that the greatest part of
+Maharil’s posthumous writings are no longer extant, so that our knowledge
+about him is very small. But the little we know of him we owe chiefly to
+the communicativeness of his servant, the Solomon of St. Goar whom I
+mentioned above.
+
+Solomon not only gave us the “Customs” of his master, but also observed
+him closely in all his movements, and conscientiously wrote down all that
+he saw and heard, under the name of _Collectanea_. It seems that the bulk
+of these _Collectanea_ was also lost. But in the fragments that we still
+possess we are informed, among other things, how Maharil addressed his
+wife, how he treated his pupils, how careful he was in the use of his
+books, and even how clean his linen was. Is this not out‐Boswelling
+Boswell?
+
+The most striking point of agreement between the Boswell of the fifteenth
+and him of the eighteenth century, is that they both use the same passage
+from the Talmud to excuse the interest in trifles which their labours of
+love betrayed. Thus Solomon prefaces his _Collectanea_ with the following
+words: “It is written, His leaf shall not wither. These words were
+explained by our Sages to mean that even the idle talk of the disciples of
+the wise deserves a study. Upon this interpretation I have relied. In my
+love to R. Jacob the Levite, I collected everything about him. I did not
+refuse even small things, though many derided me. Everything I wrote down,
+for such was the desire of my heart.”
+
+Thus far Solomon. Now, if we turn to the introduction to Boswell’s _Life
+of Johnson_, we read the following sentence: “For this almost
+superstitious reverence, I have found very old and venerable authority
+quoted by our great modern prelate, Secker, in whose tenth sermon there is
+the following passage: ‘Rabbi Kimchi, a noted Jewish commentator who lived
+about five hundred years ago, explains that passage in the first Psalm,
+“His leaf also shall not wither” from Rabbins yet older than himself, that
+even the idle talk, so he expressed it, of a good man ought to be
+regarded.’ ”
+
+Croker’s note to this passage sounds rather strange. This editor says:
+“Kimchi was a Spanish Rabbi, who died in 1240. One wonders that Secker’s
+good sense should have condescended to quote this far‐fetched and futile
+interpretation of the simple and beautiful metaphor, by which the Psalmist
+illustrates the prosperity of the righteous man.” Now Kimchi died at least
+five years earlier than Croker states, but dates, we know from Macaulay’s
+essay on the subject, were not Croker’s strong point. But one can hardly
+forgive the editor of Boswell this lack of sympathy. Had he known what
+strong affinity there was between his most Christian author and the humble
+Jew Solomon, he would have less resented this condescension of Archbishop
+Secker.
+
+As for the Jewish Boswell himself, we know very little about him. The only
+place in which he speaks about his own person is that in which he derives
+his pedigree from R. Eleazar ben Samuel Hallevi (died 1357), and says that
+he was generally called “Der gute (the good) R. Salman.” He well deserved
+this appellation. In his Will we find the following injunction to his
+children: “Be honest, and conscientious in your dealing with men, with
+Jews as well as Gentiles, be kind and obliging to them; do not speak what
+is superfluous.” And wisdom is surely rare enough to render inappropriate
+a charge of superfluousness against the work of those who in bygone times
+spent their energies in gathering the crumbs that fell from the tables of
+the wise.
+
+
+
+
+
+VI. THE DOGMAS OF JUDAISM
+
+
+The object of this essay is to say about the dogmas of Judaism a word
+which I think ought not to be left unsaid.
+
+In speaking of dogmas it must be understood that Judaism does not ascribe
+to them any saving power. The belief in a dogma or a doctrine without
+abiding by its real or supposed consequences (_e.g._ the belief in
+_creatio ex nihilo_ without keeping the Sabbath) is of no value. And the
+question about certain doctrines is not whether they possess or do not
+possess the desired charm against certain diseases of the soul, but
+whether they ought to be considered as characteristics of Judaism or not.
+
+It must again be premised that the subject, which occupied the thoughts of
+the greatest and noblest Jewish minds for so many centuries, has been
+neglected for a comparatively long time. And this for various reasons.
+First, there is Mendelssohn’s assertion, or supposed assertion, in his
+_Jerusalem_, that Judaism has no dogmas—an assertion which has been
+accepted by the majority of modern Jewish theologians as the only dogma
+Judaism possesses. You can hear it pronounced in scores of Jewish pulpits;
+you can read it written in scores of Jewish books. To admit the
+possibility that Mendelssohn was in error was hardly permissible,
+especially for those with whom he enjoys a certain infallibility. Nay,
+even the fact that he himself was not consistent in his theory, and on
+another occasion declared that Judaism _has_ dogmas, only that they are
+purer and more in harmony with reason than those of other religions; or
+even the more important fact that he published a school‐book for children,
+in which the so‐called Thirteen Articles were embodied, only that instead
+of the formula “I believe,” he substituted “I am convinced,”—even such
+patent facts did not produce much effect upon many of our modern
+theologians.(108) They were either overlooked or explained away so as to
+make them harmonise with the great dogma of dogmalessness. For it is one
+of the attributes of infallibility that the words of its happy possessor
+must always be reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the
+unbeliever as gross contradictions.
+
+Another cause of the neglect into which the subject has fallen is that our
+century is an _historical_ one. It is not only books that have their fate,
+but also whole sciences and literatures. In past times it was religious
+speculation that formed the favourite study of scholars, in our time it is
+history with its critical foundation on a sound philology. Now as these
+two most important branches of Jewish science were so long neglected—were
+perhaps never cultivated in the true meaning of the word, and as Jewish
+literature is so vast and Jewish history so far‐reaching and eventful, we
+cannot wonder that these studies have absorbed the time and the labour of
+the greatest and best Jewish writers in this century.
+
+There is, besides, a certain tendency in historical studies that is
+hostile to mere theological speculation. The historian deals with
+realities, the theologian with abstractions. The latter likes to shape the
+universe after his system, and tells us how things _ought to be_, the
+former teaches us how they _are_ or _have been_, and the explanation he
+gives for their being so and not otherwise includes in most cases also a
+kind of justification for their existence. There is also the _odium
+theologicum_, which has been the cause of so much misfortune that it is
+hated by the historian, whilst the superficial, rationalistic way in which
+the theologian manages to explain everything which does not suit his
+system is most repulsive to the critical spirit.
+
+But it cannot be denied that this neglect has caused much confusion.
+Especially is this noticeable in England, which is essentially a
+theological country, and where people are but little prone to give up
+speculation about things which concern their most sacred interest and
+greatest happiness. Thus whilst we are exceedingly poor in all other
+branches of Jewish learning, we are comparatively rich in productions of a
+theological character. We have a superfluity of essays on such delicate
+subjects as eternal punishment, immortality of the soul, the day of
+judgment, etc., and many treatises on the definition of Judaism. But
+knowing little or nothing of the progress recently made in Jewish
+theology, of the many protests against all kinds of infallibility, whether
+canonised in this century or in olden times, we in England still maintain
+that Judaism has no dogmas as if nothing to the contrary had ever been
+said. We seek the foundation of Judaism in political economy, in hygiene,
+in everything except religion. Following the fashion of the day to esteem
+religion in proportion to its ability to adapt itself to every possible
+and impossible metaphysical and social system, we are anxious to squeeze
+out of Judaism the last drop of faith and hope, and strive to make it so
+flexible that we can turn it in every direction which it is our pleasure
+to follow. But alas! the flexibility has progressed so far as to classify
+Judaism among the invertebrate species, the lowest order of living things.
+It strongly resembles a certain Christian school which addresses itself to
+the world in general and claims to satisfy everybody alike. It claims to
+be socialism for the adherents of Karl Marx and Lassalle, worship of man
+for the followers of Comte and St. Simon; it carefully avoids the word
+“God” for the comfort of agnostics and sceptics, whilst on the other hand
+it pretends to hold sway over paradise, hell, and immortality for the
+edification of believers. In such illusions many of our theologians
+delight. For illusions they are; you cannot be everything if you want to
+be anything. Moreover, illusions in themselves are bad enough, but we are
+menaced with what is still worse. Judaism, divested of every higher
+religious motive, is in danger of falling into gross materialism. For what
+else is the meaning of such declarations as “Believe what you like, but
+conform to this or that mode of life”; what else does it mean but “We
+cannot expect you to believe that the things you are bidden to do are
+commanded by a higher authority; there is not such a thing as belief, but
+you ought to do them for conventionalism or for your own convenience.”
+
+But both these motives—the good opinion of our neighbours, as well as our
+bodily health—have nothing to do with our nobler and higher sentiments,
+and degrade Judaism to a matter of expediency or diplomacy. Indeed, things
+have advanced so far that well‐meaning but ill‐advised writers even think
+to render a service to Judaism by declaring it to be a kind of enlightened
+Hedonism, or rather a moderate Epicureanism.
+
+I have no intention of here answering the question, What is Judaism? This
+question is not less perplexing than the problem, What is God’s world?
+Judaism is also a great Infinite, composed of as many endless Units, the
+Jews. And these Unit‐Jews have been, and are still, scattered through all
+the world, and have passed under an immensity of influences, good and bad.
+If so, how can we give an exact definition of the Infinite, called
+Judaism?
+
+But if there is anything sure, it is that the highest motives which worked
+through the history of Judaism are the strong belief in God and the
+unshaken confidence that at last this God, the God of Israel, will be the
+God of the whole world; or, in other words, Faith and Hope are the two
+most prominent characteristics of Judaism.
+
+In the following pages I shall try to give a short account of the manner
+in which these two principles of Judaism found expression, from the
+earliest times down to the age of Mendelssohn; that is, to present an
+outline of the history of Jewish Dogmas. First, a few observations on the
+position of the Bible and the Talmud in relation to our theme.
+Insufficient and poor as they may be in proportion to the importance of
+these two fundamental documents of Judaism, these remarks may nevertheless
+suggest a connecting link between the teachings of Jewish antiquity and
+those of Maimonides and his successors.
+
+I begin with the Scriptures.
+
+The Bible itself hardly contains a command bidding us _to believe_. We are
+hardly ordered, _e.g._, to believe in the existence of God. I say hardly,
+but I do not altogether deny the existence of such a command. It is true
+that we do not find in the Scripture such words as: “You are commanded to
+believe in the existence of God.” Nor is any punishment assigned as
+awaiting him who denies it. Notwithstanding these facts, many Jewish
+authorities—among them such important men as Maimonides, R. Judah Hallevi,
+Nachmanides—perceive, in the first words of the Ten Commandments, “I am
+the Lord thy God,” the command to believe in His existence.(109)
+
+Be this as it may, there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that the Bible,
+in which every command is dictated by God, and in which all its heroes are
+the servants, the friends, or the ambassadors of God, presumes such a
+belief in every one to whom those laws are dictated, and these heroes
+address themselves. Nay, I think that the word “belief” is not even
+adequate. In a world with so many visible facts and invisible causes, as
+life and death, growth and decay, light and darkness; in a world where the
+sun rises and sets; where the stars appear regularly; where heavy rains
+pour down from the sky, often accompanied by such grand phenomena as
+thunder and lightning; in a world full of such marvels, but into which no
+notion has entered of all our modern true or false explanations—who but
+God is behind all these things? “Have the gates,” asks God, “have the
+gates of death been open to thee? or hast thou seen the doors of the
+shadow of death?... Where is the way where light dwelleth? and as for
+darkness, where is the place thereof?... Hath the rain a father? or who
+hath begotten the drops of dew?... Canst thou bind the sweet influences of
+Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?... Canst thou send lightnings, that
+they may go, and say unto thee, Here we are?” (Job xxxviii.). Of all these
+wonders, God was not merely the _prima causa_; they were the result of His
+direct action, without any intermediary causes. And it is as absurd to say
+that the ancient world believed in God, as for a future historian to
+assert of the nineteenth century that it believed in the effects of
+electricity. We _see_ them, and so antiquity _saw_ God. If there was any
+danger, it lay not in the denial of the existence of a God, but in having
+a wrong belief. Belief in as many gods as there are manifestations in
+nature, the investing of them with false attributes, the misunderstanding
+of God’s relation to men, lead to immorality. Thus the greater part of the
+laws and teachings of the Bible are either directed against polytheism,
+with all its low ideas of God, or rather of gods; or they are directed
+towards regulating God’s relation to men. Man is a servant of God, or His
+prophet, or even His friend. But this relationship man obtains only by his
+conduct. Nay, all man’s actions are carefully regulated by God, and
+connected with His holiness. The 19th chapter of Leviticus, which is
+considered by the Rabbis as the portion of the Law in which the most
+important articles of the Torah are embodied, is headed, “Ye shall be
+holy, for I the Lord your own God am holy.” And each law therein
+occurring, even those which concern our relations to each other, is _not_
+founded on utilitarian reasons, but is ordained because the opposite of it
+is an offence to the holiness of God, and profanes His creatures, whom He
+desired to be as holy as He is.(110)
+
+Thus the whole structure of the Bible is built upon the visible fact of
+the existence of a God, and upon the belief in the relation of God to men,
+especially to Israel. In spite of all that has been said to the contrary,
+the Bible _does_ lay stress upon belief, where belief is required. The
+unbelievers are rebuked again and again. “For all this they sinned still,
+and believed not for His wondrous work,” complains Asaph (Ps. lxxviii.
+32). And belief is praised in such exalted words as, “Thus saith the Lord,
+I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of thine espousals,
+when thou wentest after me in the wilderness, in a land that was not sown”
+(Jer. ii. 2). The Bible, especially the books of the prophets, consists,
+in great part, of promises for the future, which the Rabbis justly termed
+the “Consolations.”(111) For our purpose, it is of no great consequence to
+examine what future the prophets had in view, whether an immediate future
+or one more remote, at the end of days. At any rate, they inculcated hope
+and confidence that God would bring to pass a better time. I think that
+even the most advanced Bible critic—provided he is not guided by some
+modern Aryan reasons—must perceive in such passages as, “The Lord shall
+reign for ever and ever,” “The Lord shall rejoice in his works,” and many
+others, a hope for more than the establishment of the “national Deity
+among his votaries in Palestine.”
+
+We have now to pass over an interval of many centuries, the length of
+which depends upon the views held as to the date of the close of the
+canon, and examine what the Rabbis, the representatives of the prophets,
+thought on this subject. Not that the views of the author of the _Wisdom
+of Solomon_, of Philo and Aristobulus, and many others of the Judæo‐
+Alexandrian school would be uninteresting for us. But somehow their
+influence on Judaism was only a passing one, and their doctrines never
+became authoritative in the Synagogue. We must here confine ourselves to
+those who, even by the testimony of their bitterest enemies, occupied the
+seat of Moses.
+
+The successors of the prophets had to deal with new circumstances, and
+accordingly their teachings were adapted to the wants of their times. As
+the result of manifold foreign influences, the visible fact of the
+existence of God as manifested in the Bible had been somewhat obscured.
+Prophecy ceased, and the Holy Spirit which inspired a few chosen ones took
+its place. Afterwards this influence was reduced to the hearing of a Voice
+from Heaven, which was audible to still fewer. On the other hand the
+Rabbis had this advantage that they were not called upon to fight against
+idolatry as their predecessors the prophets had been. The evil inclination
+to worship idols was, as the Talmud expresses it allegorically, killed by
+the Men of the Great Synagogue, or, as we should put it, it was suppressed
+by the sufferings of the captivity in Babylon. This change of
+circumstances is marked by the following fact:—Whilst the prophets mostly
+considered idolatry as the cause of all sin, the Rabbis show a strong
+tendency to ascribe sin to a defect in, or a want of, belief on the part
+of the sinner. They teach that Adam would not have sinned unless he had
+first denied the “Root of all” (or the main principle), namely, the belief
+in the Omnipresence of God. Of Cain they say that before murdering his
+brother he declared: “There is no judgment, there is no judge, there is no
+world to come, and there is no reward for the just, and no punishment for
+the wicked.”(112)
+
+In another place we read that the commission of a sin in secret is an
+impertinent attempt by the doer to oust God from the world. But if
+unbelief is considered as the root of all evil, we may expect that the
+reverse of it, a perfect faith, would be praised in the most exalted
+terms. So we read: Faith is so great that the man who possesses it may
+hope to become a worthy vessel of the Holy Spirit, or, as we should
+express it, that he may hope to obtain by this power the highest degree of
+communion with his Maker. The Patriarch Abraham, notwithstanding all his
+other virtues, only became “the possessor of both worlds” by the merit of
+his strong faith. Nay, even the fulfilment of a single law when
+accompanied by true faith is, according to the Rabbis, sufficient to bring
+man nigh to God. And the future redemption is also conditional on the
+degree of faith shown by Israel.(113)
+
+It has often been asked what the Rabbis would have thought of a man who
+fulfils every commandment of the Torah, but does not believe that this
+Torah was given by God, or that there exists a God at all. It is indeed
+very difficult to answer this question with any degree of certainty. In
+the time of the Rabbis people were still too simple for such a diplomatic
+religion, and conformity in the modern sense was quite an unknown thing.
+But from the foregoing remarks it would seem that the Rabbis could not
+conceive such a monstrosity as atheistic orthodoxy. For, as we have seen,
+the Rabbis thought that unbelief must needs end in sin, for faith is the
+origin of all good. Accordingly, in the case just supposed they would have
+either suspected the man’s orthodoxy, or would have denied that his views
+were really what he professed them to be.
+
+Still more important than the above cited Agadic passages is one which we
+are about to quote from the tractate Sanhedrin. This tractate deals with
+the constitution, of the supreme law‐court, the examination of the
+witnesses, the functions of the judges, and the different punishment to be
+inflicted on the transgressors of the law. After having enumerated various
+kinds of capital punishment, the Mishnah adds the following words: “These
+are (the men) who are excluded from the life to come: He who says there is
+no resurrection from death; he who says there is no Torah given from
+heaven, and the Epikurus.”(114) This passage was considered by the Rabbis
+of the Middle Ages, as well as by modern scholars, the _locus classicus_
+for the dogma question. There are many passages in the Rabbinic literature
+which exclude man from the world to come for this or that sin. But these
+are more or less of an Agadic (legendary) character, and thus lend
+themselves to exaggeration and hyperbolic language. They cannot,
+therefore, be considered as serious legal dicta, or as the general opinion
+of the Rabbis.
+
+The Mishnah in Sanhedrin, however, has, if only by its position in a legal
+tractate, a certain _Halachic_ (obligatory) character. And the fact that
+so early an authority as R. Akiba made additions to it guarantees its high
+antiquity. The first two sentences of this Mishnah are clear enough. In
+modern language, and positively speaking, they would represent articles of
+belief in Resurrection and Revelation. Great difficulty is found in
+defining what was meant by the word _Epikurus_. The authorities of the
+Middle Ages, to whom I shall again have to refer, explain the Epikurus to
+be a man who denies the belief in reward and punishment; others identify
+him with one who denies the belief in Providence; while others again
+consider the Epikurus to be one who denies Tradition. But the parallel
+passages in which it occurs incline one rather to think that this word
+cannot be defined by one kind of heresy. It implies rather a frivolous
+treatment of the words of Scripture or of Tradition. In the case of the
+latter (Tradition) it is certainly not honest difference of opinion that
+is condemned; for the Rabbis themselves differed very often from each
+other, and even Mediæval authorities did not feel any compunction about
+explaining Scripture in variance with the Rabbinic interpretation, and
+sometimes they even went so far as to declare that the view of this or
+that great authority was only to be considered as an isolated opinion not
+deserving particular attention. What they did blame was, as already said,
+scoffing and impiety. We may thus safely assert that reverence for the
+teachers of Israel formed the third essential principle of Judaism.(115)
+
+I have still to remark that there occur in the Talmud such passages as
+“the Jew, even if he has sinned, is still a Jew,” or “He who denies
+idolatry is called a Jew.” These and similar passages have been used to
+prove that Judaism was not a positive religion, but only involved the
+negation of idolatry. But it has been overlooked that the statements
+quoted have more a legal than a theological character. The Jew belonged to
+his nationality even after having committed the greatest sin, just as the
+Englishman does not cease to be an Englishman—in regard to treason and the
+like—by having committed a heinous crime. But he has certainly acted in a
+very un‐English way, and having outraged the feelings of the whole nation
+will have to suffer for his misconduct. The Rabbis in a similar manner did
+not maintain that he who gave up the belief in Revelation and
+Resurrection, and treated irreverently the teachers of Israel, severed his
+connection with the Jewish nation, but that, for his crime, he was going
+to suffer the heaviest punishment. He was to be excluded from the world to
+come.
+
+Still, important as is the passage quoted from Sanhedrin, it would be
+erroneous to think that it exhausted the creed of the Rabbis. The liturgy
+and innumerable passages in the Midrashim show that they ardently clung to
+the belief in the advent of the Messiah. All their hope was turned to the
+future redemption and the final establishment of the Kingdom of Heaven on
+earth. Judaism, stripped of this belief, would have been for them devoid
+of meaning. The belief in reward and punishment is also repeated again and
+again in the old Rabbinic literature. A more emphatic declaration of the
+belief in Providence than is conveyed by the following passages is hardly
+conceivable. “Everything is foreseen, and free will is given. And the
+world is judged by grace.” Or, “the born are to die, and the dead to
+revive, and the living to be judged. For to know and to notify, and that
+it may be known that He (God) is the Framer and He the Creator, and He the
+Discerner, and He the Judge, and He the Witness,” etc.(116)
+
+But it must not be forgotten that it was not the habit of the Rabbis to
+lay down, either for conduct or for doctrine, rules which were commonly
+known. When they urged the three points stated above there must have been
+some historical reason for it. Probably these principles were controverted
+by some heretics. Indeed, the whole tone of the passage cited from
+Sanhedrin is a protest against certain unbelievers who are threatened with
+punishment. Other beliefs, not less essential, but less disputed, remain
+unmentioned, because there was no necessity to assert them.
+
+It was not till a much later time, when the Jews came into closer contact
+with new philosophical schools, and also new creeds which were more liable
+than heathenism was to be confused with Judaism, that this necessity was
+felt. And thus we are led at once to the period when the Jews became
+acquainted with the teachings of the Mohammedan schools. The Caraites came
+very early into contact with non‐Jewish systems. And so we find that they
+were also the first to formulate Jewish dogmas in a fixed number, and in a
+systematic order. It is also possible that their separation from the
+Tradition, and their early division into little sects among themselves,
+compelled them to take this step, in order to avoid further sectarianism.
+
+The number of their dogmas amounts to ten. According to Judah Hadasi
+(1150), who would appear to have derived them from his predecessors, their
+dogmas include the following articles:—1. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 2. The
+existence of a Creator, God; 3. This God is an absolute unity as well as
+incorporeal; 4. Moses and the other prophets were sent by God; 5. God has
+given to us the Torah, which is true and complete in every respect, not
+wanting the addition of the so‐called Oral Law; 6. The Torah must be
+studied by every Jew in the original (Hebrew) language; 7. The Holy Temple
+was a place elected by God for His manifestation; 8. Resurrection of the
+dead; 9. Punishment and reward after death; 10. The Coming of the Messiah,
+the son of David.
+
+How far the predecessors of Hadasi were influenced by a certain Joseph
+Albashir (about 950), of whom there exists a manuscript work, “Rudiments
+of Faith,” I am unable to say. The little we know of him reveals more of
+his intimacy with Arabic thoughts than of his importance for his sect in
+particular and for Judaism in general. After Hadasi I shall mention here
+Elijah Bashazi, a Caraite writer of the end of the fifteenth century. This
+author, who was much influenced by Maimonides, omits the second and the
+seventh articles. In order to make up the ten he numbers the belief in the
+eternity of God as an article, and divides the fourth article into two. In
+the fifth article Bashazi does not emphasise so strongly the completeness
+of the Torah as Hadasi, and omits the portion which is directed against
+Tradition. It is interesting to see the distinction which Bashazi draws
+between the Pentateuch and the Prophets. While he thinks that the five
+books of Moses can never be altered, he regards the words of the Prophets
+as only relating to their contemporaries, and thus subject to changes. As
+I do not want to anticipate Maimonides’ system, I must refrain from giving
+here the articles laid down by Solomon Troki in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. For the articles of Maimonides are copied by this
+writer with a few slight alterations so as to dress them in a Caraite
+garb.
+
+I must dismiss the Caraites with these few remarks, my object being
+chiefly to discuss the dogmas of the Synagogue from which they had
+separated themselves. Besides, as in everything Caraitic, there is no
+further development of the question. As Bashazi laid them down, they are
+still taught by the Caraites of to‐day. I return to the Rabbanites.(117)
+
+As is well known, Maimonides (1130‐1205), was the first Rabbanite who
+formulated the dogmas of the Synagogue. But there are indications of
+earlier attempts. R. Saadiah Gaon’s (892‐942) work, _Creeds and Opinions_,
+shows such traces. He says in his preface, “My heart sickens to see that
+the belief of my co‐religionists is impure and that their theological
+views are confused.” The subjects he treats in this book, such as
+creation, unity of God, resurrection of the dead, the future redemption of
+Israel, reward and punishment, and other kindred theological subjects
+might thus, perhaps, be considered as the essentials of the creed that the
+Gaon desired to present in a pure and rational form. R. Hannaneel, of
+Kairowan,(118) in the first half of the eleventh century, says in one of
+his commentaries that to deserve eternal life one must believe in _four_
+things: in God, in the prophets, in a future world where the just will be
+rewarded, and in the advent of the Redeemer. From R. Judah Hallevi’s
+_Cusari_, written in the beginning of the twelfth century, we might argue
+that the belief in the election of Israel by God was the cardinal dogma of
+the author.(119) Abraham Ibn Daud, a contemporary of Maimonides, in his
+book _The High Belief_,(120) speaks of _rudiments_, among which, besides
+such metaphysical principles as unity, rational conception of God’s
+attributes, etc., the belief in the immutability of the Law, etc., is
+included. Still, all these works are intended to furnish evidence from
+philosophy or history for the truth of religion rather than to give a
+definition of this truth. The latter task was undertaken by Maimonides.
+
+I refer to the thirteen articles embodied in his first work, _The
+Commentary to the Mishnah_. They are appended to the Mishnah in Sanhedrin,
+with which I dealt above. But though they do not form an independent
+treatise, Maimonides’ remarks must not be considered as merely incidental.
+
+That Maimonides was quite conscious of the importance of this exposition
+can be gathered from the concluding words addressed to the reader: “Know
+these (words) and repeat them many times, and think them over in the
+proper way. God knows that thou wouldst be deceiving thyself if thou
+thinkest thou hast understood them by having read them once or even ten
+times. Be not, therefore, hasty in perusing them. I have not composed them
+without deep study and earnest reflection.”
+
+The result of this deep study was that the following Thirteen Articles
+constitute the creed of Judaism. They are:—
+
+1. The belief in the existence of a Creator; 2. The belief in His Unity;
+3. The belief in His Incorporeality; 4. The belief in His Eternity; 5. The
+belief that all worship and adoration are due to Him alone; 6. The belief
+in Prophecy; 7. The belief that Moses was the greatest of all Prophets,
+both before and after him; 8. The belief that the Torah was revealed to
+Moses on Mount Sinai; 9. The belief in the Immutability of this revealed
+Torah; 10. The belief that God knows the actions of men; 11. The belief in
+Reward and Punishment; 12. The belief in the coming of the Messiah; 13.
+The belief in the Resurrection of the dead.
+
+The impulse given by the great philosopher and still greater Jew was
+eagerly followed by succeeding generations, and Judaism thus came into
+possession of a dogmatic literature such as it never knew before
+Maimonides. Maimonides is the centre of this literature, and I shall
+accordingly speak in the remainder of this essay of Maimonists and Anti‐
+Maimonists. These terms really apply to the great controversy that raged
+round Maimonides’ _Guide of __ the Perplexed_, but I shall, chiefly for
+brevity’s sake, employ them in these pages in a restricted sense to refer
+to the dispute concerning the Thirteen Articles.
+
+Among the Maimonists we may probably include the great majority of Jews,
+who accepted the Thirteen Articles without further question. Maimonides
+must indeed have filled up a great gap in Jewish theology, a gap,
+moreover, the existence of which was very generally perceived. A century
+had hardly elapsed before the Thirteen Articles had become a theme for the
+poets of the Synagogue. And almost every country where Jews lived can show
+a poem or a prayer founded on these Articles. R. Jacob Molin (1420) of
+Germany speaks of metrical and rhymed songs in the German language, the
+burden of which was the Thirteen Articles, and which were read by the
+common people with great devotion. The numerous commentaries and homilies
+written on the same topic would form a small library in themselves.(121)
+But on the other hand it must not be denied that the Anti‐Maimonists, that
+is to say those Jewish writers who did not agree with the creed formulated
+by Maimonides, or agreed only in part with him, form also a very strong
+and respectable minority. They deserve our attention the more as it is
+their works which brought life into the subject and deepened it. It is not
+by a perpetual Amen to every utterance of a great authority that truth or
+literature gains anything.
+
+The Anti‐Maimonists can be divided into two classes. The one class
+categorically denies that Judaism has dogmas. I shall have occasion to
+touch on this view when I come to speak of Abarbanel. Here I pass at once
+to the second class of Anti‐Maimonists. This consists of those who agree
+with Maimonides as to the existence of dogmas in Judaism, but who differ
+from him as to what these dogmas are, or who give a different enumeration
+of them.
+
+As the first of these Anti‐Maimonists we may regard Nachmanides, who, in
+his famous _Sermon in the Presence of the King_, speaks of three
+fundamental principles: Creation (that is, non‐eternity of matter),
+Omniscience of God, and Providence. Next comes R. Abba Mari ben Moses, of
+Montpellier. He wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and is
+famous in Jewish history for his zeal against the study of philosophy. We
+possess a small pamphlet by him dealing with our subject, and it forms a
+kind of prologue to his collection of controversial letters against the
+rationalists of his time.(122) He lays down three articles as the
+fundamental teachings of Religion: 1. Metaphysical: The existence of God,
+including His Unity and Incorporeality; 2. Mosaic: _Creatio ex nihilo_ by
+God—a consequence of this principle is the belief that God is capable of
+altering the laws of nature at His pleasure; 3. Ethical: Special
+Providence—_i.e._ God knows all our actions in all their details. Abba
+Mari does not mention Maimonides’ Thirteen Articles. But it would be false
+to conclude that he rejected the belief in the coming of the Messiah, or
+any other article of Maimonides. The whole tone and tendency of this
+pamphlet is polemical, and it is therefore probable that he only urged
+those points which were either doubted or explained in an unorthodox way
+by the sceptics of his time.
+
+Another scholar, of Provence, who wrote but twenty years later than Abba
+Mari—R. David ben Samuel d’Estella (1320)—speaks of the seven pillars of
+religion. They are: Revelation, Providence, Reward and Punishment, the
+Coming of the Messiah, Resurrection of the Dead, _Creatio ex nihilo_, and
+Free Will.(123)
+
+Of authors living in other countries, I have to mention here R. Shemariah,
+of Crete, who flourished at about the same time as R. David d’Estella, and
+is known from his efforts to reconcile the Caraites with the Rabbanites.
+This author wrote a book for the purpose of furnishing Jewish students
+with evidence for what he considered the five fundamental teachings of
+Judaism, viz.: 1. The Existence of God; 2. The Incorporeality of God; 3.
+His Absolute Unity; 4. That God created heaven and earth; 5. That God
+created the world after His will 5106 years ago—5106 (1346 A.C.), being
+the year in which Shemariah wrote these words.(124)
+
+In Portugal, at about the same time, we find R. David ben Yom‐Tob Bilia
+adding to the articles of Maimonides thirteen of his own, which he calls
+the “Fundamentals of the Thinking Man.” Five of these articles relate to
+the functions of the human soul, that, according to him, emanated from
+God, and to the way in which this divine soul receives its punishment and
+reward. The other eight articles are as follows: 1. The belief in the
+existence of spiritual beings—angels; 2. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 3. The
+belief in the existence of another world, and that this other world is
+only a spiritual one; 4. The Torah is above philosophy; 5. The Torah has
+an outward (literal) meaning and an inward (allegorical) meaning; 6. The
+text of the Torah is not subject to any emendation; 7. The reward of a
+good action is the good work itself, and the doer must not expect any
+other reward; 8. It is only by the “commands relating to the heart,” for
+instance, the belief in one eternal God, the loving and fearing Him, and
+not through good actions, that man attains the highest degree of
+perfection.(125) Perhaps it would be suitable to mention here another
+contemporaneous writer, who also enumerates twenty‐six articles. The name
+of this writer is unknown, and his articles are only gathered from
+quotations by later authors. It would seem from these quotations that the
+articles of this unknown author consisted mostly of statements emphasising
+the belief in the attributes of God: as, His Eternity, His Wisdom and
+Omnipotence, and the like.(126)
+
+More important for our subject are the productions of the fifteenth
+century, especially those of Spanish authors. The fifteen articles of R.
+Lipman Muhlhausen, in the preface to his well‐known _Book of Victory_(127)
+(1410), differ but slightly from those of Maimonides. In accordance with
+the anti‐Christian tendency of his polemical book, he lays more stress on
+the two articles of Unity and Incorporeality, and makes of them four. We
+can therefore dismiss him with this short remark, and pass at once to the
+Spanish Rabbis.
+
+The first of these is R. Chasdai Ibn Crescas, who composed his famous
+treatise, _The Light of God_, about 1405. Chasdai’s book is well known for
+its attacks on Aristotle, and also for its influence on Spinoza. But
+Chasdai deals also with Maimonides’ Thirteen Articles, to which he was
+very strongly opposed. Already in his preface he attacks Maimonides for
+speaking, in his _Book of the Commandments_, of the belief in the
+existence of God as an “affirmative precept.” Chasdai thinks it absurd;
+for every commandment must be dictated by some authority, but on whose
+authority can we dictate the acceptance of this authority? His general
+objection to the Thirteen Articles is that Maimonides confounded dogmas or
+_fundamental beliefs_ of Judaism, without which Judaism is inconceivable,
+with beliefs or _doctrines_ which Judaism inculcates, but the denial of
+which, though involving a strong heresy, does not make Judaism impossible.
+He maintains that if Maimonides meant only to count fundamental teachings,
+there are not more than seven; but that if he intended also to include
+doctrines, he ought to have enumerated sixteen. As beliefs of the first
+class—namely, fundamental beliefs—he considers the following articles: 1.
+God’s knowledge of our actions; 2. Providence; 3. God’s omnipotence—even
+to act against the laws of nature; 4. Prophecy; 5. Free will; 6. The aim
+of the Torah is to make man long after the closest communion with God. The
+belief in the existence of God, Chasdai thinks, is an axiom with which
+every religion must begin, and he is therefore uncertain whether to
+include it as a dogma or not. As to the doctrines which every Jew is bound
+to believe, but without which Judaism is not impossible, Chasdai divides
+them into two sections: (_a_) 1. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 2. Immortality of
+the soul; 3. Reward and Punishment; 4. Resurrection of the dead; 5.
+Immutability of the Torah; 6. Superiority of the prophecy of Moses; 7.
+That the High Priest received from God the instructions sought for, when
+he put his questions through the medium of the Urim and Thummim; 8. The
+coming of the Messiah. (_b_) Doctrines which are expressed by certain
+religious ceremonies, and on belief in which these ceremonies are
+conditioned: 1. The belief in the efficacy of prayer—as well as in the
+power of the benediction of the priests to convey to us the blessing of
+God; 2. God is merciful to the penitent; 3. Certain days in the year—for
+instance, the Day of Atonement—are especially qualified to bring us near
+to God, if we keep them in the way we are commanded. That Chasdai is a
+little arbitrary in the choice of his “doctrines,” I need hardly say.
+Indeed, Chasdai’s importance for the dogma‐question consists more in his
+critical suggestions than in his positive results. He was, as we have
+seen, the first to make the distinction between fundamental teachings
+which form the basis of Judaism, and those other simple Jewish doctrines
+without which Judaism is not impossible. Very daring is his remark, when
+proving that Reward and Punishment, Immortality of the soul, and
+Resurrection of the dead must not be considered as the basis of Judaism,
+since the highest ideal of religion is to serve God without any hope of
+reward. Even more daring are his words concerning the Immutability of the
+Law. He says: “Some have argued that, since God is perfection, so must
+also His law be perfect, and thus unsusceptible of improvement.” But he
+does not think this argument conclusive, though the fact in itself (the
+Immutability of the Law) is true. For one might answer that this
+perfection of the Torah could only be in accordance with the intelligence
+of those for whom it was meant; but as soon as the recipients of the Torah
+have advanced to a higher state of perfection, the Torah must also be
+altered to suit their advanced intelligence. A pupil of Chasdai
+illustrates the words of his master by a medical parallel. The physician
+has to adapt his medicaments to the various stages through which his
+patient has to pass. That he changes his prescription does not, however,
+imply that his medical knowledge is imperfect, or that his earlier
+remedies were ignorantly chosen; the varying condition of the invalid was
+the cause of the variation in the doctor’s treatment. Similarly, were not
+the Immutability of the Torah a “doctrine,” one might maintain that the
+perfection of the Torah would not be inconsistent with the assumption that
+it was susceptible of modification, in accordance with our changing and
+progressive circumstances. But all these arguments are purely of a
+theoretic character; for, practically, every Jew, according to Chasdai,
+has to accept all these beliefs, whether he terms them fundamental
+teachings or only Jewish doctrines.(128)
+
+Some years later, though he finished his work in the same year as Chasdai,
+R. Simeon Duran (1366‐1444,) a younger contemporary of the former, made
+his researches on dogmas. His studies on this subject form a kind of
+introduction to his commentary on Job, which he finished in the year 1405.
+Duran is not so strongly opposed to the Thirteen Articles as Chasdai, or
+as another “thinker of our people,” who thought them an arbitrary
+imitation of the thirteen attributes of God. Duran tries to justify
+Maimonides; but nevertheless he agrees with “earlier authorities,” who
+formulated the Jewish creed in Three Articles—The Existence of God,
+Revelation, and Reward and Punishment—under which Duran thinks the
+Thirteen Articles of Maimonides may be easily classed. Most interesting
+are his remarks concerning the validity of dogmas. He tells us that only
+those are to be considered as heretics who abide by their own opinions,
+though they know that they are contradictory to the views of the Torah.
+Those who accept the fundamental teachings of Judaism, but are led by
+their deep studies and earnest reflection to differ in details from the
+opinions current among their co‐religionists, and explain certain passages
+in the Scripture in their own way, must by no means be considered as
+heretics. We must, therefore, Duran proceeds to say, not blame such men as
+Maimonides, who gave an allegorical interpretation to certain passages in
+the Bible about miracles, or R. Levi ben Gershom, who followed certain un‐
+Jewish views in relation to the belief in _Creatio ex nihilo_. Only the
+views are condemnable, not those who cherish them. God forbid, says Duran,
+that such a thing should happen in Israel as to condemn honest inquirers
+on account of their differing opinions. It would be interesting to know of
+how many divines as tolerant as this persecuted Jew the fifteenth century
+can boast.(129)
+
+We can now pass to a more popular but less original writer on our theme. I
+refer to R. Joseph Albo, the author of the _Roots_,(130) who was the pupil
+of Chasdai, a younger contemporary of Duran, and wrote at a much later
+period than these authors. Graetz has justly denied him much originality.
+The chief merit of Albo consists in popularising other people’s thoughts,
+though he does not always take care to mention their names. And the
+student who is a little familiar with the contents of the _Roots_ will
+easily find that Albo has taken his best ideas either from Chasdai or from
+Duran. As it is of little consequence to us whether an article of faith is
+called “stem,” or “root,” or “branch,” there is scarcely anything fresh
+left to quote in the name of Albo. The late Dr. Löw, of Szegedin, was
+indeed right, when he answered an adversary who challenged him—“Who would
+dare to declare me a heretic as long as I confess the Three Articles laid
+down by Albo?” with the words “Albo himself.” For, after all the subtle
+distinctions Albo makes between different classes of dogmas, he declares
+that every one who denies even the immutability of the Law or the coming
+of the Messiah, which are, according to him, articles of minor importance,
+is a heretic who will be excluded from the world to come. But there is one
+point in his book which is worth noticing. It was suggested to him by
+Maimonides, indeed; still Albo has the merit of having emphasised it as it
+deserves. Among the articles which he calls “branches” Albo counts the
+belief that the perfection of man, which leads to eternal life, can be
+obtained by the fulfilling of _one_ commandment. But this command must, as
+Maimonides points out, be done without any worldly regard, and only for
+the love of God. When one considers how many platitudes are repeated year
+by year by certain theologians on the subject of Jewish legalism, we
+cannot lay enough stress on this article of Albo, and we ought to make it
+better known than it has hitherto been.(131)
+
+Though I cannot enter here into the enumeration of the Maimonists, I must
+not leave unmentioned the name of R. Nissim ben Moses of Marseilles, the
+first great Maimonist, who flourished about the end of the thirteenth
+century, and was considered as one of the most enlightened thinkers of his
+age.(132) Another great Maimonist deserving special attention is R.
+Abraham ben Shem‐Tob Bibago, who may perhaps be regarded as the most
+prominent among those who undertook to defend Maimonides against the
+attacks of Chasdai and others. Bibago wrote _The Path of Belief_(133) in
+the second half of the fifteenth century, and was, as Dr. Steinschneider
+aptly describes him, a _Denkgläubiger_. But, above all, he was a believing
+Jew. When he was once asked, at the table of King John II., of Aragon, by
+a Christian scholar, “Are you the Jewish philosopher?” he answered, “I am
+a Jew who believes in the Law given to us by our teacher Moses, though I
+have studied philosophy.” Bibago was such a devoted admirer of Maimonides
+that he could not tolerate any opposition to him. He speaks in one passage
+of the prudent people of his time who, in desiring to be looked upon as
+orthodox by the great mob, calumniated the Teacher (Maimonides), and
+depreciated his merits. Bibago’s book is very interesting, especially in
+its controversial parts; but in respect to dogmas he is, as already said,
+a Maimonist, and does not contribute any new point on our subject.
+
+To return to the Anti‐Maimonists of the second half of the fifteenth
+century. As such may be considered R. Isaac Aramah, who speaks of three
+foundations of religion: _Creatio ex nihilo_, Revelation (?), and the
+belief in a world to come.(134) Next to be mentioned is R. Joseph Jabez,
+who also accepts only three articles: _Creatio ex nihilo_, Individual
+Providence, and the Unity of God.(135) Under these three heads he tries to
+classify the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides.
+
+The last Spanish writer on our subject is R. Isaac Abarbanel. His treatise
+on the subject is known under the title _Top of Amanah_,(136) and was
+finished in the year 1495. The greatest part of this treatise forms a
+defence of Maimonides, many points in which are taken from Bibago. But, in
+spite of this fact, Abarbanel must not be considered a Maimonist. It is
+only a feeling of piety towards Maimonides, or perhaps rather a fondness
+for argument, that made him defend Maimonides against Chasdai and others.
+His own view is that it is a mistake to formulate dogmas of Judaism, since
+every word in the Torah has to be considered as a dogma for itself. It was
+only, says Abarbanel, by following the example of non‐Jewish scholars that
+Maimonides and others were induced to lay down dogmas. The non‐Jewish
+philosophers are in the habit of accepting in every science certain
+indisputable axioms from which they deduce the propositions which are less
+evident. The Jewish philosophers in a similar way sought for first
+principles in religion from which the whole of the Torah ought to be
+considered as a deduction. But, thinks Abarbanel, the Torah as a revealed
+code is under no necessity of deducing things from each other, for all the
+commands came from the same divine authority, and, therefore, all are
+alike evident, and have the same certainty. On this and similar grounds
+Abarbanel refused to accept dogmatic articles for Judaism, and he thus
+became the head of the school that forms a class by itself among the Anti‐
+Maimonists to which many of the greatest Cabbalists also belong. But it is
+idle talk to cite this school in aid of the modern theory that Judaism has
+no dogmas. As we have seen, it was rather an _embarras de richesse_ that
+prevented Abarbanel from accepting the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. To
+him and to the Cabbalists the Torah consists of at least 613 Articles.
+
+Abarbanel wrote his book with which we have just dealt, at Naples. And it
+is Italy to which, after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, we have to
+look chiefly for religious speculation. But the philosophers of Italy are
+still less independent of Maimonides than their predecessors in Spain.
+Thus we find that R. David Messer Leon, R. David Vital, and others were
+Maimonists. Even the otherwise refined and original thinker, R. Elijah
+Delmedigo (who died about the end of the fifteenth century) becomes almost
+impolite when he speaks of the adversaries of Maimonides in respect to
+dogmas. “It was only,” he says, “the would‐be philosopher that dared to
+question the articles of Maimonides. Our people have always the bad habit
+of thinking themselves competent to attack the greatest authorities as
+soon as they have got some knowledge of the subject. Genuine thinkers,
+however, attach very little importance to their objections.”(137)
+
+Indeed, it seems as if the energetic protests of Delmedigo scared away the
+Anti‐Maimonists for more than a century. Even in the following seventeenth
+century we have to notice only two Anti‐Maimonists. The one is R. Tobijah,
+the Priest (1652), who was of Polish descent, studied in Italy, and lived
+as a medical man in France. He seems to refuse to accept the belief in the
+Immutability of the Torah, and in the coming of the Messiah, as
+fundamental teachings of Judaism.(138) The other, at the end of the
+seventeenth century (1695), is R. Abraham Chayim Viterbo, of Italy. He
+accepts only six articles: 1. Existence of God; 2. Unity; 3.
+Incorporeality; 4. That God was revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai, and that
+the prophecy of Moses is true; 5. Revelation (including the historical
+parts of the Torah); 6. Reward and Punishment. As to the other articles of
+Maimonides, Viterbo, in opposition to other half‐hearted Anti‐Maimonists,
+declares that the man who denies them is _not_ to be considered as a
+heretic; though he ought to believe them.(139)
+
+I have now arrived at the limit I set to myself at the beginning of this
+essay. For, between the times of Viterbo and those of Mendelssohn, there
+is hardly to be found any serious opposition to Maimonides worth noticing
+here. Still I must mention the name of R. Saul Berlin (died 1794); there
+is much in his opinions on dogmas which will help us the better to
+understand the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. As the reader has seen, I
+have refrained so far from reproducing here the apologies which were made
+by many Maimonists in behalf of the Thirteen Articles. For, after all
+their elaborate pleas, none of them was able to clear Maimonides of the
+charge of having confounded dogmas or fundamental teachings with
+doctrines. It is also true that the Fifth Article—that prayer and worship
+must only be offered to God—cannot be considered even as a doctrine, but
+as a simple precept. And there are other difficulties which all the
+distinctions of the Maimonists will never be able to solve. The only
+possible justification is, I think, that suggested by a remark of R. Saul.
+This author, who was himself—like his friend and older contemporary
+Mendelssohn—a strong Anti‐Maimonist, among other remarks, maintains that
+dogmas must never be laid down but with regard to the necessities of the
+time.(140)
+
+Now R. Saul certainly did not doubt that Judaism is based on eternal
+truths which can in no way be shaken by new modes of thinking or changed
+circumstances. What he meant was that there are in every age certain
+beliefs which ought to be asserted more emphatically than others, without
+regard to their theological or rather logical importance. It is by this
+maxim that we shall be able to explain the articles of Maimonides. He
+asserted them, because they were necessary for his time.
+
+We know, for instance, from a letter of his son and from other
+contemporaries, that it was just at his time that the belief in the
+incorporeality of God was, in the opinion of Maimonides, a little relaxed.
+Maimonides, who thought such low notions of the Deity dangerous to
+Judaism, therefore laid down an article against them. He tells us in his
+_Guide_ that it was far from him to condemn any one who was not able to
+demonstrate the Incorporeality of God, but he stigmatised as a heretic one
+who refused to believe it. This position might be paralleled by that of a
+modern astronomer who, while considering it unreasonable to expect a
+mathematical demonstration of the movements of the earth from an ordinary
+unscientific man, would yet regard the person who refused to believe in
+such movements as an ignorant faddist.
+
+Again, Maimonides undoubtedly knew that there may be found in the
+Talmud—that bottomless sea with its innumerable undercurrents—passages
+that are not quite in harmony with his articles; for instance, the well‐
+known dictum of R. Hillel, who said, there is no Messiah for Israel—a
+passage which has already been quoted _ad nauseam_ by every opponent of
+Maimonides from the earliest times down to the year of grace 1896.
+Maimonides was well aware of the existence of this and similar passages.
+But, being deeply convinced of the necessity of the belief in a future
+redemption of _Israel_—in opposition to other creeds which claim this
+redemption exclusively for their own adherents—Maimonides simply ignored
+the saying of R. Hillel, as an isolated opinion which contradicts all the
+consciousness and traditions of the Jew as expressed in thousands of other
+passages, and especially in the liturgy. Most interesting is Maimonides’
+view about such isolated opinions in a letter to the wise men of
+Marseilles. He deals there with the question of free will and other
+theological subjects. After having stated his own view he goes on to say:
+“I know that it is possible to find in the Talmud or in the Midrash this
+or that saying in contradiction to the views you have heard from me. But
+you must not be troubled by them. One must not refuse to accept a
+doctrine, the truth of which has been proved, on account of its being in
+opposition to some isolated opinion held by this or that great authority.
+Is it not possible that he overlooked some important considerations when
+he uttered this strange opinion? It is also possible that his words must
+not be taken literally, and have to be explained in an allegorical way. We
+can also think that his words were only to be applied with regard to
+certain circumstances of his time, but never intended as permanent
+truths.... No man must surrender his private judgment. The eyes are not
+directed backwards but forwards.” In another place Maimonides calls the
+suppression of one’s own opinions—for the reason of their being
+irreconcilable with the isolated views of some great authority—a moral
+suicide.
+
+By such motives Maimonides was guided when he left certain views hazarded
+in the Rabbinic literature unheeded, and followed what we may perhaps call
+the religious instinct, trusting to his own conscience. We may again be
+certain that Maimonides was clear‐headed enough to see that the words of
+the Torah: “And there arose no prophet since in Israel like unto Moses”
+(Deut. xxxiv. 10), were as little intended to imply a doctrine as the
+passage relating to the king Josiah, “And like unto him was there no king
+before him that turned to the Lord with all his heart ... neither after
+him arose there any like him” (2 Kings xxiii. 25). And none would think of
+declaring the man a heretic who should believe another king to be as pious
+as Josiah. But living among followers of the “imitating creeds” (as he
+calls Christianity and Mohammedism), who claimed that their religion had
+superseded the law of Moses, Maimonides, consciously or unconsciously,
+felt himself compelled to assert the superiority of the prophecy of Moses.
+And so we may guess that every article of Maimonides which seems to offer
+difficulties to us contains an assertion of some relaxed belief, or a
+protest against the pretensions of other creeds, though we are not always
+able to discover the exact necessity for them. On the other hand,
+Maimonides did not assert the belief in free will, for which he argued so
+earnestly in his _Guide_. The common “man,” with his simple unspeculative
+mind, for whom these Thirteen Articles were intended, “never dreamed that
+the will was not free,” and there was no necessity of impressing on his
+mind things which he had never doubted.(141)
+
+So much about Maimonides. As to the Anti‐Maimonists, it could hardly
+escape the reader that in some of the quoted systems the difference from
+the view of Maimonides is only a logical one, not a theological. Of some
+authors again, especially those of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries, it is not at all certain whether they intended to oppose
+Maimonides. Others again, as for instance R. Abba Mari, R. Lipman, and R.
+Joseph Jabez, acted on the same principle as Maimonides, urging only those
+teachings of Judaism which they thought endangered. One could now, indeed,
+animated by the praiseworthy example given to us by Maimonides, also
+propose some articles of faith which are suggested to us by the
+necessities of our own time. One might, for instance, insert the article,
+“I believe that Judaism is, in the first instance, a divine religion,
+_not_ a mere complex of racial peculiarities and tribal customs.” One
+might again propose an article to the effect that Judaism is a
+proselytising religion, having the mission to bring about God’s kingdom on
+earth, and to include in that kingdom all mankind. One might also submit
+for consideration whether it would not be advisable to urge a little more
+the principle that religion means chiefly a _Weltanschauung_ and worship
+of God by means of holiness both in thought and in action. One would even
+not object to accept the article laid down by R. Saul, that we have to
+look upon ourselves as sinners. Morbid as such a belief may be, it would,
+if properly impressed on our mind, have perhaps the wholesome effect of
+cooling down a little our self‐importance and our mutual admiration that
+makes all progress among us almost impossible.
+
+But it was not my purpose to ventilate here the question whether
+Maimonides’ articles are sufficient for us, or whether we ought not to add
+new ones to them. Nor do I attempt to decide what system we ought to
+prefer for recitation in the Synagogue—that of Maimonides or that of
+Chasdai, or of any other writer. I do not think that such a recital is of
+much use. My object in this sketch has been rather to make the reader
+_think_ about Judaism, by proving that it regulates not only our actions,
+but also our thoughts. We usually urge that in Judaism religion means
+life; but we forget that a life without guiding principles and thoughts is
+a life not worth living. At least it was so considered by the greatest
+Jewish thinkers, and hence their efforts to formulate the creed of
+Judaism, so that men should not only be able to do the right thing, but
+also to think the right thing. Whether they succeeded in their attempts
+towards formulating the creed of Judaism or not will always remain a
+question. This concerns the logician more than the theologian. But surely
+Maimonides and his successors _did_ succeed in having a religion depending
+directly on God, with the most ideal and lofty aspirations for the future;
+whilst the Judaism of a great part of our modern theologians reminds one
+very much of the words with which the author of _Marius the Epicurean_
+characterises the Roman religion in the days of her decline: a religion
+which had been always something to be done rather than something to be
+thought, or believed, or loved.
+
+Political economy, hygiene, statistics, are very fine things. But no sane
+man would for them make those sacrifices which Judaism requires from us.
+It is only for God’s sake, to fulfil His commands and to accomplish His
+purpose, that religion becomes worth living and dying for. And this can
+only be possible with a religion which possesses dogmas.
+
+It is true that every great religion is “a concentration of many ideas and
+ideals,” which make this religion able to adapt itself to various modes of
+thinking and living. But there must always be a point round which all
+these ideas concentrate themselves. This centre is Dogma.
+
+
+
+
+
+VII. THE HISTORY OF JEWISH TRADITION
+
+
+There is an anecdote about a famous theologian to the effect that he used
+to tell his pupils, “Should I ever grow old and weak—which usually drives
+people to embrace the safer side—and alter my opinions, then pray do not
+believe me.” The concluding volume of Weiss’s _History of Jewish
+Tradition_(142) shows that there was no need for our author to warn his
+pupils against the dangers accompanying old age. For though Weiss had,
+when he began to write this last volume, already exceeded his three‐score
+and ten, and, as we read in the preface, had some misgivings as to whether
+he should continue his work, there is no trace in it of any abatement of
+the great powers of the author. It is marked by the same freshness in
+diction, the same marvellous scholarship, the same display of astonishing
+critical powers, and the same impartial and straightforward way of judging
+persons and things, for which the preceding volumes were so much
+distinguished and admired.
+
+This book, which is recognised as a standard work abroad, is, I fear,
+owing to the fact of its being written in the Hebrew language, not
+sufficiently known in this country. Weiss does not want _our_ recognition;
+we are rather in need of his instruction. Some general view of his
+estimate of Jewish Tradition may, therefore, be of service to the student.
+It is, indeed, the only work of its kind. Zunz has confined himself to the
+history of the Agadah. Graetz gave most of his attention to the political
+side of Jewish history. But comparatively little has been done for the
+Halachah, though Frankel, Geiger, Herzfeld, and others have treated some
+single points in various monographs. Thus it was left for Weiss to write
+the _History of Tradition_, which includes both the Agadah and the
+Halachah. The treatment of this latter must have proved, in consequence of
+the intricate and intractable nature of its materials, by far the more
+difficult portion of his task.
+
+In speaking of the _History_ of Tradition, a term which suggests the
+fluctuating character of a thing, its origin, development, progress, and
+retrogression, we have already indicated that Weiss does not consider even
+the Halachah as having come down from heaven, ready‐made, and definitely
+fixed for all time. To define it more clearly, Tradition is, apart from
+the few ordinances and certain usages for which there is no precedent in
+the Bible, the history of interpretation of the Scriptures, which was
+constantly liable to variation, not on grounds of philology, but through
+the subjective notions of successive generations regarding religion and
+the method and scope of its application.
+
+Weiss’s standpoint with reference to the Pentateuch is the conservative
+one, maintaining both its unity and its Mosaic authorship. Those passages
+and accounts in the Bible in which the modern critic discerns traces of
+different traditional sources, are for Weiss only indicative of the
+various stages of interpretation through which the Pentateuch had to pass.
+The earliest stage was a very crude one, as may be seen from the case of
+Jephthah’s vow, for which only a misinterpretation of certain passages in
+the Pentateuch (Gen. xxii. 2; Num. xxv. 4) could be made responsible. Nor
+was Jephthah, who felt himself bound to carry out his vow, acquainted with
+the provision for dissolving vows(143) that was sufficiently familiar to
+later ages. When, on the other hand, Jeremiah declared sacrifices to be
+altogether superfluous, and said that God did not command Israel, when he
+brought them from the land of Egypt, concerning burnt offerings or
+sacrifices (vii. 22), he was not in contradiction with Leviticus, but
+interpreted the laws contained in this book as a concession to popular
+custom, though not desirable on their own account. This concession,
+whenever it was of a harmless nature, the prophets carried so far as to
+permit altars outside the Tabernacle or Temple, though this was against
+the plain sense of Deuteronomy. Elijah even bewailed their destruction (1
+Kings xix. 10). He and other prophets probably interpreted the law in
+question as directed against the construction and maintenance of several
+chief sanctuaries, but not against sacrificing in different places on
+minor occasions. This is evidently a free interpretation, or rather
+application, of the Law. Occasionally the conception as to when and how a
+law should be applied took a completely negative form. In this manner is
+to be explained the action of Solomon in suspending the Fast of the Day of
+Atonement before the festival he was going to celebrate in honour of the
+consecration of the Temple (1 Kings viii. 65), the king being convinced
+that on this unique occasion the latter was of more religious importance
+than the former. Weiss thinks that the later custom of holding public
+dances in the vineyards on the 10th of Tishri might have had its origin in
+this solemn, but also joyful, festival. Ezekiel, again, though alluding
+more frequently than any other prophet to the laws in the Pentateuch, is
+exceedingly bold in his interpretation of them, as, for instance, when he
+says that _priests_ shall not eat anything that is dead or torn (xliv.
+31), which shows that he took the verses in Exod. xxii. 30, and Deut. xiv.
+20, to have been meant only as a good advice to the laymen to refrain from
+eating these unclean things, but not as having for them the force of a
+real commandment.
+
+Starting from this proposition, that there existed always some sort of
+interpretation running side by side with the recognised Scriptures, which
+from the very looseness of its connection with the letter of the Scripture
+could claim to be considered a thing independent in itself, and might
+therefore be regarded as the _Oral Law_, in contradistinction to the
+_Written Law_, the author passes to the age of the Second Temple, the
+period to which the rest of the first volume is devoted. In these pages
+Weiss reviews the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, the ordinances of the Men
+of the Great Synagogue, the institutions of the Scribes, the Lives of the
+so‐called Pairs,(144) the characteristics of the three sects, the
+Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes, and the differences between the schools
+of Shammai and Hillel. To each of these subjects Weiss gives his fullest
+attention, and his discussions of them would form perfect monographs in
+themselves. To reproduce all the interesting matter would mean to
+translate the whole of this portion of his work into English. I shall only
+draw attention to one or two points.
+
+First, this liberal interpretation was active during the whole period
+referred to. Otherwise no authority could have abolished the _lex
+talionis_, or have permitted war on Sabbath, or made the condition that no
+crime should be punished without a preceding warning (which was chiefly
+owing to the aversion of the Rabbis to the infliction of capital
+punishment), or have sanctioned the sacrificing of the Passover when the
+14th of Nisan fell on Sabbath. Indeed Shemaiah and Abtalyon, in whose name
+Hillel communicated this last law, were called the Great
+Interpreters.(145)
+
+Secondly, as to the so‐called _laws given to Moses on Sinai_.(146) Much
+has been said about these. The distinction claimed for them by some
+scholars, viz. that they were never contested, is not tenable, considering
+that there prevailed much difference of opinion about some of them. Nor is
+the theory that they were ancient religious usages, dating from time
+immemorial, entirely satisfactory. For though the fact may be true in
+itself, this could not have justified the Rabbis in calling them all
+Sinaitic laws, especially when they were aware that not a few of them were
+contested by certain of their colleagues, a thing that would have been
+quite impossible if they had a genuine claim to Mosaic authority. But if
+we understand Weiss rightly these laws are only to be considered as a
+specimen of the whole of the Oral Law, which was believed to emanate, both
+in its institutional and in its expository part, from the same authority.
+The conviction was firmly held that everything wise and good, be it
+ethical or ceremonial in its character, whose effect would be to
+strengthen the cause of religion, was at least potentially contained in
+the Torah, and that it only required an earnest religious mind to find it
+there. Hence the famous adage that “everything which any student will
+teach at any future time was already communicated to Moses on Mount
+Sinai”; or the injunction that any acceptable truth, even if discovered by
+an insignificant man in Israel, should be considered as having the
+authority of a great sage or prophet, or even of Moses himself. The
+principle was that the words of the Torah are “fruitful and multiply.”
+
+It will probably be said that the laws of clean and unclean, and such
+like, have proved rather too prolific; but if we read Weiss carefully, we
+shall be reminded that it was by the same process of propagation that the
+Rabbis developed from Deut. xxii. 8, a whole code of sanitary and police‐
+laws which could even now be studied with profit; from the few scanty
+civil laws in Exod. xxi., a whole _corpus juris_, which might well excite
+the interest and the admiration of any lawyer; and from the words “And
+thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children,” a complete school‐
+system on the one hand, and on the other the _résumé_ of a liturgy that
+appears to have sufficed for the spiritual needs of more than fifty
+generations of Israelites.
+
+Before we pass to the age of the Tannaim,(147) the subject of Weiss’s
+second volume, we must take account of two important events which have
+greatly influenced the further development of Tradition. I refer to the
+destruction of the Temple and the rise of Christianity. With the former
+event Judaism ceased to be a political commonwealth, and if “the nation
+was already in the times of Ezra converted into a church,”—an assertion,
+by the way, which has not the least basis in fact,—it became the more so
+after it had lost the last remains of its independence. But it was a
+church without priests, or, since such a thing, as far as history teaches
+us, has never existed, let us rather call it a Synagogue.
+
+From this fact diverse results flowed. A Synagogue can exist not only
+without priests, but also without sacrifices, for which prayer and charity
+were a sufficient substitute. With the progress of time also many
+agricultural laws, as well as others relating to sacerdotal purity,
+gradually became obsolete, though they lingered on for some generations,
+and, as a venerable reminiscence of a glorious time, entered largely into
+Jewish literature. This disappearance of so many laws and the weakening of
+the national element, however, required, if Judaism was to continue to
+exist, the strengthening of religion from another side. The first thing
+needed was the creation of a new religious centre which would not only
+replace the Temple to a certain degree, but also bring about a greater
+solidarity of views, such as would render impossible the ancient
+differences that divided the schools of Hillel and Shammai. The creator of
+this centre was R. Johanan ben Zaccai, who founded the school of Jamnia,
+and invested it with the same authority and importance as the Sanhedrin
+had enjoyed during Temple times. The consciousness that they were standing
+before a new starting‐point in history, with a large religious inheritance
+from the past, actuated them not only to collect the old traditional laws
+and to take stock of their religious institutions, but also to give them
+more definite shape and greater stability. As many of these traditions
+were by no means undisputed, the best thing was to bring them under one or
+other heading of the Scriptures. This desire gave the impulse to the
+famous hermeneutic schools of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael.
+
+The next cause that contributed to give a more determinate expression to
+the Law was the rise of Christianity. This is not the place to give an
+account of the views which the Rabbis entertained of Christianity. Suffice
+it to say they could not see in the destruction of the Law its fulfilment.
+They also thought that under certain conditions it is not only the letter
+that killeth, but also the spirit, or rather that the spirit may sometimes
+be clothed in a letter, which, in its turn, will slay more victims than
+the letter against which the loudest denunciations have been levelled.
+Spirit without letter, let theologians say what they will, is a mere
+phantasm. However, the new sect made claims to the gift of prophecy,
+which, as they thought, placed them above the Law. It would seem that this
+was a time of special excitement. The student of the Talmud finds that
+such marvels as predicting the future, reviving the dead, casting out
+demons, crossing rivers dry‐shod, curing the sick by a touch or prayer,
+were the order of the day, and performed by scores of Rabbis. Voices from
+heaven were often heard, and strange visions were frequently beheld.
+Napoleon I. is said to have forbidden the holy coat of Treves to work
+miracles. The Jewish legislature, however, had no means of preventing
+these supernatural workings; but when the Rabbis saw their dangerous
+consequences, they insisted that miracles should have no influence on the
+interpretation and development of the Law. Hence the saying with regard to
+Lev. xxvii. 34, that no prophet is authorised to add a new law. And when
+R. Eliezer b. Hyrkanos (about 120 A.C.) thought to prove the justice of
+his case by the intervention of miracles, the majority answered that the
+fact of this or that variation, effected at his bidding, in the
+established order of nature, proved nothing for the soundness of his
+argument. Nay, they even ignored the _Bath‐Kol_(148) (the celestial
+voice), which declared itself in favour of R. Eliezer, maintaining that
+the Torah having once been given to mankind, it is only the opinion of the
+majority that should decide on its interpretation and application. Very
+characteristic is the legend connected with this fact. When one of the
+Rabbis afterwards met Elijah and asked him what they thought in heaven of
+the audacity of his colleagues, the prophet answered, “God rejoiced and
+said, my children have conquered me.”
+
+Into such discredit did miracles fall at that period, whilst the opinion
+of the interpreting body, or the Sanhedrin, became more powerful than
+ever. These were merely dogmatical consequences. But new laws were enacted
+and old ones revived, with the object of resisting Christian influences
+over the Jews. To expand the Oral Law, and give it a firm basis in the
+Scriptures, were considered the best means of preserving Judaism intact.
+“Moses desired,” an old legend narrates, “that the Mishnah also (that is
+Tradition) should be written down;” but foreseeing the time when the
+nations of the world would translate the Torah into Greek, and would
+assert their title to rank as the Children of God, the Lord refused to
+permit tradition to be recorded otherwise than by word of mouth. The claim
+of the Gentiles might then be refuted by asking them whether they were
+also in possession of “the Mystery.” The Rabbis therefore concentrated
+their attention upon “the Mystery,” and this contributed largely towards
+making the expository methods of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael, to which I have
+above referred, the main object of their study in the schools.
+
+It would, however, be a mistake to think that the Sanhedrin now spent
+their powers in “enforcing retrograde measures and creating a strange
+exegesis.” I especially advise the student to read carefully that
+admirable chapter (VII., of Vol. II.) in which Weiss classifies all the
+Ordinances, “Fences,” Decrees, and Institutions, dating both from this and
+from earlier ages, under ten headings, and also shows their underlying
+principles. The main object was to preserve the Jewish religion by
+strengthening the principle of Jewish nationality, and to preserve the
+nationality by the aid of religion. But sometimes the Rabbis also
+considered it necessary to preserve religion against itself, so to speak,
+or, as they expressed it, “When there is time to work for the Lord, they
+make void thy Torah.” This authorised the _Beth Din_(149) to act in
+certain cases against the letter of the Torah. “The welfare of the World”
+was another great consideration. By “World” they understood both the
+religious and the secular world. From a regard to the former resulted such
+“Fences” and Ordinances as were directed against “the transgressors,” as
+well as the general injunction to “keep aloof from what is morally
+unseemly, and from whatever bears any likeness thereto.” In the interests
+of the latter—the welfare of the secular world—they enacted such laws as
+either tended to elevate the position of women, or to promote the peace
+and welfare of members of their own community, or to improve the relations
+between Jews and their Gentile neighbours. They also held the great
+principle that nothing is so injurious to the cause of religion as
+increasing the number of sinners by needless severity. Hence the
+introduction of many laws “for the benefit of penitents,” and the maxim
+not to issue any decree which may prove too heavy a burden to the majority
+of the community. The relaxation of certain traditional laws was also
+permitted when they involved a serious loss of property, or the sacrifice
+of a man’s dignity. Some old decrees were even permitted to fall into
+oblivion when public opinion was too strong against them, the Rabbis
+holding that it was often better for Israelites to be unconscious sinners
+than wilful transgressors. The _Minhag_, or religious custom, also played
+an important part, it being assumed that it must have been first
+introduced by some eminent authority; but, if there was reason to believe
+that the custom owed its origin to some fancy of the populace, and that it
+had a pernicious effect on the multitude, no compunction was felt in
+abolishing it.
+
+Very important it is to note that the Oral Law had not at this period
+assumed a character of such rigidity that all its ordinances, etc., had to
+be looked upon as irremovable for all times. With those who think
+otherwise, a favourite quotation is the administratory measure laid dawn
+in Tractate _Evidences_,(150) I. 5, where we read that no _Beth Din_ has
+the right of annulling the dicta of another _Beth Din_, unless it is
+stronger in numbers (having a larger majority) and greater in wisdom than
+its fellow tribunal. Confess with becoming modesty that the world is
+always going downhill, decreasing both in numbers and in wisdom, and the
+result follows that any decision by the earlier Rabbis is fixed law for
+all eternity. Weiss refutes such an idea not only as inconsistent with the
+nature of Tradition, but also as contradictory to the facts. He proves by
+numerous instances that the Rabbis did abolish ordinances and decrees
+introduced by preceding authorities, and that the whole conception is
+based on a misunderstanding. For the rule in question, as Weiss clearly
+points out, originally only meant that a _Beth Din_ has no right to undo
+the decrees of another _contemporary Beth Din_, unless it was justified in
+doing so by the weight of its greater authority. This was necessary if a
+central authority was to exist at all. Weiss is indeed of opinion that the
+whole passage is a later interpolation from the age of R. Simeon b.
+Gamaliel II., when certain Rabbis tried to emancipate themselves from the
+authority of the Patriarch. But it was not meant that the decision of a
+_Beth Din_ should have perpetual binding power for all posterity. This was
+left to the discretion of the legislature of each generation, who had to
+examine whether the original cause for maintaining such decision still
+existed.
+
+The rest of this volume is for the greater part taken up with complete
+monographs of the Patriarchs and the heads of the schools of that age,
+whilst the concluding chapters give us the history of the literature, the
+Midrash, Mechilta, Siphra, Siphré, Mishnah, etc., which contain both the
+Halachic and the Agadic sayings emanating from these authorities.
+
+With regard to these Patriarchs, I should like only to remark that Weiss
+defends them against the charge made by Schorr and others, who accuse them
+of having assumed too much authority on account of their noble descent,
+and who describe their opponents as the true friends of the people. Weiss
+is no lover of such specious phrases. The qualifications required for the
+leadership of the people were a right instinct for the necessities of
+their time, a fair amount of secular knowledge, and, what is of chief
+importance, an unbounded love and devotion to those over whose interests
+they were called to watch. These distinctions, as Weiss proves, the
+descendants of Hillel possessed in the highest degree. It is true that
+occasionally, as for instance in the famous controversy of R. Gamaliel II.
+with R. Joshua b. Hananiah, or that of R. Simeon b. Gamaliel II. with R.
+Nathan and R. Meir, they made their authority too heavily felt;(151) but
+this was again another necessity of those troubled times, when only real
+unity could save Israel.
+
+However, Weiss is no partisan, and the love he lavishes on his favourite
+heroes does not exhaust his resources of sympathy and appreciation for
+members of the other schools. Weiss is no apologist either, and does not
+make the slightest attempt towards explaining away even the defects of R.
+Akiba in his somewhat arbitrary method of interpretation, which our author
+thinks much inferior to the expository rules of R. Ishmael; but this does
+not prevent him from admiring his excellences.
+
+Altogether it would seem that Weiss thinks R. Akiba more happy in his
+quality as a great saint than in that of a great exegete. What is most
+admirable is the instinct with which Weiss understands how to emphasise
+the right thing in its right place. As an indication of the literary
+honesty and marvellous industry of our author, I would draw attention to
+the fact that the sketch of R. Akiba and his school alone is based on more
+than two thousand quotations scattered over the whole area of the Rabbinic
+literature; but he points in a special note to a sentence attributed to R.
+Akiba, which presents the whole man and his generation in a single stroke.
+I refer to that passage in Tractate _Joys_,(152) in which R. Akiba speaks
+of the four types of sufferers. He draws the comparison of a king
+chastising his children; the first son maintains stubborn silence, the
+second simply rebels, the third supplicates for mercy, and the fourth (the
+best of sons) says: “Father, proceed with thy chastisement, as David said,
+Wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity and cleanse me from my sin” (Ps. li.
+4). This absolute submission to the will of God, which perceives in
+suffering only an expression of His fatherly love and mercy, was the ideal
+of R. Akiba.
+
+The great literary production of this period was the Mishnah, which,
+through the high authority of its compiler, R. Judah the Patriarch, his
+saintliness and popularity, soon superseded all the collections of a
+similar kind, and became the official text‐book of the Oral Law. But a
+text requires interpretation, whilst other collections also demanded some
+attention. This brings us to the two _Talmuds_, namely, the Talmud of
+Jerusalem and the Talmud of Babylon, the origin and history of which form
+the subject of Weiss’s third volume.
+
+Here again the first chapters are more of a preliminary character, giving
+the student some insight into the labyrinth of the Talmud. The two
+chapters entitled “The instruments employed in erecting the great
+Edifice,” and the “Workmanship displayed by the Builders,” give evidence
+of almost unrivalled familiarity with the Rabbinical literature, and of
+critical powers of the rarest kind. Now these instruments were by no means
+new, for, as Weiss shows, the Amoraim employed in interpreting the Mishnah
+the same explanatory rules that are known to us from the School of R.
+Ishmael as “the Thirteen Rules by which the Torah is explained,” though
+they appear in the Talmud under other names, and are in reality only a
+species of Midrash. Besides this there comes another element into play. It
+was the exaggerated awe of all earlier authorities that endeavoured to
+reconcile the most contradictory statements by means of a subtle dialectic
+for which the schools in Babylon were especially famous. There were
+certainly many opponents of this system, and from the monographs which
+Weiss gives on the various heads of the western and eastern schools we see
+that not all followed this method, and some among them even condemned it
+in the strongest words. However, it cannot be denied that there is a
+strong scholastic feature in the Talmud, which is very far from what we
+should look for in a trustworthy exegesis. Thus we must not always expect
+to find in the Talmud the true meaning of the sayings of their
+predecessors, and it is certain that a more scientific method in many
+cases has led to results the very opposite of those at which the later
+Rabbis have arrived. This fact was already recognised in the sixteenth
+century, though only in part, by R. Yom‐Tob Heller and others. Only he
+insisted that in this matter a line must be drawn between theory and
+practice. But Weiss gives irrefragable proofs that even this line was
+often overstepped by the greatest authorities, though they remained always
+within the limits of Tradition. Indeed, as Weiss points out, not every
+saying to be found in the Talmud is to be looked upon as representing
+Tradition; for there is much in it which only gives the individual opinion
+or is merely an interpolation of later hands; nor does the Talmud contain
+the _whole_ of Tradition, this latter proceeding and advancing with the
+time, and corresponding to its conditions and notions. As we read Weiss,
+the conviction is borne in upon us that there was a Talmud before, and
+another after _The Talmud_.
+
+Much space in this volume is given to the Agadah and the so‐called
+“Teachers of the Agadah.” Weiss makes no attempt at apology for that which
+seems to us strange, or even repugnant in this part of the Rabbinic
+literature. The greatest fault to be found with those who wrote down such
+passages as appear objectionable to us is, perhaps, that they did not
+observe the wise rule of Johnson, who said to Boswell on a certain
+occasion, “Let us get serious, for there comes a fool.” And the fools
+unfortunately did come in the shape of certain Jewish commentators and
+Christian controversialists, who took as serious things which were only
+the expression of a momentary impulse, or represented the opinion of some
+isolated individual, or were meant simply as a piece of humorous by‐play,
+calculated to enliven the interest of a languid audience. But on the other
+hand, as Weiss proves, the Agadah contains also many elements of real
+edification and eternal truths as well as abundant material for building
+up the edifice of dogmatic Judaism. Talmudical quotations of such a nature
+are scattered by thousands over Weiss’s work, particularly in those
+chapters in which he describes the lives of the greatest Rabbinical
+heroes. But the author lays the student under special obligations by
+putting together in the concluding pages of this volume some of these
+sentences, and classifying them under various headings. I give here a few
+extracts. For the references to authorities I must direct the reader to
+the original:—
+
+“The unity of God is the keystone of dogmatic Judaism. The Rabbis give
+Israel the credit of having proclaimed to the world the unity of God. They
+also say that Israel took an oath never to change Him for another God.
+This only God is eternal, incorporeal, and immutable. And though the
+prophets saw Him in different aspects, He warned them that they must not
+infer from the visions vouchsafed to them that there are different Gods.
+‘I am the first,’ He tells them, which implies that he had no father, and
+the words, ‘There is no God besides me,’ mean that he has no son. Now,
+this God, the God of Israel, is holy in every thinkable way of holiness.
+He is merciful and gracious, as it is said, ‘And I will be gracious to
+whom I will be gracious,’ even though he who is the recipient of God’s
+grace has no merit of his own. ‘And I will show mercy to whom I will show
+mercy,’ that is, even to those who do not deserve it. His attributes are
+righteousness, loving‐kindness, and truth. God speaks words of eternal
+truth, even as He himself is the eternal life. All that the Merciful One
+does is only for good, and even in the time of His anger He remembers His
+graciousness, and often suppresses His attribute of judgment before His
+attribute of mercy. But with the righteous God is more severe than with
+the rest of the world, and when His hand falls in chastening on His saints
+His name becomes awful, revered, and exalted. This God of Israel, again,
+extends His providence over all mankind, and especially over Israel. By
+His eye everything is foreseen, yet freedom of choice is given, and the
+world is judged by grace, yet all according to the works wrought. Hence,
+know what is above thee, a seeing eye and a hearing ear, and that all thy
+deeds are written in a book.
+
+“They [the Rabbis] believed that God created the world out of nothing,
+without toil and without weariness. This world was created by the
+combination of His two attributes, mercy and justice. He rejoices in His
+creation, and if the Maker praises it, who dares to blame it? And if He
+exults in it, who shall find a blemish in it? Nay, it is a glorious and a
+beautiful world. It is created for man, and its other denizens were all
+meant but to serve him. Though all mankind are formed after the type of
+Adam, no one is like his fellow‐man (each one having an individuality of
+his own). Thus he is able to say, ‘For my sake, also, was the world
+created’; and with this thought his responsibilities increase. But the
+greatest love shown to man is that he was created in the image of God. Man
+is a being possessed of free will, and, though everything is given on
+pledge, whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow. Everything is in
+the gift of Heaven except the fear of God. In man’s heart abide both the
+evil inclination and the good inclination; and the words of Scripture,
+‘Thou shalt not bow down before a strange god,’ point to the strange god
+who is within man himself, who entices him to sin in this world, and gives
+evidence against him in the next. But the Holy One—blessed be He!—said, ‘I
+have created the evil inclination, but I have also created its antidote,
+the Torah.’ And when man is occupied with the Torah and in works of
+charity, he becomes the master of the evil inclination; otherwise, he is
+its slave. When man reflects the image of God, he is the lord of creation,
+and is feared by all creatures; but this image is defaced by sin, and then
+he has no power over the universe, and is in fear of all things.
+
+“Another principle of Judaism is the belief in reward and punishment. ‘I
+am the Lord, your God,’ means, ‘it is I who am prepared to recompense you
+for your good actions, and to bring retribution upon you for your evil
+deeds.’ God does not allow to pass unrewarded even the merit of a kind and
+considerate word. By the same measure which man metes out, it shall be
+meted out to him. Because thou drownedst others, they have drowned thee,
+and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves be drowned. Though
+it is not in our power to explain either the prosperity of the wicked or
+the affliction of the righteous, nevertheless know before whom thou
+toilest, and who thy employer is, who will pay thee the reward of thy
+labour. Here at thy door is a poor man standing, and at his right hand
+standeth God. If thou grantest his request, be certain of thy reward; but
+if thou refusest, think of him who is by the side of the poor, and will
+avenge it on thee. ‘God seeketh the persecuted’ to defend him, even though
+it be the wicked who is persecuted by the righteous. The soul of man is
+immortal, the souls of the righteous being treasured up under the throne
+of God. Know that everything is according to the reckoning, and let not
+thy imagination give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge
+for thee, for perforce thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and
+thou livest perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt
+in the future have to give account and reckoning before the Supreme King
+of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.
+
+“The advent of the Messiah is another article of the belief of the Rabbis.
+But if a man tell thee that he knows when the redemption of Israel will
+take place, believe him not, for this is one of the unrevealed secrets of
+the Almighty. The mission of Elijah is to bring peace into the world,
+while the Messiah, in whose days Israel will regain his national
+independence, will lead the whole world in repentance to God. On this, it
+is believed, will follow the resurrection of the dead.
+
+“Another main principle in the belief of the Rabbis is the election of
+Israel, which imposes on them special duties, and gives them a peculiar
+mission. Beloved are Israel, for they are called the children of God, and
+His firstborn. ‘They shall endure for ever’ through the merit of their
+fathers. There is an especial covenant established between God and the
+tribes of Israel. God is their father, and He said to them, My children,
+even as I have no contact with the profanity of the world, so also
+withdraw yourselves from it. And as I am holy, be ye also holy. Nay,
+sanctify thyself by refraining even from that which is not forbidden thee.
+There is no holiness without chastity.
+
+“The main duty of Israel is to sanctify the name of God, for the Torah was
+only given that His great name might be glorified. Better is it that a
+single letter of the law be cast out than that the name of Heaven be
+profaned. And this also is the mission of Israel in this world: to
+sanctify the name of God, as it is written, ‘This people have I formed for
+myself, that they may show forth my praise.’ Or, ‘And thou shalt love the
+Lord thy God,’ which means, Thou shalt make God beloved by all creatures,
+even as Abraham did. Israel is the light of the world; as it is said, ‘And
+nations shall walk by thy light.’ But he who profanes the name of Heaven
+in secret will suffer the penalty thereof in public; and this whether the
+Heavenly Name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness.
+
+“Another duty towards God is to love Him and to fear Him. God’s only
+representative on earth is the God‐fearing man. Woe unto those who are
+occupied in the study of the Torah, but who have no fear of God. But a
+still higher duty it is to perform the commandments of God from love. For
+greater is he who submits to the will of God from love than he who does so
+from fear.
+
+“Now, how shall man love God? This is answered in the words of Scripture,
+‘And these words shall be upon thy heart.’ For by them thou wilt recognise
+Him whose word called the world into existence, and follow His divine
+attributes.
+
+“God is righteous; be ye also righteous, O Israel. By righteousness the
+Rabbis understand love of truth, hatred of lying and backbiting. The seal
+of the Holy One, blessed be He, is Truth, of which the actions of man
+should also bear the impress. Hence, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay, nay.
+He who is honest in money transactions, unto him this is reckoned as if he
+had fulfilled the whole of the Torah. Greater is he who earns his
+livelihood by the labour of his hands than even the God‐fearing man;
+whilst the righteous judge is, as it were, the companion of God in the
+government of the world. For upon three things the world stands: upon
+truth, upon judgment, upon peace; as it is said, ‘Judge ye the truth and
+the judgment of peace in your gates.’ But he who breaks his word, his sin
+is as great as if he worshipped idols; and God, who punished the people of
+the time of the Flood, will also punish him who does not stand by his
+word. Such a one belongs to one of the four classes who are not admitted
+into the presence of the Shechinah; these are the scoffers, the hypocrites
+(who bring the wrath of God into the world), the liars, and the
+slanderers. The sin of the slanderer is like that of one who would deny
+the root (the root of all religion, _i.e._ the existence of God). The
+greatest of liars, however, is he who perjures himself, which also
+involves the sin of profanation of the name of God. The hypocrite, who
+insinuates himself into people’s good opinions, who wears his phylacteries
+and is enwrapped in his gown with the fringes, and secretly commits sins,
+equally transgresses the command, ‘Thou shalt not take the name of the
+Lord thy God in vain.’
+
+“God is gracious and merciful; therefore man also should be gracious and
+merciful. Hence, ‘Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself,’ which is a
+main principle in the Torah. What is unpleasant to thyself, do not unto
+thy neighbour. This is the whole Torah, to which the rest is only to be
+considered as a commentary. And this love is also extended to the
+stranger, for as it is said with regard to Israel, ‘And thou shalt love
+thy neighbour as thyself,’ so is it also said, ‘And thou shalt love him
+(the stranger) as thyself.’ And thus said God to Israel, ‘My beloved
+children, Am I in want of anything that I should request it of you? But
+what I ask of you is that you should love, honour, and respect one
+another.’ Therefore, love mankind, and bring them near to the Torah. Let
+the honour of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own. Condemn not thy
+fellow‐man until thou art come into his place, and judge all men in the
+scale of merit. Say not ‘I will love scholars, but hate their disciples;’
+or even, ‘I will love the disciples, but hate the ignorant,’ but love all,
+for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer. Indeed, during the
+age of the second Temple, men studied the Torah and the commandments, and
+performed works of charity, but they hated each other, a sin that
+outweighs all other sins, and for which the holy Temple was destroyed. Be
+careful not to withdraw thy mercy from any man, for he who does so rebels
+against the kingdom of God on earth. Walk in the ways of God, who is
+merciful even to the wicked, and as He is gracious alike to those who know
+Him, and to those who know Him not, so be thou. Indeed, charity is one of
+the three pillars on which the world is based. It is more precious than
+all other virtues. The man who gives charity in secret is greater even
+than Moses our teacher. An act of charity and love it is to pray for our
+fellow‐man, and to admonish him. ‘Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy
+neighbour, and not suffer sin upon him’ (Lev. xix. 18), means it is thy
+duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be, even if he be thy
+superior; for Jerusalem was only destroyed for the sin of its people in
+not admonishing one another. The man whose protest would be of any weight,
+and who does not exercise his authority (when any wrong is about to be
+committed), is held responsible for the whole world.
+
+“Peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love. Be of the disciples
+of Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace. Let every man be cautious in
+the fear of God; let him ever give the soft answer that turneth away
+wrath; let him promote peace, not only among his own relatives and
+acquaintances, but also among the Gentiles. For (the labour of) all the
+prophets was to plant peace in the world. Be exceeding lowly of spirit,
+since the hope of man is but the worm. Be humble as Hillel, for he who is
+humble causes the Divine presence to dwell with man. But the proud man
+makes God say, ‘I and he cannot dwell in the same place.’ He who runs
+after glory, glory flees from him, and he who flees from glory, glory
+shall pursue him. Be of those who are despised rather than of those who
+despise; of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors; be of those who
+bear their reproach in silence and answer not.
+
+“Another distinctive mark of Judaism is faith in God, and perfect
+confidence in Him. Which is the right course for a man to choose for
+himself? Let him have a strong faith in God, as it is said, ‘Mine eye
+shall be upon the faithful (meaning those possessing faith in God) of the
+land.’ And so also Habakkuk based the whole Torah on the principle of
+faith, as it is said, ‘And the just shall live by his faith’ (ii. 4). He
+who but fulfils a single commandment in absolute faith in God deserves
+that the Holy Spirit should rest on him. Blessed is the man who fears God
+in private, and trusts in Him with all his heart, for such fear and trust
+arms him against every misfortune. He who puts his trust in the Holy One,
+blessed be He, God becomes his shield and protection in this world and in
+the next. He who has bread in his basket for to‐day, and says, ‘What shall
+I have to eat to‐morrow?’ is a man of little faith. One consequence of
+real faith is always to believe in the justice of God’s judgments. It is
+the duty of man to thank God when he is visited with misfortune as he does
+in the time of prosperity. Therefore, blessed is the man who, when visited
+by suffering, questions not God’s justice. But what shall he do? Let him
+examine his conduct and repent.
+
+“For repentance is the greatest prerogative of man. Better is one hour of
+repentance and good deeds in this world than the whole life of the world
+to come. The aim of all wisdom is repentance and good deeds. The place
+where the truly penitent shall stand is higher than that of the righteous.
+Repentance finds its special expression in prayer; and when it is said in
+Scripture, ‘Serve God with all thy heart,’ by this is meant, serve Him by
+prayer, which is even greater than worship by means of sacrifices. Never
+is a prayer entirely unanswered by God. Therefore, even though the sword
+be on a man’s neck, let him not cease to supplicate God’s mercy. But
+regard not thy prayer as a fixed mechanical task, but as an appeal for
+mercy and grace before the All‐Present; as it is said, ‘For He is gracious
+and full of mercy, slow to anger, abounding in loving‐kindness, and
+repenteth him of the evil.’ ”
+
+The last two volumes of Weiss’s work deal with the history of Tradition
+during the Middle Ages, that is, from the conclusion of the Talmud to the
+compilation of the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro. I have already
+indicated that with Weiss Tradition did not terminate with the conclusion
+of the Talmud. It only means that a certain undefinable kind of
+literature, mostly held in dialogue form and containing many elements of
+Tradition, was at last brought to an end. The authorities who did this
+editorial work were the so‐called _Rabbanan Saburai_(153) and the
+_Gaonim_, whose lives and literary activity are fully described by Weiss.
+But, while thus engaged in preserving their inheritance from the past,
+they were also enriching Tradition by new contributions, both the Saburai
+and the Gaonim having not only added to and diminished from the Talmud,
+but having also introduced avowedly new ordinances and decrees, and
+created new institutions.
+
+Now, it cannot be denied that a few of these ordinances and decrees had a
+reforming tendency (see the second and twentieth chapters of vol. iv.); in
+general, however, they took a more conservative turn than was the case in
+the previous ages. This must be ascribed to the event of the great schism
+within the Rabbinical camp itself. I refer to the rise of Caraism, which
+took place during the first half of the eighth century.
+
+There is probably no work in which the Halachic or legalistic side of this
+sect is better described than in this volume of Weiss. I regret that I am
+unable to enter into its details. But I cannot refrain from pointing to
+one of the main principles of the Caraites. This was “Search the
+Scriptures.” Now this does not look very dissimilar from the principle
+held by the Rabbis. For what else is the Talmud, but a thorough searching
+through the Bible for whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances?
+The light which the Caraites applied to the searching of the Scriptures
+was the same which illumined the paths of the Rabbis’ investigations. They
+employed most of the expository rules of the Tannaite schools. The fact is
+that they were only determined to find something different from what the
+Rabbis found in the Scriptures. They wanted to have gloomy Sabbaths and
+Festivals, and discovered authority for it in the Bible; they wanted to
+retain most of the dietary laws which had their root only in Tradition,
+but insisted on petty differences which they thought might be inferred
+from the Scriptures, and they created a new “order of inheritance,” and
+varied the forbidden degrees in marriage, in all which the only merit was
+that they were in contradiction to the interpretation of the Rabbis. They
+also refused to accept the Liturgy of Rabbinical Judaism, but never
+succeeded in producing more than a patch‐work from verses of the Bible,
+which, thus recast, they called a prayer‐book. There were undoubtedly
+among their leaders many serious and sincere men, but they give us the
+impression of prigs, as for instance, Moses Darai, when he reproaches the
+Rabbinical Jews for having an “easy religion,” or Israel Hammaarabi, when
+he recommended his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering of animals,
+as having the special advantage that his decisions were always on the more
+stringent side. Those who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land were by the
+Caraites canonised as “mourners.” The Rabbanite R. Judah Hallevi also
+visited the ruins of Jerusalem, but he did something more than “mourn and
+sigh and cry,” he became a God‐intoxicated singer, and wrote the “Zion‐
+Elegy.” The novel terminology which they use in their exegetical and
+theological works, was only invented to spite the Rabbanites, and marks
+its authors as pedants. On the other hand, it is not to be denied that
+their opponents did not employ the best means to conciliate them. The
+Middle Ages knew no other remedy against schism than excommunication, and
+the Gaonim were the children of their time. Nor were the arguments which
+the latter brought forward in defence of Tradition always calculated to
+convince the Caraites of their error. When R. Saadiah, in his apology for
+the institution of the Second Day of the Festival,(154) went the length of
+assigning to it a Sinaitic origin, he could only succeed in making the
+Caraites more suspicious of the claims of Tradition than before. In a
+later generation one of his own party, R. Hai Gaon, had to declare his
+predecessor’s words a “controversial exaggeration.” The zeal which some of
+the Gaonim showed in their defence of such works as the _Chambers_ and the
+_Measure of the Stature_(155) was a not less unfortunate thing, for it
+involved the Rabbanites in unnecessary responsibilities for a new class of
+literature of doubtful origin, which in succeeding centuries was disowned
+by the best minds in Judaism.
+
+The Gaonic period, to which we also owe the rise of the Massorah and the
+introduction of points in the text of the Bible—of which Weiss treats
+fully in the twenty‐third and twenty‐fourth chapters of vol. iv.—comes to
+an end with the death of R. Hai. The famous schools of Sura and
+Pumbeditha, over which these two Gaonim presided, fell into decay, and
+Babylon ceased to be the centre of Judaism. To be more exact, we should
+say that Judaism had no longer any real centre. Instead of dwelling in one
+place for centuries, we now have to be perpetually on our journey,
+accompanying our authors through all the inhabited parts of the
+world—France, Italy, Spain, Germany, with an occasional trip to Africa and
+Russia. There we shall meet with the new schools, each of which, though
+interpreting the same Torah, occupied with the study of the same Talmud,
+and even conforming more or less to the same mode of life, has an
+individuality and character of its own, reflecting the thought and habits
+of the country which it represents. Thus “geographical Judaism” becomes a
+factor in history which no scholar can afford to neglect. It is true that
+Judaism never remained entirely unbiassed by foreign ideas, and our author
+points in many a place to Persian, Greek, and Roman influences on
+Tradition; still, these influences seem to have undergone such a thorough
+“Judaization” that it is only the practised eye of the scholar that is
+able to see through the transformation. But it requires no great skill to
+discriminate between the work produced by a Spanish and that of a French
+Rabbi. Though both would write in Hebrew, they betray themselves very soon
+by the style, diction, and train of thought peculiar to each country. The
+Spaniard is always logical, clear, and systematising, whilst the French
+Rabbi has very little sense of order, is always writing occasional notes,
+has a great tendency to be obscure, but is mostly profound and critical.
+Hence the fact that whilst Spain produced the greatest codifiers of the
+law, we owe to France and Germany the best commentaries on the Talmud.
+What these codes and commentaries meant for Judaism the student will find
+in Weiss’s book, and still more fully in his admirable essays on Rashi
+(Solomon b. Isaac), Maimonides, and R. Jacob Tam (published in his
+periodical, _Beth Talmud_, and also separately). It is enough for us here
+only to notice the fact of the breadth of Tradition, which could include
+within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics, Maimonides,
+Solomon b. Gabirol, and Abn Ezra on one side, and the simple “non‐
+questioning” Rabbenu Gershom, Rashi, and Jacob Tam on the other.
+
+The last three centuries, which occupy our author’s attention in the fifth
+volume, are not remarkable for their progress. The world lives on the
+past. The rationalists write treatises on Maimonides’ philosophical works,
+whilst the German Talmudists add commentary to commentary. It is, indeed,
+the reign of authority, “modified by accidents.” Such an accident was the
+struggle between the Maimonists and Anti‐Maimonists, or the rise of the
+Cabbalah, or the frequent controversies with Christians, all of which
+tended to direct the minds of people into new channels of thought. But
+though this period is less original in its work, it is not on that account
+less sympathetic. One cannot read those beautiful descriptions which Weiss
+gives of R. Meir of Rothenburg and his school, or of R. Asher and his
+descendants, without feeling that one is in an atmosphere of saints, who
+are the more attractive the less they were conscious of their own
+saintliness. The only mistake, perhaps, was that the successors of these
+“Chassidim or pious men of Germany” looked on many of the religious
+customs that were merely the voluntary expression of particularly devout
+souls as worthy of imitation by the whole community, and made them
+obligatory upon all.
+
+This brings us to the question of the Code already mentioned (by R. Joseph
+Caro), with which Weiss’s work concludes. I have already transgressed the
+limits of an essay, without flattering myself that I have done anything
+like justice to the greatest work on Jewish Tradition which modern Jewish
+genius has produced. But I should not like the reader to carry away with
+him the false impression that our author shares in the general cry, “Save
+us from the Codifiers.” Weiss, himself a Rabbi, and the disciple of the
+greatest Rabbis of the first half of this century, is quite aware of the
+impossibility of having a law without a kind of manual to it, which brings
+the fluid matter into some fixed form, classifying it under its proper
+headings, and this is what we call codifying the law. And thus he never
+passes any attempt made in this direction without paying due tribute to
+its author—be it Maimonides or Caro. But however great the literary value
+of a code may be, it does not invest it with the attribute of
+infallibility, nor does it exempt the student or the Rabbi who makes use
+of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and
+subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied
+to Tradition. Indeed, Weiss shows that Maimonides deviated in some cases
+from his own code, when it was required by circumstances.
+
+Nor do I know any modern author who is more in favour of strong authority
+than Weiss. His treatment of the struggle between the Patriarch R.
+Gamaliel and his adversaries, which I have touched on above, proves this
+sufficiently. What Weiss really objects to, is a _weak_ authority—I mean
+that phonograph‐like authority which is always busy in reproducing the
+voice of others without an opinion of its own, without originality,
+without initiative and discretion. The real authorities are those who,
+drawing their inspiration from the past, also understand how to reconcile
+us with the present and to prepare us for the future.
+
+
+
+
+
+VIII. THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE RETRIBUTION IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE
+
+
+“Blessed be he who knows.” These are the words with which Nachmanides, in
+his classical treatise, _Gate of Reward_, dismisses a certain theory of
+the Gaonim with regard to this question; after which he proceeds to
+expound another theory, which seems to him more satisfactory. This mode of
+treatment implies that, unsatisfactory as the one or other theory may
+appear to us, it would be presumptuous to reject either entirely, there
+being only One who knows the exact truth about the great mystery. But we
+may indicate our doubt about one doctrine by putting by its side another,
+which we may affirm to be not more absolutely true, but more probable.
+This seems to have been the attitude, too, of the compilers of the ancient
+Rabbinical literature, in which the most conflicting views about this
+grave subject were embodied. Nor did the Synagogue in general feel called
+upon to decide between these views. There is indeed no want of theodicies,
+for almost every important expounder of Job, as well as every Jewish
+philosopher of note, has one with its own system of retribution. Thus
+Judaism has no fixed doctrine on the subject. It refused a hearing to no
+theory, for fear that it should contain some germ of truth, but on the
+same ground it accepted none to the exclusion of the others.
+
+These theories may, perhaps, be conveniently reduced to the two following
+main doctrines that are in direct opposition to each other, whilst all
+other views about the subject will be treated as the more or less logical
+results of the one or other doctrine.
+
+1. There is no death without (preceding) sin, nor affliction without
+(preceding) transgression.(156) This view is cited in the name of R. Ammi,
+who quoted in corroboration the verses Ez. xviii. 20, and Ps. lxxxix. 33.
+Though this Rabbi flourished towards the end of the third century, there
+is hardly any doubt that his view was held by the authorities of a much
+earlier date. For it can only be under the sway of such a notion of
+Retribution that the Tannaim were so anxious to assign some great crime as
+the antecedent to every serious calamity by which mankind was visited. The
+following illustrations will suffice:—“Pestilence comes into the world for
+capital crimes mentioned in the Torah, which are not brought before the
+earthly tribunal.... Noisome beasts come into the world for vain swearing
+and for profanation of the name (of God). Captivity comes upon the world
+for strange worship and incest, and for shedding of blood and for (not)
+giving release to the land.” As an example of the misfortune befalling the
+individual I will merely allude to a passage in another tractate of the
+Talmud, according to which leprosy is to be regarded as the penalty for
+immorality, slander, perjury, and similar sins.(157)
+
+If we were now to complement R. Ammi’s view by adding that there is no
+happiness without some preceding merit—and there is no serious objection
+to making this addition—then it would resolve itself into the theory of
+Measure for Measure, which forms a very common standard of reward and
+punishment in Jewish literature. Here are a few instances:—“Because the
+Egyptians wanted to destroy Israel by water (Exod. i. 22), they were
+themselves destroyed by the waters of the Red Sea, as it is said,
+Therefore I will _measure_ their former work into their bosom (Is. lxv.
+7);” whilst, on the other hand, we read, “Because Abraham showed himself
+hospitable towards strangers, providing them with water (Gen. xviii. 4),
+God gave to his children a country blessed with plenty of water (Deut.
+viii. 1).” Sometimes this form of retribution goes so far as to define a
+special punishment to that part of the body which mostly contributed to
+the committing of the sin. Thus we read, “Samson rebelled against God by
+his eyes, as it is said, Get her (the Philistine woman) for me, for she
+pleases _my eyes_ (Judg. xvi. 21); therefore his _eyes_ were put out by
+the Philistines (Judg. xviii. 9)”; whilst Absalom, whose sinful pride
+began by his _hair_ (2 Sam. xiv. 25), met his fate by his _hair_ (2 Sam.
+xviii. 9).(158) Nahum of Gemzo himself explained his blindness and the
+maimed condition of his arms and legs as a consequence of a specific
+offence in having neglected the duty of succouring a poor man. Addressing
+the dead body of the suppliant who perished while Nahum was delaying his
+help, he said, “Let my eyes (which had no pity for your pitiful gaze)
+become blind; may my hands and legs (that did not hasten to help thine)
+become maimed, and finally my whole body be covered with boils.”(159)
+“This was the hand that wrote it,” said Cranmer at the stake; “therefore
+it shall first suffer punishment.”
+
+It is worth noticing that this retribution does not always consist in a
+material reward, but, as Ben Azzai expressed it: “The reward of a command
+is a command, and the reward of a transgression is a transgression.”(160)
+So again: “Because Abraham showed himself so magnanimous in his treatment
+of the king of Sodom, and said, I will not take from thee a thread;
+therefore, his children enjoyed the privilege of having the command of
+Zizith, consisting in putting a thread or fringe in the border of their
+garments.” In another passage we read, “He who is anxious to do acts of
+charity will be rewarded by having the means enabling him to do so.”(161)
+In more general terms the same thought is expressed when the Rabbis
+explained the words, Ye shall sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy
+(Lev. xi. 44), to the effect that if man takes the initiative in holiness,
+even though in a small way, Heaven will help him to reach it to a much
+higher degree.(162)
+
+Notwithstanding these passages, to which many more might be added, it
+cannot be denied that there are in the Rabbinical literature many passages
+holding out promises of _material_ reward to the righteous as well as
+threatening the wicked with _material_ punishment. Nor is there any need
+of denying it. Simple‐minded men—and such the majority of the Rabbis
+were—will never be persuaded into looking with indifference on pain and
+pleasure; they will be far from thinking that poverty, loss of children,
+and sickness are no evil, and that a rich harvest, hope of posterity, and
+good health, are not desirable things. It _does_ lie in our nature to
+consider the former as curses and the latter as blessings; “and if this be
+wrong there is no one to be made responsible for it but the Creator of
+nature.” Accordingly the question must arise, How can a just and
+omnipotent God allow it to happen that men should suffer innocently? The
+most natural suggestion towards solving the difficulty would be that we
+are _not_ innocent. Hence R. Ammi’s assertion that affliction and death
+are both the outcome of sin and transgression; or, as R. Chanina ben Dossa
+expressed it, “It is not the wild beast but sin which kills.”(163)
+
+We may thus perceive in this theory an attempt “to justify the ways of God
+to man.” Unfortunately it does not correspond with the real facts. The cry
+wrung from the prophets against the peace enjoyed by the wicked, and the
+pains inflicted on the righteous, which finds its echo in so many Psalms,
+and reaches its climax in the Book of Job, was by no means silenced in the
+times of the Rabbis. If long experience could be of any use, it only
+served to deepen perplexity. For all this suffering of the people of God,
+and the prosperity of their wicked persecutors, which perplexed the
+prophets and their immediate followers, were repeated during the death‐
+struggle for independence against Rome, and were not lessened by the
+establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion. The only comfort
+which time brought them was, perhaps, that the long continuance of
+misfortune made them less sensible to suffering than their ancestors were.
+Indeed, a Rabbi of the first century said that his generation had by
+continuous experience of misery become as insensible to pain as the dead
+body is to a prick of a needle.(164) The anæsthetic effect of long
+suffering may, indeed, help one to endure pain with more patience, but it
+cannot serve as an apology for the deed of the inflictors of the pain. The
+question, then, how to reconcile hard reality with the justice of God,
+remained as difficult as ever.
+
+The most important passage in Rabbinical literature relating to the
+solution of this problem is the following:—With reference to Exod. xxxiii.
+13, R. Johanan said, in the name of R. José, that, among other things,
+Moses also asked God to explain to him the method of his Providence, a
+request that was granted to him. He asked God, Why are there righteous
+people who are prosperous, and righteous who suffer; wicked who are
+prosperous and wicked who suffer? The answer given to him was, according
+to the one view, that the prosperity of the wicked and the suffering of
+the righteous are a result of the conduct of their ancestors, the former
+being the descendants of righteous parents and enjoying their merits,
+whilst the latter, coming from a bad stock, suffer for the sins of those
+to whom they owe their existence. This view was suggested by the
+Scriptural words, “Keeping mercy for thousands (of generations) ...
+visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children” (Exod. xxxiv. 7),
+which were regarded as the answer to Moses’ question in the preceding
+chapter of Exodus.(165) Prevalent, however, as this view may have been in
+ancient times, the Rabbis never allowed it to pass without some
+qualification. It is true that they had no objection to the former part of
+this doctrine, and they speak very frequently of the “Merits of the
+Fathers” for which the remotest posterity is rewarded; for this could be
+explained on the ground of the boundless goodness of God, which cannot be
+limited to the short space of a lifetime. But there was no possibility of
+overcoming the moral objection against punishment of people for sins they
+have not committed.
+
+It will suffice to mention here that, with reference to Joshua vii. 24,
+25, the Rabbis asked the question, If he (Achan) sinned, what
+justification could there be for putting his sons and daughters to death?
+And by the force of this argument they interpreted the words of the
+Scriptures to mean that the children of the criminal were only compelled
+to be present at the execution of their father.
+
+Such passages, therefore, as would imply that children have to suffer for
+the sins of their parents are explained by the Rabbis as referring to
+cases in which the children perpetuate the crimes of their fathers.(166)
+The view of R. José, which I have already quoted, had, therefore, to be
+dropped, and another version in the name of the same Rabbi is accepted.
+According to this theory the sufferer is a person either “entirely wicked”
+or “not perfectly righteous,” whilst the prosperous man is a person either
+“perfectly righteous,” or “not entirely wicked.”
+
+It is hardly necessary to say that there is still something wanting to
+supplement this view, for the given classification would place the not
+entirely wicked on the same level with the perfectly righteous, and on a
+much higher level than the imperfectly righteous, who are undoubtedly far
+superior. The following passage may be regarded as supplying this missing
+something:—“The wicked who have done some good work are as amply rewarded
+for it in _this_ world as if they were men who have fulfilled the whole of
+the Torah, so that they may be punished for their sins in the next world
+(without interruption); whilst the righteous who have committed some sin
+have to suffer for it (in this world) as if "they were men who burned the
+Law,” so that they may enjoy their reward in the world to come (without
+interruption).(167) Thus the real retribution takes place in the next
+world, the fleeting existence on earth not being the fit time either to
+compensate righteousness or to punish sin. But as, on the one hand, God
+never allows “that the merit of any creature should be cut short,” whilst,
+on the other hand, He deals very severely with the righteous, punishing
+them for the slightest transgression; since, too, this reward and
+punishment are only of short duration, they must take place in this short
+terrestrial existence. There is thus established a sort of divine economy,
+lest the harmony of the next world should be disturbed.
+
+Yet another objection to the doctrine under discussion remains to be
+noticed. It is that it justifies God by accusing man, declaring every
+sufferer as more or less of a sinner. But such a notion, if carried to its
+last consequences, must result in tempting us to withhold our sympathies
+from him. And, indeed, it would seem that there were some non‐Jewish
+philosophers who argued in this way. Thus a certain Roman official is
+reported to have said to R. Akiba, “How can you be so eager in helping the
+poor? Suppose only a king, who, in his wrath against his slave, were to
+set him in the gaol, and give orders to withhold from him food and drink;
+if, then, one dared to act to the contrary, would not the king be angry
+with him?”(168) There is some appearance of logic in this notion put into
+the mouth of a heathen. The Rabbis, however, were inconsistent people, and
+responded to the appeal which suffering makes to every human heart without
+asking too many questions. Without entering here into the topic of charity
+in the Rabbinic literature, which would form a very interesting chapter, I
+shall only allude now to the following incident, which would show that the
+Rabbis did not abandon even those afflicted with leprosy, which, according
+to their own notion, given above, followed only as a punishment for the
+worst crimes. One Friday, we are told, when the day was about to darken,
+the Chassid Abba Tachnah was returning home, bearing on his shoulders the
+baggage that contained all his fortune; he saw a leprous man lying on the
+road, who addressed him: “Rabbi, do me a deed of charity and take me into
+the town.” The Rabbi now thought, “If I leave my baggage, where shall I
+find the means of obtaining subsistence for myself and my family? But if I
+forsake this leprous man I shall commit a mortal sin.” In the end, he
+allowed the good inclination to prevail over the evil one, and first
+carried the sufferer to the town.(169) The only practical conclusion that
+the Rabbis drew from such theories as identify suffering with sin were for
+the sufferer himself, who otherwise might be inclined to blame Providence,
+or even to blaspheme, but would now look upon his affliction as a reminder
+from heaven that there is something wrong in his moral state. Thus we read
+in tractate _Berachoth_:(170) “If a man sees that affliction comes upon
+him, he ought to inquire into his actions, as it is said, Let us search
+and try our ways, and turn again to the Lord (Lam. iii. 40).” This means
+to say that the sufferer will find that he has been guilty of some
+offence. As an illustration of this statement we may perhaps consider the
+story about R. Huna, occurring in the same tractate.(171) Of this Rabbi it
+is said that he once experienced heavy pecuniary losses, whereupon his
+friends came to his house and said to him, “Let the master but examine his
+conduct a little closer.” On this R. Huna answered, “Do you suspect me of
+having committed some misdeed?” His friends rejoined, “And do you think
+that God would pass judgment without justice?” R. Huna then followed their
+hint, and found that he did not treat his tenant farmer so generously as
+he ought. He offered redress, and all turned out well in the end.
+Something similar is to be found in the story of the martyrdom of R.
+Simeon ben Gamaliel and R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Of these Rabbis we are told
+that on their way to be executed the one said to the other, “My heart
+leaves me, for I am not aware of a sin deserving such a death”; on which
+the other answered, “It might have happened that in your function as judge
+you sometimes—for your own convenience—were slow in administering
+justice.”(172)
+
+But even if the personal actions of the righteous were blameless, there
+might still be sufficient ground for his being afflicted and miserable.
+This may be found in his relations to his kind and surroundings, or, to
+use the term now more popular, by reason of human solidarity. Now, after
+the above remarks on the objections entertained by the Rabbis against a
+man’s being punished for the sins of others, it is hardly necessary to say
+that their idea of solidarity has little in common with the crude notions
+of it current in very ancient times. Still, it can hardly be doubted that
+the relation of the individual to the community was more keenly felt by
+the Rabbis than by the leaders in any other society, modern or ancient.
+According to the view given by an ancient Rabbi whose name is unknown, it
+would, indeed, seem that to them the individual was not simply a member of
+the Jewish commonwealth, or a co‐religionist, but a limb of the great and
+single body “Israel,” and that as such he communicated both for good and
+evil the sensations of the one part to the whole. In the _Midrash_, where
+a parallel is to be found to this idea, the responsibility of the
+individual towards the community is further illustrated by R. Simeon ben
+Yochai, in the following way: “It is,” we read there, “to be compared to
+people sitting on board a ship, one of the passengers of which took an awl
+and began to bore holes in the bottom of the vessel. Asked to desist from
+his dangerous occupation, he answered, ‘Why, I am only making holes on my
+own seat,’ forgetting that when the water came in it would sink the whole
+ship.” Thus the sin of a single man might endanger the whole of humanity.
+It was in conformity with the view of his father that R. Eliezer, the son
+of R. Simeon (ben Yochai) said, “The world is judged after the merits or
+demerits of the majority, so that a single individual by his good or bad
+actions can decide the fate of his fellow‐creatures, as it may happen that
+he is just the one who constitutes this majority.”(173) Nor does this
+responsibility cease with the man’s own actions. According to the Rabbis
+man is responsible even for the conduct of others—and as such liable to
+punishment—if he is indifferent to the wrong that is being perpetrated
+about him, whilst an energetic protest from his side could have prevented
+it. And the greater the man the greater is his responsibility. He may
+suffer for the sins of his family which is first reached by his influence;
+he may suffer for the sins of the whole community if he could hope to find
+a willing ear among them, and he may even suffer for the sins of the whole
+world if his influence extend so far, and he forbear from exerting it for
+good.(174) Thus the possibility is given that the righteous man may suffer
+with justice, though he himself has never committed any transgression.
+
+As a much higher aspect of this solidarity—and as may have already
+suggested itself to the reader from the passage cited above from the
+anonymous Rabbi—we may regard the suffering of the righteous as an
+atonement for the sins of their contemporaries. “When there will be
+neither Tabernacle nor the Holy Temple,” Moses is said to have asked God,
+“what will become of Israel?” Whereupon God answers, “I will take from
+among them the righteous man whom I shall consider as pledged for them,
+and will forgive all their sins;” the death of the perfect man, or even
+his suffering being looked upon as an expiation for the shortcoming of his
+generation.(175)
+
+It is hardly necessary to remind the reader of the affinity of this idea
+with that of sacrifices in general, as in both cases it is the innocent
+being which has to suffer for the sins of another creature. But there is
+one vital point which makes all the difference. It is that in our case the
+suffering is not enforced, but is a voluntary act on the part of the
+sacrifice, and is even desired by him. Without entering here on the often‐
+discussed theme of the suffering of the Messiah, I need only mention the
+words of R. Ishmael who, on a very slight provocation, exclaimed, “I am
+the atonement for the Jews,” which means that he took upon him all their
+sins to suffer for them.(176) This desire seems to have its origin in
+nothing else than a deep sympathy and compassion with Israel. To suffer
+_for_, or, at least _with_ Israel was, according to the Rabbis, already
+the ideal of Moses. He is said, indeed, to have broken the Two Tables with
+the purpose of committing some sin, so that he would have either to be
+condemned together with Israel (for the sin of the golden calf), or to be
+pardoned together with them.(177) And this conduct was expected not only
+from the leaders of Israel, but almost from every Jew. “When Israel is in
+a state of affliction (as, for instance, famine) one must not say, I will
+rather live by myself, and eat and drink, and peace be unto thee, my soul.
+To those who do so the words of the Scriptures are to be applied: And in
+that day did the Lord God of Hosts call to weeping and to mourning, ...
+and behold joy and gladness.... Surely this iniquity shall not be purged
+out from you till ye die” (Is. xxii. 12‐14). Another passage is to the
+effect that, when a man shows himself indifferent to the suffering of the
+community, there come the two angels (who accompany every Jew), put their
+hands on his head, and say, “This man who has separated himself shall be
+excluded from their consolations.”(178)
+
+We might now characterise this sort of suffering as the chastisement of
+love (of the righteous) to mankind, or rather to Israel. But we must not
+confuse it with the Chastisement of Love often mentioned in the Talmud,
+though this idea also seems calculated to account for the suffering of the
+righteous. Here the love is not on the side of the sufferer, but proceeds
+from him who inflicts this suffering. “Him,” says R. Huna, “in whom God
+delights he crushes with suffering.” As a proof of this theory the words
+of Is. liii. 10 are given, which are interpreted to mean: him whom the
+Lord delights in He puts to grief. Another passage, by the same authority,
+is to the effect that where there is no sufficient cause for punishment
+(the man being entirely free from sin), we have to regard his suffering as
+a chastisement of love, for it is said: “Whom the Lord loveth He
+correcteth” (Proverbs iii. 11).(179) To what purpose He corrects him may,
+perhaps, be seen from the following passage: “R. Eleazar ben Jacob says:
+If a man is visited by affliction he has to be thankful to God for it: for
+suffering draws man to, and reconciles him with God, as it is said: For
+whom God loveth he correcteth.”(180)
+
+It is in conformity with such a high conception that affliction, far from
+being dreaded, becomes almost a desirable end, and we hear many Rabbis
+exclaim, “Beloved is suffering,” for by it fatherly love is shown to man
+by God; by it man obtains purification and atonement, by it Israel came in
+possession of the best gifts, such as the Torah, the Holy Land, and
+eternal life.(181) And so also the sufferer, far from being considered as
+a man with a suspected past, becomes an object of veneration, on whom the
+glory of God rests, and he brings salvation to the world if he bears his
+affliction with joyful submission to the will of God.(182) Continuous
+prosperity is by no means to be longed after, for, as R. Ishmael taught,
+“He who has passed forty days without meeting adversity has already
+received his (share of the) world (to come) in this life.”(183) Nay, the
+standing rule is that the really righteous suffer, whilst the wicked are
+supposed to be in a prosperous state. Thus, R. Jannai said, “We (average
+people) enjoy neither the prosperity of the wicked nor the afflictions of
+the righteous,”(184) whilst his contemporary, Rab, declared that he who
+experiences no affliction and persecution does not belong to them (the
+Jews).(185)
+
+2. The second main view on Retribution is that recorded by the Rabbis as
+in direct opposition to that of R. Ammi. It is that there is suffering as
+well as death without sin and transgression. We may now just as well infer
+that there is prosperity and happiness without preceding merits. And this
+is, indeed, the view held by R. Meir. For in contradiction to the view
+cited above, R. Meir declares that the request of Moses to have explained
+to him the mysterious ways of Providence was _not_ granted, and the answer
+he received was, “And I will shew mercy on whom I will shew mercy” (Exod.
+xxxiii. 19), which means to say, even though he to whom the mercy is shown
+be unworthy of it. The old question arises how such a procedure is to be
+reconciled with the justice and omnipotence of God. The commentaries try
+to evade the difficulty by suggesting some of the views given above, as
+that the real reward and punishment are only in the world to come, or that
+the affliction of the righteous is only chastisement of love, and so on.
+From the passages I am about to quote, however, one gains the impression
+that some Rabbis rather thought that this great problem will indeed not
+bear discussion or solution at all. Thus we have the legend: “The angels
+said to God, why have you punished Adam with death? He answered, On
+account of his having transgressed my commandment (with regard to the
+eating of the tree of knowledge). But why had Moses and Aaron to die? The
+reply given to them is the words, Eccl. ix. 2: ‘All things come alike to
+all; there is one event to the righteous and to the wicked, to the good
+and to the clean and to the unclean.’ ”(186) Another legend records, “When
+Moses ascended to heaven, God showed him also the great men of futurity.
+R. Akiba was sitting and interpreting the law in a most wonderful way.
+Moses said to God: Thou hast shown me his worth, show me also his reward;
+on which he is bidden to look back. There he perceives him dying the most
+cruel of deaths, and his flesh being sold by weight. Moses now asks: Is
+this the reward of such a life? whereupon God answers him: Be silent; this
+I have determined.”(187)
+
+It is impossible not to think of the fine lines of the German poet:—
+
+
+    Warum schleppt sich blutend, elend,
+    Unter Kreuzlast der Gerechte,
+    Während glücklich als ein Sieger
+    Trabt auf hohem Ross der Schlechte?
+
+    Also fragen wir beständig,
+    Bis man uns mit einer Handvoll
+    Erde endlich stopft die Mäuler—
+    Aber ist das eine Antwort?
+
+
+Still, one might perhaps suggest that these passages when examined a
+little closer, not only contain a rebuke to man’s importunity in wanting
+to intrude into the secrets of God, but also hint at the possibility that
+even God’s omnipotence is submitted to a certain law—though designed by
+His own holy will—which He could not alter without detriment to the whole
+creation. Indeed, in one of the mystical accounts of the martyrdom of R.
+Akiba and other great Rabbis, God is represented as asking the sufferers
+to accept His hard decree without protest, unless they wish Him to destroy
+the whole world. In another place again, we read of a certain renowned
+Rabbi, who lived in great poverty, that once in a dream he asked the
+divine Shechinah how long he would have still to endure this bitter
+privation? The answer given to him was: “My son, will it please you that I
+destroy the world for your sake?”(188) It is only in this light that we
+shall be able to understand such passages in the Rabbinic literature as
+that God almost suffers Himself when He has to inflict punishment either
+on the individual or on whole communities. Thus God is represented as
+mourning for seven days (as in the case when one loses a child) before He
+brought the deluge on the world; He bemoans the fall of Israel and the
+destruction of the Temple, and the Shechinah laments even when the
+criminal suffers his just punishment. And it is not by rebelling against
+these laws that He tries to redeem His suffering. He himself has recourse
+to prayer, and says: “May it be my will that my mercy conquer my wrath,
+that my love over‐rule my strict justice, so that I may treat my children
+with love.”(189) If now man is equal to God, he has nevertheless, or
+rather on that account, to submit to the law of God without any outlook
+for reward or punishment; or, as Antigonos expressed it, “Be not as slaves
+that minister to the Lord with a view to receive recompense.”(190)
+Certainly it would be hazardous to maintain that Antigonos’s saying was a
+consequence of this doctrine; but, at any rate, we see a clear tendency to
+keep the thought of reward (in spite of the prominent part it holds in the
+Bible) out of view. Still more clearly is it seen when, with reference to
+Ps. cxii., “Blessed is the man ... that delighteth greatly in his
+commandments,” Rabbi Eleazar remarks that the meaning is that the man
+desires only to do His commandments, but he does not want the rewards
+connected with them.(191) This is the more remarkable, as the whole
+contents of this psalm are nothing else than a long series of promises of
+various rewards, so that the explanation of Rabbi Eleazar is in almost
+direct contradiction to the simple meaning of the words. On the other
+hand, also, every complaint about suffering must cease. Not only is
+affliction no direct chastisement by God in the way of revenge; but even
+when it would seem to us that we suffer innocently, we have no right to
+murmur, as God himself is also suffering, and, as the Talmud expresses it,
+“It is enough for the slave to be in the position of his master.”(192)
+
+This thought of the compassion—in its strictest sense of fellow‐
+suffering—of God with His creatures becomes a new motive for avoiding sin.
+“Woe to the wicked,” exclaims a Rabbi, “who by their bad actions turn the
+mercy of God into strict justice.”(193) And the later mystics explain
+distinctly that the great crime of sin consists in causing pain, so to
+speak, to the Shechinah. One of them compared it with the slave who abuses
+the goodness of his master so far as to buy with his money arms to wound
+him. But, on the other hand, it becomes, rather inconsistently, also a new
+source of comfort; for, in the end, God will have to redeem Himself from
+this suffering, which cannot be accomplished so long as Israel is still
+under punishment.(194) Most interesting is the noble prayer by a Rabbi of
+a very late mystical school: “O God, speedily bring about the redemption.
+I am not in the least thinking of what I may gain by it. I am willing to
+be condemned to all tortures in hell, if only the Shechinah will cease to
+suffer.”(195)
+
+If we were now to ask for the attitude of the Synagogue towards these two
+main views, we should have to answer that—as already hinted at the opening
+of this paper—it never decided for the one or the other. R. David Rocca
+Martino dared even to write a whole book in Defence of Adam proving that
+he committed no sin in eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge against
+the literal sense of the Scriptures, which were also taken by the Rabbis
+literally.(196) By this he destroyed the prospects of many a theodicy, but
+it is not known to me that he was severely rebuked for it. It has been
+said by a great writer that the best theology is that which is not
+consistent, and this advantage the theology of the Synagogue possesses to
+its utmost extent. It accepted with R. Ammi the stern principle of divine
+retribution, in as far as it makes man feel the responsibility of his
+actions, and makes suffering a discipline. But it never allowed this
+principle to be carried so far as to deny the sufferer our sympathy, and
+by a series of conscious and unconscious modifications, he passed from the
+state of a sinner into the zenith of the saint and the perfectly righteous
+man. But, on the other hand, the Synagogue also gave entrance to the very
+opposite view which, abandoning every attempt to account for suffering,
+bids man do his duty without any hope of reward, even as God also does
+His. Hence the remarkable phenomenon in the works of later Jewish
+moralists, that, whilst they never weary of the most detailed accounts of
+the punishments awaiting the sinner and the rewards in store for the
+righteous, they warn us most emphatically that our actions must not be
+guided by these unworthy considerations, and that our only motive should
+be the love of God and submission to His holy will.
+
+Nor must it be thought that the views of the Rabbis are so widely
+divergent from those enunciated in the Bible. The germ of almost all the
+later ideas is already to be found in the Scriptures. It only needed the
+process of time to bring into prominence those features which proved at a
+later period most acceptable. Indeed, it would seem that there is also a
+sort of domestication of religious ideas. On their first association with
+man there is a certain rude violence about them which, when left to the
+management of untutored minds, would certainly do great harm. But, let
+only this association last for centuries, during which these ideas have to
+be subdued by practical use, and they will, in due time, lose their former
+roughness, will become theologically workable, and turn out the greatest
+blessing to inconsistent humanity.
+
+
+
+
+
+IX. THE LAW AND RECENT CRITICISM(197)
+
+
+Professor Toy’s work, _Judaism and Christianity_, gives an admirable
+conspectus of the results of the modern critical school in their bearing
+on the genesis of Christianity. The author takes various important
+doctrines of Christianity, traces them back to their origin in
+Israelitism, pursues their course through their various phases in Judaism,
+until they reach their final development in the teaching of Jesus and His
+disciples, which, in the author’s judgment, is the consummation of that
+which the prophets and their successors had to give to the world. Laying
+so much stress as Professor Toy does on the saying, “By their fruits shall
+ye know them,” he ought also, perhaps, to have told us what, in the course
+of time, has become of these several doctrines. For when, for instance,
+with regard to the doctrine of original sin, he remarks that “in certain
+systems of Christian theology the human race is involved in the
+condemnation of the first man” (p. 185, n. 1); or that, in the New
+Testament, “the demand for a mediating power between God and humanity is
+pushed to the farthest point which thought can occupy consistently with
+the maintenance of the absoluteness of the one Supreme Deity” (p. 121), he
+is rather evading a difficulty than answering it. Such elaboration would,
+however, have been outside the scope of Professor Toy’s book, which claims
+only to be a sketch of the progress of thought from the Old Testament to
+the New. For his own solution of the indicated difficulty, Toy, to judge
+from his liberal standpoint, would probably refer us to Dr. Hatch’s
+Hibbert lectures; the issue of such an appeal must, I imagine, remain for
+long doubtful and disputed.
+
+A delightful characteristic of Toy’s book is its transparent clearness and
+sobriety, which will make it interesting reading, even to those who are
+acquainted with the writer’s authorities in their original sources. Almost
+entirely new, as well as most suggestive, is the justice which Toy does to
+the law in recognising it as a factor for good in the history of religion.
+In this point Toy is not only up to his date, but beyond it. It is true
+that even the Pharisees have made some advance in the estimation of the
+liberal school. They are no longer condemned _en masse_ as so many
+hypocrites. It is even admitted that there were a few honest men among
+them, such as Rabban Gamaliel, the teacher of Paul, or R. Akiba, the
+patriot of Bethar. We are now too polite to be personal. But with regard
+to the law, on the other hand, there is at present a markedly opposite
+tendency. The general idea seems to be that, as the doctrine of the
+resurrection of Christ must be loosely interpreted in a spiritual sense,
+it must logically have been preceded by a universal spiritual death, and
+the germs of the disease which brought this death about are to be sought
+for in the law. Hence the strained efforts to discover in the law the
+source of all religious evil,—cant, hypocrisy, formalism, externalism,
+transcendentalism, and as many “isms” more, of bad reputation.
+
+It was probably with this current representation of the law in view that
+Toy, when speaking of the Levitical legislation, and of its fixing “men’s
+minds on ceremonial details which, in some cases, it put into the same
+category and on the same level with moral duties,” asks the question:
+“Would there not thence result a dimming of the moral sense and a
+confusion of moral distinctions? The ethical attitude of a man who could
+regard a failure in the routine of sacrifice as not less blameworthy than
+an act of theft cannot be called a lofty one” (p. 186). The answer which
+he gives is more favourable than such a leading question would induce us
+to expect. He tells us that, “in point of fact, the result was different”
+(_ibid_). “The Levitical law is not to be looked on as a mere extension
+and organisation of the ritual.... Its ritual was, in great part, the
+organised expression of the consciousness of sin” (p. 226). Of the law in
+general Toy says that it had “larger consequences than its mere details
+would suggest,” for it “cultivated the moral sense of the people into
+results above its mechanical prescriptions,” and “it developed the sense
+of sin, as Paul points out” (Gal. iii. 19), “and therewith a freer
+feeling, which brought the soul into more immediate contact with God” (p.
+227); whilst in another place he reminds us “that much of the law is
+moral, and that no one could fail to see a spiritual significance beneath
+its letter” (p. 245), and he even admits that “the great legal schools
+which grew up in the second century, if we may judge by the sayings of the
+teachers which have come down to us, did not fail to discriminate between
+the outward and the inward, the ceremonial and the moral” (p. 186).
+
+These and similar passages will suffice to show that Toy’s estimate of the
+law is a very different one from that of Smend and his school. However, it
+must not be supposed that he is not on the look‐out for the germs of the
+disease. He must find these germs somewhere, or else the progress, which
+his book is intended to illustrate, would be difficult to detect. And thus
+he repeats the old accusations, though not without modification.
+
+Professor Toy’s objections may, perhaps, be summed up in the passage in
+which he represents the Jewish law as “an attempt to define all the
+beliefs and acts of life” (p. 239), or as “the embodiment of devotion to a
+fixed rule of belief and conduct” (p. 237). Toy does not entirely condemn
+this system, and even speaks of it as a “lofty attempt” (p. 239); but, on
+the whole, he considers that it must have resulted in bad theology, as
+well as in doubtful conduct. Without following Professor Toy over the
+whole area of his investigations, which would require a volume for itself,
+I will only take the opportunity of making a few general remarks upon the
+nature and character of this legal system, which seems to hold the key to
+the spiritual history of Judaism.
+
+First, as to its theology, Toy’s description of the law as an attempt to
+define all the _beliefs_ of life—an assertion which is also made by
+Schürer—is not wholly accurate. For such an attempt was never made by
+Judaism. The few dogmas which Judaism possesses, such as the Existence of
+God, Providence, Reward, and Punishment—without which no revealed religion
+is conceivable—can hardly be called a creed in the modern sense of the
+term, which implies something external and foreign to man’s own knowledge,
+and received only in deference to the weight of authority. To the Jew of
+the Christian era, these simpler dogmas were so self‐evident that it would
+have cost him the greatest effort _not_ to believe them. Hence the fact
+that, whilst there have come down to us so many controverted points
+between the Sadducees and Pharisees with regard to certain juristic and
+ritual questions, we know of only one of an essentially dogmatic
+character, viz. the dispute concerning the Resurrection.
+
+It is thus difficult to imagine to what Professor Toy can be alluding when
+he speaks of the “interest they (the Jews) threw into the discussion and
+determination of minutiæ of faith” (p. 241). Discussions upon _minutiæ_ of
+faith are only to be read in the works of the later schoolmen (as Saadiah,
+Maimonides and their followers), in which such subtle problems as _Creatio
+ex nihilo_, the origin of evil, predestination, free will and similar
+subjects are examined; but this period is very distant from that with
+which Toy is concerned. The older schools and the so‐called houses of
+Shammai and Hillel, most of whose members were the contemporaries of the
+Apostles, show very little predilection for such _minutiæ_. Their
+discussions and differences of opinion about ritual matters are very
+numerous, scattered as they are over the whole of the ancient Rabbinic
+literature, but I can only remember two of a metaphysical character, or
+touching upon the _minutiæ_ of faith. The one, dealing with the efficacy
+of certain sacrifices, discusses whether it only extends to the remission
+of the pending punishment for sins, or also includes their purification
+and washing away; the other considers the question whether it would not
+have been better for man not to have been created.(198) But this latter
+controversy, which is said to have lasted for two years and a half, by no
+means led to any big metaphysical or theological system, but only to the
+practical advice that, as we have been created, we ought to be watchful
+over our conduct. It is, indeed, a noteworthy feature of Judaism that
+theological speculations have never resulted in the formulation of any
+imposing or universal doctrine, but usually in divers ceremonial
+practices. To give one illustration: according to Professor Toy (p. 210)
+the conclusion which the author of 1 Tim. ii. 11‐14 draws from the fact
+that woman was the immediate agent of the introduction of sin was the
+subordination of her sex. The Rabbis also noticed the same fact, and in
+their less abstract language speak of woman as having brought death and
+grief into the world; but the conclusion which they drew was that since
+woman had extinguished the “light of the world,” she ought to atone for it
+by lighting the candles for the Sabbath.(199) Nor is Toy quite correct
+when he maintains that the conception of the Memra as Creator and Lord,
+etc., and as “representative of the immediate divine activity,” did not
+keep its hold on Jewish thought, having been discarded in the later
+literature (p. 104). For the Shechinah of the Talmud, the _Metatron_(200)
+of the Gaonic‐mystical literature, the Active Intelligence of the
+philosophical schools, as well as the Ten Sephiroth(201) (Emanations) of
+the Cabbalists, all owe their existence to the same theosophic scruples
+and subtleties in which the Logos of Philo and the Memra(202) of the
+Targums originated. Thus, they always kept—though under various
+forms—their hold on the Jewish mind. Judaism was always broad enough to
+accommodate itself to these formulæ, which for the one may mean the most
+holy mysteries, and for the other empty and meaningless catchwords. The
+objection—in fact, the active opposition—of the Synagogue began when these
+possible or impossible explanations of the universe tended to transgress
+the bounds of abstract speculation, and, passing over into real concrete
+beings, to be worshipped as such. An instance from comparatively modern
+times might be found in one of the vagaries of the followers of the
+Pseudo‐Messiah, Shabbethai Tsebi. For many generations the controversy had
+raged among the Cabbalists, whether the first of the above‐mentioned Ten
+Emanations (called by some _Original Adam_, by others, _Crown_(203)) is to
+be considered as a part of the Deity or as something separate, and so to
+speak, having a reality in itself. The danger of establishing a Being near
+the Deity, having an existence of its own and invested with divine
+attributes, could not have escaped the thoughtful, and there are indeed
+some indications to this effect. The Synagogue as such, however, remained
+during the whole controversy strictly neutral, and allowed these
+theosophists to fight in the air as much as they liked. But the moment
+that the sect of Shabbethai Tsebi identified the incarnate Original Adam
+with their leader, and worshipped him as a sort of God‐Messiah, the
+Synagogue at once took up a hostile attitude against those who separated
+God from His world, and, declaring Shabbethai Tsebi and his followers to
+be apostates, excluded them from Judaism for ever.
+
+Nor can it be proved that legalism or nomism has ever tended to suppress
+the spiritual side of religion, either in respect of consciousness of sin,
+or of individual love and devotion. With an equal logic quite the opposite
+might be argued. Professor Toy tells us himself that it is no “accident
+that along with this more definite expression of ethical‐religious law we
+find the first traces of a more spiritual conception of righteousness in
+the ‘new heart’ of Jeremiah and Ezekiel” (p. 235), whilst in another
+passage we read that “a turning point is marked by the Deuteronomist
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel, who announce the principles of individual
+responsibility and inwardness of obedience” (p. 184). Now, two things are
+certain; first, that Ezekiel urges the necessity of the new heart as well
+as of individual responsibility more keenly than any of his predecessors;
+secondly, that in Ezekiel the legalistic tendency is more evident than in
+Deuteronomy and Jeremiah. The logical conclusion would thus be that the
+higher ideals of religion are not only not inconsistent with legalism, but
+are the very outcome of it, and the so‐called Priestly Code, by the very
+fact of its markedly legalistic tendency, should be considered as a step
+in the right direction. The latter assertion sounds like a paradox, but it
+will seem less so when the prevailing characteristic of this portion of
+the Pentateuch, as given even by Kuenen, who is by no means a champion of
+the Law, is borne in mind. “The centre of gravity,” according to the great
+Dutch critic, “lies for the priestly author elsewhere than for the
+prophet; it lies in man’s attitude, not towards his fellow‐men, but
+towards God; not in his social, but in his personal life” (_Hibbert
+Lectures_, p. 161). It is here that we seem to strike the keynote of the
+_Weltanschauung_ of the Priestly Legislation. In it man is more than a
+social being. He has also an individual life of his own, his joys and
+sorrows, his historical claims, his traditions of the past, and his hopes
+for the future—and all these have to be brought under the influence of
+religion, and to become sanctified through their relation to God. Hence,
+the work of the Priestly narrator and legislator opens with a cosmogony of
+his own, in which we find the grand theological idea of man being created
+in the Divine image; hence, too, his religious conception of the history
+of the nation and the control claimed by him over all the details of human
+life, which became with him so many opportunities for the worship of God.
+To him, God is not a mere figurehead; He not only reigns, but governs.
+Everywhere,—in the temple, in the judge’s seat, in the family, in the
+farm, and in the market‐place,—His presence is felt in enforcing the laws
+bearing His _imprimatur_, “I am the Lord thy God.” By thus diffusing
+religion over the whole domain of human life—not confining it to the
+social institutions which are represented only by a few personages, such
+as the king, the princes, the priests, the judges or elders—they made it
+the common good of the whole people, and the feeling of personal
+responsibility for this good became much deeper than before. Thus it came
+to pass that whilst, during the first temple, the apostasy of kings and
+aristocracy involved the entire people, so that the words “And he (the
+king) did evil in the sight of the Lord,” embrace the whole nation, during
+the second temple it was no longer of much consequence which side the
+political leaders took. Both during the Hellenistic persecutions, as well
+as afterwards in the struggles of some Maccabean kings with the Pharisees,
+the bulk of the people showed that they considered religion as their own
+personal affair, not to be regulated by the conscience of either priest or
+prince. It is true that this success may be largely ascribed to such
+contemporary religious factors as the Synagogue with its minimum of form,
+the Scribes with their activity as teachers, and the Psalmists with their
+divine enthusiasm; but the very circumstance that these factors arose and
+flourished under the influence of the Priestly Code would suffice to prove
+that its tendency was not so sacerdotal as some writers would have us
+believe. Jewish tradition indeed attributes the composition of the daily
+public prayers, as well as of others for private worship, to the very men
+whom modern biblical criticism holds responsible for the introduction of
+the Priestly Code. Now this fact may perhaps be disputed, but there is
+little doubt that the age in which these prayers were composed was one of
+flourishing legalism. Nor is there any proof that the synagogues and their
+ritual were in opposition to the temple. From the few documents belonging
+to this period, it is clear that there was no opposition to the legalistic
+spirit by which the Priestly Code was actuated. This would prove that
+legalism meant something more than tithes and sacrifices for the benefit
+of the priests.
+
+Nor is it true that the legal tendency aimed at narrowing the mind of the
+nation, turning all its thoughts into the one direction of the law. Apart
+from the fact that the Torah contained other elements besides its
+legalism, the prophets were not forgotten, but were read and interpreted
+from a very early age. It was under the predominance of the Law that the
+Wisdom literature was composed, which is by no means narrow or one‐sided,
+but is even supposed by some critics to contain many foreign elements. In
+the book of Job, the great problems of man’s existence are treated with a
+depth and grandeur never equalled before or since. This book alone ought
+partly to compensate the modern school for the disappearance of prophecy,
+which is usually brought as a charge against the Law. Then, too, the
+Psalms, placed by the same school in the post‐exilic period, are nothing
+but another aspect of prophecy, with this difference, perhaps, that in the
+Prophets God speaks to man, while in the Psalms it is man who establishes
+the same communion by speaking to God. There is no reason why the critical
+school, with its broad conception of inspiration, and with its insistence
+that prophecy does _not_ mean prediction, should so strongly emphasise
+this difference. If “it is no longer as in the days of Amos, when the Lord
+Yahveh did nothing without revealing his counsel to his servants the
+prophets,” there is in the days of the Psalmists nothing in man’s heart,
+no element in his longings and meditations and aspirations, which was not
+revealed to God. Nay, it would seem that at times the Psalmist hardly ever
+desires the revelation of God’s secrets. Let future events be what they
+may, he is content, for he is with God. After all his trials, he exclaims,
+“And yet I am continually with thee; thou hast taken hold of my right
+hand. According to thy purpose wilt thou lead me, and afterwards receive
+me with glory. Whom have I (to care for) in heaven? and possessing thee, I
+have pleasure in nothing upon earth. Though my flesh and my heart should
+have wasted away, God would for ever be the rock of my heart and my
+portion” (Ps. lxxiii. 23‐26). How an age producing a literature containing
+passages like these—of which Wellhausen in his _Abriss_ (p. 95) justly
+remarks, that we are not worthy even to repeat them—can be considered by
+the modern school as wanting in intimate relation to God and inferior to
+that of the prophets is indeed a puzzle.
+
+Now a few words as to the actual life under the Law. Here, again, there is
+a fresh puzzle. On the one side, we hear the opinions of so many learned
+professors, proclaiming _ex cathedrâ_, that the Law was a most terrible
+burden, and the life under it the most unbearable slavery, deadening body
+and soul. On the other side we have the testimony of a literature
+extending over about twenty‐five centuries, and including all sorts and
+conditions of men, scholars, poets, mystics, lawyers, casuists, schoolmen,
+tradesmen, workmen, women, simpletons, who all, from the author of the
+119th Psalm to the last pre‐Mendelssohnian writer—with a small exception
+which does not even deserve the name of a vanishing minority—give
+unanimous evidence in favour of this Law, and of the bliss and happiness
+of living and dying under it,—and this, the testimony of people who were
+actually living under the Law, not merely theorising upon it, and who
+experienced it in all its difficulties and inconveniences. The Sabbath
+will give a fair example. The law of the Sabbath is one of those
+institutions the strict observance of which was already the object of
+attack in early New Testament times. Nevertheless, the doctrine proclaimed
+in one of the Gospels—that the son of man is Lord also of the Sabbath—was
+also current among the Rabbis. They, too, taught that the Sabbath had been
+delivered into the hand of man (to break, if necessary), and not man
+delivered over to the Sabbath.(204) And they even laid down the axiom that
+a scholar who lived in a town, where among the Jewish population there
+could be the least possibility of doubt as to whether the Sabbath might be
+broken for the benefit of a dangerously sick person, was to be despised as
+a man neglecting his duty; for, as Maimonides points out, the laws of the
+Torah are not meant as an infliction upon mankind, “but as mercy, loving‐
+kindness, and peace.”(205)
+
+The attacks upon the Jewish Sabbath have not abated with the lapse of
+time. The day is still described by almost every Christian writer on the
+subject in the most gloomy colours, and long lists are given of minute and
+easily transgressed observances connected with it, which, instead of a day
+of rest, would make it to be a day of sorrow and anxiety, almost worse
+than the Scotch Sunday as depicted by continental writers. But it so
+happens that we have the prayer of R. Zadok, a younger contemporary of the
+Apostles, which runs thus: “Through the love with which Thou, O Lord our
+God, lovest Thy people Israel, and the mercy which Thou hast shown to the
+children of Thy covenant, Thou hast given unto us in love this great and
+holy Seventh Day.”(206) And another Rabbi, who probably flourished in the
+first half of the second century, expresses himself (with allusion to
+Exod. xxxi. 13: Verily my Sabbaths ye shall keep ... that ye may know that
+I am the Lord that doth sanctify you)—“The Holy One, blessed be He, said
+unto Moses, I have a good gift in my treasures, and Sabbath is its name,
+which I wish to present to Israel. Go and bring to them the good
+tidings.”(207) The form again of the Blessing over the Sanctification‐
+cup(208)—a ceremony known long before the destruction of the Second
+Temple—runs: “Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, who hast sanctified us by
+Thy commandments, and hast taken pleasure in us, and in love and grace
+hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an inheritance.” All these Rabbis
+evidently regarded the Sabbath as a gift from heaven, an expression of the
+infinite mercy and grace of God which He manifested to His beloved
+children.
+
+And the gift was, as already said, a _good_ gift. Thus the Rabbis
+paraphrase the words in the Scripture “See, for that the Lord hath given
+you the Sabbath” (Exod. xvi. 29): God said unto Israel behold the gem I
+gave you, My children I gave you the Sabbath for your good. Sanctify or
+honour the Sabbath by choice meals, beautiful garments; delight your soul
+with pleasure and I will reward you (for this very pleasure); as it is
+said: “And if thou wilt call the Sabbath a delight and the holy of the
+Lord honourable (that is honouring the Sabbath in this way) ... then shalt
+thou delight thyself in the Lord” (Is. lviii. 13, 14).(209)
+
+The delight of the Sabbath was keenly felt. Israel fell in love with the
+Sabbath, and in the hyperbolic language of the Agadah the Sabbath is
+personified as the “Bride of Israel,” whilst others called it “Queen
+Sabbath,”(210) and they are actually jealous of a certain class of semi‐
+proselytes who, as it seems, were willing to observe the Sabbath, but
+declined to submit to the covenant of Abraham. The Gentile Sabbath‐
+keepers—who, like all the nations of the world, envy Israel their
+Sabbath—the Rabbis considered as shameless intruders deserving
+punishment.(211) No, it was Israel’s own Queen or Bride Sabbath whose
+appearance in all her heavenly glory they were impatiently awaiting. Thus
+we are told of R. Judah b. Ilai that when the eve of the Sabbath came “he
+made his ablutions, wrapped himself up in his white linen with fringed
+borders looking like an angel of the Lord of Hosts,” thus prepared for the
+solemn reception of Queen Sabbath. Another Rabbi used to put on his best
+clothes, and arise and invite the Sabbath with the words: “Come in Bride,
+come in.”(212) What the Bride brought was peace and bliss. Nay, man is
+provided with a super soul for the Sabbath, enabling him to bear both the
+spiritual and the material delights of the day with dignity and
+solemnity.(213) The very light (or expression) of man’s face is different
+on Sabbath, testifying to his inward peace and rest. And when man has
+recited his prayers (on the eve of the Sabbath) and thus borne testimony
+to God’s creation of the world and to the glory of the Sabbath, there
+appear the two angels who accompany him, lay their hands on his head and
+impart to him their blessing with the words: “And thine iniquity is taken
+away and thy sin purged” (Is. vi. 7).(214) For nothing is allowed to
+disturb the peace of the Sabbath; not even “the sorrows of sin,” though
+the Sabbath had such a solemn effect on people that even the worldly man
+would not utter an untruth on the Day of the Lord. Hence it was not only
+forbidden to pray on Sabbath for one’s own (material) needs, but
+everything in the liturgy of a mournful character (as for instance the
+confession of sin, supplication for pardon) was carefully avoided. It was
+with difficulty, as the Rabbis say, that they made an exception in the
+case of condoling with people who had suffered loss through the death of
+near relatives. There is no room for morbid sentiment on Sabbath, for the
+blessing of the Lord maketh rich, and He addeth no sorrow with it (Prov.
+x. 22).(215) The burden of the Sabbath prayers is for peace, rest,
+sanctification, and joy (through salvation) and praise of God for this
+ineffable bliss of the Sabbath.
+
+Such was the Sabbath of the old Rabbis and the same spirit continued
+through all ages. The Sabbath was and is still celebrated by the people
+who did and do observe it, in hundreds of hymns, which would fill volumes,
+as a day of rest and joy, of pleasure and delight, a day in which man
+enjoys some foretaste of the pure bliss and happiness which are stored up
+for the righteous in the world to come. Somebody, either the learned
+professors, or the millions of the Jewish people, must be under an
+illusion. Which it is I leave to the reader to decide.
+
+It is also an illusion to speak of the burden which a scrupulous care to
+observe six hundred and thirteen commandments must have laid upon the Jew.
+Even a superficial analysis will discover that in the time of Christ many
+of these commandments were already obsolete (as for instance those
+relating to the tabernacle and to the conquest of Palestine), while others
+concerned only certain classes, as the priests, the judges, the soldiers,
+the Nazirites, or the representatives of the community, or even only one
+or two individuals among the whole population, as the King and the High‐
+Priest. Others, again, provided for contingencies which could occur only
+to a few, as for instance the laws concerning divorce or levirate
+marriages, whilst many—such as those concerning idolatry, and incest, and
+the sacrifice of children to Moloch—could scarcely have been considered as
+a practical prohibition by the pre‐Christian Jew; just as little as we can
+speak of Englishmen as lying under the burden of a law preventing them
+from burning widows or marrying their grandmothers, though such acts would
+certainly be considered as crimes. Thus it will be found by a careful
+enumeration that barely a hundred laws remain which really concerned the
+life of the bulk of the people. If we remember that even these include
+such laws as belief in the unity of God, the necessity of loving and
+fearing Him, and of sanctifying His name, of loving one’s neighbour and
+the stranger, of providing for the poor, exhorting the sinner, honouring
+one’s parents and many more of a similar character, it will hardly be said
+that the ceremonial side of the people’s religion was not well balanced by
+a fair amount of spiritual and social elements. Besides, it would seem
+that the line between the ceremonial and the spiritual is too often only
+arbitrarily drawn. With many commandments it is rather a matter of opinion
+whether they should be relegated to the one category or the other.
+
+Thus, the wearing of Tephillin(216) or phylacteries has, on the one hand,
+been continually condemned as a meaningless superstition, and a pretext
+for formalism and hypocrisy. But, on the other hand, Maimonides, who can
+in no way be suspected of superstition or mysticism, described their
+importance in the following words: “Great is the holiness of the
+Tephillin; for as long as they are on the arm and head of man he is humble
+and God‐fearing, and feels no attraction for frivolity or idle things, nor
+has he any evil thoughts, but will turn his heart to the words of truth
+and righteousness.” The view which R. Johanan, a Palestinian teacher of
+the third century, took of the fulfilment of the Law, will probably be
+found more rational than that of many a rationalist of to‐day. Upon the
+basis of the last verse in Hosea, “The ways of the Lord are right, and the
+just shall walk in them, but the transgressors shall fall therein,” he
+explains that while one man, for instance, eats his paschal lamb with the
+purpose of doing the will of God who commanded it, and thereby does an act
+of righteousness, another thinks only of satisfying his appetite by the
+lamb, so that his eating it (by the very fact that he professes at the
+same time to perform a religious rite) becomes a stumbling‐block for
+him.(217) Thus all the laws by virtue of their divine authority—and in
+this there was in the first century no difference of opinion between Jews
+and Christians—have their spiritual side, and to neglect them implies, at
+least from the individual’s own point of view, a moral offence.
+
+The legalistic attitude may be summarily described as an attempt to live
+in accordance with the will of God, caring less for what God is than for
+what He wants us to be. But, nevertheless, on the whole this life never
+degenerated into religious formalism. Apart from the fact that during the
+second temple there grew up laws, and even beliefs, which show a decided
+tendency towards progress and development, there were also ceremonies
+which were popular with the masses, and others which were neglected. Men
+were not, therefore, the mere soulless slaves of the Law; personal
+sympathies and dislikes also played a part in their religion. Nor were all
+the laws actually put upon the same level. With a happy inconsistency men
+always spoke of heavier and slighter sins, and by the latter—excepting,
+perhaps, the profanation of the Sabbath—they mostly understood ceremonial
+transgressions. The statement made by Professor Toy (p. 243), on the
+authority of James (ii. 10), that “the principle was established that he
+who offended in one point was guilty of all,” is hardly correct; for the
+passage seems rather to be laying down a principle, or arguing that
+logically the law ought to be looked upon as a whole, than stating a fact.
+The fact was that people did not consider the whole law as of equal
+importance, but made a difference between laws and laws, and even spoke of
+certain commandments, such as those of charity and kindness, as
+outweighing all the rest of the Torah. It was in conformity with this
+spirit that in times of great persecution the leaders of the people had no
+compunction in reducing the whole Law to the three prohibitions of
+idolatry, of incest, and of bloodshed. Only these three were considered of
+sufficient importance that men should rather become martyrs than
+transgress them.
+
+These, then, are some of the illusions and misrepresentations which exist
+with regard to the Law. There are many others, of which the complete
+exposure would require a book by itself. Meanwhile, in the absence of such
+a book to balance and correct the innumerable volumes upon the other side,
+Professor Toy has done the best he could with existing materials, and
+produced a meritorious work deserving of wide recognition and approval.
+
+
+
+
+
+X. THE HEBREW COLLECTION OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
+
+
+The Hebrew collection in the British Museum forms one of the greatest
+centres of Jewish thought. It is only surpassed by the treasures which are
+contained in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. The fame of these magnificent
+collections has spread far and wide. It has penetrated into the remotest
+countries, and even the Bachurim (_alumni_) of some obscure place in
+Poland, who otherwise neither care nor know anything about British
+civilisation, have a dim notion of the nature of these mines of Jewish
+learning.
+
+All sorts of legends circulate amongst them about the “millions” of books
+which belong to the “Queen of England.” They speak mysteriously of an
+autograph copy of the Book of Proverbs, presented to the Queen of Sheba on
+the occasion of her visit to Jerusalem, and brought by the English troops
+as a trophy from their visit to Abyssinia, which is still ruled by the
+descendants of that famous lady. They also talk of a copy of the Talmud of
+Jerusalem which once belonged to Titus, afterwards to a Pope, was
+presented by the latter to a Russian Czar, and taken away from him by the
+English in the Crimean war; of a manuscript of the book _Light is
+Sown_,(218) which is so large that no shelf can hold it, and which
+therefore hangs on iron chains. How they long to have a glance at these
+precious things! Would not a man get wiser only by looking at the
+autograph of the wisest of men?
+
+But even the students of Germany and Austria, who are inaccessible to such
+fables, and by the aid of Zedner’s, Steinschneider’s, and Neubauer’s
+catalogues have a fair notion of our libraries, cherish the belief that
+they would gain in scholarship and wisdom by examining these grand
+collections. How often have I been asked by Jewish students abroad: “Have
+you really been to the British Museum? Have you really seen this or that
+rare book or manuscript? Had you not great difficulties in seeing them? Is
+not the place where these heaps of jewels are treasured up always crowded
+by students and visitors?”
+
+Yet how little does our English public know of these wonderful things! We
+are fairly interested in Græco‐Roman art. We betray much curiosity about
+the different Egyptian dynasties. We look with admiration at the cuneiform
+inscriptions in the Nimrod room. We do not even grudge a glance at the
+abominable idols of the savage tribes. But as to the productions of Jewish
+genius,—well, it is best to quote here the words of Heine, who ridiculed
+this indifference to everything that is Jewish, in the following lines:—
+
+
+    Alte Mumien, ausgestopfte,
+    Pharaonen von Ægypten,
+    Merowinger Schattenkön’ge,
+    Ungepuderte Perticken,
+
+    Auch die Zopfmonarchen China’s
+    Porzellanpagodenkaiser—
+    Alle lernen sie answendig,
+    Kluge Mädchen, aber, Himmel!
+
+    Fragt man sie nach grossen Namen,
+    Aus dem grossen Goldzeitalter
+    Der arabisch‐althispanisch
+    Jüdischen Poetenschule,
+
+    Fragt man nach dem Dreigestirn
+    Nach Jehuda ben Halevy,
+    Nach dem Salomon Gabirol
+    Und dem Moses Iben Esra.
+
+    Fragt man nach dergleichen Namen,
+    Dann mit grossen Augen schaun
+    Uns die Kleinen an—alsdann
+    Stehn am Berge die Ochsinnen.
+
+
+Now Heine goes on to advise his beloved one to study the Hebrew language.
+It would be indeed the best remedy against this indifference. But this is
+so radical a cure that one cannot hope that it will be made use of by
+many. A few remarks in English, trying to give some notion of the Hebrew
+collection in the British Museum, may, therefore, not be considered
+altogether superfluous.
+
+The Hebrew collection in the Museum may be divided into two sections:
+Printed Books, and Manuscripts. The number of the printed books amounted
+in the year 1867, in which Zedner concluded his catalogue, to 10,100
+volumes. Within the last twenty‐eight years about 5000 more have been
+added.
+
+This enormous collection has grown out of very small beginnings. The
+British Museum was first opened to the public in the year 1759. Amongst
+the 500,000 volumes which it possessed at that time only a single Jewish
+work, the _editio princeps_ of the Talmud (Bomberg, Venice, 1520‐1523) was
+to be found on its shelves. According to an article by Zedner in the
+_Hebräische Bibliographie_ (ii. p. 88), this copy of the Talmud once
+belonged to Henry VIII. But very soon the Museum was enriched by a small
+collection of Hebrew books, presented to it by Mr. Solomon da Costa,
+surnamed Athias, who had emigrated to England from Holland. The
+translation of the Hebrew letter with which the donor accompanied his
+present to the Trustees of the Museum was first published in the
+_Gentleman’s Magazine_, February 1760, and was afterwards republished by
+the Rev. A. L. Green, in an article in the _Jewish Chronicle_, 1859. I
+shall only reproduce here the passage relating to the history of this
+collection. After expressing his gratitude to the “crowning city, the city
+of London, in which he dwelt for fifty‐four years in ease and quietness
+and safety,” and telling us that he bequeaths these books to the British
+nation as a token of his gratitude, Da Costa proceeds to say that they are
+180 books, which had been gathered and bound for Charles II., with
+valuable bindings and marked with the king’s own cipher. These books were
+intended as a present from the London Jewish community to Charles for
+certain privileges which he had bestowed on them. The sudden death of the
+king seems to have frustrated the intention of the first donors. The books
+were scattered, and Da Costa had to collect them again.
+
+Small as this collection is, it is most valuable on account of its
+including many early editions of Venice, Constantinople, Naples, etc. The
+original letter of Da Costa, with a full list of the 180 books, is
+preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (Additional, 4710‐11).
+
+Of still greater importance is the Michaelis collection. It consists of
+4420 volumes, and was bought by the Trustees of the Museum in 1848. Other
+successive acquisitions, especially the purchase of a large number of
+printed books from the Almanzi collection, brought the Museum into
+possession of one of the most complete and one of the largest Hebrew
+libraries in the world.
+
+After the foregoing remarks on the quantity of this collection, I shall
+now attempt to give some idea of its quality. The following table, taken
+from the Preface of Zedner’s _Catalogue_, shows its manifold contents:—
+
+
+    1. Bibles, 1260
+    2. Commentaries on the Bible, 510
+    3. Talmud, 730
+    4. Commentaries on the Talmud, 700
+    5. Codes of Law, 1260
+    6. Decisions, 520
+    7. Midrash, 160
+    8. Cabbalah, 460
+    9. Sermons, 400
+    10. Liturgies, 1200
+    11. Divine Philosophy, 690
+    12. Scientific works, 180
+    13. Grammars, Dictionaries, 450
+    14. History, Geography, 320
+    15. Poetry, Criticism, 770
+
+
+The reader can see that almost every branch of human thought, religious
+and secular, is amply represented in this collection. Looking at this
+table from a geographical point of view, we may perhaps classify the
+authors in the following way:—France and Germany in the Middle Ages,
+Poland and the East in modern times, are represented by the fourth, fifth,
+and sixth classes. The Rabbis of Spain and Italy would probably excel in
+the last five classes. In the productions of classes eight and nine all
+the before‐mentioned countries would have an equal share. English Judaism,
+by reason of its large number of occasional prayers and wedding hymns
+(Zedner, pp. 472, 652), may perhaps be represented in the last class
+(criticism excluded). We in England are a pious, devotional people, and
+leave the thinking to others.
+
+But what is still more welcome to the student is the fact that all these
+branches of Jewish learning are represented in the British Museum by the
+best editions. It would be a rather tedious task to enumerate here all the
+early editions of which this collection can boast. There is hardly any
+Hebrew book of importance from the Bible down to the Code of R. Joseph
+Caro of which the Museum does not possess the first printed edition. There
+are also many books and editions in the Museum of which no second copy is
+known to be in existence. An enumeration of these rare books and editions
+would require long lists, the perusal of which would be rather trying. But
+I shall say a few words to show the importance of such early editions for
+the student. They possess, first, the advantage of being free from the
+misprints which crept in with every fresh republication. The art of
+editing books in a correct and scientific way is of a very recent date.
+And even Hebrew literature does not find that support from the public
+which would enable scholars to edit Jewish books in such a way as Roman
+and Greek classics are prepared by Oxford and Cambridge students. A new
+edition of a Hebrew book meant therefore an addition of new mistakes and
+misprints. And it is only by examining the _editiones principes_ that the
+scholar finds his way out of these perplexities.
+
+Another advantage is the fact that these early editions escaped the hand
+of the censor, whose office was not introduced till a comparatively late
+date. The same advantage is also possessed by the Hebrew books published
+at Constantinople, Salonica, and other Mohammedan cities. Only Christian
+countries indulged in the barbarous pleasure of burning and disfiguring
+Jewish books. It is one of the most touching points in the life of R.
+David Oppenheim, of Prague, who spent all his life and fortune in
+collecting Hebrew works, and whose collection now forms one of the
+greatest ornaments of the Bodleian Library, that he was not allowed by the
+censor to enjoy the use of his treasures. He had to put them under the
+protection of Lipman Cohen, his father‐in‐law in Hanover, many hundreds of
+miles from his own home. With the exception of the Bible hardly any Jewish
+books escaped mutilation. In certain Christian countries some books were
+not allowed to be published at all; of others, again, whole chapters had
+to be omitted, while of others many passages had to be expunged. The words
+Roman, Greek, Gentile, were strictly forbidden, and had to be changed into
+Turks, Arabs, Samaritans, or worshippers of the stars and planets. One can
+imagine what confusion such stupid alterations caused. Fancy what blunders
+would have been committed in history if the old chroniclers had been
+compelled to change the Pope into the Grand Turk or the Shah of Persia,
+the Christian rulers into as many califs and pashas, or Rome and Athens
+into Pekin and Mecca!
+
+It may perhaps be interesting to learn that Jews sometimes imitated their
+bitter enemies in this work of mutilation. Thus in the later editions of
+the _Book of Genealogies_ by Abraham Zacuto,(219) a passage was left out
+reproducing the evidence given by the widow of Moses de Leon to the effect
+that the cabbalistic work, the Zohar, was a forgery manufactured by her
+poor dear husband. Another omission of this kind is to be found in the
+Code of R. Joseph Caro, mentioned above. Here the earliest editions
+declare, in the heading of section 605, “a certain religious usage” to be
+“a custom of folly.” In the republications, the last three words were left
+out. From such nonsensical omissions and changes only the earliest
+editions, which are abundant in the Museum, were exempt.
+
+A remarkable feature about the books of this Hebrew collection also is
+that many of them are provided in the margin with manuscript notes by
+their former possessors. These often happen to bear very great names in
+literature. I shall only mention here R. Jacob Emden, Almanzi, Michael,
+Gerundi, and Heidenheim. Of the works written by R. Jacob Emden, the
+Museum possesses an almost complete author’s copy with abundant
+corrections, notes, and emendations by the author himself. His works are
+still very popular among Polish and Russian Jews, especially his Prayer‐
+Book, and his Responses. It would be advisable for publishers in these
+countries to avail themselves of this copy on the occasion of a new
+edition. Of Christian scholars I should name here Isaac Casaubon. A rather
+amusing mistake occurs in Ben‐Jacob’s _Treasure of Books_ in connection
+with this name. Among the many valuable copies of Kimchi’s grammatical
+work _Perfection_,(220) possessed by the Museum, there is included one
+which belonged to Casaubon, and is full of notes by him. The author of the
+_Treasure_ speaks of a _Perfection_ with notes by Rabbi Yitzchak Kasuban.
+I was at first at a loss to guess who that Rabbi Casaubon might be. When
+examining Zedner I found it was no other than the famous Christian
+scholar, Isaac Casaubon. It is not known that Casaubon’s ambition lay in
+this direction. But when Philo was regarded as a Father of the Church, Ben
+Gabirol quoted for many centuries as a Mohammedan philosopher, why should
+not Casaubon obtain for once the dignity of a Rabbi?
+
+After having given the reader some notion of the collection of printed
+works, I should like now to invite him to accompany me through the
+Manuscript Department of the Museum. But I am afraid that I shall make a
+bad guide here; for the Museum is still without a descriptive catalogue of
+the Hebrew manuscripts, which is the only means of enabling the student to
+obtain a general view of the number and nature of these works. The
+manuscript catalogue of Dukes goes only as far as 1856. It was, as we
+shall soon see, just after this time that the Museum made its largest and,
+to a certain degree also, its most valuable acquisitions in Hebrew
+manuscripts. The following remarks must, therefore, not be taken as the
+result of a systematic study of this collection, which would be quite
+impossible without the aid of a catalogue. They rest partly on the
+descriptions given of a certain number of manuscripts in the catalogue by
+Dukes, but for the greater part on occasional glances at this or that MS.
+
+As to the history of the collection, it has grown out of small beginnings
+just as that of printed books. The collection of Dr. Sloane, which laid
+the foundation of the Museum Library, contained only nine Hebrew MSS.
+Later acquisitions, as the Harleian collection, the Cottonian collection,
+the Royal collection, and many other smaller collections marked as
+Additional up to 1854, increased the number of the Hebrew manuscripts to
+232. Of much more importance was the Almanzi collection, bought by the
+trustees of the Museum in 1865, and consisting of 335 MSS. Of succeeding
+acquisitions I shall mention here only the Yemen MSS., which were brought
+to this country by the famous Shapira. The number of Hebrew MSS. at the
+present day is said to exceed one thousand. But we must not forget that
+many MSS. contain more than one work; in some cases even three or four, so
+that the number of Hebrew works is far greater still.
+
+I shall now speak of the nature and importance of these MSS. As to their
+contents they may be easily grouped under the following headings: Biblical
+MSS., Commentaries (to the Bible) and Super‐Commentaries, parts of the
+Talmud and their Commentaries, Theology, Philosophy and Ethics, Massorah,
+Grammar and Lexicography, Cabbalah, Poetry, Mathematics, Astronomy,
+Astrology and Magic, Historical and Polemical Literature, etc. All these
+branches of theological and secular learning and even of human folly are
+fairly represented in the collection of Hebrew MSS. in the Museum, though
+often only by a part or a fragment of a work.
+
+Thus the Babylonian Talmud is to be found only in two MSS. (Harl. 5508 and
+Add. 25,717) both of them including 11 Tractates, hardly a third part of
+the whole work. Indeed poor “Rabbinus Talmud” had to go to the _auto de
+fé_ on so many occasions that one cannot wonder if only disjointed limbs
+are to be found of him in libraries. The only complete MS. copy which
+escaped this vandalism is that in the Royal Library in Munich, from which
+Mr. Rabbinowicz has edited his monumental work, _Variae Lectiones of the
+Talmud_.
+
+All other libraries, Oxford included, have to be satisfied with fragments.
+Still worse, as it is seen, fared the Jerusalem Talmud, and excepting the
+well‐known copy in Leyden from which the Venice edition was prepared, not
+even fragments of this Talmud are to be found in the majority of
+libraries. To my knowledge it is only the British Museum which can boast
+of the Jerusalem Talmud in MS. extending over _Order of Seeds_ and one
+tractate of _Order of Festivals_(221) (Or. 2122‐24) with commentaries of
+R. Solomon Syrillo, the first few pages of which were edited by Dr.
+Lehmann of Mayence. The Museum also possesses a great part of the Tosephta
+extending over 14 Tractates (Add. 27,296). Of Midrashim we find in the
+Museum two excellent manuscripts of the Genesis _Rabbah_, one of the
+Leviticus _Rabbah_, and one of the _Siphra_ and the _Siphré_ (Add. 27,169
+and 16,406), besides two copies of the Midrash _Haggadol_ and other
+Aagadic collections brought from Yemen. The _Midrash_ by Machir b. Abba
+Mari to the minor prophets included in the Harleian collection (5704) is
+unique. Of Liturgies, besides a great number of MSS. representing the most
+peculiar rites, I shall mention the Machzor(222) Vitri (Add. 27,200‐1)
+composed by the disciples of R. Solomon b. Isaac, and forming in itself
+almost a small library. For, apart from the prayers for festivals and week
+days which gave it its title, it includes, besides the _Sayings of the
+Fathers_ with a large commentary, three of the Minor Tractates of the
+Talmud, many responses by German and French Rabbis, and a whole series of
+religious hymns by German and Spanish authors, and many other literary
+pieces. Cabbalah is represented by various valuable writings of the pre‐
+Zoharistic time (see for instance Add. 15,299) and the works of R. Moses
+de Leon and R. Abraham Abulafia. Of Poetry, I shall point here to the
+Tarshish of R. Moses Ibn Ezra, the Makames by Judah Al Charisi (Add.
+27,122), and the Divan of R. Abraham of Bedres (Add. 27,188). Of works
+relating to grammar and lexicography, I may refer to a Codex (Add. 27,214)
+which contains the lexicon of R. Menahem ben Saruk, which is considered as
+the oldest Hebrew MS. in the Museum, dating from the year 1091. Of
+historical works, I mention the chronicle of R. Joseph the Priest (Add.
+27,122) and the letter of R. Sherira Gaon (Arundel 51), the oldest
+existing copy of this work (1189), which was edited by Dr. Neubauer in his
+_Mediæval Jewish Chronicles_.
+
+These examples will suffice to show the significance of the MSS.
+collection of this Library. And the student may rest assured that in
+whatever branch of Jewish thought he is interested, he will always find in
+the Museum some Hebrew manuscript useful for his purpose.
+
+I ought now to say a few words as to the value of this collection of
+manuscripts. Now, if the work contained in a MS. has never been edited, as
+for instance the Machzor Vitri(223) and so many others, its value is
+established by the mere fact of its existence. For those who published
+MSS. were not always guided by the best literary motives. And while they
+published and republished many books of which one edition would have been
+more than enough, many other works of the greatest importance for Jewish
+literature and history remained in manuscript. As an instance, it will
+suffice to mention here the Zohar, which has passed through twenty‐four
+editions since the sixteenth century, whilst the earliest Jewish Midrash,
+the _Pessikta de Rab Kahana_, had to linger in the libraries till the year
+1868, when it was edited by Mr. S. Buber. Thus there are still many pearls
+of Jewish literature which exist only in MS. Likewise most publishers were
+careless in their choice of the manuscript from which our editions have
+been prepared. Almost the whole of Jewish literature will have to be re‐
+edited before a scientific study of it will be possible. But such critical
+editions can only be obtained by the aid of the MSS. not yet made use of,
+in which better readings are to be found. From this fact even those MSS.
+the contents of which have been several times reprinted, as for instance
+the MSS. of the Midrash _Rabbah_, gain the greatest literary importance.
+And the more MSS. the editor of a work has at his disposal, the more
+certain is he of being able to furnish us with a good text.
+
+But even when the whole of Jewish literature lies before the student in
+the best of texts, there will still remain a great charm about
+manuscripts. Printed books, like the great mass of the modern society for
+which they are prepared, are devoid of any originality. They interest us
+only as classes, and it is very seldom that they have a story of their own
+to tell. It is quite different with manuscripts, where the fact of their
+having been produced by a living being invests them with a certain kind of
+individuality. This is specially the case with Hebrew MSS., which were not
+copied by men shut up in cloisters, but by sociable people living in the
+world and sharing its joys and sorrows. Even women were employed in this
+art, and I remember to have read in some MS. or catalogue a postscript by
+the lady copyist, which, if I remember rightly, ran as follows: “I beseech
+the reader not to judge me very harshly when he finds that mistakes have
+crept into this work; for when I was engaged in copying it God blessed me
+with a son, and thus I could not attend to my business properly.”
+
+To be sure, some of these copyists were curious folk. Their mind as well
+as that of the world around them must have been of a peculiar constitution
+hardly conceivable to us. Take, for example, Benjamin, the copyist of a
+certain Machzor in the Museum (Add. 11,639). This Machzor was written in
+times of bitter persecution. The copyist, who was himself a learned man,
+alludes in one place to the sufferings which the Jews in a certain French
+town had to undergo in the year 1276. On one of them, the martyr R.
+Samson, Benjamin the copyist composed a lamentation written in a most
+mournful strain. But this lamentation is followed by a wine‐song, one of
+the jolliest and wildest parodies for the feast of Purim.
+
+Speaking of this Machzor I should like to remark that it forms one of the
+greatest ornaments of the Museum. Besides including the whole of the
+Pentateuch, the above‐mentioned Tarshish by R. Moses Ibn Ezra, and many
+other smaller literary pieces which would require a small volume to
+describe them properly, this MS. is most richly illuminated, and contains
+very many illustrations. The subjects of these illustrations are biblical,
+sometimes also apocryphal, such as—Adam and Eve in Paradise, Noah in the
+Ark, Abraham meeting the angels, Sarah behind the door listening to the
+conversation of her husband with his guests, Moses with the rod in his
+hands dividing the Red Sea, Samson riding on the back of a lion, Solomon
+on his throne, Daniel in the lion’s den, the king Ahasuerus holding out
+the golden sceptre to Esther, Judith addressing Holofernes, the Leviathan,
+the mythical bird Bar Yochni, and many other similar subjects. In passing
+I recommend these illustrations and illuminations to the attention of the
+artist as the most worthy examples of Jewish ecclesiastical art,—if there
+is such a thing as a special Jewish art. The artist will find the Museum
+best suited for this purpose, its collection being considered as the
+richest of the kind. Besides this Machzor I must also allude to the
+illuminated Bible (Or. 2226‐28) written in Lisbon for R. Judah Alchakin—it
+is said to be one of the finest specimens of such works—and the
+illuminated Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, executed for R. Joseph of the
+famous Yachya family, also thought to be most artistically done. The
+liturgies for the Passover Eve service will also offer to the artist a
+rich harvest, especially Codex, Add. 27,210, which the wealthy Lady Rosa
+Galico presented to her son‐in‐law on his wedding‐day, and Codex, Add.
+14,762, even the binding of which is considered as an artistic curiosity.
+
+Leaving now these marvels to the appreciation of the artist, the greatest
+wonder which suggests itself to us is how the Jews could maintain such a
+cultured taste in such unhappy times, and get the means of satisfying it.
+These reflections about the owners present themselves the more strongly to
+our mind when we meet with one of those old Jewish prayer‐books, which in
+many cases formed the whole religious and literary treasure of the family.
+In their fly‐leaves, in which the births and deaths of successive
+generations are very often registered, the _spiritus familiaris_ seems to
+be still haunting the pages. When you turn them over and see the service
+for Passover Eve, are you not bound to think of the anxiety with which
+these poor creatures engaged in this ceremony lest they might be attacked
+suddenly by a fanatic mob? must you not ask how they could bear life under
+such circumstances? And when you turn a few more pages and arrive at the
+prayers read for the dead, must you not ask how did they die? Were they
+perhaps burnt alive _ad majorem Dei gloriam_, or torn to pieces by a
+“saintly mob”? Take again the illuminated copies of the Bible and the
+Mishneh Torah, both of which were finished only a few years before the
+great expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal, times when the earth
+already “burnt under their feet, and the heaven was also very unkind to
+them.” And nevertheless Jews were still, as these MSS. show us,
+cultivating science and art. Another instance of such a devotion to
+science in spite of the unfavourable times may be seen from a colophon to
+Codex Or. 39. It contains the book _Nissim_, a philosophical treatise on
+the fundamental teachings of Judaism, together with a philosophical
+commentary on the Pentateuch by R. Nissim of Marseilles, a contemporary of
+R. Solomon ben Adereth in the thirteenth century. The Museum copy was
+written by R. Jacob, the son of David, who also added some annotations to
+the book. At the end he says: “I have copied this book _Nissim_ for my own
+use, that I may study in it, I and my children and my grandchildren.... I
+have finished it to‐day, Sunday, the 28th of Ab, 5333 (1573), at Venice,
+in the year of the expulsion which befell us on account of our sins.” Now,
+only observe this poor R. Jacob, who has to go through all these horrors,
+yet is still occupied in copying MSS. for his own pleasure, and in
+meditating on the most complicated problems of philosophy and religion.
+
+But it is not always stories of this heroic nature that the MSS. tell us.
+They betray also very much of the instability of human affairs and their
+weakness. You find in many copies the words that they must not “be sold or
+given in mortgage.” But scarcely a generation has passed away, and they
+are already in the possession of a new owner, who writes the same
+injunction to be broken again by his children in their turn. In Codex
+27,122, we find commendatory letters for a worthy poor man, who is so
+unhappy as to have two grown‐up daughters, and not to have the means of
+supplying them with marriage portions. Indeed, he must have been very
+poor, not possessing even a book in his house, or else his troubles could
+not have been so great. For in Codex Harl. 5702, we find the owner saying:
+“To eternal memory that I have acquired this _Third Book of Avicena_ from
+the hands of my father‐in‐law, R. Jekuthiel, as a part of my dowry.”
+
+As a sign of human weakness I give the following two instances. There lies
+before me a cabbalistic Codex (Add. 27,199), which acquired some notoriety
+from the fact of its having been copied by the famous grammarian, R.
+Elijah Levita, for his pupil Cardinal Aegidius. At the end of this MS. we
+read: “I (Levita) have finished (the copying of) this book on Wednesday,
+the day of Hoshana Rabba,(224) 5277 (1516), on which day I have seen my
+head in the shadow of the moon. Praised be God (for it), for now I am sure
+not to die in the following year.” These words relate to a well‐known
+superstition, according to which, when a man is going to die in the course
+of the next year his shadow disappears from him on the preceding Hoshana
+Rabba. But is it not humiliating to see that the great Levita, who was
+superior to many prejudices of his time, and taught Christians Hebrew, and
+who denied the antiquity of the vowels in the Bible, which was considered
+by the great majority of his contemporaries as a mortal heresy—is it not
+humiliating to see this enlightened man trembling for his life on this
+night, and anxiously observing his shadow? Another Codex lies before me
+(Add. 17,053), containing the Novellæ to three tractates of the Talmud.
+Its owner must accordingly have been a learned man. But in the fly‐leaf of
+this MS. we read the following words: “Memorandum—Thursday, the 25th of
+Sivan, 5295 (1535), I have taken an oath in the presence of R. David Ibn
+Shushan and R. Moses de Castro, etc., not to play (cards) any more.” I
+might perhaps suggest on this occasion that in our days when all sorts of
+Judaisms are circulating, a cooking Judaism, a racing Judaism, a muscular
+Judaism, and so many Judaisms more—it would be interesting to take up also
+the subject of playing Judaism, and to write its history.
+
+In conclusion I shall mention the colophon to Codex Harl. 5713, which may
+have some interest for the English reader. It runs: “I have written it in
+honour of the noble and pious, etc., Humphrey Wanley, the noble Librarian
+of my Lord Treasurer. May his glory be increased. In the year 5474 (1714)
+in the holy community of London, under the reign of the noble and happy
+Queen Anne. May the Lord increase her splendour and glory.” The signature
+of the copyist is “Aaron the son of Moses, born in the city of Navaschadok
+in Poland.” By the way, we learn from this signature that the immigration
+of Polish Jews into this country had already begun in the time of Queen
+Anne, and perhaps still earlier.
+
+Thus everything in a MS., the arrangement of the matter, the remarks of
+the owners, the signature of the copyist, sets the reader thinking, and
+contributes many a side‐light to the history of the Jews.
+
+
+
+
+
+XI. TITLES OF JEWISH BOOKS
+
+
+It is now more than half a century since Isaac Reggio in his edition of
+Elijah Delmedigo’s _Examination of Religion_, made the remark that this
+book adds to its other merits that of bearing a title corresponding to its
+contents,—a merit that is very rare in Jewish books. Reggio proceeds to
+give a few specimens confirming his assertion, and concludes his remarks
+with a eulogy on Delmedigo, who in this respect also had the courage to
+differ from his contemporaries. Zunz also once wrote an article on titles
+of books. But this article unfortunately appeared in some German
+periodical which the British Museum does not possess, and I could not even
+succeed in ascertaining whether Zunz treats at all of titles of Hebrew
+books, nor am I aware that the subject has been taken up by any other
+scholar, Isaac D’Israeli’s few notes on the subject in his _Curiosities of
+Literature_ being scarcely worth mention. It seems to me, however,
+interesting enough to deserve some illustration, though I can by no means
+hope to be complete.
+
+The titles of the books contained in the Bible need not be discussed here;
+information concerning them is to be found in every critical introduction
+to the Old Testament. The Rabbinical works dating from antiquity also
+offer little opportunity for reflection on their titles. The Talmud, as a
+work, has no title at all; for Talmud simply means “teaching” or “study.”
+Sometimes it is termed ShaSS, an abbreviation of _Shisha Sedarim_,(225)
+meaning the Six Orders or divisions contained in the Mishnah. This last
+word means, according to some authors, “Repetition.” Other Tannaitic
+collections of laws or expositions of the Scriptures are called “the Book”
+(Siphra), “the Books” (Siphré), or “Additions” (Tosephta to the Mishnah).
+The word _Baraitha_(226) means the external Mishnah that enjoyed less
+authority than the Mishnah of R. Judah the Patriarch. Some approach to
+titles we find in the names given to the different tractates included in
+the Mishnah, as _Berachoth_, because it treats of Benedictions,
+_Peah_(227) (Corner) which contains the particulars concerning the law in
+Lev. xix. and so forth. Of the few works quoted in the Talmud it will
+suffice to mention the _Seder Olam_, the Order of the World, the name of
+which is very suitable to the chronological contents of the book. In
+general, I may observe that as long as the law which prohibited the
+writing down of the Oral teachings was in force, there hardly existed
+Jewish books. But where there are no books there is also no need for
+titles. The few titles, however, which can be proved to be historical are
+simple and to the point. It is not till about the beginning of the Middle
+Ages, when this prohibitive law had, for reasons not to be explained here,
+been abolished, that we can speak of Hebrew books. But here also the
+Title‐confusion begins.
+
+In order that we may have some general view of the thousands of titles
+that are catalogued by the Jewish bibliographers, it will perhaps be well
+to arrange them under the following six classes:—
+
+I. _Simple titles_, that have no other object than that of indicating the
+subject matter of the book. These are, as we have just seen, the only kind
+of titles known to antiquity. The few books which the Gaonim left us bear
+such simple titles as could have served as models to later generations.
+Among them may be mentioned the _Halachoth_ or collection of Laws, _Creeds
+and Opinions_, by R. Saadiah Gaon, the _Book on Buying and Selling_, by R.
+Hai Gaon, containing the laws relating to commercial transactions. It may
+be noticed that this last book is one of the best arranged in Jewish
+literature, and displays more systematising powers than even the Code of
+Maimonides. The greatest part of the literary activity of the Gaonim
+consists in their Responsa, in which they gave decisions on ritual
+questions, or explanations of difficult passages in the Talmud. The titles
+borne by the various collections of those Responsa belong to a period
+later than the author’s. The great majority of the books produced by the
+Franco‐German school may also be included in this class. They are termed
+“Commentaries,” “Additions” or “Glosses,” “Novellæ,” or “Confirming
+Proofs,” and similar modest titles which show both their relation to, and
+dependence on, another older authority. The largest collection of
+Midrashim we possess bears the simple title “Bag.”(228) Many of the
+Responsa satisfy themselves with the words “Questions to, and Answers by.”
+
+II. _Titles taken from the first word with which the book begins_, or from
+the first word of the Scriptural verse occurring first in the book. This
+class is strongly represented by the Midrashim. Thus the Midrash to the
+Song of Songs is also quoted as the Midrash _Chazitha_,(229) “Midrash,
+Seest thou” (the first text with which this Midrash deals being Proverbs
+xxii. 28). The Midrash to the Psalms is called Midrash _Shocher Tob_,(230)
+“Midrash, He that diligently seeketh the good” (Prov. xi. 37). The Midrash
+containing the legendary story of the wars of the sons of Jacob with the
+Canaanites is quoted as Midrash _V’yisseu_,(231) “Midrash, And they
+journeyed,” as the story begins with the verse from Gen. xxxv. 5. And this
+is the case with the titles of many other Midrashim. Whether the work
+cited under the strange name of _Meat on Coals_ did not begin with those
+words, containing some law relating to the salting of meat, I do not
+venture to decide. Under this class we may also arrange those books that
+are called after a phrase which is often used in the book, _e.g._, the
+Midrash _Yelamdenu_ (He may teach us), or the _Vehizhir_, “And He
+commanded us,” almost every paragraph in these books beginning with the
+phrases mentioned.(232) Probably all the books belonging to this class
+received from the hands of their authors or compilers no titles at all.
+The student who had to quote them gave them names after the phrase or word
+which first caught his eye. In later centuries this class disappears
+almost entirely (see, however, Ben‐Jacob’s _Treasure_, p. 201, No. 827).
+
+III. _Pompous titles._ The largest contributions to this class were made
+by the mystical writers. Books which profess to know what is going on in
+the heavens above and the earth beneath cannot possibly be satisfied with
+modest titles. Thus we have the “Book of Brightness” (Zohar), “the shining
+book” (Bahir), “the Confidential Shepherd” (Moses).(233) The books which
+the Zohar quotes bear such titles as the Book of Adam, the Book of Enoch.
+The only excuse for the Zohar is that the manufacturing of such books with
+pseudo‐epigraphical titles had already begun in antiquity. It is not,
+however, till the Gaonic period that a whole apocryphal literature
+suddenly emerges which perplexes the Gaonim themselves. No one is spared.
+Angels, patriarchs, and martyrs are called upon to lend their names to
+these books. What one resents most is that history came within the range
+of the forger’s activity. There is, for instance, the Josippon, which
+professes to be written by Josephus, the well‐known Jewish historian of
+the first century. But in spite of all the care taken by the author to
+disguise himself in the garb of antiquity, the Josippon is a forgery of
+the ninth or tenth century. Of a similar kind is the Book of Jasher,
+containing legendary stories relating to Biblical personages. It pretends
+to be identical with the Book of Jasher quoted in Joshua x. 13 and 2 Sam.
+i. 18. Some sixty years ago a certain Mr. Samuel of Liverpool had the
+misfortune to make himself ridiculous by maintaining the pretensions of
+this book; for, indeed, it does not require much knowledge of the Agadic
+literature to see that the Book of Jasher is only a compilation of
+comparatively late Midrashim.
+
+IV. _Titles suggested by other Titles._ As an instance of this we may take
+Maimonides’ great Code of Law, which bears the title _Mishneh Torah_. The
+importance of the book made it the object of study for hundreds of
+scholars, who wrote their commentaries and glosses on it. Among the titles
+of the commentaries such Title‐genealogies may be discovered as Maggid
+_Mishneh_, _Mishneh_ Lammelech; which last word again suggested such
+titles as Emek ha‐_Melech_, Shaar ha‐_Melech_, and so on.(234)
+
+The same process may be observed in other standard works, the importance
+of which made them a subject of investigation and interpretation as the
+“Prepared Table,” one of the glosses to which is called _Mappah_,
+“Tablecloth,” whilst others provided it with the _Shewbread_ and with _New
+Fruit_.
+
+V. _Euphemistic Titles_, as “The Tractate of Joys,” treating of funeral
+ceremonies and kindred subjects. It does not seem that this title was
+known to antiquity, but it is certain that already the earlier authorities
+quoted it by this name. “The Book of Life” (the German Jewish title of
+which is _Alle Dinim, von Freuden_), is the name of a very popular book
+containing the prayers to be read in the house of mourning as well as in
+the cemetery, which is also called the House of Life.
+
+VI. _Titles taken from the Bible_, or Fancy Titles. This is the largest
+class of all, though it was utterly unknown in antiquity. It will be,
+perhaps, convenient to arrange this class of titles under the following
+sub‐divisions. (_a_) Titles taken from the Bible, but also fulfilling the
+purpose of indicating the name of the author. For instance, “Seed of
+Abraham” (Ps. cv. 6), is the title of nine different books, the name of
+whose authors happened to be Abraham; “And Isaac entreated” (Gen. xxv.
+21), is by Isaac Satanow on the Prayers; “Then Isaac sowed” (_ibid._ xxvi.
+12), edited by R. Isaac Perles, contains an index to the Zohar. “Jacob
+shall take root” (Is. xxvii. 6) is the name of a book on Grammar and
+Massorah by R. Jacob Bassani. R. Joseph of Posen left two collections of
+sermons and commentaries on the Pentateuch, of which the one is called
+“And Joseph nourished” (Gen. xlvii. 12), the other “And Joseph gathered”
+(_ibid._ 14). Authors with the name of Judah are represented among others
+by such titles as “And this of Judah” (Deut. xxxiii.7), a treatise on the
+laws concerning the killing of animals; or “Judah shall go up” (Judges i.
+2), a pamphlet containing a collection of prayers to be said on a journey.
+“Moses began” (Deut. i. 5) forms the title of three different books on
+various subjects, the authors of which had the name Moses. “Moses shall
+rejoice,” a phrase occurring in the morning prayer for Sabbaths, is also
+the title of two books, the authors of which were named Moses. The “Rod of
+Aaron” enjoyed, as it seems, a goodly popularity; there are four bearing
+this name, not to speak of a fifth, “The Rod of Aaron brought forth buds”
+(Exod. xvii. 23), which is the name of a collection of Responsa by R.
+Aaron ben Chayim. But other Rods also were fashionable; there are, besides
+the five Rods of Moses, also Rods of Ephraim, Dan, Judah, Joseph,
+Naphtali, and Manasseh. By authors of the name of David we find books with
+the title “And David said,” or a “Prayer of David,” and other phrases
+occurring in the Psalms relating to David; whilst the “Tower of David”
+became the stronghold of other writers, and the “Shield of David”
+protected as many as nine more. The “Chariot of Solomon” (Cant. iii. 9)
+adorns the title‐pages of five books by authors named Solomon. The Caraite
+Solomon Troki was so fond of that title that he called his two polemical
+treatises “He made himself a chariot,” while R. Solomon of Mir’s
+collection of sermons has the title, “This Bed which is Solomon’s” (Cant.
+iii. 7). As to family names, there were not many authors in the enjoyment
+of that luxury (especially among the German Jews), but we find them
+indicating the fact of their being Priests or Levites. Among such books
+are the collection of Responsa, by R. Raphael Cohen, which has the title
+“And the Priest shall come again” (Lev. xiv. 39), and the Cabbalistic
+treatise by R. Abraham Cohen, of Lask, with the title “And the Priest
+shall reckon unto him” (Lev. xxvii. 18). Probably the author deals with
+numbers. R. Hirsch Horwitz, the Levite, called his Novellæ to the Talmud
+“The Camp of Levi.” The title “The Service of the Levite” (with allusion
+to Exodus xxxviii. 21) is borne by five other books by authors who were
+Levites. And there may be found hundreds of books with titles suggesting
+the Priestly or Levitical descent of their authors. Most anxious is Joseph
+Ibn Kaspi (Joseph the Silvern, so called after his native place
+Argentière, in the south of France) to provide most of his numerous books
+with some Biblical titles combined with silver, as a “Bowl of Silver”
+(Numb. vii. 13), or “Points of Silver” (Song of Songs i. 11), or “Figures
+of Silver” (Prov. xxv. 10), and other similar phrases. On the other hand
+Azulai manages to indicate at least one of his three Hebrew names, Chayim
+Joseph David, in most of his works, of which the number exceeds seventy,
+as Chayim Shaal,(235) “He asked Life” (Ps. xxi. 4), or “The knees of
+Joseph” (alluding to Gen. xlviii. 12), and “Truth unto David” (Ps. cxxxii.
+11).
+
+(_b_) The Tabernacle with its furniture was also a great favourite with
+many authors. There are not only six tabernacles (two on Cabbalah, two on
+grammar, and two on Talmudical subjects), but also three “Arks of the
+Testimony,” two “Altars of gold,” two “Tables of Shewbread,” four
+“Candlesticks of the Light,” two “Sockets of Silver,” and two “Pillars of
+Silver.” Others again preferred the vestments of the priests as the “Plate
+of Judgment,” the “Robe of the Ephod,” the “Mitre of Aaron,” the “Plate of
+Gold,” the “Bell and Pomegranate,” “Wreathen Chains,” and the “Arches of
+Gold.” Many of these books were written by authors claiming to be priests.
+(_c_) But besides the canonical, other costumes were also fashionable. R.
+Mordecai Yafeh composed ten books, every one of them bearing the name of
+some garment or apparel, as “Apparel of Royalty,” “Apparel of Blue,”
+“Apparel of White,” and so the whole suit with which Mordecai went out
+from the presence of the king (Esther viii. 15). These ten works range
+from codifications of the law and occasional sermons to philosophy,
+astronomy, and Cabbalah. By other writers we have three “Coats of many
+colours” (Gen. xxxvii. 4), one “Bridal Attire,” and the “Thread of
+Scarlet” is not missing. (_d_) The ingredients for incense as well as
+other articles used in the Tabernacle or in the Temple were also fancied
+by some authors, and we have two books with the title of “Principal
+Spices,” two “Pure Myrrh,” three “Arts of the Apothecary,” one “Oil of
+Holy Ointment,” five “Meat Offerings mingled or dry,” three or four “Flour
+of the Meat Offering,” and also one “Two Young Pigeons” (Bene Yonah) by R.
+Jonah Zandsopher. But the appetite of the authors did not stop at these
+holy things. It extended also to such lay articles as “Spiced Wine,”
+“Juice of Pomegranate” (Cant. viii. 2), “Forests of Honey,” the “Book of
+the Apple,” and “Seven Kinds of Drink.”
+
+(_e_) Field and flock also suggested to Hebrew writers as well as to Mr.
+Ruskin such titles as “The Fruit of the Hand,” the “Rose of Sharon,” the
+“Lily of the Valleys,” or “The Shepherds’ Tents,” and “In the Green
+Pastures” (Ps. xxiii. 2).
+
+The specimens given for every class may with very little trouble be
+doubled and redoubled. But it is not my intention to reproduce here whole
+catalogues. Reggio thinks all such titles, which do not correspond with
+the context of the book, absurd and confusing. He suggests that the Jews
+followed in this respect the Arabic writers. There is no doubt that Reggio
+is not altogether wrong in his complaint. Almost all the titles included
+in class vi., as the reader might have observed, never indicate to the
+student the subject of which the books treat. How can one guess that the
+Responsa, the Dance of Mahanaim (two companies), is of a polemical nature
+against the tendencies of reform? This list may be lengthened by hundreds
+of titles. But even these incomprehensible titles are better than the
+_Chad Gadyah Lo Israel_ (One Kid No Israel),(236) the un‐Hebrew title of a
+pamphlet trying to prove the un‐Jewish origin of the well‐known folk‐song
+sung on Passover Eve. But, on the other hand, it must not be overlooked
+that even this class has, though not always, something suggestive and even
+practical about it. The “Choice of Pearls” is undoubtedly more attractive
+than the prosaic “Collection of Proverbs and Sayings,” which is what the
+book contains. “Understanding of the Seasons” (1 Chr. xii. 32), sounds
+also better than the simple “Collection of Sermons on different
+occasions.” “The Lips of those who Sleep” recommends itself as a very
+suggestive title for a catalogue, especially when one thinks of the Agadic
+explanation given to Cant. vii. 10, according to which the study of the
+book of a departed author makes the lips of the dead man to speak. Such
+titles as “Bunch of Lilies” for a collection of poems are still usual with
+us. Such a title as the “Jealousy Offering,” or the “Law of Jealousies,”
+in polemical literature is very appropriate for its subject. R. Jacob
+Emden, who named one of his pamphlets “Rod for the fool’s back” (Prov.
+xxvi. 3), will be envied for his choice by many a controversialist even
+to‐day. Wittily devised is the pun‐title, “City of Sihon” for a
+mathematical book by R. Joseph Tsarphathi, alluding to Numb. xxi. 27, “For
+Hesbon (reckoning) is the City of Sihon.”
+
+Other titles were probably intended more as mottoes than titles. “Go forth
+and behold, ye daughters of Zion” (Cant. iii. 11), is put in the title‐
+page of R. Jacob’s German‐Jewish paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which was
+written chiefly for the use of ladies. “Let another man praise thee and
+not thine own mouth, a stranger and not thine own lips” (Prov. xxvii. 2),
+forms the title of a book extending over only one and a half page in
+quarto. It contains letters by seven Rabbis (among them R. Liva of Prague)
+recommending the Ascetic, R. Abraham Wangos, who has a daughter to marry,
+and wants also to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, as deserving the
+support of his brethren.
+
+There is also another objection to these titles. It is that they seem
+sometimes not quite consonant with our notions of modesty. Thus we have
+“Desirable and Sweet” on astronomy, “Sweeter than Honey” or “He shall
+comfort us,” and many others of this kind. But it must not be thought that
+we have a right to infer from the title to the author. There is, indeed,
+an anecdote that three authors were rather too little careful about the
+choice of their titles, namely Maimonides in calling his Code _Mishneh
+Torah_ (which is the traditional title of the Book of Deuteronomy), R.
+Moses Alshech in calling his homiletical commentaries _Torah_ of Moses,
+and R. Isaiah Horwitz in calling his book _Shene Luchoth ha‐Berith_ (The
+Two Tables of the Covenant). These authors, as the story goes, had for
+their punishment that their works are never quoted by the titles they gave
+to them, the former two being usually cited as Rambam or Alshech, whilst
+the last is more known by its abbreviated title of SHeLa(237) than by its
+full name.
+
+I do not remember where I have read this story, but I am quite sure that
+its pious author would have been more careful about repeating it had he
+known that this accusation against Maimonides was a favourite topic with
+apostates, who thought to hit Judaism in the person of its representative
+Maimonides. But, as R. Solomon Duran in his polemical work remarks,
+Maimonides was too much of a truly great man to find any satisfaction in
+such petty vanity. Nor do I believe that even the character of less‐known
+authors can in any way be impugned by the seemingly conceited titles of
+their books; just as on the other hand the humility of the author is not
+proved by calling his book “The Offering of the Poor,” or other modest
+titles. The fancy title was in common use, and was therefore a commonplace
+with no significance whatever. The real disadvantage of such titles lies
+in the fact that, as already pointed out, they conceal from the student
+the contents of the book which he might otherwise consult in the course of
+his researches.
+
+Did these authors perhaps foresee that there would come a time in which
+index‐knowledge would pass for deep scholarship? and did they thus by
+using these obscure titles try to put a check on the dabblers who speak
+the more of a book the less they have read of its contents? If this be the
+case we can only admire their foresight.
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. THE CHILD IN JEWISH LITERATURE
+
+
+“I saw a Jewish lady only yesterday with a child at her knee, and from
+whose face towards the child there shone a sweetness so angelical that it
+seemed to form a sort of glory round both. I protest I could have knelt
+before her, too, and adored in her the divine beneficence in endowing us
+with the maternal _storgé_ which began with our race and sanctifies the
+history of mankind.” These words, which are taken from Thackeray’s
+_Pendennis_, may serve as a starting‐point for this paper. The fact that
+the great student of man perceived this glory just round the head of a
+Jewish lady rouses in me the hope that the small student of letters may,
+with a little search, be able to discover in the remains of our past many
+similar traces of this divine beneficence and sanctifying sentiment.
+Certainly the glimpses which we shall catch from the faded leaves of
+ancient volumes, dating from bygone times, will not be so bright as those
+which the novelist was so fortunate as to catch from the face of a lady
+whom he saw but the previous day. The mothers and fathers, about whom I am
+going to write in this essay, have gone long ago, and the objects of their
+anxiety and troubles have also long ago vanished. But what the subject
+will lose in brightness, it may perhaps gain in reality and intensity. A
+few moments of enraptured devotion do not make up the saint. It is a whole
+series of feelings and sentiments betrayed on different occasions,
+expressed in different ways, a whole life of sore troubles, of bitter
+disappointments, but also moments of most elevated joys and real
+happiness.
+
+And surely these manifestations of the divine beneficence, which appear in
+their brightest glory in the literature of every nation when dealing with
+the child, shine strongest in the literature of the Jewish nation. In it,
+to possess a child was always considered as the greatest blessing God
+could bestow on man, and to miss it as the greatest curse. The patriarch
+Abraham, with whom Israel enters into history, complains—“Oh Lord, what
+wilt Thou give me, seeing I go childless!”
+
+The Rabbis regarded the childless man as dead, whilst the Cabbalist in the
+Middle Ages thought of him who died without posterity as of one who had
+failed in his mission in this world, so that he would have to appear again
+on our planet to fulfil this duty. To trace out the feelings which
+accompanied the object of their greatest anxiety, to let them pass before
+the reader in some way approaching to a chronological order, to draw
+attention to some points more worthy of being emphasised than others, is
+the aim of this essay.
+
+I said that I propose to treat the subject in chronological order. I meant
+by this that I shall follow the child in the different stages through
+which it has to pass from its birth until it ceases to be a child and
+attains its majority. This latter period is the beginning of the
+thirteenth year in the case of a female, and the beginning of the
+fourteenth year in the case of a male. I shall have occasion later on to
+examine this point more closely.
+
+But there is the embryo‐period which forms a kind of preliminary stage in
+the life of the child, and plays a very important part in the region of
+Jewish legends. Human imagination always occupies itself most with the
+things of which we know least. And so it got hold of this semi‐existence
+of man, the least accessible to experience and observation, and surrounded
+it by a whole cycle of legends and stories. They are too numerous to be
+related here. But I shall hint at a few points which I regard as the most
+conspicuous features of these legends.
+
+These legends are chiefly based on the notion of the pre‐existence of the
+soul on the one hand, but on the other hand they are a vivid illustration
+of the saying of the Fathers, “Thou art born against thy will.” Thus the
+soul, when it is brought before the throne of God, and is commanded to
+enter into the body, pleads before Him: “O Lord, till now have I been holy
+and pure; bring me not into contact with what is common and unclean.”
+Thereupon the soul is given to understand that it was for this destiny
+alone that it was created. Another remarkable feature is the warning given
+to man before his birth that he will be responsible for his actions. He is
+regularly sworn in. The oath has the double purpose of impressing upon him
+the consciousness of his duty to lead a holy life, and of arming him
+against the danger of allowing a holy life to make him vain. As if to
+render this oath more impressive, the unborn hero is provided with two
+angels who, besides teaching him the whole of the Torah, take him every
+morning through paradise and show him the glory of the just ones who dwell
+there. In the evening he is taken to hell to witness the sufferings of the
+reprobate. But such a lesson would make free will impossible. His future
+conduct would only be dictated by the fear of punishment and hope of
+reward. And the moral value of his actions also depends, according to
+Jewish notions, upon the power to commit sin. Thus another legend records:
+“When God created the world, He produced on the second day the angels with
+their natural inclinations to do good, and the absolute inability to
+commit sin. On the following days again He created the beasts with their
+exclusively animal desires. But He was pleased with neither of these
+extremes. If the angels follow my will, said God, it is only on account of
+their impotence to act in the opposite direction. I shall therefore create
+man, who will be a combination of both angel and beast, so that he will be
+able to follow either the good or evil inclination. His evil deeds will
+place him beneath the level of animals, whilst his noble aspirations will
+enable him to obtain a higher position than angels.” Care is therefore
+taken to make the child forget all it has seen and heard in these upper
+regions. Before it enters the world an angel strikes it on the upper lip,
+and all his knowledge and wisdom disappear at once. The pit in the upper
+lip is a result of this stroke, which is also the cause why children cry
+when they are born.
+
+As to the origin of these legends, the main features of which are already
+to be found in the Talmud, I must refer the reader to the researches of
+Löw and others.(238) Here we have only to watch the effect which these
+legends had upon the minds of Jewish parents. The newly born child was in
+consequence looked upon by them as a higher being, which, but a few
+seconds before, had been conversing with angels and saints, and had now
+condescended into our profane world to make two ordinary mortals happy.
+The treatment which the child experienced from its parents, as well as
+from the whole of the community, was therefore a combination of love and
+veneration. One may go even further and say that the belief in these
+legends determines greatly the destination of the child. What other
+destination could a being of such a glorious past have than to be what an
+old German Jewish poem expressed in the following lines:—
+
+
+    Geboren soll es wehren
+    Zu Gottes Ehren.
+
+
+“The child should be born to the honour of God.” The mission of the child
+is to glorify the name of God on earth. And the whole bringing up of the
+child in the old Jewish communities was more or less calculated to this
+end. The words of the Bible, “And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of
+priests,” were taken literally. Every man felt it his duty to bring up his
+children, or at least one member of his family, for this calling. How they
+carried out this programme we shall see later on.
+
+Now, regarding almost every infant as a predestined priest, and thinking
+of it as having received a certain preparation for this calling before it
+came into this world, we cannot wonder that the child was supposed to show
+signs of piety from the days of its earliest existence, and even earlier.
+Thus we read that even the unborn children joined in with the chorus on
+the Red Sea and sang the Song (of Moses). David, again, composed Psalms
+before perceiving the face of this world. On the Day of Atonement they
+used to communicate to the unborn child, through the medium of its mother,
+that on this great day it had to be satisfied with the good it had
+received the day before. And when a certain child, afterwards named
+Shabbethai, refused to listen to such a request, R. Johanan applied to it
+the verse from the Psalm, “The wicked are estranged from the womb.”
+Indeed, Shabbethai turned out a great sinner. It will perhaps be
+interesting to hear what his sin was. It consisted in forestalling the
+corn in the market and afterwards selling it to the poor at a much higher
+price. Of a certain child the legend tells that it was born with the word
+_emeth_ (truth) engraved on its fore‐head. Its parents named it
+Amiti,(239) and the child proved to be a great saint.
+
+The priest, however, could not enter into his office without some
+consecration. As the first step in this consecration of the child we may
+consider the Covenant of Abraham. But this was prefaced by a few other
+solemn acts which I must mention. One of the oldest ceremonies connected
+with the birth of a child was that of tree‐planting. In the case of a boy
+they planted a cedar, in that of a girl a pine; and on their marriage they
+cut branches from these trees to form the wedding‐canopy. Other rites
+followed, but they were more of a medical character, and would be better
+appreciated by the physician. In the Middle Ages superstition played a
+great part. To be sure, I have spoken of saints; but we ought not to
+forget that saints, too, have their foolish moments, especially when they
+are fighting against hosts of demons, the existence of which is only
+guaranteed by their own over‐excited brains. Jewish parents were for many
+centuries troubled by the fear of Lilith,(240) the devil’s mother, who was
+suspected of stealing children and killing them. The precautions they took
+to prevent this atrocity were as foolish as the object of their fear. I do
+not intend to enumerate here all these various precautions. Every country
+almost has its own usages and charms, one more absurd than the other. It
+will suffice to refer here to the most popular of these charms, in which
+certain angels are invoked to protect the child against its dangerous
+enemy Lilith. But of whatever origin they may be, Judaism could do better
+without them. The only excuse for their existence among us is to my mind
+that they provoked the famous Dr. Erter to the composition of one of the
+finest satires in the Hebrew language.
+
+Of a less revolting character was the so‐called ceremony of the “Reading
+of the Shema.”(241) It consisted in taking all the little children of the
+community into the house of the newly‐born child, where the teacher made
+them read the Shema, sometimes also the ninety‐first Psalm. The fact that
+little children were the chief actors in this ceremony reconciles one a
+little to it despite its rather doubtful origin. In some communities these
+readings took place every evening up to the day when the child was brought
+into the covenant of Abraham. In other places they performed the ceremony
+only on the eve of the day of the _Berith Milah_(242) (Ceremony of the
+Circumcision). Indeed, this was the night during which Lilith was supposed
+to play her worst tricks, and the watch over the child was redoubled.
+Hence the name “Wachnacht,” or the “Night of Watching.” They remained
+awake for the whole night, and spent it in feasting and in studying
+certain portions of the Bible and the Talmud, mostly relating to the event
+which was to take place on the following day. This ceremony was already
+known to Jewish writers of the thirteenth century. Nevertheless, it is
+considered by the best authorities on the subject to be of foreign origin.
+Quite Jewish, as well as entirely free from superstitious taint, was the
+visit which was paid to the infant‐boy on the first Sabbath of his
+existence. It was called “Shalom Zachar,”(243) probably meaning “Peace‐
+boy,” in allusion to a well‐known passage in the Talmud to the effect that
+the advent of a boy in the family brings peace to the world.
+
+At last the dawn of the great day of the Berith came. I shall, however,
+only touch here on the social aspects of this rite.
+
+Its popularity began, as it seems, in very early times. The persecutions
+which Israel suffered for it in the times of Antiochus Epiphanes, “when
+the princes and elders mourned, the virgins and the young men were made
+feeble, and the beauty of women was changed, and when certain women were
+put to death for causing their children to be circumcised,” are the best
+proof of the attachment of the people to it. The repeated attempts against
+this law, both by heathen and by Christian hands, only served to increase
+its popularity. Indeed R. Simeon ben Eleazar characterised it as the law
+for which Israel brought the sacrifice of martyrdom, and therefore held
+firmly by it. In other words they suffered for it, and it became endeared
+to them. R. Simeon ben Gamaliel declares it to be the only law which
+Israel fulfils with joy and exultation. As a sign of this joy we may
+regard the eagerness and the lively interest which raised this ceremony
+from a strictly family affair to a matter in which the whole of the
+community participated. Thus we find that already in the times of the
+Gaonim the ceremony was transferred from the house of the parents to the
+synagogue. Here it took place after the prayers, in the presence of the
+whole congregation. The synagogue used to be specially illuminated in
+honour of the event. Certain pieces of the daily prayer, of a rather
+doleful nature, such as the confession of sins, were omitted, lest the
+harmony of the festival should be disturbed. As a substitute for these
+prayers, various hymns suitable for the occasion were composed and
+inserted in the liturgy for the day. As the most prominent members among
+those present figured the happy father of the child and the medical man
+who performed the ceremony, usually called the Mohel or Gozer,(244) both
+wearing their festal garments and having certain privileges, such as being
+called up to the Reading of the Law and chanting certain portions of the
+prayers. It is not before the tenth century that a third member suddenly
+emerges to become almost as important as the father of the child. I refer
+to the _Sandek_ or Godfather. In some countries he was also called the
+Baal Berith (Master of the Covenant). In Italy they seemed to have had two
+Sandeks. This word was for a long time supposed to be the Greek word
+σύνδικος. But it is now proved beyond doubt that it is a corruption of the
+word σύντεκνος used in the Greek church for godfather. In the church he
+was the man who lifted the neophyte from the baptismal waters. Among the
+Jews, the office of the Sandek was to keep the child on his knees during
+the performance of the rite. The Sandek’s place was, or is still, near the
+seat of honour, which is called the Throne of Elijah, who is supposed to
+be the angel of the covenant. Other angels, too, were believed to
+officiate at this rite. Thus the angel Gabriel is also said to have
+performed the office of Sandek to a certain child. According to other
+sources the archangel Metatron himself attended. Probably it was on this
+account that later Rabbis admonished the parents to take only a pious and
+good Jew as Sandek for their children. Christian theologians also declared
+that no good Christian must render such a service to a Jew. The famous
+Buxtorf had to pay a fine of 100 florins for having attended the Berith of
+a child, whose father he had employed as reader when editing the well‐
+known Basel Bible. The poor reader himself, who was the cause of Buxtorf’s
+offence, was fined 400 florins. Of an opposite case in which a Jew served
+as godfather to a Christian child, we find a detailed account in Schudt’s
+_Merkwürdigkeiten der Juden_, a very learned and very foolish book. When
+the father was summoned before the magistrate, and was asked how he dared
+to charge a Jew with such a holy Christian ceremony, he coolly answered,
+because he knew that the Jew would present him with a silver cup. As to
+the present, I have to remark that with the Jews also the godfather was
+expected to bestow a gift on the child. In some communities he had to
+defray the expenses of the festival‐dinner, of which I shall speak
+presently. In others, again, he had also to give a present to the mother
+of the child.
+
+Much older than the institution of the Sandek is the festival‐dinner just
+alluded to, which was held after the ceremony. Jewish legend supplies many
+particulars of the dinner the patriarch Abraham gave at the Berith of his
+son Isaac. This is a little too legendary, but there is ample historical
+evidence that such meals were already customary in the times of the Second
+Temple. The Talmud of Jerusalem gives us a detailed account of the
+proceedings which took place at the Berith dinner of Elisha ben Abuyah,
+who afterwards obtained a sad celebrity as Acher. Considering that
+Elisha’s birth must have fallen within the first decades after the
+destruction of the Temple, and that these sad times were most unsuitable
+for introducing new festivals, we may safely date the custom back to the
+times of the Temple. The way in which the guests entertained themselves is
+also to be gathered from the passage referred to. First came the dinner,
+in which all the guests participated; afterwards the great men of
+Jerusalem occupied one room, indulging there in singing, hand clapping,
+and dancing. The scholars again, who apparently did not belong to the
+great men, were confined to another room, where they employed themselves
+in discussing biblical subjects. In later times special hymns, composed
+for this festival, were inserted in the grace after dinner. After the
+dinner, sermons or speeches used also to be given, the contents of which
+were usually made up of reflections on biblical and Talmudical passages
+relating to the event of the day. Sometimes they consisted of a kind of
+learned puns on the name which the child received on this occasion.
+
+With this meal the first consecration of the child‐priest was concluded.
+In some places they used to come to the father’s house on the third day
+after the circumcision with the purpose of making inquiries after the
+child’s health. In the case when the child was the first‐born the ceremony
+of “redeeming the child”(245) in accordance with Exodus xiii. used to take
+place. The details of this ceremony are to be found in almost every
+prayer‐book, and there is nothing fresh to add. But perhaps I may be
+allowed to draw attention to another distinction that the first‐born
+received in the Middle Ages. I refer to an account given by the author of
+the book, _The Ordinance of the Law_,(246) who flourished in the
+thirteenth century. He says: Our predecessors made the rule to destine
+every first‐born to God, and before its birth the father had to say, “I
+take the vow that if my wife presents me with a son, he shall be holy unto
+the Lord, and in His Torah he shall meditate day and night.” On the eighth
+day after the Berith Milah they put the child on cushions, and a Bible on
+its head, and the elders of the community, or the principal of the
+college, imparted their blessings to it. These first‐born sons formed,
+when grown up, the chief contingent of the Yeshiboth (Talmudical
+Colleges), where they devoted the greatest part of their lives to the
+study of the Torah. In later centuries the vow was dropped, but from the
+abundance of the Yeshiboth in Poland and elsewhere it seems as if almost
+every child was considered as having no other calling but the study of the
+Torah. Indeed, the growing persecutions required a strengthening of the
+religious force.
+
+With these ceremonies the first act of consecration ended in the case
+where the new‐born child was a boy. I will now refer to the ceremony of
+the name‐giving, which was common to males and females. In the case of the
+former this ceremony was connected with the Berith Milah. The oldest
+formula, which is already to be found in the _Ritual Rab Amram Gaon_, is
+composed in Aramaic. It is, like many prayers in that language, a most
+beautiful composition, and very suitable for the occasion. Our present
+Hebrew prayer is far less beautiful, and dates from a much later age. In
+some countries the ceremony of naming was repeated in the house of the
+parents. It took place on the Sabbath, when the mother returned home from
+her first visit to the synagogue after her recovery. Here the friends and
+relatives of the family assembled, and after arranging themselves round
+the cradle of the child they lifted it three times, shouting the new name
+at every lifting. This name was the so‐called “profane” name, whilst the
+name it received in the synagogue was the “sacred” or Hebrew name. The
+ceremony concluded with the usual festival‐dinner. By the way, there was
+perhaps a little too much feasting in those days. The contemporary Rabbis
+tried indeed to suppress some of the banquets, and put all sorts of
+restrictions on dinner‐hunting people. But considering the fact that, as
+Jews, they were excluded from every public amusement, we cannot grudge
+them the pleasure they drew from these semi‐religious celebrations. For
+people of an ascetic disposition it was, perhaps, the only opportunity of
+enjoying a proper meal. In the same way, in our days, the most severe
+father would not deny his lively daughter the pleasure of dancing or
+singing charitably for the benefit of suffering humanity. The ceremony
+described was known to the authors of the Middle Ages by the name of
+_Holle Kreish_. These words are proved by Dr. Perles to be of German
+origin, and based on some Teutonic superstition into the explanation of
+which I cannot enter here.
+
+Of much more importance was the ceremony of name‐giving in the case of a
+girl, it being the only attention the female child received from the
+synagogue. The usages varied. In some countries the name was given on the
+first Sabbath after the birth of the child. The father was “called up to
+the Reading of the Law,” on which followed the formula, “He who blessed
+our ancestors Abraham,” etc., “may He also bless,” etc., including the
+blessing and announcement of the child’s name. After the prayer the
+congregation assembled in the house of the parents to congratulate them.
+In other countries the ceremony took place on the Sabbath when the mother
+attended the synagogue after the recovery. The ceremony of Holle Kreish
+seems to have been especially observed in the case of a girl.
+
+Though the feasting was now over for the parents, the child still lived in
+a holiday atmosphere for a long time. In the legend of the “Ages of Man”
+the child is described in the first year of its existence as a little
+prince, adored and petted by all. The mother herself nourished and tended
+the child. Although the Bible already speaks of nurses, many passages in
+the later Jewish literature show a strong aversion to these substitutes
+for the mother. In the event of the father of the child dying, the mother
+was forbidden to marry before her suckling infant reached the age of two
+years, lest a new courtship might lead to the neglect of the child.
+
+More difficult is it to say wherein the other signs of loyalty to the
+little prince consisted; as, for instance, whether Jews possessed anything
+like lullabies to soothe the little prince into happy and sweet slumber.
+At least I am not aware of the existence of such songs in the ancient
+Jewish literature, nor are they quoted by mediæval writers. The
+“Schlummerlied,” by an unknown Jewish bard, about which German scholars
+wrote so much, contains more heathen than Jewish elements. From the
+protest in _The Book of the Pious_, against using non‐Jewish cradle‐songs,
+it seems that little Moshechen was lulled to sleep by the same tunes and
+words as little Johnny. The only Jewish lullaby of which I know, is to be
+found in the work of a modern writer who lived in Russia. How far its
+popularity goes in that country I have no means of ascertaining. This
+jingle runs as follows:—
+
+
+    O! hush thee, my darling, sleep soundly my son,
+    Sleep soundly and sweetly till day has begun;
+    For under the bed of good children at night
+    There lies, till the morning, a kid snowy white.
+    We’ll send it to market to buy Sechora,(247)
+    While my little lad goes to study Torah.
+    Sleep soundly at night and learn Torah by day,
+    Then thou’lt be a Rabbi when I have grown gray.
+    But I’ll give thee to‐morrow ripe nuts and a toy,
+    If thou’lt sleep as I bid thee, my own little boy.(248)
+
+
+But naturally the holiday atmosphere I spoke of was very often darkened by
+clouds resulting from the illness of the child. Excepting small‐pox, the
+child was subject to most of those diseases which so often prove fatal to
+our children. These diseases were known under the collective name of “the
+difficulties (or the pain) of bringing up children.” These difficulties
+seem to have been still greater in Palestine, where one of the old Rabbis
+exclaimed that it was easier to see a whole forest of young olive trees
+grow up than to rear one child.(249) To avoid so mournful a subject, I
+refrain from repeating the touching stories relating to the death of
+children. The pain was the more keenly felt since there was no other way
+of explaining the misfortune which befell the innocent creature than that
+it had suffered for the sins of the parents; and the only comfort the
+latter had was that the child could not have lost much by its being
+removed from this vale of tears at such an early period. A remarkable
+legend describes God Himself as giving lessons so many hours a day to
+these prematurely deceased children.(250) Indeed, to the mind of the old
+Rabbis, the only thing worth living for was the study of the Law.
+Consequently the child that suffered innocently could not have a better
+compensation than to learn Torah from the mouth of the Master of masters.
+
+But even when the child was healthy, and food and climate proved congenial
+to its constitution, there still remained the troubles of its spiritual
+education. And to be sure it was not an easy matter to bring up a
+“priest.” The first condition for this calling was learning. But learning
+cannot be acquired without honest and hard industry. It is true that R.
+Akiba numbers wisdom among the virtues which are hereditary from father to
+son. Experience, however, has shown that it is seldom the case, and the
+Rabbis were already troubled with the question how it happens that
+children so little resemble their fathers in respect of learning.
+
+Certainly Jewish legends can boast of a whole series of prodigies. Thus a
+certain Rabbi is said to have been so sharp as to have had a clear
+recollection of the mid‐wife who made him a citizen of this world. Ben
+Sira again, instantly after his birth, entertains his terrified mother
+with many a wise and foolish saying, refuses the milk she offers him, and
+asks for solid food. A certain Nachman was born with a prophecy on his
+lips, predicting the fate of all nations on earth, as well as fixing the
+date for the advent of the Messiah. The youngest of seven sons of Hannah,
+who became martyrs under the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, was according
+to one version aged two years, six months, six hours, and thirty minutes.
+But the way in which he defied the threats of the tyrant was really worthy
+of one of seventy. R. Judah de Modena is said to have read the lesson from
+the prophets in the synagogue at the age of two years and a half. A famous
+Cabbalist, Nahum, at the age of three, gave a lecture on the decalogue
+that lasted for three days. The Chassidim pretended of one of their
+Zaddikim that he remembered all that he had been taught by the angels
+before his birth, and thus excused their Zaddik’s utter neglect of
+studying anything. Perhaps I may mention in this place a sentence from
+Schudt, which may reconcile one to the harmless exaggerations of the
+Chassidim. It relates to a case where a Jewish girl of six was taken away
+by a Christian with the intention of baptising her, for he maintained that
+this was the wish and pleasure of the child. Probably the little girl
+received her instruction from the Christian servant of the house, as has
+happened many times. Schudt proves that this wish ought to be granted in
+spite of the minority of the child. He argues: As there is a maxim, “What
+is wanting in years may be supplied by wickedness,” why could not also the
+reverse be true that “What is wanting in years can be supplied by grace”?
+Of a certain R. Meshullam, again, we know that he preached in the
+synagogue at Brody, at the age of nine, and perplexed the chief Rabbi of
+the place by his deep Talmudical learning. As the Rabbi had a daughter of
+seven, the cleverness exhibited by the boy Rabbi did not end without very
+serious consequences for all his life.
+
+Happily all these prodigies or children of grace are only exceptional. I
+say happily, for the Rabbis themselves disliked such creatures. They were
+more satisfied with those signs of intelligence that indicate future
+greatness. The following story may serve as an instance:—R. Joshua ben
+Hananiah once made a journey to Rome. Here he was told that amongst the
+captives from Jerusalem there was a child with bright eyes, its hair in
+ringlets, and its features strikingly beautiful. The Rabbi made up his
+mind to redeem the boy. He went to the prison and addressed the child with
+a verse from Isaiah, “Who gave Jacob for a spoil and Israel to the
+robbers?” On this the child answered by continuing the second half of the
+same verse, “Did not the Lord, He against whom we have sinned? For they
+would not walk in His ways, neither were they obedient unto His law”
+(Isaiah xlii. 24). The Rabbi was so delighted with this answer, that he
+said: “I am sure he will grow up to be a teacher in Israel. I take an oath
+to redeem him, cost what it may.” The child was afterwards known under the
+name of R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Such children were ideals of the Rabbis,
+but they hated the baby scholar, who very often grew impertinent and
+abused his elders. The Rabbis much preferred the majority of those tiny
+creatures, who are characterised by the already mentioned legends on the
+“Ages of Men” as little animals playing, laughing, crying, dancing, and
+committing all sorts of mischief.
+
+But these children must be taught. Now, there is the well‐known advice of
+Judah ben Tema, who used to say that the child at five years was to be
+taught Scripture, at ten years Mishnah, at thirteen to fulfil the Law,
+etc. This saying, incorporated in most editions in the fifth Chapter of
+the _Sayings of the Fathers_, is usually considered as the programme of
+Jewish education. But, like so many programmes, this tells us rather how
+things ought to have been than how they were. In the times of the Temple,
+the participation of the youth in religious actions began at the tenderest
+age. As soon as they were able to walk a certain distance with the support
+of their parents, the children had to accompany them on their pilgrimages
+to Jerusalem. In the Sabbatical year they were brought to the Temple, to
+be present at the reading of Deuteronomy by the king.(251) The period at
+which the child’s allegiance to the Synagogue began is still more
+distinctly described. Of the many Talmudical passages relating to this
+question, I shall select the following quotation from a later Midrash,
+because it is the most concise. In allusion to Leviticus xix. 23, 24,
+concerning the prohibition of eating the fruits of a tree in the first
+three years, this Midrash goes on to say: “And this is also the case with
+the Jewish child. In the first three years the child is unable to speak,
+and therefore is exempted from every religious duty, but in the fourth
+year all its fruits shall be holy to praise the Lord, and the father is
+obliged to initiate the child in religious works.” Accordingly the
+religious life of the child began as soon as it was able to speak
+distinctly, or with the fourth year of its life. As to the character of
+this initiation we learn from the same Midrash and also from other
+Talmudical passages, that it consisted in teaching the child the verses,
+“Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God _is_ One” (Deut. vi. 4), and “Moses
+commanded us a Torah, the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob” (Deut.
+xxxiii. 4). It was also in this year that the boys began to accompany
+their parents to the synagogue, carrying their prayer‐books. At what age
+the girls first came out—not for their first party, but with the purpose
+of going to the synagogue—is difficult to decide with any degree of
+certainty. But if we were to trust a rather doubtful reading in Tractate
+_Sopherim_,(252) we might maintain that their first appearance in the
+synagogue was also at a very tender age. I hope that they behaved there
+more respectfully than their brothers, who played and cried instead of
+joining in the responses and singing with the congregation. In some
+communities they proved so great a nuisance that a certain Rabbi declared
+it would be better to leave them at home rather than to have the devotion
+of the whole congregation disturbed by these urchins. Another Rabbi
+recommended the praiseworthy custom of the Sephardim,(253) who confined
+all the boys in the synagogue to one place, and set a special overseer by
+their side, with a whip in his hands, to compel them to keep quiet and to
+worship with due devotion.
+
+A strange custom is known among the Arabian and Palestinian Jews under the
+name of _Chalaka_. It means the first hair‐cutting of the boy after his
+fourth birthday. As on this occasion loyalty to the Scripture is shown by
+not touching the “corners” (Lev. xix. 17), the whole action is considered
+a religious ceremony of great importance. In Palestine it usually takes
+place on the second day of the Feast of the Passover when the counting of
+the seven weeks begins. On this day friends and relatives assemble at the
+house of the parents. Thither the boy is brought, dressed in his best
+garments, and every one of the assembly is entrusted with the duty of
+cutting a few hairs, which is considered a great privilege. The ceremony
+is as usual followed by a dinner given to the guests. The Jews in Safed
+and Tiberias perform the ceremony with great pomp in the courtyard
+surrounding the (supposed) grave of R. Simeon ben Yochai, in one of the
+neighbouring villages.
+
+Another custom already mentioned in the Talmud, but which quite
+disappeared in later times, is that of weighing the child. It would be
+worth reviving if performed in the way in which the mother of Doeg ben
+Joseph did it. This tender‐hearted mother weighed her only son every day,
+and distributed among the poor, in gold, the amount of the increased
+weight of her child.
+
+I pass now to the second great consecration of the boy,—the rites
+performed on the day when the boy went to school for the first time. This
+day was celebrated by the Jews, especially in the Middle Ages, in such a
+way as to justify the high esteem in which they held the school. The
+school was looked upon as a second Mount Sinai, and the day on which the
+child entered it as the Feast of Revelation. Of the many different
+customs, I shall mention here that according to which this day was fixed
+for the Feast of Weeks. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, the
+child was washed and dressed carefully. In some places they dressed it in
+a “gown with fringes.” As soon as day dawned the boy was taken to the
+synagogue, either by his father or by some worthy member of the community.
+Arrived at their destination, the boy was put on the Almemor, or reading‐
+dais, before the Scroll of the Law, from which the narrative of the
+Revelation (Exod. xx. 2‐26) was read as the portion of the day. From the
+synagogue the boy was taken to the house of the teacher, who took him into
+his arms. Thereupon a slate was brought, containing the alphabet in
+various combinations, the verse, “Moses has commanded,” etc. in Deut.
+xxxiii. 4, the first verse of the Book of Leviticus, and the words, “The
+Torah will be my calling.” The teacher then read the names of the letters,
+which the boy repeated. After the reading, the slate was besmeared with
+honey, which the boy licked off. This was done in allusion to Ezekiel iii.
+3, where it is said: “And it (the roll) was in my mouth as honey for
+sweetness.” The boy was also made to eat a sweet cake, on which were
+written passages from the Bible relating to the importance of the study of
+the Torah. The ceremony was concluded by invoking the names of certain
+angels, asking them to open the heart of the boy, and to strengthen his
+memory. By the way, I am very much afraid that this invocation was
+answerable for the abolition of this ceremony. The year in which this
+ceremony took place is uncertain, probably not before the fifth, nor later
+than the seventh, according to the good or bad health of the child.
+
+The reverence for the child already hinted at was still further increased
+when the boy entered the school. “The children of the house (school) of
+the master” is a regular phrase in Jewish literature. It is on their pure
+breath that the existence of the world depends, and it is their merit that
+justifies us in appealing to the mercy of God. Words of Scripture, uttered
+by them quite innocently, were considered as oracles; and many a Rabbi
+gave up an undertaking on account of a verse pronounced by a schoolboy,
+who hardly understood its import. Take only one instance: R. Johanan was
+longing to see his friend Mar Samuel in Babylon. After many disturbances
+and delays, he at last undertook the journey. On the way he passed a
+school where the boys were reciting the verse from 1 Samuel xxviii. 3,
+“And Samuel died.” This was accepted by him as a hint given by Providence
+that all was over with his friend.
+
+Especially famous for their wisdom and sharpness were the children of
+Jerusalem. Of the many illustrative stories given in the Midrash to
+Lamentations, let the following suffice: R. Joshua was one day riding on
+his donkey along the high road. As he passed a well, he saw a little girl
+there, and asked her to give him some water. She accordingly gave water to
+him and to his animal. The Rabbi thanked her with the words: “My daughter,
+you acted like Rebecca.” “To be sure,” she answered, “I acted like
+Rebecca; but you did not behave like Eleazar.” I must add that there are
+passages in Jewish literature from which, with a little ingenuity, it
+might be deduced that Jewish babies are the most beautiful of their kind.
+The assertion made by a monk that Jewish children are inferior to
+Christian children is a dreadful libel. The author of the _Old
+Victory_,(254) in whose presence this assertion was made, was probably
+childless, or he would have simply scratched out the eyes of this
+malicious monk, instead of giving a mystical reason for the superior
+beauty of any other children than his own.
+
+Another point to be emphasised is that the boys were not confined all day
+long to the close air of the schoolroom. They had also their hours of
+recreation. This recreation consisted chiefly, as one can imagine, in
+playing. Their favourite game was the ball, boys as well as girls being
+fond of this form of amusement. They did not deny themselves this pleasure
+even on festivals. They were also fond of the kite and games with nuts, in
+which their mothers also took part. Letter‐games and riddles also occupied
+their minds in the recreation hours. The angel Sandalphon,(255) who also
+bears in the Cabbalah the name of “Boy,” was considered by the children as
+their special patron, and they invoked him in their plays, addressing to
+him the words: “Sandalphon, Lord of the forest, protect us from pain.”
+Speaking generally, there are very few distinctively Jewish games. From
+the researches of Zunz, Güdemann, and Löw on this subject, it is clear
+that the Jews always adopted the pastimes of the peoples among whom they
+dwelt.
+
+But it must not be thought that there was too much playing. Altogether,
+Jewish education was far from spoiling the children. And though it was
+recommended—if such recommendation were necessary—to love children more
+than one’s own soul, the Rabbis strongly condemned that blind partiality
+towards our own offspring, which ends in burdening our world with so many
+good‐for‐nothings. The sad experience of certain biblical personages
+served as a warning for posterity. Even from the quite natural behaviour
+of Jacob towards his son Joseph, which had the best possible results in
+the end, they drew the lesson that a man must never show to one of his
+children marks of greater favour than to the others. In later times they
+have been even anxious to conceal this love altogether, and some Rabbis
+went so far as to refrain from kissing their children. The severity of
+Akabya ben Mahalaleel is worth mentioning, if not imitating. When this
+Rabbi, only a few minutes before his death, was asked by his son to
+recommend him to his friends and colleagues, the answer the poor boy
+received was: “Thy conduct will recommend thee to my friends, or will
+estrange thee from them.” Another Rabbi declared (with reference to Prov.
+xxviii. 27) that it is life‐giving to a youth to teach him temperance in
+his diet, and not to accustom him to meat and wine. R. Judah, the Pious,
+in the Middle Ages, gives the advice to rich parents to withdraw their
+resources from their sons if they lead a disorderly life. The struggle for
+their existence, and the hardship of life, would bring them back to God.
+When the old Rabbi said that poverty is a most becoming ornament for
+Israel, his remark was probably suggested by a similar thought. And many a
+passage in the Rabbinic literature gives expression to the same idea as
+that in Goethe’s divine lines:—
+
+
+    Wer nie sein Brot mit Thränen ass,
+    Wer nie die kummervollen Nächte
+    Auf seinem Bette weinend sass,
+    Der kennt Euch nicht, Ihr himmlischen Mächte.
+
+
+I have spoken of a kingdom of priests, but there is one great disadvantage
+of such a polity. One or two priests in a community may be sustained by
+the liberality of the congregation. But if a community consisted of only
+priests, how could it then be maintained? Besides, the old Jewish ideal
+expected the teacher to be possessed of a divine goodness, imparting his
+benefits only as an act of grace. Salaries, therefore, either for teaching
+or preaching, or for giving ritual decisions, were strongly forbidden. The
+solution of the question put by the Bible, “And if ye shall say, What
+shall we eat?” is to be found in the law that every father was obliged to
+teach his son a handicraft, enabling him to obtain a living.
+
+I have now to speak of the time when childhood is brought to a conclusion.
+It is, as I stated above, in the case of a girl at the beginning of the
+thirteenth year, and in that of a boy at the beginning of the fourteenth
+year. As a reason for this priority I will reproduce the words of R.
+Chisda, who said that God has endowed woman with a greater portion of
+intelligence than man, and therefore she obtains her maturity at an
+earlier period than man does. A very nice compliment, indeed; but like all
+compliments it is of no practical consequence whatever. It is not always
+the wiser who get the best of it in life. Whilst the day on which the girl
+obtained her majority passed unnoticed either by her or by her family, it
+was marked in the case of the boy as the day on which he became a Son of
+the Law,(256) and was signalised by various rites and ceremonies, and by
+the bestowing on him of beautiful presents. I miss only the wig, which
+used to form the chief ornament of the boy on this happy day.
+
+Less known, however, is the origin of this ceremony, and the reason for
+fixing its date. It cannot claim a very high antiquity. I may remark that
+in many cases centuries elapse before an idea or a notion takes practical
+shape and is crystallised into a custom or usage, and still longer before
+this custom is fossilised into a law or fixed institution. As far as the
+Bible goes, there is not the slightest indication of the existence of such
+a ceremony. From Lev. xxvii. 5, and Num. xiv. 29, it would rather seem
+that it was not before the twentieth year that the man was considered to
+have obtained his majority, and to be responsible for his actions. It was
+only in the times of the Rabbis, when Roman influence became prevalent in
+juristic matters at least, that the date of thirteen, or rather the
+_pubertas_, was fixed as giving the boy his majority. But it would be a
+mistake to think that before having obtained this majority the boy was
+considered as under age in every respect. Certainly the law made every
+possible effort to connect him with the synagogue, and to initiate him in
+his religious duties long before the age of thirteen.
+
+We have seen that the boy’s first appearance in the synagogue was at the
+beginning of the fourth year. We have noticed the complaints about his
+troublesome behaviour. But how could we expect the poor child to be
+attentive to things which quite surpassed the intellectual powers of his
+tender age? There was no better reason for this attendance either in the
+Temple or in the synagogue than that the parents might be rewarded by God
+for the trouble of taking their children there. These cares, by the way,
+fell most heavily upon the women. The mother of R. Joshua enjoyed this
+burden so much that she carried her boy, when still in the cradle, to the
+“House of Study of the Law,” in order that his ears might be accustomed to
+the sound of the Torah. In later times there was another excuse for taking
+the little children to the synagogue. They were there allowed to sip the
+wine of the Sanctification Cup,(257) which was the exclusive privilege of
+the children; an easy way of worshipping, but, as you can observe, it is a
+method that they enjoy and understand most excellently. They did not less
+enjoy and understand the service with which they were charged on the day
+of “The Rejoicing of the Law.”(258) On this feast they were provided with
+flags, which they carried before the bearers of the Torah, who feasted
+them after the service with sweets. Another treat was that of being called
+up on this day to the Torah, a custom that is still extant. In the Middle
+Ages they went in some countries so far as to allow these little fellows
+who did not wear caps “to be called up” to say the blessings over the Law
+bare‐headed. A beautiful custom was that every Sabbath, after finishing
+the weekly lesson and dressing the Scroll of the Law, the children used to
+come up to the Almemor and kiss the Torah. Leaving the synagogue they
+kissed the hands of the scholars. At home the initiation began with the
+blessing the child received on every eve of the Sabbath, and with its
+instruction in “Hear O Israel” and other verses as already mentioned.
+Short prayers, consisting of a single sentence, were also chosen for
+children of this age. The function of the child on the eve of the first
+day of Passover is well known. Besides the putting of the four questions
+for the meaning of the strange ceremony (Exod. xiii. 14), the boy had also
+to recite, or rather to sing, the “Praise.”(259) But I am afraid that they
+enjoyed better the song of “One Kid,” which was composed or rather adapted
+for their special entertainment from an old German poem.
+
+Within three or four years after entering the synagogue, and with the
+growth of intellect and strength, the religious duties of the boy
+increased, and became of a more serious character. He had not only to
+attend the school, which was troublesome enough, but he was also expected
+to attend the services more regularly, and to gain something by it. Yet
+the Rabbis were not so tyrannical as to put unjust demands on the patience
+of the child. The voice of God on Mount Sinai, the Rabbis said, was
+adapted to the intellect and powers of all who witnessed the
+Revelation—adapted, as the Midrash says, to the powers of old and young,
+children and women. It was in accordance with this sentiment that the
+Rabbis suited their language to the needs of the less educated classes.
+Thus we read in the Tractate _Sopherim_ that according to the law the
+portion of the week, after having been recited in Hebrew, must be
+translated into the language of the vernacular for the benefit of the
+unlearned people, the women, and the children. Another consideration
+children experienced from the Rabbis was that at the age of nine or ten
+the boy was initiated into the observance of the Day of Atonement by
+fasting a few hours. Lest, however, this good work might be overdone, and
+thus endanger the child’s health, the sage R. Acha used to tell his
+congregation after the Addition‐Prayer “My brethren, let every one of you
+who has a child go home and make it eat.” In later centuries, when the
+disease of small‐pox became so fatal, some Rabbis declared it to be the
+duty of every father to leave the town with his children as soon as the
+plague showed itself. The joy with which the Rabbis hailed Dr. Jenner’s
+discovery deserves our recognition. None of them perceived in vaccination
+a defiance of Providence. R. Abraham Nansich, from London, wrote a
+pamphlet to prove its lawfulness. The Cabbalist Buzagli disputed Dr.
+Jenner’s priority, but nevertheless approved of vaccination. R. Israel
+Lipschütz declared that the Doctor acquired salvation by his new remedy.
+
+With his advancing age, not only the boy’s duties but also his rights were
+increased. An enumeration of all these rights would lead me too far, but I
+shall mention the custom which allowed the boy the recital of
+“Magnified”(260) and “Bless ye”(261) in the synagogue. Now this privilege
+is restricted to the orphan boy. It is interesting to hear that girls were
+also admitted to recite the Magnified in the synagogue, in cases where
+their parents left no male issue. I have myself witnessed such a case. In
+some countries the boy had the exclusive privilege of reading the prayers
+on the evenings of the festivals and Sabbaths. R. Samson ben Eleazar, in
+the fifteenth century, received his family name Baruch Sheamar(262) from
+the skill with which he recited this prayer when a boy. He chanted it so
+well that he was called by the members of the community Master Baruch
+Sheamar. As to the question whether the boy, while under age, might
+lawfully be considered as one of the Ten when such a quorum was required,
+or one of the three in the case of grace after meals, I can only say that
+the authorities never agreed in this respect. Whilst the one insisted upon
+his having obtained his majority, the other was satisfied with his showing
+such signs of intelligence as would enable him to participate in the
+ceremony in question. Here is an instance of such a sign. Abaye and Raba,
+the two celebrated heroes of the Babylonian Talmud, were sitting at the
+table of Rabbah. Before saying grace he asked them, “Do you know to whom
+these prayers are addressed?” Thereupon one boy pointed to the roof,
+whilst the other boy went out and pointed to the sky. The examiner was
+satisfied with their answer.
+
+The privilege of putting on the phylacteries forms now in most countries
+the chief distinction of “The Son of the Law”; in olden times, however,
+every boy had claim to it as soon as he showed himself capable of behaving
+respectfully when wearing the holy symbol. It even happened that certain
+honours of the synagogue were bestowed on boys, though under age. We
+possess a copy of a Jewish epitaph dating from about the third century,
+which was written in Rome for a boy of eight years, who is there
+designated as archon. The fact is the more curious, as on the other hand
+the Palestinian R. Abuha, who lived in the same century, maintained that
+no man must be elected as Warden before he has achieved his fiftieth year.
+That boys were admitted to preach in the synagogue I have already
+mentioned.(263)
+
+From all these remarks it will easily be seen that in olden times the boy
+enjoyed almost all the rights of majority long before the day of his being
+“The Son of the Law.” The condition of the novice is hardly
+distinguishable from that of the initiated priest. The Talmud, the Gaonim,
+and even R. Isaac Alfasi and Maimonides knew neither the term “The Son of
+the Law” (in our sense of the word) nor any ceremony connected with it.
+There is only one slight reference to such an institution, recorded in the
+Tractate _Sopherim_, with the quotation of which I shall conclude this
+paper. We read there: “In Jerusalem there was the godly custom to initiate
+the children at the _beginning_ of the thirteenth year by fasting the
+whole Day of Atonement. During this year they took the boy to the priests
+and learned men that they might bless him, and pray for him that God might
+think him worthy of a life devoted to the study of the Torah and pious
+works.” For, this author says, “they were beautiful, and their lives
+harmonious and their hearts directed to God.”
+
+
+
+
+
+XIII. WOMAN IN TEMPLE AND SYNAGOGUE
+
+
+The learned Woman has always been a favourite subject with Jewish
+students; and her intellectual capabilities have been fully vindicated in
+many an essay and even fair‐sized book. Less attention, however, has been
+paid to woman’s claims as a devotional being whom the Temple, and
+afterwards the Synagogue, more or less recognised. At least it is not
+known to me that any attempt has been made to give, even in outline, the
+history of woman’s relation to public worship. It is needless to say that
+the present sketch, which is meant to supply this want in some measure,
+lays no claim to completeness; but I venture to hope that it will help to
+direct the attention of the friends of research to the matter, and that it
+may induce others to deal more fully with the subject and do it the
+justice it deserves.
+
+The earliest allusion to women’s participation in _public_ worship, is
+that in Exodus xxxviii. 8, to the women who assembled to minister at the
+door of the “tent of meeting,” of whose mirrors the lavers of brass were
+made (cf. 1 Sam. ii. 22). Philo, who is not exactly enamoured of the
+emancipation of women, and seeks to confine them to the “small state,” is
+here full of their praise. “For,” he says, “though no one enjoined them to
+do so, they of their own spontaneous zeal and earnestness contributed the
+mirrors with which they had been accustomed to deck and set off their
+beauty, as the most becoming first‐fruits of their modesty, and of the
+purity of their married life, and, as one may say, of the beauty of their
+souls.” In another passage Philo describes the Jewish women as “competing
+with the men themselves in piety, having determined to enter upon a
+glorious contest, and to the utmost extent of their power to exert
+themselves so as not to fall short of their holiness.”
+
+It is, however, very difficult to ascertain in what this ministry of women
+consisted. The Hebrew term “Zobeoth”(264) would suggest the thought of a
+species of religious Amazons, who formed a guard of honour round the
+Sanctuary. Some commentators think that the ministry consisted in
+performing religious dances accompanied by various instruments. The
+Septuagint again speaks “of the women who fasted by the doors of the
+Tabernacle.” But most of the old Jewish expositors, as well as Onkelos,
+conceive that the women went to the tent of meeting to pray. Ibn Ezra
+offers the interesting remark, “And behold, there were women in Israel
+serving the Lord, who left the vanities of this world, and not being
+desirous of beautifying themselves any longer, made of their mirrors a
+free offering, and came to the tabernacle every day to pray and to listen
+there to the words of the commandments.” When we find that in 1 Sam. i.
+12, “Hannah continued to pray before the Lord,” she was only doing there
+what many of her sisters did before and after her. We may also judge that
+it was from the number of these noble women, who made religion the aim of
+their lives, that the “twenty‐two” heroines and prophetesses sprang who
+form part of the glory of Jewish history. Sometimes it even happened that
+their husbands derived their religious inspiration from them. Thus the
+husband of the prophetess Deborah is said to have been an unlettered man.
+But his wife made him carry to the Sanctuary the candles which she herself
+had prepared, this being the way in which she encouraged him to seek
+communion with the righteous.
+
+The language in which the husband of the “Great Woman” of Shunem addresses
+his wife: “Wherefore wilt thou go to him” (the prophet)? “it is neither
+New Moon nor Sabbath” (2 Kings iv. 23), proves that on Festivals and
+Sabbaths the women used to attend some kind of worship, performed by the
+prophet, though we cannot say in what this worship consisted. The New Moon
+was especially a woman’s holiday, and was so observed even in the Middle
+Ages, for the women refrained from doing work on that day. The explanation
+given by the Rabbis is that when the men broke off their golden earrings
+to supply material for the golden calf, the women refused to contribute
+their trinkets, for which good behaviour a special day of repose was
+granted to them. Some Cabbalists even maintain that the original
+worshippers of the golden calf continue to exist on earth, their souls
+having successively migrated into various bodies, while their punishment
+consists in this, that they are ruled over by their wives. Rather
+interesting as well as complimentary to women is the remark which the
+Rabbis made with regard to the “Great Woman.” As will be remembered, it is
+_she_ who says, “I perceive that this (Elisha) is a holy man of God” (2
+Kings iv. 19). In allusion to this verse the Talmud says: “From this fact
+we may infer that woman is quicker in recognising the worth of a stranger
+than man.”
+
+The great woman, or women, continued to pray and to join in the public
+worship also after the destruction of the first Temple. Thus Esther is
+reported by tradition to have addressed God in a long extempore prayer
+before she presented herself before the throne of Ahasuerus to plead her
+people’s cause; and women were always enjoined to attend the reading of
+the Book of Esther. When Ezra read the Law for the first time, he did so
+in the presence of the men and the women (Neh. viii. 3). In the Book of
+the Maccabees we read of “The women girt with sackcloth ... and the
+maidens that ran to the gates.... And all holding their hands towards
+heaven made supplication.” In the Judith legend, mention is also made of
+“Every man and woman ... who fell before the Temple, and spread out their
+sackcloth before the face of the Lord ... and cried before the God of
+Israel.” In the second Temple, the women, as is well known, possessed a
+court reserved for their exclusive use. There the great illuminations and
+rejoicings on the evening of the Feast of Tabernacles used to be held. On
+this occasion, however, the women were confined to galleries specially
+erected for them. It was also in this Women’s Hall that the great public
+reading of certain portions of the Law by the king, once in seven years,
+used to take place, and women had also to attend at the function. On the
+other hand, it is hardly necessary to say that women were excluded from
+performing any important service in the Temple. If we were to trust a
+certain passage in the “Chapters of R. Eliezer,” we might perhaps conclude
+that during the first Temple, the wives of the Levites formed a part of
+the choir, but the meaning of the passage is too obscure and doubtful for
+us to be justified in basing on it so important an inference. Nor can the
+three hundred maidens who were employed for the weaving of the curtains in
+the Temple, be looked upon as having stood in closer connection with the
+Temple, or as having formed an order of women‐priests or girl‐devotees (as
+one might wrongly be induced to think by certain passages in Apocryphal
+writings of the New Testament). But on the other hand, it is not
+improbable that their frequent contact with the Sanctuary of the nation
+produced in them that religious enthusiasm and zeal which may account for
+the heroic death which—according to the legend—they sought and found after
+the destruction of the Temple. It is to be remarked that, according to the
+law, women were even exempted from putting their hands on the head of the
+victim, which formed an important item in the sacrificial worship. It is,
+however, stated by an eye‐witness, that the authorities permitted them to
+perform this ceremony if they desired to do so, and that their reason for
+this concession was “to give calmness of the spirit, or satisfaction, to
+women.”
+
+Still greater, perhaps, was “the calmness of spirit” given to women in the
+synagogue. We find in ancient epitaphs that such titles of honour were
+conferred upon them as “Mistress of the Synagogue,” and “Mother of the
+Synagogue,” and, though they held no actual office in the Synagogue, it is
+not improbable that they acquired these titles by meritorious work
+connected with a religious institution, viz.: Charity. There was, indeed,
+a tendency to exclude women from the synagogue at certain seasons, but
+almost all the authorities protest against it, many of them declaring such
+a notion to be quite un‐Jewish. Some Jewish scholars even think that the
+ancient synagogues knew of no partition for women. I am rather inclined to
+think that the synagogue took for its model the arrangements in the
+Temple, and thus confined women to a place of their own. But, whether they
+sat side by side with the men or occupied a special portion of the
+edifice, there can be no doubt that the Jewish women were great synagogue‐
+goers. To give only one instance. One Rabbi asks another: Given the case
+that the members of the synagogue are all descendants of Aaron, to whom
+then would they impart their blessing? The answer is, to the women who are
+there.
+
+Of the sermon they were even more fond than their husbands. Thus one woman
+was so much interested in the lectures of R. Meir, which he was in the
+habit of giving every Friday evening, that she used to remain there so
+long that the candles in her house burnt themselves out. Her lazy husband,
+who stopped at home, so strongly resented having to wait in the dark, that
+he would not permit her to cross the threshold until she gave some offence
+to the preacher, which would make him sure that she would not venture to
+attend his sermons again.
+
+The prayers they said were the Eighteen Benedictions which were prescribed
+by the Law. But it would seem that occasionally they offered short prayers
+composed by themselves as suggested by their personal feelings and needs.
+Thus, to give one instance, R. Johanan relates that one day he observed a
+young girl fall on her face and pray: “Lord of the world, Thou hast
+created Paradise, Thou hast created hell, Thou hast created the wicked,
+Thou hast created the righteous; may it be Thy will that I may not serve
+as a stumbling‐block to them.” The fine Hebrew in which the prayer is
+expressed, and the notion of the responsibility of Providence for our
+actions, manifest a high degree of intelligence and reflection. It would
+also seem that some women went so far in their religious sensibility as to
+lead a regular ascetic life, and, according to the suggestion of some
+scholars, even took the vow of celibacy. Of these the Rabbis did not
+approve, and stigmatised them as the “destroyers of the world.” Perhaps it
+was just at this period that Judaism could not afford to give free play to
+those morbid feelings, degenerating into religious hysterics, which led
+some to join rival sects, and others to abandon themselves to the gross
+immorality we read of in the history of the Gnostics.
+
+The same circumstances may have been the cause of public opinion being led
+to accept the view of R. Eliezer, who thought it inadvisable—it would seem
+on moral grounds—to permit woman to study the Law. This opinion was
+opposed to that of Ben Azzai, who considered it incumbent upon every
+father to teach his daughter Torah. But justified as the advice of R.
+Eliezer may have been in his own time, it was rather unfortunate that
+later generations continued to take it as the guiding principle for the
+education of their children. Many great women in the course of history
+indeed became law‐breakers and studied Torah; but the majority were
+entirely dependent on men, and became in religious matters a sort of
+appendix to their husbands, who by their good actions insured salvation
+also for them, and sometimes the reverse. Thus there is a story about a
+woman which, put into modern language, would be to the effect that she
+married a minister and copied his sermons for him; he died, and she then
+married a cruel usurer, and kept his accounts for him.
+
+The fact that women were exempted from certain affirmative laws, which
+become operative only at special seasons—_e.g._, the taking of the palm
+branch on the Feast of Tabernacles—must also have contributed to weaken
+their position as a religious factor in Judaism. The idea that women
+should vie with men in the fulfilment of every law, became even for the
+Rabbis a notion connected only with the remotest past. This is the
+impression one gains when reading the legend about Michal, the daughter of
+Saul, putting on phylacteries, or the wife of the prophet Jonah making a
+pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the three Festivals. It would indeed seem as if
+women were led to strive for the satisfaction of their religious wants in
+another direction. Yet it was said of Jewish women, “The daughters of
+Israel were stringent and laid certain restrictions on themselves.” They
+were also allowed to form a quorum by themselves for the purpose of saying
+the Grace, but they could not be counted along with males for this end. It
+was also against the early notion of the dignity of the congregation that
+women should perform any public service for men.
+
+One privilege was left to women—that of weeping. In Judges xi. 40, we read
+of the daughters of Israel that went yearly to lament the daughter of
+Jephthah; while in 2 Chronicles xxxv. 25, we are told how “all the singing
+men and the singing women spake of Josiah in their lamentations.” Of this
+privilege they were not deprived, and if they were not allowed to sing any
+longer, they at least retained the right to weep as much as they pleased.
+Even in later times they held a public office as mourning women at
+funerals. In the Talmud fragments of compositions by women for such
+occasions are to be found. Indeed, woman became in these times the type of
+grief and sorrow. She cannot reason, but she feels much more deeply than
+man. Here is one instance from an old legend: Jeremiah said, “When I went
+up to Jerusalem (after the destruction of the Temple) I lifted my eyes and
+saw there a lonely woman sitting on the top of the mountain, her dress
+black, her hair dishevelled, crying, ‘Who will comfort me?’ I approached
+her and spake to her, ‘If thou art a woman, speak to me. If thou art a
+ghost, begone.’ She answered, ‘Dost thou not know me?... I am the Mother,
+Zion.’ ”
+
+In general, however, the principle applied to women was: The king’s
+daughter _within the palace_ is all glorious (Psalm xlv. 14), but _not_
+outside of it. In the face of the “Femina in ecclesia taceat,” which was
+the ruling maxim with other religions, Jewish women could only feel
+flattered by this polite treatment by the Rabbis, though it meant the same
+thing. We must not think, however, that this prevented them from attending
+the service of the synagogue. According to the Tractate _Sopherim_, even
+“the little daughters of Israel were accustomed to go to the synagogue.”
+In the same tractate we find it laid down as “a duty to translate for them
+the portion (of the Law) of the week, and the lesson from the prophets”
+into the language they understand. The “King’s daughter” occasionally
+asserted her rights without undue reliance on the opinion of the
+authorities. And thus being ignorant of the Hebrew language women prayed
+in the vernacular, though this was at least against the letter of the law.
+And many famous Rabbis of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries express
+their wonder that the “custom of women praying in other (non‐Hebrew)
+languages extended over the whole world.” It is noteworthy that they did
+not suppress the practice, but on the contrary, they endeavoured to give
+to the Law such an interpretation as would bring it into accord with the
+general custom. Some even recommended it, as, for example, the author of
+_The Book of the Pious_, who gives advice to women to learn the prayers in
+the language familiar to them.
+
+At about the same period a lengthy controversy was being waged by the
+commentators of the Talmud and the codifiers, about woman’s partaking in
+the fulfilment of the laws for special seasons, from which, as already
+remarked, they were exempted. To the action itself there could not be much
+objection, but the difficulty arose when women also insisted on uttering
+the blessing. Now the point at issue was whether they could be permitted
+to say, for instance, “Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, etc., who hast
+sanctified us by Thy Commandments, and _hast commanded us_, concerning the
+taking of the Palm branch,” since in reality the women had _not_ been
+commanded to do it. To such logical and systematic minds as Maimonides and
+R. Joseph Caro, the difficulty was insurmountable, and they forbade women
+to use the formula; but with the less consistent majority women carried
+their point. Rather interesting is the answer received by R. Jacob, of
+Corbeil, with regard to this question. This Rabbi is said to have enjoyed
+the mysterious power which enabled him to appeal in cases of doubt to the
+celestial authorities. Before them he put also this women’s case for
+decision. Judgment was communicated to him in the verse from the
+Scriptures, “In all that Sarah saith unto Thee, hearken unto her voice”
+(Gen. xxi. 12). Nor was it unknown for a pious Jew to compose a special
+hymn for his wife’s use in honour of the Sabbath.
+
+How long this custom of women praying in the vernacular lasted, we have no
+means of ascertaining. Probably was already extinct about the end of the
+fifteenth century. For R. Solomon Portaleone, who lived in the sixteenth
+century, already regrets the abolition of “this beautiful and worthy
+custom.” “When they prayed in the vernacular,” he says, “they understood
+what they were saying, whilst now they only gabble off their prayers.” As
+a sort of compromise we may regard the various “Supplications”;(265) they
+form a kind of additional prayers supplementary to the ordinary liturgy,
+and are written in German. Chiefly composed by women, they specially
+answer the needs of the sex on various occasions. These prayers deserve a
+full description by themselves, into which I cannot enter here; I should
+like only to mention that in one of these collections in the British
+Museum, a special supplication is added for servant‐maids, and if I am not
+quite mistaken, also one for their mistresses.
+
+It is also worth noticing that the manuals on the “Three Women’s
+Commandments” (mostly composed in German, sometimes also in rhymes),
+contained much more than their titles would suggest. They rather served as
+headings to groups of laws, arranged under each commandment. Thus the
+first (about certain laws in Lev. xii. and xv.) becomes the motto for
+purity in body and soul; the second (the consecration of the first cake of
+the dough) includes all matters relating to charity, in which women were
+even reminded to encourage their newly married husbands not to withhold
+from the poor the tithes of the bridal dowry, as well as of their future
+yearly income; whilst the third (the lighting of the Sabbath lamp) becomes
+the symbol for spiritual light and sweetness in every relation of human
+life.
+
+As another compromise may also be considered the institution of
+“Vorsugern” (woman‐reader) or the “Woilkennivdicke” (the well‐knowing one)
+who reads the prayers and translates them into the vernacular for the
+benefit of her less learned sisters. In Poland and in Russia, even at the
+present time, such a woman‐reader is to be found in every synagogue, and
+from what I have heard the institution is by no means unknown in London.
+The various prayer‐books containing the Hebrew text as well as the Jewish‐
+German translation, which appear in such frequent editions in Russia, are
+mostly intended for the use of these praying women. Not uninteresting is
+the title‐page of R. Aaron Ben Samuel’s Jewish‐German translations and
+collections of prayers which appeared in the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. He addressed the Jewish public in the following terms: “My dear
+brethren, buy this lovely prayer‐book or wholesome tonic for body and
+soul, which has never appeared in such German print since the world began;
+and make your wives and children read it often, thus they will refresh
+their bodies and souls, for this light will shine forth into your very
+hearts. As soon as the children read it they will understand their
+prayers, by which they will enjoy both this world and the world to come.”
+
+An earlier translator of the prayer‐book addresses himself directly to the
+“pious women” whom he invites to buy his book, “in which they will see
+very beautiful things.” Recent centuries seem, on the whole, to have been
+distinguished for the number of praying‐women they produced. The virtues
+which constituted the claim of women to religious distinction were
+modesty, charity, and daily attendance at the synagogue morning and
+evening. In the memorial books of the time hundreds of such women are
+noticed. Some used also to spin the “Fringes,” which they presented to
+their friends; others fasted frequently, whilst “Old Mrs. Hechele” not
+only attended the synagogue every day, and did charity to poor and rich,
+but also understood the art of midwifery, which she practised in the
+community without accepting payment for her services. According to R. Ch.
+J. Bachrach women used also to say the “Magnified” prayer in the synagogue
+when their parents left no male posterity.
+
+In bringing to a close this very incomplete sketch, perhaps I ought to
+notice the confirmation of girls introduced during this century in some
+communities in Germany, which the “Reformed” Rabbis recommended, but of
+which the “Orthodox” Rabbis disapproved. It would be well if in the heat
+of such controversies both sides would remember the words of R. Zedekiah
+b. Abraham, of Rome, who with regard to a certain difference of opinion on
+some ritual question, says: “Every man receives reward from God for what
+he is convinced is the right thing, if this conviction has no other motive
+but the love of God.”
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. THE EARLIEST JEWISH COMMUNITY IN EUROPE
+
+
+Roman Judaism has disappeared from our guide‐books. Civilisation has
+levelled down the walls of the Ghetto, and its former inhabitants are not
+any longer “a people that dwell alone.” But with this well‐deserved
+destruction a good deal of the interest was also destroyed which the
+traveller used to attach to “the peculiar people” enclosed in that
+terrible slum of Rome.
+
+Still, if there is anything eternal in the “eternal city,” which was
+neither reconstructed by the Cæsars, nor improved upon by the Popes, it is
+the little Jewish community at Rome. It has survived the former; it has
+suffered for many centuries under the latter, and, partaking in the
+general revival which has come upon the Italian nation, it may still be
+destined for a great future. Indeed, the history of the relation of Israel
+to Rome is so old that it is not lacking even in legendary elements. On
+the day on which King Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh, the Rabbis
+narrate, there came down the angel Gabriel. He put a reed into the sea,
+which, by means of the slime that adhered to it, formed itself, in the
+course of time, into a large island, on which the city of Rome was
+built—an event with which the troubles of Israel began. These were the
+evil consequences of the first _mésalliance_. Even more unfortunate for
+Israel (and it is not impossible that this is the meaning of the legend)
+were the results of that spiritual mixed marriage between Judaism and
+paganism which took place at a much later period, whereat a blunt soldier,
+who sympathised with neither, and “who dealt in salvation as he dealt in
+provinces,” acted as best man. As a fact, the parties concerned never
+understood each other properly. The declaration of love, and the final
+proposal, were made in an Alexandrine jargon, strange to both, the
+obscurities of which only grew with the commentaries each successive
+generation added to them. Under such circumstances, a happy union was not
+to be expected, and the family quarrel which fills the annals of civilised
+Europe soon broke out. Judaism, more particularly Roman Judaism, witnessed
+this struggle from the beginning, and its fortunes were greatly dependent
+on the chance which of these two elements, the Jewish or the pagan, won
+the ascendency.
+
+However, I am theologising too much, whilst I am deviating from the
+subject of these lines. Nor could I think of giving here, even in outline,
+the history of the oldest Jewish community in Europe. This has been
+already admirably done by Dr. A. Berliner, who has made the history of the
+Jews of Rome the subject of his studies for nearly a quarter of a century.
+I intend only to reproduce here, in a stray fashion, some of those
+impressions and reflections which, I am certain, must occur to every
+Jewish traveller in Italy.
+
+Now I do not think for a moment that we Jews should have a point of view
+of our own for looking at things and men in this paradise of Europe. It
+would be as silly to have a Jewish Baedeker as to think of orthodox
+mathematics or an ecclesiastical logic or a racial morality—though
+unfortunately there exist such things. But on the other hand, if we have
+not, like the fox in the fable, left our heart at home, let us not do
+violence to our feelings by passing over everything Jewish, over sights
+which might remind us of our history, with a certain indifference which
+would be affected on our part. We are not all little Goethes, nor even
+little Ruskins, and our artistic enjoyment is hardly so intense as to shut
+our hearts against impressions which force themselves upon us either by
+the way of remembrance of the past, or even as a living contrast in the
+present.
+
+It so happened that my first visit to the Vatican was on a Friday. After
+doing my work in the Vatican Library, which is open till noon, I went into
+the adjoining Church of St. Peter.
+
+One should be, like the angel of death in the legend, full of eyes,
+properly to see all the wonders of art and marvels of architecture at
+which human genius and piety laboured busily through centuries, in
+adorning the grandest of sacred buildings in the world. But there is
+Baedeker or Murray serving at least as a pair of good spectacles to the
+layman, and it was by their aid that I made my round in St. Peter. But lo,
+whilst you are observing the celebrated Pietà by Michael Angelo, and,
+according to the instruction of your guides, admiring both the grief of
+the Mother and the death of the Son, you notice in its vicinity a little
+column, surrounded by rails to which the pilgrims approach with a certain
+awe; for “Tradition affirms it to have been brought from Jerusalem.”
+Naturally, one is instantly reminded of the report, given by the famous
+traveller of Tudela, of the curiosities of Rome, which among other things
+records, “That there are also to be seen in St. Giovanni in Porta Latina
+(probably meant for Lateran) the two brazen pillars, constructed by King
+Solomon of blessed memory, whose name, Solomon, the son of David, is
+engraved upon each; of which he was also told that every year about the
+9th of Ab (the anniversary of the destruction of Jerusalem), these pillars
+sweat so much that water runs down from them.” So far Benjamin of Tudela
+in the twelfth century. In our days pillars weep no longer, and even of
+men it is considered a special sign of good breeding to behave pillar‐
+like; but a sigh is still permissible at the sight of this temple‐column,
+which in its captivity symbolises, not less than the Pietà, the grief of a
+whole people. Of course, not possessing on the spot either the _Itinerary_
+or even Urlick, one is unable to establish the connection between these
+two traditions and their claim to authenticity. Perhaps one may even
+comfort oneself on the same ground on which the famous curé tried to
+appease his flock who were sobbing bitterly at his telling them the
+Passion story. He exclaimed: “My children, do not weep so much; it
+happened long ago, and even perhaps is not quite true.”
+
+However, the Vatican is the last place in the world to exercise your
+critical faculties; you are so deeply absorbed in seeing, that you have no
+time to think. So on I went, from aisle to aisle, from niche to niche,
+from chapel to chapel, looking, staring, and admiring, till of a sudden my
+eyes were struck by a large statue, on which the words, “Thou shalt have
+no other God before me,” are engraved. There I stood before a question of
+exegesis, where one is permitted to use his right senses without any
+regard to the æsthetic side. Yet not all the manifold expositions of the
+Decalogue, nor all the talk about the subjective‐objective, the absolute
+and the real, with which metaphysicians have tried to confuse the notion
+of the Unity of God, will reconcile one to the meaning which Mediæval Art
+has impressed upon the Ten Commandments. The truth has to be sought
+elsewhere, and thus my thoughts were turned to the synagogue, and thither
+I went.
+
+The day was already drawing to its close, and, by a marvellous
+coincidence, I arrived at the synagogue just as the congregation was
+intoning the words: “The Lord is one, and His name is one to His renown
+and glory.” Here was sound, simple exegesis, though sadly lacking in the
+illustrative matter in which the Vatican is so rich. But what need was
+there of any real or artificial “aid to the believer,” in the presence of
+such a living faith, as enabled this little community to maintain its
+protesting position in the teeth of the mistress of the world! And this
+even at a time, when it only required a hint from the successors of the
+old Roman Emperors to make the whole world renounce its right of thinking
+and judging, and, were we to believe Herr Janssen, even to feel perfectly
+happy in this torpor.
+
+But, by the way, are our own times much better? As I write these lines
+(October 1893) I hear that a Bill has been brought into the German Diet,
+asking that the Talmud should be submitted to a Commission (which _en
+passant_, has been sitting in unbroken session in that country since the
+days of Pfefferkorn in the fifteenth century) with the purpose of
+examining its contents, while in the Vatican the very pupils of Loyola are
+offering every convenience and comfort to the student who should care to
+devote his time to Rabbinic literature. Does not the work of a great
+number of our poets, historians, theologians, and so‐called seers in this
+blessed century of ours, in many respects prove but a strained effort to
+destroy the few humanitarian principles which were established a few
+generations ago, as well as to deify every brutal warrior who was
+successful in his day? Again, is the national idea so much sublimer, so
+much grander, than that of a universal religion, that we would willingly
+permit the former to employ the means which have been denied to the latter
+as inhuman and barbarous? Every age has its own idolatry, and the eternal
+wandering Jew will always be the chosen victim of the Moloch in fashion.
+
+Let us, however, return to the synagogue, which withstood many a cruelty,
+both ancient and modern. The place where the synagogue stands is near the
+Ghetto, now called Piazza di Scuola. It is, besides a few other communal
+houses, the only building left there,—all those narrow, dirty, and
+typhoid‐breeding streets which formed the old Ghetto having been
+demolished by a sage and humane government, which by this action wiped out
+the last stain from its history. There, on this vast blank is the
+synagogue, a comparatively small, insignificant building, laden with heavy
+age and looking down on her children whom she has been nursing, consoling,
+and protecting for centuries, but who, now grown old, have forsaken her
+and scattered to all the ends of the city. Of all her former acquaintances
+there appears to be left only father Tiber, who would seem to be murmuring
+to her many an old tale of the times before she was called into existence.
+And if he listened to the special prayers recited within her walls by the
+deputies of the Jewish communities, when preparing themselves to go to the
+court of the Pope, the Tiber heard many a sigh and cry, wrung out from the
+heart of a Jewish captive who, preferring death to slavery even under the
+masters of the world, found his last repose in its waters. But
+insignificant as this synagogue appears, she proved the spiritual bulwark
+against all the attacks of the time, and you admire her brave resistance
+all the more when you look at that multitude of churches and cloisters in
+the closest vicinity of the Ghetto, impressing you as so many
+intrenchments, all directing their missiles and weapons against this
+humble, defenceless building, threatening it with death and destruction.
+One of these churches, probably founded by some Jewish convert, who gained
+in it both salvation and a good living, bears on its gates in Hebrew
+letters the inscription: “I have spread out my hands all the day unto a
+rebellious people, which walketh in the way that was not good, after their
+own thoughts. A people that provoketh me to anger continually to my face”
+(Isaiah lxv. 2, 3). Menace is followed by persuasion, the cited verses
+being accompanied by the Latin words: “Indulgentia plenaria quotodiana
+perpetua pro vivis et defunctis.” Theologians who like to quarrel most
+about things they can know least, have for ages discussed the question,
+whether prayers for the dead are of any use; here the matter is decided by
+a simple advertisement. It is not to be denied that one would enjoy the
+fortunes accumulated by one’s late sinner of an uncle all the better for
+being sure that a few pennyworths of prayer enable the legatee to make
+one’s benefactor in Hades comfortable and happy.
+
+The thought is very consoling indeed, and it is not to be wondered at that
+the Roman synagogue could not entirely withstand its temptations, and
+introduced into the offering‐blessing after one is called up to the Torah,
+the words: “To the advancing of the soul of the departed.” Of course much
+of this tendency may be attributed to the Ford Jabbok,(266) which was and
+is still very popular in that country; but the fact that the author of
+this Jewish “Book of the Dead” was an Italian (from Modena), shows clearly
+that there was some Catholic influence at work, from which even the
+fellow‐countrymen of Azariah de Rossi and Judah Messer Leon could not
+entirely emancipate themselves.
+
+I ought to have spoken of Roman synagogues, since the building in the
+Ghetto to which I have been constantly alluding comprises four prayer‐
+houses devoted to Spanish and Italian rites. It says much for Roman
+Judaism, that they did not consider ritual differences of such importance
+as to prevent them from forming one community for all charitable and
+congregational purposes. In Verona and in Modena some congregations even
+retained the German rite, which their ancestors who immigrated from the
+Rhine provinces brought with them, whilst they accepted the Spanish
+pronunciation. I wish that the Anglo‐Jewish community could see their way
+to imitate their example. Not that I think for a moment that the Spanish
+pronunciation is more correct than the German. Each system has its own
+mistakes and corruptions; and it is more than probable that the prophet
+Isaiah, or even the author of Ecclesiastes, would be as little able to
+follow the prayers in Bevis Marks as in Duke’s Place. But since the non‐
+Jewish scientific world has, though only by pure accident, accepted the
+Spanish way of reading the Hebrew, I should like to see this trifling
+difference of _Ba_ruch over _Bu_ruch at last disappear, by pronouncing the
+camets‐vowel _a_ instead of _o_, and accepting similar little changes,
+which are of no real importance to us.
+
+The inside of these synagogues is even more simple than their outside. I
+was told that the synagogue which was burned down last winter, and which
+also formed a part of this building, could boast of many fine decorations
+and carvings, etc., but I could observe nothing of the kind in the
+synagogues I had occasion to frequent. Nor is there much of natural
+decorum in them, and they reconcile one perfectly to the worst of the
+Small Synagogues elsewhere. I venture to think that in this respect, too,
+we have to recognise Catholic influence. It was, I think, one of the
+leaders in the Oxford Movement who expressed his delight at seeing in
+Italy a woman poorly‐dressed coming into the church, who, after putting
+down the basket from her back, kneels before one of the many altars and
+says her prayers. A good deal of this familiarity in the place of worship
+may also be noticed in the Roman synagogues, where I have seen a woman
+come into the partition for men, notwithstanding their having a separate
+gallery, without bonnet or hat on her head, and with an infant in her
+arms, and listen there to the prayers, till she walked home with her
+husband. The other people were also very restless, coming and going often,
+whilst, as soon as the reading of the Law was over, the greater part of
+the worshippers left the synagogue. It was not a very delightful sight. A
+minus of decorum does not always mean a plus of devotion; just as little
+as a maximum of respectability and stiffness are to be taken as signs of
+true piety.
+
+It is not uninteresting to notice that the Roman synagogue, in spite of
+its old traditions, did not entirely shut itself against modern reforms.
+Among them there is that of “calling up the people to the Torah” by the
+simple formula, “Let the Priest” (or “the Levite”) “step forth,”(267) and
+so on, not mentioning either names or titles, which I should like to
+recommend most strongly to our congregations. I hope that no man will
+suspect me of such heresy as that of questioning the wisdom of the
+Synagogue Regulations. But I am inclined to think that the business of
+conferring the degrees of _Rabbi_, “Associate” or “Master,” does not
+exactly fall within the sphere of activity of the Wardens. The matter
+could only be decided by a proper Board of examination. As the Council is
+not provided with such a Board, nor is every aspirant to this honour
+prepared to undergo the examination required, the wisest course would be
+to give up titles altogether, calling up all people alike in the way
+indicated.
+
+The robes the ministers wear (somewhat similar to those of the Greek
+clergy), are probably also an innovation of modern date,—the old orthodox
+Rabbis looking at any special vestment for the Preacher or Reader with the
+same feeling of disgust which the old Puritans entertained for surplice or
+mitre. But the principle of “The Beauty of Holiness” proved too strong for
+resistance, and it was only a pardonable vanity when the reformers applied
+it to their own persons; “Vanity of vanities,” saith the preacher, so
+often, that he gets rather to like it. This vanity is greatly redeemed by
+the fact that the preacher does not grudge his uniform to his humbler
+brother, the beadle, who is in most cases to be distinguished from the
+officiating ministry only by the brass‐plate on his breast, on which the
+word “Servant” is engraved. Considering the great confusion arising from
+the meaningless “Reverend” and the universal white neck‐tie, such a label,
+indicating the proper office of the bearer, might, perhaps, prove as
+useful among the English Jews as it is among the Jews of Rome.
+
+It was with a pupil of the Rabbinical College, in company with his
+friends, that I took my first walk through ancient Rome. I felt attracted
+to him by his striking face of that peculiar fine Jewish type, which is
+more common among the Jews in the East than among us. And when he was
+reading the lesson from the Prophets in the synagogue, where I made his
+acquaintance, he reminded me of that Jewish boy with bright eyes, black
+curls, and features strikingly beautiful walking as a captive from
+Jerusalem through the streets of Rome some seventeen centuries ago, whose
+proficiency in the words of Isaiah caused his redemption. It would be an
+exaggeration to say that my companion’s remarks were very instructive from
+an artistic point of view. Being born and bred in Rome, he passed with
+utter indifference many objects which we are bidden to admire, whilst at
+others he actually shouted out “Image,” or made some other prosaic remark.
+But in a country where one is determined to play the heathen for so many
+weeks, to worship superannuated deities, to get into raptures at every
+reminiscence of superseded and vanishing religions, and to be delighted at
+the sights of “greasy saints and martyrs hairy,” there can be no great
+harm in being called back to one’s true nature.
+
+The feelings crowding upon one, when entering that part of the ancient
+city which probably was in the mind of the Rabbis when they spoke of
+“Guilty Rome,” are of a conflicting nature. Every stone and every brick
+there saw the humiliation of Israel, in every theatre and every circus the
+Jew served as a comic figure, and was held up to ridicule, whilst there
+was, perhaps, hardly a single lane or gate through which those who
+resented the yoke of the “anti‐Semites of Antiquity” did not pass, in
+order to “be butchered to make a Roman holiday.” What concerns a Jew most
+in this perished world of ruins, and at the same time causes him the
+deepest grief, is the triumphal arch of Titus, “commemorating the defeat
+of the Jews, and dedicated to him by his successor, Domitian.” Enough has
+been said and written about it both by antiquarians and theologians, the
+former admiring the workmanship of the reliefs, the latter perceiving in
+it a proof of the fulfilment of the well‐known passages in the New
+Testament about the destruction of the Temple, which came to pass in spite
+of the efforts made by Titus to save it. Those who have read Bernay’s
+essay on the “Chronik des Sulpicius Severus” know that the behaviour of
+“the delight of the human species” on that occasion is rather open to
+doubt, and it is more probable that, instead of trying to rescue it, he
+commanded that it should be set on fire. Josephus, who witnessed the shame
+of his compatriots and co‐religionists, has left us a full account of the
+triumphal procession. Only a flunkey like Josephus could maintain that
+calm indifference with which he describes the events of the “bitter day,”
+the perusal of which makes one’s blood boil. His description fairly agrees
+with the famous relief on the arch, showing that part of the procession in
+which the table with the shewbread, the candlestick with the seven lamps,
+and the golden trumpets figure as the chief objects. The only thing which
+we miss is the “Law of the Jews,” which, according to Josephus, was
+carried in the triumph as “the last of all the spoils.” Was it only an
+oversight of the artist, or had he no place for it, or is it Josephus who
+committed the error, mistaking some other object for the Scroll of the
+Law? I dearly hope that this last was the case, and that Heine was under
+the impulse of a true and real and poetic inspiration when he wrote
+(speaking of the Holy Scripture to which he owed his conversion): “The
+Jews, who appreciate the value of precious things, knew right well what
+they did when, at the burning of the second temple they left to their fate
+the golden and silver implements of sacrifice, the candlesticks and lamps,
+even the breastplate of the High Priest adorned with great jewels, but
+saved the Bible. This was the real treasure of the temple, and, thanks be
+to God! it was not left a prey to the flames, nor to the fury of Titus
+Vespasian, the wretch, who, as the Rabbi tells us, met with so dreadful a
+death.”
+
+However, there were others who brought the glad tidings of the Old
+Testament to Rome long before there existed a New one. And this is, on the
+other side, what makes Rome a sort of Terra Sancta even to the Jew. It is
+true that we have not to look for the footprints of the prophets, for whom
+even tradition never claimed “the gift of missionary‐travelling.” But
+might not the ground there have received a sort of consecration by the
+fact that it was traversed by the ambassadors of Judas Maccabæus (about
+161 B.C.) “to make a league of amity and confederacy” with the Roman
+Senate? Of the embassy of Simon the Maccabee (about 140 B.C.) there is
+actual historical evidence that they began to propagate in Rome the Jewish
+religion. Some seventy or eighty years later the Jews had already their
+own quarter in Rome, with their own synagogues, which they were in the
+habit of visiting, “most especially on the sacred Sabbath days, when they
+publicly cultivate their national philosophy.” That many of the oldest
+teachers of Israel, the Tannaim, went to Rome as deputies, and that one of
+them (R. Mathia ben Chares) founded a school there early in the second
+century, is also an authenticated fact. One would like to know what they
+taught, and in what way they expounded their _national philosophy_. Most
+of all one would like to know what were the spiritual means they employed
+in their proselytising work, in which they were, according to the
+testimony of history, so successful. Did they preach in the streets? Or
+did they hold public controversies? Or did they even send out Epistles
+which, in form at least, served as a model to apostles of another creed?
+How many a problem would be solved; how many a miracle would disappear;
+how many a book would become superfluous, if we could obtain certainty
+about these points! The Talmud tells us little, almost nothing, about
+these important things, whilst we get from the Roman writers only sneers
+and raillery. To these respectable Romans the Jews were only a mob of
+unlettered atheists. Indeed, to a good orthodox heathen, a religion
+without images and statues, with a God without a pedigree and without a
+theogony, was an impossible thing. Those poor metaphysicians!
+
+However, why dwell so long on a past world? A famous Rabbi once exclaimed:
+“If a man would ask thee, ‘Where is thy God?’ answer him: ‘In the great
+city of Rome.’ ” The underlying idea was the mystical notion that wherever
+Israel had to migrate, they were accompanied by the Divine presence. And
+Rome was, in the times of the Rabbis, the point to which the streams of
+Jewish migration from the Holy Land chiefly converged. But now, instead of
+to Rome, might we not point to London and New York as centres of Jewish
+migrations?
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+This Index contains the most important names of persons, titles of books,
+technical terms and Hebrew words occurring in the text. In the notes to
+the text, the Hebrew words are for the most part given also in Hebrew
+characters.
+
+Abarbanel, Isaac, 173, 174
+
+Abaye, 311
+
+_Ab Beth Din_, 84
+
+Abba Mari b. Moses, 165, 179
+
+Abba Tachnah, the Chassid, 221
+
+Abraham, Baalshem’s father‐in‐law, 7
+
+Abraham, son of Elijah Wilna, 88
+
+Abraham of Bedres, 262
+
+Abraham Abulaphia, 262
+
+Abraham Ibn Daud, 162
+
+Abraham Ibn Ezra, 50, 52, 64, 71, 210, 314
+
+Abraham b. Shem—Tob Bibago, 172, 173
+
+Abtalyon, 186
+
+Abuha, 311
+
+Acha, 310
+
+_Acher_, 292
+
+_Adam, Primal_, 239
+
+_Agadah_, pl. _Agadoth_, 64, 105, 183, 197
+
+_Agadic_, 110, 156, 157, 193, 262, 279
+
+_Ages of Man_, 295
+
+Akabyah b. Mahalaleel, 305
+
+Akiba, 70, 84, 130, 188, 190, 194, 220, 227, 228, 234
+
+_Almemor_, 302
+
+Ammi, 214, 217, 226, 231
+
+_Amora_, pl. _Amoraim_, 17, 84, 195
+
+Amram Gaon, 293
+
+Anna of Kaidon, wife of Elijah Wilna, 82
+
+Anselm, St., of Canterbury, 79
+
+Antigonos of Socho, 229
+
+Anti‐Maimonists, 133
+
+Aristotle, 79, 167
+
+Aryeh Leb, son of Elijah Wilna, 88
+
+_Ascension of Elijah_, 75
+
+Asher b. Jechiel, 210
+
+Assideans, 64
+
+_Ayil Meshulash_, 81
+
+Azariah de Rossi, 66, 71, 105, 333
+
+_Aziluth_, 117
+
+Azulai, 277
+
+_Baalshem_, Israel, 3‐12, 14‐35, 73
+
+Bachrach, Ch. J., 325
+
+_Bachur_, pl. _Bachurim_, 95, 97
+
+Bachya, 131
+
+_Baraitha_, 271
+
+_Baruch Sheamar_, 311
+
+Bashazi, 161
+
+_Bath‐Kol_, 190
+
+Beer of Mizriez, 11, 37
+
+Beer, Peter, 66
+
+Ben Azzai, 130, 216, 319
+
+Benjamin of Tudela, 329
+
+Ben‐Jacob, 259
+
+Ben Sira, 297
+
+Ben Zoma, 130
+
+_Bereshith_, 127
+
+_Berith Milah_, 288, 292, 293
+
+Berliner, A., 327
+
+Bernays, Isaak, 337
+
+_Beth Din_, 191‐193
+
+_Beth Hammidrash_, 7, 16, 84, 139
+
+_Beth Talmud_, 210
+
+_Biccurim_, 58
+
+Bloch, Samson, 51
+
+Bodek, A., 51
+
+_Book of Brightness_ (_see_ Zohar)
+
+_Book of the Pious_, 295, 322
+
+_Book of Victory_, 167
+
+_Book of Weight_, 133
+
+Boswell, 142, 197
+
+Buckle, 96
+
+_Burbot_, 138
+
+Buzagli, the Cabbalist, 310
+
+Cabbalah, Cabbalists, 99, 128, 129, 133, 210, 283, 315
+
+_Cabod_, 120, 121
+
+Caraites, 48, 160, 161, 207, 208
+
+Casaubon, Isaac, 259
+
+_Chagigah_, 77
+
+_Chakhamim_, 57
+
+_Chambers_, the, 208
+
+Chanina b. Dossa, 217
+
+_Chanukah_, 138
+
+_Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great_, 68, 69, 316
+
+Chasdai Ibn Crescas, 167‐173, 180
+
+_Chassidim_, Chassid, Chassidic, Chassidism, 1‐4, 11, 12, 14‐16, 21, 22,
+            25‐27, 30, 33, 35‐41, 43‐45, 53, 73, 90, 298
+
+Chayim Vital, 99
+
+Chayim Walosin, 85, 87, 94
+
+Chisda, 307
+
+_Chukkim_, 124
+
+_Code of the Law_, by Caro, 75, 92, 206, 211, 257
+
+_Collectanea_, 144
+
+_Commentary on the Pentateuch_, by Nachmanides, 107, 108, 123, 135
+
+_Creeds and Opinions_, by Saadiah Gaon, 162
+
+_Crown_, 239
+
+_Cusari_, 162
+
+_Date of the Redemption_, 105
+
+David Rocca Martino, 230
+
+David Messer Leon, 174
+
+David b. Samuel d’Estella, 165, 166
+
+David b. Yom‐Tob Bilia, 166.
+
+_Defence of Adam_, 230
+
+Delmedigo, 71, 131, 175
+
+_Disputation_, by Nachmanides, 103
+
+Dukes, L., 260
+
+_Eighteen Benedictions_, 83
+
+Eleazar, 229
+
+Eleazar b. Jacob, 225
+
+Eliezer, father of Baalshem, 5
+
+Eliezer b. Hyrkanos, 189, 319
+
+Eliezer b. Samuel Hallevi, 145
+
+Eliezer b. Simeon, 223
+
+Elijah Levita, 268
+
+Elijah Wilna, 57, 73‐77, 81‐92, 96, 97
+
+Elisha b. Abuyah, 33, 130, 292
+
+Emden, Jacob, 10, 259
+
+_Epikurus_, 157
+
+_Erech Millin_, 66
+
+Erter, Isaac, 51, 59, 288
+
+Essenes, 64, 185
+
+_Examination of the World_, 97
+
+Eybeschütz, J., 10
+
+Ezra, or Azriel, the mystic, 100
+
+_Faithful City_, the, 75
+
+Fichte, 51
+
+Finn, 75
+
+_Ford Jabbok_, 333
+
+Frankists, 10
+
+Frankl, Z., 65, 97
+
+Fürst, J., 66
+
+Gamaliel I., 234
+
+Gamaliel II., 194, 212
+
+_Gaon_, pl. _Gaonim_, 73, 76‐78, 97, 98, 206, 208, 209, 289, 312
+
+_Garden of Mystical Contemplation_, 129
+
+_Gate of Reward_, 115, 213
+
+Geiger, A., 66
+
+_Gemara_, 78
+
+Gershon, brother‐in‐law of Baalshem, 8, 9
+
+Ghetto, 326, 331‐333
+
+Gnostics, 64
+
+Goethe, 57, 73, 306, 328
+
+_Gozer_, 290
+
+Graetz, 65, 97, 99, 183
+
+_Great Interpreters_, 186
+
+Green, A. L., 255
+
+_Guide of the Perplexed_, 49, 68, 97, 102, 130, 131, 179
+
+_Guide of the Perplexed of the Time_, 60, 67
+
+Hadasi, Judah, 160, 161
+
+Hai Gaon, 77, 208, 209, 272
+
+_Halachah_, pl. _Halachoth_, 64, 66, 183
+
+_Halachic_, 57, 92, 110, 157, 193, 207
+
+_Halachoth Gedoloth_, 111, 112
+
+Hannaneel of Kairwan, 162
+
+Hegel, 51, 54, 64, 65
+
+Heine, 59, 124, 254
+
+_High Belief_, 162
+
+Hillel the Great, 185, 186, 188, 193, 237
+
+Hillel, R., 177
+
+_History of Jewish Tradition_, 65, 182
+
+_Hithlahabuth_, 32
+
+_Holle Kreisch_, 294, 295
+
+Huna, 221, 225
+
+Isaac Alfasi, 13, 100, 101, 111, 312
+
+Isaac Aramah, 173
+
+Isaac Loria, 76, 133
+
+Isaac b. Ruben, 100
+
+Ishmael, 188, 190, 224
+
+Ishmael b. Elishah, 222, 299
+
+Israel Baalshem (_see_ Baalshem, Israel)
+
+Jacob of Corbeil, 322
+
+Jacob Dubna, 91
+
+Jacob the Levite, or Maharil, 143, 144
+
+Jacob Sasportas, 101, 102
+
+Jacob Tam, 210
+
+Jannai, 226
+
+Jedaiah of Bedres, 97, 131
+
+_Jerusalem_, by Mendelssohn, 147
+
+Johanan, 249, 287, 303, 318
+
+Johanan b. Zaccai, 48, 188
+
+Jonah Gerundi, 100, 101
+
+Jonah, son of Nachmanides, 101
+
+José, 218, 219
+
+Joseph Albashir, 160
+
+Joseph Albo, 171, 172
+
+Joseph Caro, 75, 92, 206, 211, 322
+
+Joseph Jabez, 131, 173, 179
+
+Joshua b. Hananiah, 194, 299, 304, 308
+
+Jost, M., 66
+
+Judah Alcharisi, 262
+
+Judah Hallevi, 13, 34, 152, 162, 208
+
+Judah b. Ilai, 246
+
+Judah Messer Leon, 333
+
+Judah de Modena, 298
+
+Judah the Patriarch, 63, 195
+
+Judah the Pious, 306
+
+Judah b. Tema, 299
+
+Judah b. Yakar, 100
+
+_Karab_, 124
+
+_Kilayim_, 87
+
+Kimchi, D., 145
+
+_Korban_, 124
+
+Krochmal, Nachman, 44, 46, 48‐68, 71, 72
+
+Kuenen, 240
+
+_Law of Man_, 113‐115
+
+_Laws unto Moses on Mount Sinai_, 64
+
+Lessing, 73
+
+Letteris, M., 56, 57
+
+Levi b. Gershom, 97, 101, 171
+
+_Light of God_, 167
+
+_Lilac of Mysteries_, 133
+
+_Lilith_, 287, 288
+
+Lipman of Mühlhausen, 167, 179
+
+Liva of Prague, 78
+
+Lowell, R., 116
+
+Löw, L., 171, 285, 305
+
+Lucas, Mrs. Henry, 135
+
+Macaulay, 89
+
+_Maggid_, 19
+
+_Magnified_, 310
+
+Maimonides, or Moses b. Maimon, 13, 48, 49, 68, 70, 78, 97, 100, 102, 103,
+            111, 126, 130, 133, 140, 161‐168, 170‐181, 210, 211, 249, 274,
+            280, 281, 312, 322
+
+Maimonists, Anti‐Maimonists, 163‐165, 173, 210
+
+Mar Samuel, 84
+
+Mathia b. Chares, 339
+
+_Measure of the Stature_, 208
+
+_Mechilta_, 58, 81, 193
+
+Meheram Schiff, 16
+
+Meir, 130, 194, 226, 318
+
+Meir b. Nathan of Trinquintaines, 100
+
+Meir of Rothenburg, 210
+
+_Memra_, 238
+
+_Men of the Great Synagogue_, 64, 185
+
+_Menachoth_, 86
+
+Mendelssohn, Moses, 48, 58, 73, 147, 151, 176
+
+_Metatron_, 238
+
+_Midrash_, pl. _Midrashim_, 61, 64, 71, 81, 193, 195, 222, 262, 272, 273,
+            304
+
+Milton, 114
+
+_Minhag_, pl. _Minhagim_, 143, 192
+
+_Minim_, 64
+
+Minor Tractates, 81
+
+_Mishnah_, 57, 64, 66, 76, 78, 82, 85, 87, 91, 157, 190, 193, 195, 271
+
+Mistress of the Synagogue, 317
+
+Moses Cordevora, 133
+
+Moses Ibn Ezra, 262
+
+Moses de Leon, 18, 133, 258, 262
+
+Moses of Tachau, 131
+
+_Mother Zion_, 321
+
+Nachman, son of Nachmanides, 101
+
+Nachmanides, or Moses b. Nachman, 99‐141, 213
+
+Nahum of Gemzo, 215
+
+_Nasi_, 84
+
+Nathan, 194
+
+_Nephesh Chayah_, 117
+
+Neubauer, Dr. A., 263
+
+_Night of Watching_, 288
+
+Nissim of Gerona, 133
+
+Nissim of Marseilles, 267
+
+_Olam Habba_, 115
+
+_Old Victory_, 304
+
+Oral Law, 10
+
+_Orchard_, the, 133
+
+_Ordinance of the Law_, 293
+
+Pablo Christiano, 103, 105, 106
+
+_Pairs_, the, 185
+
+_Paradise Lost_, 114
+
+_Pardes_, 129
+
+_Pashut_, 138
+
+_Path of Belief_, 172
+
+Perles, J., 99, 123, 294
+
+Pharisees, 64, 185, 237, 241
+
+Philo, 52, 64, 154, 238
+
+_Pilpul Pilpulist_, 13, 78
+
+Plato, 78
+
+_Pugio Fidei_, 107
+
+Raba, 311
+
+_Rabbanan Saburai_, 206
+
+Rabbah, 311
+
+Rabbenu, 13
+
+_Rabbenu Mosheh_, 103
+
+Rabbinowicz, R. N. N., 261
+
+Raimund Martini, 107
+
+Rapoport, Solomon Leb, 50, 53, 56, 66
+
+Reggio, Isaac, 270
+
+_Roots_, the, 171
+
+Ruskin, 328
+
+Saadiah Gaon, 48, 162, 108, 272
+
+_Sacred Letter_, 113
+
+Sadducees, 64, 185, 237
+
+Salman the Good, 145
+
+_Sambatyon_, 95
+
+_Sanctification‐cup_, 245
+
+Sandalphon, 305
+
+_Sandek_, 290
+
+Sanhedrin, the, 188, 190, 191
+
+Saul Berlin, 176, 180
+
+_Sayings of the Fathers_, _Aboth_, 262, 299
+
+Schelling, 51
+
+Schiller, 73
+
+_Schlummerlied_, 295
+
+Schorr, O., 193
+
+Schudt, 291, 298
+
+_Sechorah_, 296
+
+_Seder Nezikin_, 58
+
+_Seder Olam_, 81, 92
+
+_Seder Taharoth_, 58
+
+_Segulah_, 122
+
+_Sephardim_, 301
+
+_Sepher_, 13
+
+_Sephiroth_, Ten, 238
+
+_Sermon in the Presence of the King_, by Nachmanides, 165
+
+Shabbethai Tsebi, 134, 239
+
+_Shalom Zachar_, 289
+
+Shammai, 185, 188, 237
+
+_Shechinah_, 120, 121, 228‐230
+
+_Shema_, reading of the, 141, 288
+
+Shemaiah, 186
+
+Shemariah of Crete, 166
+
+Sherira Gaon, 263
+
+Shiphluth, 30
+
+_Simchah_, 31
+
+Simeon Duran, 101, 170, 171
+
+Simeon b. Eleazar, 289
+
+Simeon b. Gamaliel, 222
+
+Simeon b. Gamaliel II., 193, 194
+
+Simeon b. Yochai, 18, 223
+
+Simlai, 112
+
+_Siphra_, 58, 81, 91, 193, 262
+
+_Siphré_, 58, 81, 91, 193, 262
+
+Solomon b. Adereth, 70, 267
+
+Solomon b. Gabirol, 210
+
+Solomon of St. Goar, 143‐145
+
+Solomon b. Isaac, Rashi, 13, 210
+
+Solomon b. Isaac b. Zadok, 137
+
+Solomon Ladier, 43
+
+Solomon Portaleone, 323
+
+Solomon, son of Nachmanides, 110
+
+Solomon Syrillo, 262
+
+Solomon Wilna, 75
+
+_Son of the Law_, 307, 312
+
+_Sopherim_, 64
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 97
+
+Steinschneider, M., 99, 172
+
+_Taanith_, 58
+
+_Talmid Chaber_, 52
+
+_Talmid Chakam_, 7
+
+Talmud (of Jerusalem or Babylon), 16, 19, 33, 49, 52, 57‐59, 64, 76, 78,
+            81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 96, 101, 104, 105, 111, 129, 131,
+            140, 151, 155, 158, 195, 196, 206, 207, 209, 210, 238, 252,
+            254‐256, 261, 262, 271, 272, 277
+
+_Tanna_, pl. _Tannaim_, 17, 84, 187
+
+_Tephillin_, 249
+
+Thackeray, 282
+
+Thirteen Articles of the Creed, 148, 163, 164, 170, 176, 179
+
+_Thirteen Rules_ (of Interpretation), 195
+
+Tobijah, the Priest, 175
+
+_Tosephta_, 81, 82, 92, 262, 271
+
+Toy, Prof., 233‐239, 251
+
+_Tractate Berachoth_, 221, 271
+
+_Tractate Evidences_, 192
+
+_Tractate Joys_, 194
+
+_Tractate Sanhedrin_, 156, 157, 159
+
+_Tractate Sopherim_, 301, 312, 321
+
+_Tree of Life_, the, 133
+
+Troki, Solomon, 161
+
+_Variae Lectiones_ (of the Talmud), 261
+
+Viterbo, Abraham Chayim, 175, 176
+
+_Vorsugerin_, 324
+
+_Wars of the Lord_, 101
+
+_Watchman_, the, 59
+
+Weiss, T. H., 65, 97, 99, 182, 183, 185‐187, 191‐197, 206, 207, 209‐212
+
+Wellhausen, 243
+
+_Wisdom of Solomon_, 127, 154
+
+_Woilkennivdicke_, 324
+
+_Yediah_, 119
+
+_Yeshibah_, pl. _Yeshiboth_, 94‐96, 293
+
+Yom‐Tob Heller, 196
+
+_Zaddik_, pl. _Zaddikim_ (Zaddikism), 36‐44, 53, 298
+
+Zadoc, 245
+
+_Zebachim_, 86
+
+Zedner, 254‐256
+
+_Zehub_, 137‐139
+
+Zerahiah Hallevi of Gerona (or Gerondi), 100, 101, 111
+
+_Zion‐Elegy_, 208
+
+_Zobeoth_, 314
+
+_Zohar_, 18, 19, 71, 91, 133, 258
+
+Zunz, Leopold, 44, 52, 56, 60, 65, 73, 97, 183, 279, 305
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 SUBJOINED IS A LIST OF SELECTED AUTHORITIES ON THE SUBJECT OF THE
+      CHASSIDIM.—_Historical and Bibliographical Works_: Graetz (xi.
+      including the polemical literature quoted in the Appendix), Jost,
+      Peter Beer, M. Bodek (סדר הרורות הנרש, Lemberg, 1865), A. Walden (שמ
+      תגרוליב הנדש, Warschau, 1864), Finn (קרוה נאמנה, Wilna, 1860), D.
+      Kahana (אצן אוסל in the periodical השחר, iv.), Zederbaum (כחר כדונה,
+      Odessa, 1868). _Essays and Satires_: T. Erter (הצפה, Wien, 1858), S.
+      Szantó (_Jahrbuch für Israeliten_, p. 108‐178, 1867), A. Gottlober
+      (in his periodical הברקר אור, iii.), L. Löw (Ben Chananjah, ii.),
+      Rudermann (השחר, vi.), Rapoport (נחלת יחודה, Lemberg, 1873, p. 10),
+      Fröhlich (המדרין, Warschau, 1876, p. 63 _seq._), S. Maimon
+      (_Autobiographie_, Berlin, 1792). Compare also the Hebrew novels by
+      P. Smolensky, L. Gordon, M. Brandstätter, A. Gottlober and B.
+      Horowitz (German). _Occasional references_ to the liturgy or the
+      system of the Chassidim in the “Responses” of R. Ezechiel Landau,
+      Moses Sopher, E. Flekeles and T. Steinhart, and in the works of
+      Israel Samostsch, Salomon Chelma and Chayim Walosin. Compare also
+      Zunz (_Gottesdienstliche Vorträge_, p. 477) and L. Löw (_Mannheimer
+      Album_, Wien, 1874), Senior Sachs (התחיה, i. 61) and B. L. Zeitlin
+      (הות קשה, Paris, 1846). The best book on the whole subject is E.
+      Zweifel’s work שלום צל ישראל (Zitomyr 1868, three parts), which I
+      strongly recommend to students. The books written by the Chassidim
+      would amount to more than 200. They are catalogued by Bodek and
+      Walden. I shall only draw the attention of the student to the works
+      of Beer, Salomon Ladier, and Mendel Witipsker on one side, who
+      developed the theory of the Immanence, and those of Nachman Braslaw
+      and Melech Liezensker, who, on the other hand, carried the theory of
+      Zaddikism to its utmost consequences. The student will find a fair
+      collection of sayings and sentences arranged according to
+      theological subjects in the books ררך המידים and לשן חכמים (Anon.,
+      Lemberg, 1876).
+
+    2 חסידים, “pious ones” (Ps. xxxvii. 28, lxx. 2, etc.). The reader is
+      probably acquainted with the term from the Maccabean history (1
+      Macc. ii. 42, vii. 13), in which the strict party, opposed to all
+      Hellenistic influence, are called “Assideans” [R.V. “Hasidaeans”],
+      Gr. Ἁσιδαῖοι.
+
+    3 בעל שם, “The Master of the Name,” a term usually applied to
+      exorcists, who cast out devils and performed other miracles through
+      adjuration by the name of God (or angels). The unbelieving Rabbis
+      maintained indeed that in his exorcisms Baalshem employed “impure
+      names” (of devils), whilst the Chassidim, on the other hand,
+      declared that their Master never used “names” at all, his miracles
+      being performed by the divine in Baalshem to which all nature owes
+      obedience. Occasionally the Chassidim call him בעל שם תוב (The Man
+      of Good Name), in allusion to Eccles. vii. 1, shortened by some into
+      _Besht_.
+
+    4 בית המדרש—“House of Research” or of “study” (of the Law), but in
+      which also divine service is held thrice a day.
+
+    5 תלמיד הכם—“Disciple of the Wise,” the usual title of a scholar or
+      student.
+
+    6 A Jewish sect, so called after their founder Jacob Leibovicz Frank,
+      who was himself one of the apostles of the pseudo‐Messiah Shabbethai
+      Tsebi of Smyrna in Turkey. Among his other doctrines he taught also
+      a sort of Trinity, consisting of the Holy Ancient One, the Holy King
+      or the Messiah, and a feminine person in the Godhead, in which he,
+      like his master, represented the Second Person. The sect ultimately
+      abolished the Law, and, after many controversies with the Rabbinic
+      Jews, went over to Catholicism, the dominant religion in Poland, by
+      which they were soon absorbed. Eybeschütz, chief Rabbi of Prague and
+      Hamburg, was suspected by Emden to be a secret adherent of
+      Shabbethai Tsebi, which was tantamount to apostasy from Judaism.
+      Eybeschütz protested. The litigants excommunicated each other, and
+      the Rabbis divided into two camps, taking sides either with Emden or
+      with his antagonist.
+
+    7 The works of Maimonides or Moses b. Maimon (1135‐1204) are too many
+      to be enumerated here. The most important are the _Guide of the
+      Perplexed_ (מורה נבוכום) and his _Compendium of the Law_ (משנה
+      הורה). Judah Hallevi or Abul Hassan flourished in the first half of
+      the twelfth century. He is well known as a poet by his _Divan_ and
+      as a deep religious thinker by his _Cusari_. The former contains
+      also many songs of a secular nature. Isaac Alfasi (died 1103) is
+      best known by his Compendium of the Talmud, which was so greatly
+      admired by his contemporaries that they declared it could never have
+      been composed “without the aid of the Holy Spirit.” R. Solomon b.
+      Isaac, also called by his initials Rashi (1040‐1105), is well known
+      by his commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud.
+
+    8 רבי רבינו.
+
+    9 ספר, _Sepher_.
+
+   10 The Hebrew word is פלפול, meaning subtle discussion and sharp
+      distinction. The word is closely related to פלפל or פלפלא, which
+      means “pepper” or “seasoning.”
+
+   11 מחרם שיף = R. Meir Shiff, whose _novellæ_ on the Talmud are of a
+      very subtle kind, and were very popular with the students of this
+      work.
+
+   12 המוראים—תנאים, “The Repeaters,” and “The Interpreters.” The sayings
+      and statements of the former are embodied in the Mishnah, a work
+      compiled by R. Judah the Saint about 220 A.C., and covering a period
+      of about 250 years (30 B.C.‐220 A.C.). The latter occupied
+      themselves mainly with the interpretation of the Mishnah, and their
+      discussions and controversies are incorporated in the Talmud of
+      Jerusalem and that of Babylon, and extend over the period from
+      220‐500 A.C. The Talmud of Jerusalem is mostly the product of the
+      schools of Palestine. The Talmud of Babylon is a growth of that
+      country. The authorities of this latter Talmud being far away from
+      the place where the first great Rabbis lived and laboured, their
+      traditions are naturally not so historically reliable as those of
+      the Talmud of Jerusalem. The authorities of Palestine were also
+      simpler in their method of interpretation. These again are followed
+      by the Babylonian schools of new interpreters (of the Talmud).
+
+   13 שדין יהודאין, an expression that goes back as far as to the _Zohar_.
+
+   14 זוהר, “Brightness.” Cf. Dan. xii. 3,—the authors of “The Brightness”
+      pretending to be the _Maskilim_ or “Wise Ones” mentioned in this
+      verse.
+
+   15 שפלות.
+
+   16 שמחה.
+
+   17 התלהבות.
+
+   18 צדיק, pl. צדיקים.
+
+   19 R. Johanan b. Zaccai was a contemporary of the Apostles, and died
+      about 110 A.D. He belonged to the peace party in opposition to the
+      Zealots, and obtained permission from the Roman government to
+      establish the school of Jamnia, which, after the destruction of the
+      Temple, became the centre of Jewish religious life. See also p. 188.
+
+   20 R. Saadiah Gaon was born in Egypt in 892, and died as the head of
+      the school of Sura in Babylon in 942. He is known by his
+      translations of and commentaries on the Bible, and many other works,
+      especially his philosophical treatise _Creeds and Opinions_. He was
+      also a great controversialist. Most of his polemical writings are
+      directed against the Caraites (קראים) or “Scripturalists,” a Jewish
+      sect founded by Anan in the eighth century. They protested against
+      the Oral Law, and denied Tradition. On the title “Gaon,” see note 1
+      to Elijah Wilna.
+
+   21 מורה נבוכים, _Moreh Nebuchim_, generally considered to be the
+      greatest philosophical work by any Jewish thinker.
+
+   22 R. Abraham Ibn Ezra, who spent some time in London, died about 1161.
+      He is best known by his commentaries on the Bible. He was the first
+      writer who doubted the unity of the book of Isaiah.
+
+   23 תלמיד חבר.
+
+   24 עיר מלאת הכמים וסופרים, meaning “sages” and “scribes,” but used by
+      later writers in the sense given in the text.
+
+   25 בכורים, dealing with the laws relating to the firstfruits which were
+      brought to the temple (Ex. xxiii. 19). The processions formed by the
+      pilgrims are very vividly described after the said tractate by
+      Delitzsch in his _Iris_, p. 190 _sq._ (English ed.). See also by the
+      same author, _Jüdisches Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu_, p. 66 _seq._
+
+   26 תענית, “Fast,” or תעניות, “Fasts.”
+
+   27 סדר נזיקין, “Order of Damages,” treating of the civil law of the
+      Jews, the procedure of courts of justice, and kindred subjects. This
+      Order also includes the tractate אבות, _Aboth_ or “Sayings of the
+      Fathers,” which is very important for the study of Rabbinic doctrine
+      and ethics.
+
+   28 סדר תהרות, “Order of Purities,” dealing with the laws regarding
+      Levitical purity.
+
+   29 ספרא (or הורת כהנים), ספרי, מכילתא. These three works form the
+      oldest Rabbinic commentary on Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
+      Deuteronomy. The authorities cited in these commentaries all belong
+      to the period of the Tannaim. See above, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+      Constituting as they do, to a certain extent, one of the sources
+      used by the _Gemara_, they are naturally indispensable for a
+      scientific study of the Talmud.
+
+   30 הצפה, “_Hatsophe_,” a spirited satire against the orthodox and
+      especially against the then prevailing belief in the transmigration
+      of souls taught by the mystical schools. The book is written in the
+      purest biblical Hebrew.
+
+   31 מורה נבוכי הזמן.
+
+   32 מדרש, pl. מדרשים (_Midrashim_), “Research,” “Researches,” a name
+      usually applied to the homiletical part of the Rabbinic literature.
+      The most important collection of this kind is the _Midrash Rabbah_
+      to the Pentateuch. The usual way of quoting it is _Genesis Rabbah_,
+      _Exodus Rabbah_, and so on.
+
+   33 See above, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber’s Note: Footnote
+      on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   34 מינים, “Heretics,” applied to the first Christians, and more so to
+      certain Gnostic sects.
+
+   35 הלכה למשה מפיני, see below, p. 186 and _note_. [Transcriber’s Note:
+      The footnote on “laws given to Moses on Sinai.”]
+
+   36 הגדה or אגדה—הלכה, “rule,” “method,”—“narrative.” The former deals
+      with the legal side of the Scriptures, and is thus more of a
+      juristic nature; the latter represents a collection of homilies
+      having mostly as their text the historical and exhortatory parts of
+      the Bible, and is thus more of an edifying character. The
+      theological side of Judaism, as well as its ideal aspirations and
+      Messianic hopes, find their expression in the Agadah. The two words
+      are also used as adjectives, as _Halachic_ (legalistic, juristic,
+      and obligatory) and _Agadic_ (poetic, edifying, and hyperbolic).
+
+   37 ערך מלין, a sort of encyclopædia to the Talmud, of which only the
+      first letter appeared.
+
+   38 Menahem Azariah de Rossi, an Italian Jew who flourished in the first
+      half of the sixteenth century. His great work, מאור עינים, _Meor
+      Enayim_, “Light of the Eyes,” is the first attempt made by a Jew to
+      submit the statements of the Talmud to a critical examination, and
+      to question the value of tradition in its historical records.
+
+   39 פרקי דריי אליעזר.
+
+   40 Italian Jews of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The one,
+      Elijah Delmedigo, wrote an Examination of Religion, whilst his
+      grandson, Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, wrote various pamphlets of a
+      deeply sceptical character. See Geiger’s Introduction to his _Melo
+      Chofnayim_ (Berlin, 1840).
+
+   41 גאון, “The Great One.” The authorities of the Babylonian schools
+      after the sixth century were also called the Gaonim (גאונים),
+      “[their] Eminences.” The title was also given afterwards to great
+      Rabbis distinguished for their learning.
+
+   42 R. Joseph Caro (1488‐1575) lived in Safed. The title of his code is
+      שלחן ערוך, _Prepared Table_. This is a code of the Oral Law compiled
+      from the Rabbinic literature.
+
+   43 קדיה נאמנה, containing an account of the Jewish worthies of that
+      city.
+
+   44 עלית אלירו.
+
+   45 A famous mystic of the sixteenth century, from Safed, who was the
+      more admired the less his pupils understood him.
+
+   46 Hai was the last of the authorities called Gaon. With his death
+      (1038) the schools of Babylon fell into decay and soon disappeared.
+
+   47 חגיגה, treating of the voluntary offerings brought by the pilgrims
+      to Jerusalem.
+
+   48 גמרה, “Perfection or Supplementary Explanations.” By this is
+      understood the interpretation given to the Mishnah by the schools in
+      Palestine and Babylon. See above, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+      [Transcriber’s Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   49 See Dean Church’s _St. Anselm_, from which this story is taken.
+
+   50 תוספתה, “Addition” (to the Mishnah), but also containing only the
+      sayings and discussions of the period of the Tannaim.
+
+   51 סדר עולם, “Order of the World,” dealing with the Chronology of the
+      Bible, and dating from about the end of the second century.
+
+   52 These “Minor Tractates” include, among others, treatises on
+      proselytes, on the laws concerning funerals, the writing of the Law,
+      and the like. Others are more of an edifying nature, treating of
+      good manners, conduct, etc.
+
+   53 פבלת נלות.
+
+   54 שמונה עשרה, “Eighteen.” They are recited thrice a day, and form the
+      original germ of the prayers, from which a very rich liturgy
+      developed in the course of time.
+
+   55 The titles of the old authorities from 70 B.C. to 500 A.C. See
+      above, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber’s Note: Footnote on
+      the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   56 אב בית דין, נשיא, “Prince,” or “Patriarch,” religious head, of the
+      Jews (not political), and “Father (or president) of the Court of
+      Justice.”
+
+   57 מנחות, זבחים, “Sacrifices,” “Offerings.” They treat of the laws
+      relating to sacrifices and meal‐offerings.
+
+   58 בלאים, the laws relating to diverse seeds and garments of diverse
+      sorts. Cf. Deut. xxii. 9‐11.
+
+   59 מגיד, “Teller,” a sort of travelling preacher.
+
+   60 לולב, “palm branch.” Cf. Lev. xxiii. 40.
+
+   61 ישיבה, “High School,” or “Academy,” in which the Rabbinic literature
+      is studied.
+
+   62 ישיבה עץ חיים.
+
+   63 סמבטיון, a mythical river which is supposed to stop its course on
+      Sabbath.
+
+   64 בחורים, sing. בחור, “Young man,” by which term the Jews usually
+      understand the _alumni_ of their Talmudical schools.
+
+   65 Levi b. Gershom (1286‐1344) is generally regarded as the greatest
+      successor of Maimonides. Besides his rationalistic commentaries on
+      the Bible, he wrote various treatises on metaphysics, mathematics,
+      astronomy, medicine, etc.
+
+   66 בחינת עולם.
+
+   67 In Steinschneider’s _Catalogue of the Bodleian Library_, under the
+      name of Moses Nachmanides, pp. 1947‐1965, all the works which are
+      ascribed to this author are put together, and also discussed as to
+      their authenticity. There are only to be added the new edition of
+      the _Derasha_ by Jellinek (Vienna, 1872), in which the variants from
+      Schorr’s MS. (החלוץ, viii. 162) are already incorporated; a new
+      edition of the זיכות, and the commentary to Is. lii.‐liii. by
+      Steinschneider (Berlin, 1860); a _Sermon_ for the New Year, ed. by
+      H. Berliner (_Libanon_, v. 564); and another Sermon at a wedding
+      (?), ed. by Schorr (_Hechalus_, xii. 3). For the literature on
+      Nachmanides, besides the references given by Steinschneider, in his
+      _Catalogue_, and the Addenda, p. cxviii. (cf. also the pedigree in
+      the _Catalogue_ 2305), see also Graetz, _Geschichte_, vii., pp.
+      112‐143, and p. 147 _seq._; Michael, אור החיים, No. 1125, and Weiss,
+      דור דור ודערקיו, v. 4 _seq._; Perles’ _Monatsschrift_, 1860, p. 175;
+      Zomber, _ibid._ 421; and Z. Frankel, _ibid._ 1868, p. 449, and _The
+      Jewish Quarterly Review_, iv. 245 _seq._ For Nachmanides’
+      disputation we have to add M. Loeb in the _Révue des Études Juives_,
+      xv. 1 _seq._, and xviii. 52 (about Abner), and Dr. Neubauer’s Essay
+      on Jewish Controversy in the _Expositor_, vol. vii. (third series),
+      p. 98 _seq._, with the references given there. See also his article
+      on the Bahir and the Zohar in _The Jewish Quarterly Review_, iv.
+      357. With regard to Nachmanides’ mystical system see the references
+      to S. Sachs (whose remarks are most suggestive), Krochmal, and
+      Jellinek in Steinschneider, col. 1949 and 1964, Perles’
+      _Monatsschrift_, 1858, p. 83 _seq._, and Steinschneider in the Heb.
+      _Bibliographie_, i. 34. See also Professor Kaufmann’s _Die
+      Geschichte der Attributenlehre_, and the references given in the
+      index under this name. The _Novellæ_ by his son R. Nachman, alluded
+      to in the text, are in the University Library, Cambridge (Add. 1187,
+      2). The פץ הנאולה is extant in the British Museum, MS. Add. 26,894,
+      and the passage quoted by De Rossi is to be found on p. 163_b_, but
+      a few words are erased by the censor. As to the poem given at the
+      end of this paper, see Zunz, _Synagogale Poesie_, p. 478; Landshut,
+      _Amude ha‐Abodah_ _s.v._, the references in Sachs’ _Religiöse Poesie
+      der Juden_, and Luzzatto in the _Ozar Nechmad_, ii. 27. Compare also
+      Professor Cheyne’s _The Origin of the Psalter_, p. 421.
+
+   68 New Year’s Day, on the first of Tishri. It is in autumn.
+
+   69 A famous Rabbi of the fifteenth century, known by his various
+      casuistical and philosophical works.
+
+   70 Chiefly known through his controversial writings against the
+      adherents of the pseudo‐Messiah Shabbethai Tsebi. He was for some
+      time the Rabbi of the Portuguese congregation in London.
+
+   71 The main objections of the opponents of Maimonides were directed
+      against his rationalistic notions of Revelation, and his
+      allegorising interpretation of the Scriptures, which amounted in
+      some places to a denial of miracles. He was also suspected of having
+      denied bodily resurrection. A history of Jewish rationalism is still
+      a desideratum. I am certain that it would prove at least as
+      interesting as Reuter’s _Geschichte der religiösen Aufklärung im
+      Mittelalter_ (Berlin, 1845‐60).
+
+   72 רבינו משה.
+
+   73 אגדות, “Homilies.” See above, p. 64 and _note_.
+
+   74 קץ הנאולה, “The end of the Redemption,” that is the time when the
+      advent of the Messiah is to be expected.
+
+   75 This patriarch is famous in Jewish legend for his hospitality. See
+      Beer’s _Leben Abrahams_, pp. 37 and 56.
+
+   76 This is the quorum necessary to form a congregation (עדת) for the
+      purpose of holding divine service.
+
+   77 By _Zobah_, or _Aram Zobah_, the Jews of the Middle Ages usually
+      understood Aleppo. See Benjamin of Tudela’s _Itinerary_, i. 88, ii.
+      124 (London and Berlin, 1840‐41).
+
+   78 See below, p. 141, where a full translation of the letter is given.
+
+   79 הלכות גדולות, a compendium of the Law, dating from the ninth
+      century, by R. Simon Caro.
+
+   80 R. Simlai flourished in Palestine in the third century. He is best
+      known as an Agadic teacher and a great controversialist. According
+      to him, 613 commandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai, of
+      which 365 are prohibitive laws, whilst the remaining 248 are
+      positive injunctions.
+
+   81 שער הנמול, “Treatise on Reward (and Punishment).”
+
+   82 עלם הבא.
+
+   83 Ps. cix. 4; ואנ תפלה.
+
+   84 אצילות.
+
+   85 נפש חיח.
+
+   86 ידיעה, “Knowledge,” “Foreknowledge,” “Omniscience.”
+
+   87 בכוד, שבינה.
+
+   88 סגולה. See Exod. xix. 5.
+
+   89 חקים.
+
+   90 קרב, קרבן.
+
+   91 According to a Jewish tradition (the date of which is uncertain) the
+      advent of the Messiah, the Son of David, will be preceded by that of
+      the Messiah, the Son of Joseph. The latter will perish in the battle
+      against Gog and Magog (the Antichrist of Jewish literature), but
+      will soon be brought back to life on the appearance of the former.
+      Cf. G. H. Dalman’s _Der leidende und der sterbende Messias der
+      Synagoge_ (Berlin, 1881).
+
+   92 בראשית, “In the beginning,” Gen. i. 1.
+
+   93 מאין; Job xxvii. 12.
+
+   94 _Chagigah_ 14_b_. The activity of these four Rabbis falls chiefly in
+      the second century. R. Akiba died as a martyr in the Hadrianic
+      persecution (about 130). Elisha b. Abuyah, the apostate, was usually
+      called אחר, _Acher_, “the other one.”
+
+   95 The former lived in the twelfth, the latter in the sixteenth,
+      century. They are both known for their hostility to philosophy.
+
+   96 Bachya wrote in the eleventh century a famous book called חובות
+      חלבבות, _The Duties of the Heart_. For the others see above, p. 13
+      and _note_, p. 49 and _note_, p. 102 and _note_, p. 97 and _note_,
+      p. 71 and _note_. They all belong to the rationalistic school.
+
+   97 A younger contemporary of Maimonides, who translated the _Guide_
+      from Arabic into Hebrew.
+
+   98 ספר המשקל. See above, p. 18. R. Moses Cordovora, the author of the
+      סררם, lived in Safed in the sixteenth century. For R. Isaac Loria,
+      the author of the עץ החיים, see above, note 5 to Elijah Wilna.
+
+   99 שושן סודות.
+
+  100 סשר הבהיר, a forgery by a Provençal Jew of the thirteenth century,
+      who attributed it to a Rabbi of the first century.
+
+  101 This hymn is now incorporated in her excellent little book, _Songs
+      of Zion_, pp. 13‐15.
+
+  102 זהוב, a gold piece. The country and the date of the writer not being
+      certain, it is impossible to determine the value of this coin.
+
+  103 The lawfulness of eating this fish (= sturgeon?) was contested for
+      many centuries, and the controversy still continues.
+
+  104 פשוט, a smaller coin than the Zehub.
+
+  105 שמע, “Hear,” the verses from Deut. vi. 4‐9, xi. 13‐21, and Num. xv.
+      37‐41, recited twice a day by the Jews.
+
+  106 _Sabbath_, 30_b_.
+
+  107 מנהג, pl. מנהגים (_Minhagim_), applied usually to those ritual
+      customs and ceremonies for which there is no distinct authority in
+      the Scriptures or even in the Talmud.
+
+  108 _Jerusalem_, in Mendelssohn’s _Sämmtliche Werke_ (Vienna, 1838),
+      especially from p. 264 onwards, and a letter by him published in
+      Frankel‐Graetz’s _Monatsschrift_, 1859, p. 173. For Mendelssohn’s
+      position, see Graetz’s _Geschichte_, xi. 86 _seq._, especially p. 88
+      and note 1; Kayserling, _Leben und Werke_ of M., 2d ed., p. 394;
+      Steinheim, _Moses Mendelssohn_ (Hamburg, 1840), p. 30 _seq._;
+      Holdheim, _Moses Mendelssohn_ (Berlin, 1859), p. 18 _seq._; Leopold
+      Löw’s pamphlet, _Jüdische Dogmen_ (Pesth, 1871).
+
+  109 See the Commentaries on Maimonides’ סשר המצות, especially R. Simeon
+      Duran’s זוהר הרקיע; cf. also ancient and modern commentaries on
+      Exod. xx. 2.
+
+  110 See _Siphra_ (ed. Weiss), pp. 86_b_, 93_b_.
+
+  111 _Baba Bathra_, 14_b_; cf. Fürst’s _Kanon_, p. 15.
+
+  112 See _Sanhedrin_, 38_b_, and _Pseudo‐Jonathan_ to Gen. iv. 8.
+
+  113 _Mechilta_, 33_b_.
+
+  114 אפיקורוס, Lat. Epicurus.
+
+  115 See _Mishnah_, _Sanhedrin_, x. e, § 1, and Talmud, _ibid._ 90_a_ and
+      _b_, and Rabbinowicz’s _Variae Lectiones_, ix. p. 247 notes. Besides
+      the ordinary commentaries on the Talmud, account must also be taken
+      of the remarks of Crescas, Duran, Albo, and Abarbanel on the
+      subject. Cf. also Kämpf in the _Monatsschrift_ (1863), p. 144
+      _seq._; Oppenheim, _ibid._ (1864), p. 144; Friedmann in the _Beth
+      Talmud_, i. p. 210 _seq._ See also Talmudical Dictionaries, _s.v._
+      אפיקורום. The explanation I have adopted agrees partly with
+      Friedmann’s and partly with Oppenheim’s views.
+
+  116 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iii. § 9, and iv. § 22.
+
+  117 See אדרת אליהו (Jovslow, 1835), p. 48. In my exposition of the
+      dogmas of the Caraites I have mainly followed the late Dr. Frankl’s
+      article “Karaiten” in Ersch u. Gruber’s _Encyclopädie_ (sec. ii.
+      vol. xxxvi. pp. 12‐18). See also his _Ein mutazilitischer Kalam_ and
+      his _Beiträge zur Literaturgeschichte der Karäer_ (Berlin, 1887) on
+      Bashazi. Cf. also Jost’s _Geschichte_, ii. c. 13.
+
+  118 Kairowan was one of the greatest centres of Jewish learning in North
+      Africa during that period.
+
+  119 See, however, Professor D. Kaufmann’s note in the _Jewish Quarterly
+      Review_, i. p. 441. From this it would seem that the creed of R.
+      Judah Hallevi may be formulated in the following articles:—The
+      conviction of the existence of God, of His eternity, of His guidance
+      of our fathers, of the Divine Origin of the Law, and of the proof of
+      all this, the pledge or token of its truth, the exodus from Egypt.
+
+  120 אמונה רמה, _Emunah Ramah_, pp. 44 and 69; cf. Gulmann,
+      _Monatsschrift_, 1878, p. 304.
+
+  121 For the various translations of the Thirteen Articles which were
+      originally composed in Arabic, see Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col.
+      1887. Cf. Rosin, _Ethik des Maimonides_, p. 30; Weiss, _Beth
+      Talmud_, i. p. 330, and _Ben Chananjah_, 1863, p. 942, and 1864, pp.
+      648 and 697, and Landshut, עמודי העבודה, p. 231.
+
+  122 מנחת קנאות. See pp. 1‐16.
+
+  123 See _Hammaskir_, viii. pp. 63 and 103.
+
+  124 See Steinschneider, _Cat. München_, No. 210.
+
+  125 See the Collection דברי הבמימ, by Ashkenazi, pp. 56_b_ _seq._
+
+  126 See Albo, c. iii. Probably identical with the author mentioned by
+      Duran, 13_b_.
+
+  127 ספר נצחון, “Sepher Nizzachon.”
+
+  128 See אור ה (ed. Johannisburg), preface, and pp. 20_a_, 44_b_, 59_b_,
+      and elsewhere. The style of this author is very obscure. Cf. Joel’s
+      pamphlet on this author (Breslau, 1874).
+
+  129 See the first pages of the מגן (Leghorn, 1758), and his משסם, pp. 13
+      _seq._
+
+  130 עקרים, _Ikkarim_, “Fundamentals.”
+
+  131 See _Ikkarim_, i. c. 23, and Maimonides’ _Commentary on the Mishnah_
+      (end of tractate Maccoth). On Albo compare Schlesinger’s
+      Introduction and notes to the _Ikkarim_, Joel’s pamphlet, p. 82;
+      Paulus, _Monatsschrift_, 1874, p. 463, and Brüll’s _Jahrb._ iv. p.
+      52.
+
+  132 I know his work from a MS. in the British Museum, Orient. 39.
+
+  133 דרך אמונה, _Derech Emunah_. Cf. Steinschneider, _Monatsschrift_,
+      1883, p. 79 _seq._
+
+  134 See עקידת יצחק, gate 55.
+
+  135 See his ימוד האמונה and מאמר האחרות.
+
+  136 ראש אמנה.
+
+  137 See בהיגת הדת, ed. Reggio, p. 28.
+
+  138 See מעשה מבית (Venice, 1707), 16_a_ and 23_a_. His language is very
+      vague.
+
+  139 See the Collection by Ashkenazi (as above, note 18), p. 29_b_.
+
+  140 See his בשמים ראש, p. 331.
+
+  141 See Weiss’s admirable monograph on Maimonides, published in the
+      _Beth Talmud_, i.
+
+  142 The Hebrew title of the work is דור דור ורורשיו.
+
+  143 That is, vows of an ascetic nature (not vows or oaths enforced by a
+      court of justice), which the tribunal could annul when there was
+      sufficient reason for it.
+
+  144 The ten Rabbis who are named as the bearers of tradition during the
+      period between 170 and 30 B.C. The “pair” in each case is supposed
+      to have consisted of the president and the vice‐president of the
+      Sanhedrin for the time being. See, however, Kuenen, _Gesammelte
+      Schriften_, p. 49 _seq._
+
+  145 דרשנים גדולים.
+
+  146 הלכות למשה מסיני. They amount, in the whole of Rabbinic literature,
+      to about forty, of which more than ten concern the preparation of
+      the phylacteries, whilst others relate to the libations of water at
+      the Feast of Tabernacles and similar subjects.
+
+  147 This is the time when the school of R. Johanan b. Zaccai began its
+      activity. Others place the Tannaitic age in Hillel’s time (30 B.C.).
+
+  148 בת קרל.
+
+  149 בית דין, lit. “Court of Justice,” as above, note 16 to Elijah Wilna,
+      but it means also a sort of permanent Synod, in which of course
+      justice was also administered as a part of religion.
+
+  150 עדיות, “Evidences given by Witnesses.” The tractate consists mostly
+      of a number of laws attested by various Rabbis as having come down
+      to them as old traditions.
+
+  151 The family of Hillel, which was supposed to be descended from the
+      house of David, supplied the Jews with patriarchs for many
+      generations. Gamaliel II. flourished about 120 A.C., whilst Simon b.
+      Gamaliel’s activity as Patriarch falls about 160 A.C.
+
+  152 שמכות, _Semachoth_. It is a euphemistic title, the tractate dealing
+      with the laws relating to funeral ceremonies and mourning.
+
+  153 מבוראי, “Elucidators” or “Explainers.” The heads of the schools in
+      Babylon during the fifth and sixth centuries were so designated.
+
+  154 The Rabbinic Jews of the dispersion add one day to each festival,
+      and thus celebrate the Passover eight days, the Feast of Weeks two
+      days, etc. The custom arose out of the uncertainty about the first
+      day of the month, the prerogative of fixing the New Moon resting
+      with the great _Beth Din_ in Palestine, which had not always the
+      means of communicating in time the evidence given before them that
+      the New Moon had been seen by qualified witnesses. The prerogative
+      was abolished in the fourth century, and the calendar fixed for all
+      future time, but the additional day is still kept by the Rabbinic
+      Jews as the “Custom of their Fathers.”
+
+  155 שיעור קומה, היכלות, “Chambers (of Heaven)” and the “Measure of the
+      Stature,” mystical works in which occasionally gross
+      anthropomorphisms are to be found. Their authorship is unknown.
+
+  156 _Sabbath_, 55_a_.
+
+  157 _Sayings of the Fathers_ (ed. C. Taylor), v. 12‐15. See also
+      _Sabbath_, 32 _seq._, and _Mechilta_ (ed. Friedman), 95_b_.
+      _Arachin_, 16_a_.
+
+  158 See _Mechilta_, 25_a_, 32_b_. _Gen. Rabbah_, ch. 48, and _Tossephta
+      Sotah_, iv. 7, and parallels.
+
+  159 _Taanith_, 21_a_.
+
+  160 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iv. 5.
+
+  161 _Baba Bathra_, 9_b_.
+
+  162 _Yoma_, 39_a_.
+
+  163 _Berachoth_, 33_a_.
+
+  164 _Sabbath_, 13_b_.
+
+  165 _Berachoth_, 7_a_.
+
+  166 See _Mechilta_, 68_b_, and parallels. _Siphra_, 112_b_. _Pessikta_
+      of R. Kahana, 167_b_. Cp. _Sanhedrin_, 44_a_.
+
+  167 _Aboth_ de R. Nathan, 40_a_, 59_b_, and 62_b_.
+
+  168 _Baba Bathra_, 10_a_.
+
+  169 _Eccles. Rabbah_, ix. 7.
+
+  170 5_a_.
+
+  171 7_b_.
+
+  172 See _Mechilta_, 95_b_, and parallels.
+
+  173 See _Kiddushin_, 40_b_. _Mechilta_, 63_b_. _Lev. Rabbah_, iv.
+
+  174 See _Sabbath_, 54_a_.
+
+  175 _Exodus Rabbah_, c. 35, and parallels.
+
+  176 See _Negaim_, ii. 1.
+
+  177 _Exod. Rabbah_, c. 46.
+
+  178 _Taanith_, 11_a_.
+
+  179 See _Berachoth_, 5_a_.
+
+  180 _Tanchuma_, כי תצא, § 2. Cp. _Mechilta_, 72_b_.
+
+  181 _Siphré_, 73_b_, and parallels.
+
+  182 _Taanith_, 8_a_.
+
+  183 _Arachin_, 16_b_.
+
+  184 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iv. 15.
+
+  185 See _Chagigah_, 5_a_.
+
+  186 _Sabbath_, 55_a_.
+
+  187 _Menachoth_, 29_b_.
+
+  188 _Taanith_, 25_a_.
+
+  189 _Gen. Rabbah_, xxvii.; _Pessikta_, 136_b_; _Sanhedrin_, vi. 5;
+      _Berachoth_, 7_a_.
+
+  190 _Sayings of the Fathers_, i. 3, p. 27, ed. Taylor. See also note 8.
+
+  191 _Abodah Zarah_, 19_a_; _Siphré_, 79_b_.
+
+  192 _Berachoth_, 58_b_.
+
+  193 See _Exod. R._, 30, and parallels.
+
+  194 See ראשית חבמה, i. 9.
+
+  195 See רמתים נמים, 33_b_.
+
+  196 See _Sabbath_, 55_b_, and _Siphra_, 27_a_.
+
+  197 _Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of the Progress of Thought from
+      Old Testament to New Testament_, by C. H. Toy, Professor in Harvard
+      University. London, 1890.
+
+  198 See _Pessikta_ of R. Kahana, 61_b_, and parallels, and _Erubin_,
+      13_b_.
+
+  199 Tal. Jer., _Sabbath_, 5_b_.
+
+  200 מטטרון, the name of an angel, already found in the Talmud, but
+      playing a more important part in the _Book of Chambers_, where he is
+      identified with Enoch. The etymology of the word is doubtful, some
+      authors considering it to be of Persian origin (_Mithra_); others
+      again deriving it from the Greek μετὰ τύραννον, or μετὰ θρόνον.
+
+  201 ספירות.
+
+  202 מימרא, “The Word,” sometimes substituted for God. See J. Levy’s
+      _Chaldäisches Wörterbuch_, _s.v._
+
+  203 בחר, אדם קדמון.
+
+  204 _Mechilta_, 104_a_.
+
+  205 See Tal. Jer., _Yoma_, 45_b_. Cf. Maimonides, _Mishneh Torah_, הלבות
+      שבת פב הג.
+
+  206 _Tosephta Berackoth_, iii. 7.
+
+  207 _Sabbath_, 10_b_. The name of the Rabbi is not given, but the fact
+      that R. Simeon b. Gamaliel (160 A.C.) already refers to this
+      interpretation makes it clear that its anonymous author must have
+      lived at least a generation before.
+
+  208 כום של קדוש.
+
+  209 See _Midrash_ to the Psalms xcii. and _Deut. Rabbah_ iii. The Rabbis
+      perceived in the words וקראת לשבת עננ (Isa. lviii. 13), a command to
+      make the Sabbath a day of pleasure, whilst the word הסצף was
+      understood by them to mean “needs,” “wants,” or “business” (_not_
+      “pleasure”). Cf. _Sabbath_, 113_a_ and _b_.
+
+  210 See _Gen. Rabbah_, xi. (and parallels), and _Sabbath_, 119_a_.
+
+  211 See _Maaseh Torah_ (ed. Schönblum) and _Deut. Rabbah_, i.
+
+  212 _Sabbath_, 25_b_ and 119_a_.
+
+  213 _Betsah_, 16_a_. Cf. Baer’s notes in his _Prayer‐Book_, p. 203
+      _seq._
+
+  214 See _Sabbath_, 119_b_, and _Gen. Rabbah_, xi.
+
+  215 See _Sabbath_, 10_b_, and _Gen. Rabbah_, _ibid._
+
+  216 תפלין.
+
+  217 _Nazir_, 23_b_.
+
+  218 אור זרוה by R. Isaac b. Moses of Vienna (thirteenth century), mostly
+      on legal subjects.
+
+  219 יוחסין, Yuchasin.
+
+  220 מכלל, Miklal.
+
+  221 זרעים, מועד, the former treating of the agricultural laws of the
+      Bible, the latter of those relating to the Sabbath, Passover, and
+      other festivals.
+
+  222 מחזר, “Cycle,” containing the liturgy for the festivals.
+
+  223 Since then edited by the Mekize Nirdamim.
+
+  224 Eve of the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles.
+
+  225 ששח סדרים. ש֜֜ם.
+
+  226 ברייתה.
+
+  227 פאה.
+
+  228 ילקות, Yalkut.
+
+  229 חזית.
+
+  230 ישוהר נשב.
+
+  231 ויסען.
+
+  232 ילמרנו והזחיר.
+
+  233 רעיא מחימנא.
+
+  234 עמק המלך, משנה למלך, מגיד משנה, משנה תורה, ששר המלך.
+
+  235 ח֜֜ם שאל.
+
+  236 חד גדיא לא ישראל.
+
+  237 שני לוחות הכרית. ש֜֜לה.
+
+  238 The main authorities on the subjects of this essay are _Die
+      Lebensalter_, by Dr. Leopold Löw; _The Jewish Rite of Circumcision_,
+      by Dr. Asher; an article by Dr. Perles in the Graetz _Jubelschrift_,
+      p. 23 _seq._; _Merkwürdigkeiten der Juden_, by Schudt; the מקורי
+      המנהגים and other works on ritual customs; Güdemann’s _Geschichte
+      des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden_; and _Das Kind in
+      Brauch und Sitte der Völker_, by Dr. Ploss.
+
+  239 אמתי, אמת.
+
+  240 לילית, Is. xxxiv. 14.
+
+  241 See above, note 39 to Nachmanides. [Transcriber’s Note: The footnote
+      on _Shema_.]
+
+  242 ברית מילה, “Covenant of Circumcision.” This is the usual expression
+      in Hebrew literature for the rite of circumcision.
+
+  243 שלום זכר.
+
+  244 גוזר, מוהל.
+
+  245 פדיון הבן.
+
+  246 הקת תהורה, on educational matters.
+
+  247 סחורה, “business,” or “wares.”
+
+  248 I am indebted for the English adaptation to Mrs. Henry Lucas.
+
+  249 _Bereshith Rabbah_, chapter xx. For another reading see ראשית הכמה
+      (ed. Cracow), p. 374.
+
+  250 _Abodah Zarah_, 3_b_.
+
+  251 This is the way in which Deut. xxxi. 10‐12 was explained.
+
+  252 סופרים, “Scribes”; treating of the regulations concerning the
+      writing of the Law, but containing also much liturgical matter.
+
+  253 סשרדים, by which name the Jews of the Spanish rite are designated.
+
+  254 נצראן ישן, a controversial work published by Wagenseil. See above,
+      p. 203, for another victory.
+
+  255 סנדלפון, who is probably known to the English reader from
+      Longfellow’s poem.
+
+  256 בר מצוה.
+
+  257 קידוש, “Sanctification”—“benediction”—on the eve of Sabbath, which
+      is pronounced over a cup of wine.
+
+  258 שמכת תורה, or on the 23rd of Tishri, when the last portion from the
+      Pentateuch is read.
+
+  259 הלל, “Praise,” _i.e._ Ps. cxiii.‐cxviii.
+
+  260 קדִש, the name of a prayer commencing יתגדל ויתקדש, “Magnified and
+      sanctified be,” etc.
+
+  261 Prayer beginning ברכו, “Bless ye,” etc.
+
+  262 ברוך שאמר, beginning of a prayer, “Blessed be He,” etc.
+
+  263 See Schürer’s _Die Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom_, p. 24. Cf.
+      _Hebräische Bibliographie_, xix. p. 79.
+
+  264 זבאת.
+
+  265 תהנות.
+
+  266 מעבר יכק.
+
+  267 יעמוד. In olden times the weekly lesson from the Law used to be read
+      by seven members of the congregation who were “called up” for this
+      purpose; the Priest and the Levite took precedence of laymen for
+      this honour. At the present day, the members of the congregation are
+      still called up, but the actual reading is performed by an official.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+
+
+
+CREDITS
+
+
+May 2015
+
+            Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1
+            Produced by Chuck Greif, David King, and the Online
+            Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. (This
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+            material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG
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+***FINIS***
\ No newline at end of file
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Studies in Judaism, First Series by Solomon
+Schechter
+
+
+
+This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+http://www.gutenberg.org/license. If you are not located in the United
+States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located
+before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: Studies in Judaism, First Series
+
+Author: Solomon Schechter
+
+Release Date: May 6, 2015 [Ebook #48890]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+
+
+
+
+
+                            Studies in Judaism
+
+                               First Series
+
+                                    by
+
+                     Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D.
+
+                               Philadelphia
+
+                The Jewish Publication Society of America
+
+                                   1911
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Preface
+Introduction
+I. The Chassidim
+II. Nachman Krochmal and the "Perplexities Of The Time"
+III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna, Gaon
+IV. Nachmanides
+V. A Jewish Boswell
+VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism
+VII. The History of Jewish Tradition
+VIII. The Doctrine of Divine Retribution in Rabbinical Literature
+IX. The Law And Recent Criticism
+X. The Hebrew Collection of the British Museum
+XI. Titles of Jewish Books
+XII. The Child in Jewish Literature
+XIII. Woman in Temple and Synagogue
+XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in Europe
+Index
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                               [Cover Art]
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter
+at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.]
+
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+THE EVER-CHERISHED MEMORY
+
+OF
+
+THE LATE DR. P. F. FRANKL, RABBI IN BERLIN
+
+THESE STUDIES ARE REVERENTLY
+
+DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+These studies appeared originally in their first form in _The Jewish
+Quarterly_ and _The Jewish Chronicle_. To the Editors of these periodicals
+my best thanks are due for their readiness in placing the articles at my
+disposal for the purposes of the present volume. The Introductory Essay is
+new. I desire to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. J. G. Frazer, Fellow
+of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Dr. J. Sutherland Black, of London, for
+their great kindness in revising the proofs, and for many a valuable
+suggestion. To Mr. Claude G. Montefiore I am indebted for the English
+version of the Essay on "Chassidim"--my first literary effort in this
+country, written at his own suggestion.
+
+In the transliteration of Hebrew names, I have given the familiar English
+forms of the authorised version. As regards post-Biblical names, I have
+with few exceptions followed Zedner's _Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in
+the Library of the British Museum_. A Hebrew word will be found here and
+there in the text; I have purposely avoided bewildering devices for
+representing the actual sound of the word, contenting myself with the
+ordinary Roman alphabet, in spite of its shortcomings.
+
+The authorities used for the various Essays will be found indicated in the
+Notes at the end of the volume, where the reader will also find short
+biographical and bibliographical notices, together with brief explanations
+of technical terms for which no exact equivalent exists in English. The
+index will, it is hoped, facilitate reference.
+
+_S. S._
+
+CAMBRIDGE, _February 1896_.
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The essays published in this volume under the title of _Studies in
+Judaism_ have been written on various occasions and at long intervals.
+There is thus no necessary connection between them. If some sort of unity
+may be detected in the book, it can only be between the first three
+essays--on the Chassidim, Krochmal, and the Gaon--in which there is a
+certain unity of purpose. The purpose in view was, as may easily be
+gathered from the essays themselves, to bring under the notice of the
+English public a type of men produced by the Synagogue of the Eastern
+Jews. That Synagogue is widely different from ours. Its places of worship
+have no claims to "beauty of holiness," being in their outward appearance
+rather bare and bald, if not repulsive; whilst those who frequent them are
+a noisy, excitable people, who actually dance on the "Season of Rejoicing"
+and cry bitterly on the "Days of Mourning." But among all these
+vagaries--or perhaps because of them--this Synagogue has had its moments of
+grace, when enthusiasm wedded to inspiration gave birth to such beautiful
+souls as Baalshem, such fine sceptics as Krochmal, and such saintly
+scholars as Elijah Wilna. The Synagogue of the West is certainly of a more
+presentable character, and free from excesses; though it is not devoid of
+an enthusiasm of its own which finds its outlet in an ardent and self-
+sacrificing philanthropic activity. But owing to its practical tendency
+there is too little room in it for that play of intellectual forces which
+finds its extravagant expression in the saint on the one hand, and the
+learned heretic on the other.
+
+Eight of these essays are more or less of a theological nature. But in
+reading the proofs I have been struck by the fact that there is assumed in
+them a certain conception of the Synagogue which, familiar though it be to
+the Jewish student, may appear obscure and even strange to the general
+English reader. For brevity's sake I will call it the High Synagogue,
+though it does not correspond in all details to what one is accustomed to
+understand under the term of High Church. The High Synagogue has a history
+which is not altogether without its points of interest.
+
+Some years ago when the waves of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament
+reached the shores of this country, and such questions as the
+heterogeneous composition of the Pentateuch, the comparatively late date
+of the Levitical Legislation, and the post-exilic origin of certain
+Prophecies as well as of the Psalms began to be freely discussed by the
+press and even in the pulpit, the invidious remark was often made: What
+will now become of Judaism when its last stronghold, the Law, is being
+shaken to its very foundations?
+
+Such a remark shows a very superficial acquaintance with the nature of an
+old historical religion like Judaism, and the richness of the resources it
+has to fall back upon in cases of emergency.
+
+As a fact, the emergency did not quite surprise Judaism. The alarm signal
+was given some 150 years ago by an Italian Rabbi, Abiad Sar Shalom
+Bazilai, in his pamphlet _The Faith of the Sages_. The pamphlet is, as the
+title indicates, of a polemical character, reviewing the work of the
+Jewish rationalistic schools; and after warming up in his attacks against
+their heterodox views, Bazilai exclaims: "Nature and simple meaning, they
+are our misfortune." By "nature and simple meaning" Bazilai, who wrote in
+Hebrew, understood what we would call Natural Science and Philology. With
+the right instinct of faith, Bazilai hit on the real sore points. For
+though he mostly argues against the philosophical systems of Aristotle and
+his commentators, he felt that it is not speculation that will ever
+seriously endanger religion. There is hardly any metaphysical system, old
+or new, which has not in course of time been adapted by able dialecticians
+to the creed which they happened to hold. In our own time we have seen the
+glorious, though not entirely novel spectacle, of Agnosticism itself
+becoming the rightful handmaid of Queen Theology. The real danger lies in
+"nature" (or Natural Science) with its stern demand of law and regularity
+in all phenomena, and in the "simple meaning" (or Philology) with its
+inconsiderate insistence on truth. Of the two, the "simple meaning" is the
+more objectionable. Not only is it very often at variance with Tradition,
+which has its own code of interpretation, but it is constantly increasing
+the difficulties raised by science. For if words could only have more than
+one meaning, there would be no objection to reading the first words of
+Genesis, "In _a_ beginning God _evolved_." The difficulties of science
+would then be disposed of easily enough. Maimonides, who was as bold an
+interpreter as he was a deep metaphysician, hinted plainly enough that
+were he as convinced of the eternity of matter as he was satisfied of the
+impossibility of any corporeal quality in the deity, he would feel as
+little compunction in explaining (figuratively) the contents of the first
+chapter of Genesis as he did in allegorising the anthropomorphic passages
+of the Bible. Thus in the end all the difficulties resolve themselves into
+the one great difficulty of the "simple meaning." The best way to meet
+this difficulty was found to be to shift the centre of gravity in Judaism
+and to place it in the secondary meaning, thus making religion independent
+of philology and all its dangerous consequences.
+
+This shifting work was chiefly done, perhaps not quite consciously, by the
+historical school which followed upon that of Mendelssohn and his first
+successors. The historical school, which is still in the ascendant,
+comprises many of the best Jewish writers who either by their learning or
+by their ecclesiastical profession as Rabbis and preachers in great
+communities have acquired some important position among their brethren.
+The men who have inaugurated this movement were Krochmal (1785-1841),
+Rapoport (1790-1867), and Zunz (1794-1886).
+
+It is not a mere coincidence that the first representatives of the
+historical school were also the first Jewish scholars who proved
+themselves more or less ready to join the modern school of Bible
+Criticism, and even to contribute their share to it. The first two,
+Krochmal and Rapoport, early in the second quarter of this century
+accepted and defended the modern view about a second Isaiah, the post-
+exilic origin of many Psalms, and the late date of Ecclesiastes; whilst
+Zunz, who began (in 1832) with denying the authenticity of Ezekiel,
+concluded his literary career (1873) with a study on the Bible
+(_Gesammelte __ Schriften_, i. pp. 217-290), in which he expressed his
+view "that the Book of Leviticus dates from a later period than the Book
+of Deuteronomy, later even than Ezekiel, having been composed during the
+age of the Second Temple, when there already existed a well-established
+priesthood which superintended the sacrificial worship." But when
+Revelation or the Written Word is reduced to the level of history, there
+is no difficulty in elevating history in its aspect of Tradition to the
+rank of Scripture, for both have then the same human or divine origin
+(according to the student's predilection for the one or the other
+adjective), and emanate from the same authority. Tradition becomes thus
+the means whereby the modern divine seeks to compensate himself for the
+loss of the Bible, and the theological balance is to the satisfaction of
+all parties happily readjusted.
+
+Jewish Tradition, or, as it is commonly called, the Oral Law, or, as we
+may term it (in consideration of its claims to represent an interpretation
+of the Bible), the Secondary Meaning of the Scriptures, is mainly embodied
+in the works of the Rabbis and their subsequent followers during the
+Middle Ages. Hence the zeal and energy with which the historical school
+applied itself to the Jewish post-biblical literature, not only
+elucidating its texts by means of new critical editions, dictionaries, and
+commentaries, but also trying to trace its origins and to pursue its
+history through its gradual development. To the work of Krochmal in this
+direction a special essay is devoted in this volume. The labours of
+Rapoport are more of a biographical and bibliographical nature, being
+occupied mostly with the minor details in the lives and writings of
+various famous Jewish Rabbis in the Middle Ages; thus they offer but
+little opportunity for general theological comment. Of more importance in
+this respect are the hints thrown out in his various works by Zunz, who
+was just as emphatic in asserting the claims of Tradition as he was
+advanced in his views on Bible criticism. Zunz's greatest work is _Die
+Gottesdienstlichen Vortr�ge_--an awkward title, which in fact means "The
+History of the Interpretation of the Scriptures as forming a part of the
+divine service." Now if a work displaying such wide learning and critical
+acumen, and written in such an impartial spirit can be said to have a
+bias, it was towards bridging over the seemingly wide gap between the
+Written Word (the Scriptures) and the Spoken Word (the Oral Law or
+Tradition), which was the more deeply felt, as most of Zunz's older
+contemporaries were men, grown up in the habits of thought of the
+eighteenth century--a century distinguished both for its ignorance of, and
+its power of ignoring, the teachings of history. Indeed it would seem that
+ages employed in making history have no time for studying it.
+
+Zunz accomplished the task he set himself, by showing, as already
+indicated, the late date of certain portions of the Bible, which by
+setting the early history of Israel in an ideal light betray the
+moralising tendency of their authors, and are, in fact, little more than a
+traditional interpretation of older portions of Scripture, adapted to the
+religious needs of the time. Placing thus the origin of Tradition in the
+Bible itself, it was a comparatively easy matter for Zunz to prove its
+further continuity. Prophecy and Interpretation are with him the natural
+expressions of the religious life of the nation; and though by the loss of
+Israel's political independence the voice of the prophets gradually died
+away, the voice of God was still heard. Israel continues to consult God
+through the medium of the Scriptures, and He answers His people by the
+mouth of the Scribes, the Sages, the Interpreters of the Law; whilst the
+liturgy of the Synagogue, springing up at the time when Psalms were still
+being composed, expands in its later stages through the work of the Poets
+of the Synagogue into such a rich luxuriance "that it forms in itself a
+treasure of history, poetry, philosophy; and prophecy and psalms are again
+revived in the hymnology of the Middle Ages." This is in brief the lesson
+to be learned from Zunz's _Gottesdienstliche Vortr�ge_ as far as it deals
+with the significance of Tradition; and it is in the introduction to this
+work that Zunz expresses himself to the following effect: Indispensable is
+the free Spoken Word. Mankind has acquired all its ideal treasures only by
+Word of Mouth; an education continuing through all stages of life. In
+Israel, too, the Word of Instruction transmitted from mouth to mouth was
+never silenced.
+
+The historical school has never, to my knowledge, offered to the world a
+theological programme of its own. By the nature of its task, its labours
+are mostly conducted in the field of philology and arch�ology, and it pays
+but little attention to purely dogmatic questions. On the whole, its
+attitude towards religion may be defined as an enlightened Scepticism
+combined with a staunch conservatism which is not even wholly devoid of a
+certain mystical touch. As far as we may gather from vague remarks and
+hints thrown out now and then, its theological position may perhaps be
+thus defined:--It is not the mere revealed Bible that is of first
+importance to the Jew, but the Bible as it repeats itself in history, in
+other words, as it is interpreted by Tradition. The Talmud, that wonderful
+mine of religious ideas from which it would be just as easy to draw up a
+manual for the most orthodox as to extract a vade-mecum for the most
+sceptical, lends some countenance to this view by certain controversial
+passages--not to be taken seriously--in which "the words of the scribes" are
+placed almost above the words of the Torah. Since then the interpretation
+of Scripture or the Secondary Meaning is mainly a product of changing
+historical influences, it follows that the centre of authority is actually
+removed from the Bible and placed in some _living body_, which, by reason
+of its being in touch with the ideal aspirations and the religious needs
+of the age, is best able to determine the nature of the Secondary Meaning.
+This living body, however, is not represented by any section of the
+nation, or any corporate priesthood, or Rabbihood, but by the collective
+conscience of Catholic Israel as embodied in the Universal Synagogue. The
+Synagogue "with its long, continuous cry after God for more than twenty-
+three centuries," with its unremittent activity in teaching and developing
+the word of God, with its uninterrupted succession of prophets, Psalmists,
+Scribes, Assideans, Rabbis, Patriarchs, Interpreters, Elucidators,
+Eminences, and Teachers, with its glorious record of Saints, martyrs,
+sages, philosophers, scholars, and mystics; this Synagogue, the only true
+witness to the past, and forming in all ages the sublimest expression of
+Israel's religious life, must also retain its authority as the sole true
+guide for the present and the future. And being in communion with this
+Synagogue, we may also look hopefully for a safe and rational solution of
+our present theological troubles. For was it not the Synagogue which even
+in antiquity determined the fate of Scripture? On the one hand, for
+example, books like Ezekiel, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, were
+only declared to be Holy Writ in virtue of the interpretation put upon
+them by the Rabbis: and, on the other hand, it was the veto of the Rabbis
+which excluded from the canon the works that now pass under the name of
+Apocrypha. We may, therefore, safely trust that the Synagogue will again
+assert its divine right in passing judgment upon the Bible when it feels
+called upon to exercise that holy office. It is "God who has chosen the
+Torah, and Moses His servant, and Israel His people." But indeed God's
+choice invariably coincides with the wishes of Israel; He "performeth all
+things" upon which the councils of Israel, meeting under promise of the
+Divine presence and communion, have previously agreed. As the Talmud
+somewhere expresses itself with regard to the Book of Esther, "They have
+confirmed above what Israel has accepted below."
+
+Another consequence of this conception of Tradition is that it is neither
+Scripture nor primitive Judaism, but general custom which forms the real
+rule of practice. Holy Writ as well as history, Zunz tells us, teaches
+that the law of Moses was never fully and absolutely put in practice.
+Liberty was always given to the great teachers of every generation to make
+modifications and innovations in harmony with the spirit of existing
+institutions. Hence a return to Mosaism would be illegal, pernicious, and
+indeed impossible. The norm as well as the sanction of Judaism is the
+practice actually in vogue. Its consecration is the consecration of
+general use,--or, in other words, of Catholic Israel. It was probably with
+a view to this communion that the later mystics introduced a short prayer
+to be said before the performance of any religious ceremony, in which,
+among other things, the speaker professes his readiness to act "in the
+name of all Israel."
+
+It would be out of place in an introductory essay to pursue any further
+this interesting subject with its far-reaching consequences upon Jewish
+life and Jewish thought. But the foregoing remarks may suffice to show
+that Judaism did not remain quite inactive at the approach of the great
+religious crisis which our generation has witnessed. Like so many other
+religious communities, it reviewed its forces, entrenched itself on the
+field of history, and what it lost of its old devotion to the Bible, it
+has sought to make up by a renewed reverence for institutions.
+
+In this connection, a mere mention may suffice of the ultra-Orthodox
+party, led by the late Dr. S. R. Hirsch of Frankfort (1808-1889) whose
+defiance of reason and criticism even a Ward might have envied, and whose
+saintliness and sublimity even a Keble might have admired. And, to take an
+example from the opposite school, we must at least record the name of that
+devout Jew, Osias Schorr (1816-1895), in whom we have profound learning
+combined with an uncompromising disposition of mind productive of a
+typical champion of Radicalism in things religious. These men are,
+however, representative of two extremes, and their followers constitute
+mere minorities; the majority is with the historical school.
+
+How long the position of this school will prove tenable is another
+question. Being brought up in the old Low Synagogue, where, with all
+attachment to tradition, the Bible was looked upon as the crown and the
+climax of Judaism, the old Adam still asserts itself in me, and in
+unguarded moments makes me rebel against this new rival of revelation in
+the shape of history. At times this now fashionable exaltation of
+Tradition at the expense of Scripture even impresses me as a sort of
+religious bimetallism in which bold speculators in theology try to keep up
+the market value of an inferior currency by denouncing loudly the bright
+shining gold which, they would have us believe, is less fitted to
+circulate in the vulgar use of daily life than the small cash of
+historical interpretation. Nor can I quite reconcile myself to this
+alliance of religion with history, which seems to me both unworthy and
+unnatural. The Jew, some writer aptly remarked, was the first and the
+fiercest Nonconformist of the East, and so Judaism was always a protesting
+religion. To break the idols, whether of the past or of the present, has
+always been a sacred mission of Judaism, and has indeed been esteemed by
+it as a necessary preliminary to the advent of the kingdom of God on
+earth. One of its daily prayers was and still is: "We therefore hope in
+Thee, O Lord our God, that we may speedily behold the glory of Thy might,
+when ... the idols will be cut off, when the world will be perfected under
+the kingdom of the Almighty." It bowed before truth, but it had never made
+a covenant with facts only because they were facts. History had to be re-
+made and to sanctify itself before it found its way into its sacred
+annals. Nor did Judaism make a virtue of swallowing down institutions.
+Such institutions as crept into it in course of time had, when the
+Synagogue was conscious of their claims to form part of religion, to
+submit to the laborious process of a thorough adaptation to prophetic
+notions before they were formally sanctioned. But when this process was
+deemed impossible or impracticable, Judaism boldly denounced the past in
+such fierce language as the prophets used and as still finds its echo in
+such passages of the liturgy as "First our ancestors were worshippers of
+idols and now God has brought us near to His service"; or "But of a truth,
+we and our ancestors have sinned."
+
+However, it would be unfair to argue any further against a theological
+system which, as already said, was never avowed distinctly by the
+historical school--a school, moreover, with which speculation is a matter
+of minor importance. The main strength of this school lies in its
+scientific work, for which Judaism will always be under a sense of deep
+gratitude. And living as we do in an age in which history reigns supreme
+in all departments of human thought, we may hope that even its theology,
+as far as it goes, will "do" for us, though I neither hope nor believe
+that it will do for those who come after us. I may, however, humbly
+confess that the sixth essay in this volume was written in a spirit of
+rebellion against this all-absorbing Catholic Israel, with its decently
+veiled scepticism on the one hand, and its unfortunate tendency with many
+people to degenerate into a soulless conformity on the other hand. There
+is, I am afraid, not much to be said in favour of this essay. It is
+deficient both in matter and in style. It proved to be a futile attempt to
+bring within the compass of an essay what a whole book could hardly do
+justice to. The Hebrew documents bearing upon the question of dogma which
+I have collected from various manuscripts and rare printed books, would
+alone make a fair-sized volume. I only venture to offer it to the public
+in the absence of anything better; since, so far as I know, no other
+attempt has ever been made to treat the subject even in its meagrest
+outlines. I even venture to hope that, with all its shortcomings, it will
+contribute something towards destroying the illusion, in which so many
+theologians indulge, that Judaism is a religion without dogmas. To declare
+that a religion has no dogmas is tantamount to saying that it was wise
+enough not to commit itself to any vital principles. But prudence, useful
+as it may be in worldly affairs, is quite unworthy of a great spiritual
+power.
+
+Jewish mysticism in the Middle Ages and in modern times is represented in
+this volume by two essays ("The Chassidim" and "Nachmanides"). But in
+order to avoid mistakes which might be implied by my silence, I think it
+desirable to state that there are also to be found many mystical elements
+in the old Rabbinic literature. Mysticism, not as a theosophic system or
+as an occult science, but as a manifestation of the spiritual and as an
+expression of man's agonies in his struggle after communion with God, as
+well as of his ineffable joy when he receives the assurance that he has
+found it, is not, as some maintain, foreign to the spirit of old Rabbinic
+Judaism. There was no need for the medi�val Rabbi to borrow the elements
+of such a mysticism from non-Jewish sources. The perusal of the old
+Homilies on the Song of Songs, and on the Lessons from the Prophets, or
+even a fair acquaintance with the Jewish liturgy would, in itself, suffice
+to refute such baseless assertions. Those who are at all familiar with old
+Rabbinic literature hardly need to be told that "the sea of the Talmud"
+has also its gulf stream of mysticism which, taking its origin in the
+moralising portions of the Bible, runs through the wide ocean of Jewish
+thought, constantly commingling with the icy waters of legalism, and
+unceasingly washing the desolate shores of an apparently meaningless
+ceremonialism, communicating to it life, warmth, and spirituality. To draw
+attention to this fact a humble attempt has been made in the ninth essay,
+"The Law and Recent Criticism," a subject which I have essayed to expound
+in a series of essays on "Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," now
+appearing in _The Jewish Quarterly Review_.
+
+The last five essays touch rather on certain social and familiar aspects
+of Judaism, and need no further comment. They are mere _causeries_ and
+hardly deserve the name of studies. Perhaps it may be useful for those who
+judge of the heaviness of a work by its bulk to know that there is also a
+lighter side of Rabbinic literature.
+
+But I shall be better pleased if the more serious side of this
+volume--Jewish mysticism and Rabbinic theology--should attract the attention
+of students, and so draw some fellow-workers into a field which is utterly
+neglected. Notwithstanding the numerous Manuals and Introductions which
+all more or less touch on the subject of Rabbinic theology, there is,
+after nearly 250 years, not a single work among them which, either in
+knowledge of facts or in their interpretation, is a single step in advance
+of the Cambridge Platonist, John Smith, in his _Select Discourses_. But
+those who try so hard to determine the miraculous distance of Christianity
+by the eclipses in Rabbinism, should, if they wish to be just or prove
+themselves worthy scholars, also endeavour to make themselves acquainted
+with the numberless bright stars that move in the wide universe of Jewish
+thought. We are often told that no creed or theological system which has
+come down to us from antiquity can afford to be judged by any other
+standard than by its spiritual and poetic _possibilities_: this indulgence
+Judaism is as justly entitled to claim as any other religion. The great
+and saintly Franz Delitzsch who, born with an intellect of admirable
+temper, was also endowed by Heaven with a soul--and a beautiful soul it
+was--was one of the few theologians who, partly at least, admitted this
+claim, and sought earnestly and diligently after these spiritual and
+poetic possibilities, and was amply rewarded for his labours.
+
+
+
+
+
+I. THE CHASSIDIM(1)
+
+
+Throughout the whole of that interesting field of Theological Literature
+which deals with the genesis and course of religious movements, there is
+probably none whose history, even whose name, is so little known to
+English students, as that of the Chassidim. And yet it would be difficult
+to point, in comparatively recent times, to a Dissenting movement more
+strikingly complete in its development, more suggestive of analogy, more
+full of interest in its original purpose, more pregnant of warning in its
+decay.
+
+The Hebrew word "Chassidim"(2) merely means "the Pious," and appears to
+have been complacently adopted by the early apostles of the sect. But the
+thing--Chassidism--was, in its inception at all events, a revolt among the
+Jews of Eastern Europe against the excessive casuistry of the contemporary
+Rabbis. It was in fact one more manifestation of the yearning of the human
+heart towards the Divine idea, and of its ceaseless craving for direct
+communion with God. It was the protest of an emotional but uneducated
+people against a one-sided expression of Judaism, presented to them in
+cold and over-subtle disquisitions which not only did they not understand,
+but which shut out the play of the feelings and the affections, so that
+religion was made almost impossible to them.
+
+Some account of the sect is the more necessary because, although the
+Chassidim have not been wholly ignored by historians or novelists, the
+references to them have generally, for perfectly intelligible reasons,
+been either biassed or inaccurate. The historians who have treated of them
+have been almost exclusively men saturated with Western culture and
+rationalism. To them the rude and uncouth manifestations of an
+undisciplined religious spirit could not be other than repellent; to them
+Chassidism was a movement to be dismissed as un�sthetic and irrational.
+
+To the purposes of fiction the romantic side of Chassidism lends itself
+readily, but the novelists who have used this material have confined
+themselves to its externals. Indeed, to have done more would have involved
+a tedious and unremunerative study of difficult Hebrew texts, an
+undertaking not to be expected from the most conscientious writers of this
+class. Thus Franzos in his references to the Jews of Barnow describes
+faithfully the outer signs of the man, his long coat and tangled curls,
+but the inner life, the world in which the Chassid moved and had his
+being, was unknown to him and is therefore unrecorded.
+
+As to my treatment of the subject, I confess that there was a time when I
+loved the Chassidim as there was a time when I hated them. And even now I
+am not able to suppress these feelings. I have rather tried to guide my
+feelings in such a way as to love in Chassidism what is ideal and noble,
+and to hate in it what turned out bad and pernicious for Judaism. How far
+I have been successful is another question. At least I have endeavoured to
+write this paper in such a spirit. But of one thing I must warn the
+reader--the desire to give some clear notion of the leading ideas of
+Chassidism has compelled me to quote some passages in which the Chassidim
+have spoken in very offensive terms of their opponents. In justice to
+these I must remark that unfortunately religious struggles are usually
+conducted on the most irreligious principles. Thus the Chassidim imputed
+to their antagonists, the contemporary Rabbis, many vices from which they
+were free. Certainly, there was, as one can read in every history of
+Jewish religion, something wrong in the state of Judaism. But I know
+people who maintain that there is something very wrong in the present
+state of Judaism, and who despair of a regeneration. But surely this is a
+silly exaggeration. The Chassidim also exaggerated. It would be better to
+take but little notice of their accusations and dwell more on that which
+was spoken in a kind and loving spirit.
+
+As to the literature of the subject, I can only say here that I have made
+use of every book I could consult, both in English and in foreign
+libraries. But I cannot pledge myself to be what early Jewish writers
+called "a donkey which carries books." I exercise my own choice and my own
+judgment on many points.
+
+As an active force for good, Chassidism was short-lived. For, as I propose
+to show, there lurked among its central tenets the germs of the degeneracy
+which so speedily came upon it. But its early purposes were high, its
+doctrines fairly pure, its aspirations ideal and sublime.
+
+The founder of the sect was one Israel Baalshem,(3) and the story of his
+parentage, birth, and childhood, and the current anecdotes of his
+subsequent career play a considerable part in Chassidic literature. But
+the authentic materials for his biography are everywhere interwoven with
+much that is pure legend and with much more that is miraculous. This was,
+perhaps, inevitable, and is certainly not an unfamiliar feature in the
+personal histories of religious reformers as presented by their followers
+and devotees.
+
+The sayings and doings of Baalshem are an essential--perhaps the most
+essential--portion of any account of the sect. For Baalshem is the centre
+of the Chassidic world, and Chassidism is so intimately bound up with the
+personality of its founder that any separation between them is well nigh
+impossible. To the Chassidim Baalshem is not a man who established a
+theory or set forth a system; he himself was the incarnation of a theory
+and his whole life the revelation of a system.
+
+Even those portions of his history which are plainly legendary have their
+uses in indicating the ideals and in illustrating the aspirations of the
+early Chassidim; while their circulation and the ready credence they
+received are valuable evidence of the real power and influence of
+Baalshem's personality.
+
+In the tale as told by the sect little is omitted of those biographical
+accessories which are proper to an Avatar. There is all the conventional
+heralding of a pre-ordained advent; all the usual signs and portents of a
+new dispensation may be recognised in the almost preternatural virtues of
+Baalshem's parents, in the miraculous annunciation and exceptional
+circumstances of his nativity, and in the early indication of a strong and
+fearless individuality. Everywhere it seems to be suggested that Baalshem
+from his infancy was conscious of a lofty mission. It is already in tender
+years that he is made to give evidence of an indifference to conventional
+restraints and accepted ideals.
+
+Rabbi Eliezer and his wife, the parents of Baalshem, dwelt, as the story
+goes, in Moldavia. They are described as a pious and God-fearing couple,
+who, when they had already reached old age, were still childless. They are
+accredited with a spotless rectitude, which was unimpaired by a long
+series of strange vicissitudes and misfortunes.
+
+Ultimately, an angel of God appeared to Eliezer and announced that, as he
+had successfully withstood all the temptations and sufferings by which he
+had been tried, God was about to reward him with a son, who was destined
+to enlighten the eyes of all Israel. Therefore his name should be Israel,
+for in him the words of Scripture were to be fulfilled, "Thou art my
+servant, Israel, in whom I will be glorified." In due course the promise
+was fulfilled, and to the aged couple a son was born, who was named Israel
+according to the angel's word. The date of Baalshem's birth is about 1700;
+his birthplace, in Bukowina, in a hitherto unidentified village which the
+authorities call Ukop, then still belonging to Roumania. The child's
+mother died soon after he was weaned, and his father did not long survive
+her. But before Eliezer died he took his child in his arms, and blessing
+him, bade him fear naught, for God would always be with him.
+
+As Eliezer had been greatly honoured in the community in which he lived,
+his orphan son was carefully tended and educated. He was early supplied
+with an instructor in the Holy Law. But though he learned with rare
+facility, he rejected the customary methods of instruction. One day, while
+still quite young, his teacher missed him, and on seeking found him
+sitting alone in the forest that skirted his native village, in happy and
+fearless solitude. He repeated this escapade so often that it was thought
+best to leave him to follow his own bent. A little later we find him
+engaged as assistant to a schoolmaster. His duty was not to teach, but to
+take the children from their homes to the synagogue and thence on to the
+school. It was his wont while accompanying the children to the synagogue
+to teach them solemn hymns which he sang with them. In the synagogue he
+encouraged them to sing the responses, so that the voices of the children
+penetrated through the heavens and moved the Divine father to compassion.
+Satan, fearing lest his power on earth should thereby be diminished,
+assumed the shape of a werewolf, and, appearing before the procession of
+children on their way to the synagogue, put them to flight. In consequence
+of this alarming incident the children's services were suspended. But
+Israel, recollecting his father's counsel to fear naught, besought the
+parents to be allowed to lead the children once more in the old way. His
+request was granted, and when the werewolf appeared a second time Israel
+attacked him with a club and routed him.
+
+In his fourteenth year Israel became a beadle at the Beth Hammidrash.(4)
+Here he assiduously but secretly pursued the study of the Law. Yet, being
+anxious that none should know his design, he read and worked only at
+night, when the schoolroom was empty and the usual scholars had retired.
+During the daytime he slept, so that he was popularly believed to be both
+ignorant and lazy. Despite these precautions, however, his true character
+was revealed to one person. A certain holy man, the father of a young
+student at the college, had discovered some old manuscripts which
+contained the deepest secrets. Before his death he bade his son repair to
+Ukop, Israel's birthplace, telling him that he would find one Israel, son
+of Eliezer, to whom the precious documents were to be entrusted. They
+possessed, so the old man declared, a certain mystic and heavenly affinity
+with Israel's soul. The student carried out his father's instructions, and
+at last discovered the object of his search in the beadle of the Beth
+Hammidrash. Israel admitted him to his friendship and confidence on the
+condition of secrecy as to his real character. The student, however, paid
+dearly for this acquaintance with Israel. Contrary to Baalshem's advice,
+he entered upon a dangerous incantation in the course of which he made a
+mistake so serious that it cost him his life.
+
+Upon the death of his friend, Baalshem left his native village and settled
+as a teacher in a small town near Brody. Here, although his true mission
+and character were still unknown, he became much respected for his rigid
+probity, and was frequently chosen as umpire in disputes among Jews. On
+one of these occasions he arbitrated with so much learning and
+impartiality that not only did he satisfy both parties, but one of them, a
+learned man of Brody, named Abraham, offered him his own daughter in
+marriage. Israel, to whom it had been revealed that Abraham's daughter was
+his predestined wife, immediately accepted the offer and the act of
+betrothal was drawn up. But wishing his true character to remain unknown
+he stipulated that Abraham, although a "Talmid Chacham" (student)(5)
+himself and therefore presumably desirous that his daughter should marry a
+scholar, should omit from the betrothal-deed all the titles of honour
+usually appended to the name of a learned bridegroom. While returning to
+Brody, Abraham died, and Gershon his son, a scholar still greater and more
+celebrated than his father, was surprised and shocked to find a deed of
+betrothal among his father's papers, from which it appeared that his
+sister was to wed a man with apparently no claim to scholarship or
+learning. He protested to his sister, but she declined to entertain any
+objections to a marriage which her father had arranged. When the time for
+the wedding was at hand, Israel gave up his post as teacher, and repaired
+to Brody. Disguised as a peasant he presented himself before his future
+brother-in-law, who was then fulfilling some high judicial function.
+Gershon taking him for a beggar offered him alms, but Israel, refusing the
+money, asked for a private interview, stating that he had an important
+secret to reveal. He then, to Gershon's surprise and disgust, explained
+who he was and that he had come to claim his bride. As the girl was
+determined to obey her father's will the affair was settled and the day
+fixed. On the morning of the wedding Israel revealed to his bride his real
+character and mission, at the same time enjoining secrecy. Evil fortunes
+would befall them, he said, but a better time would eventually follow.
+
+After the wedding, Gershon, having in vain attempted to instruct his
+seemingly ignorant brother-in-law, decided to rid himself of his presence.
+He gave his sister the choice of being separated from her husband, or of
+leaving the town in his company. She chose the latter, and thereupon the
+two left Brody and began a life of hardship and suffering. Israel chose
+for his new home a spot on one of the spurs of the Carpathian Mountains.
+No Jews lived there, and Israel and his wife were thus separated from the
+society of their fellows in a life of complete and unchanging solitude.
+Israel dug lime in the ravines among the mountains, and his wife conveyed
+it for sale to the nearest town. Their life at this period seems to have
+been one of great privation, but the harder Israel's outward lot, the more
+he increased in spiritual greatness. In his solitude he gave himself up
+entirely to devotion and religious contemplation. His habit was to climb
+to the summit of the mountains and wander about rapt in spiritual
+ecstasies. He fasted, prayed, made continual ablutions, and observed all
+the customary outward and inward exercises of piety and devotion.
+
+After seven years, Gershon, who was well aware of the bitter poverty which
+his sister endured, relented and brought her and her husband back to
+Brody. At first he employed Baalshem as his coachman, but as he proved
+wholly unfit for this work Gershon rented a small inn in a remote village,
+and there established his sister and her husband. The business of the inn
+was managed by the wife, while Baalshem passed most of his time in a hut
+in a neighbouring forest. Here he once more gave himself up to meditation
+and preparation for his future work, and here, a little later, when nearly
+forty-two years of age, to a few chosen spirits, afterwards his most
+fervent disciples, he first revealed his true character and mission.
+
+From this point unfortunately the materials for a continuous biography are
+wanting; we next hear of Baalshem discharging the functions of an ordinary
+Rabbi at Miedziboz in Podolia, but for the remainder of his personal
+history we have to be content with detached anecdotes and fragmentary
+passages in his life, the sum total of which goes to show that he resided
+in Podolia and Wallachia, teaching his doctrines to his disciples and
+"working Wonders." He does not seem to have figured as a public preacher,
+nor has he left behind him any written work. He appears rather to have
+used the method, familiar to students of Greek philosophy, of teaching by
+conversations with his friends and disciples. These conversations, and the
+parables with which they were largely interspersed, were remembered and
+stored up by his hearers. By his neighbours the country folk, Baalshem was
+regarded simply as "a man of God." He was allowed to pursue his course
+undisturbed by persecution of the serious character which his more
+aggressive successors provoked. Such of the Rabbis as were aware of his
+existence despised him and his ways, but the Rabbinical world was at that
+time too much occupied in the controversy between Eybesch�tz and Emden to
+concern itself with the vagaries of an obscure and apparently "unlearned"
+eccentric. Baalshem also took part in the disputes which were held in
+Lemberg, the capital of Galicia (1757?), between the Rabbis and the
+Frankists,(6) who denounced the Talmud to the Polish Government and wanted
+to have all the Rabbinical books destroyed. Baalshem suffered from this
+excitement in a most terrible way. The abrogation of the Oral Law meant
+for him the ruin of Judaism.
+
+Baalshem, in forming the little band of devoted followers who were
+destined to spread a knowledge of his creed, travelled considerably about
+Wallachia. He at one time decided to make a pilgrimage to Palestine, but
+when he reached Constantinople he felt himself inspired to return and
+continue his work at home. He died at Miedziboz on the eve of Pentecost,
+1761.
+
+After his death his disciples, of whom one Beer of Mizriez was the most
+prominent, undertook the proselytising mission for which Baalshem had
+prepared them, but from which he himself appears to have abstained. They
+preached and taught in all the provinces of Russia where Jews may reside,
+and in Roumania, and Galicia. The number of the sect at the present day is
+probably about half a million.
+
+Returning now to Baalshem the founder, it may be noted that his appearance
+as a teacher and reformer was accompanied and justified by a customary and
+adequate number of miracles. To one disciple he revealed secrets which
+could have become known to him only by divine revelation; to another he
+appeared with a nimbus round his head. On the evidence of the Chassidim we
+learn that Baalshem performed all the recognised signs and marvels which
+have ever been the customary minor characteristics of men of similar type
+in similar environment. When Baalshem desired to cross a stream, he spread
+forth his mantle upon the waters, and standing thereupon passed safely to
+the other side. Ghosts evacuated haunted houses at the mere mention of his
+name. Was he alone in the forest on a wintry night, he had but to touch a
+tree with his finger tips and flames burst forth. When his spirit wandered
+through the angelic spheres, as was frequently the case, he obtained
+access to Paradise for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited
+without through long thousands of mournful years. These and other miracles
+need not be examined. Here, as in the case of other such blissful seasons
+of grace, they were the ephemeral though important accessories in
+establishing the inspired character of his utterances and the authority of
+his injunctions. It is not as a worker of miracles, but as a religious
+teacher and reformer, that Baalshem is interesting.
+
+Properly to understand the nature and special direction of his teaching,
+it is necessary in some measure to realise the character of the field in
+which he worked; to consider, in other words, the moral and religious
+condition of the Jews in those districts where Chassidism first took root.
+
+In a Hebrew Hymn, written about 1000 A.C., and still recited in the
+synagogue on the Day of Atonement, the poet expresses the strange and
+bitter fortunes of his race in touching words of mingled sorrow and
+exultation.
+
+
+    Destroyed lies Zion and profaned,
+    Of splendour and renown bereft,
+    Her ancient glories wholly waned,
+    One deathless treasure only left;
+        Still ours, O Lord,
+        Thy Holy Word.
+
+
+And this Divine Word it was, which a persecuted religion has sought to
+preserve intact through so many centuries of persecution, and for the sake
+of which no labour seemed too severe, no sacrifice too large. "Bethink
+Thee, O God," exclaimed one of our Jewish sages who flourished about the
+same period, "bethink Thee of Thy faithful children who, amid their
+poverty and want, are busy in the study of Thy Law. Bethink Thee of the
+poor in Israel who are willing to suffer hunger and destitution if only
+they can secure for their children the knowledge of Thy Law." And so
+indeed it was. Old and young, weak and strong, rich and poor, all pursued
+that single study, the Torah. The product of this prolonged study is that
+gigantic literature which, as a long unbroken chain of spiritual activity,
+connects together the various periods of the Jews' chequered and eventful
+history. All ages and all lands have contributed to the development of
+this supreme study. For under the word Torah was comprised not only the
+Law, but also the contributions of later times expressing either the
+thoughts or the emotions of holy and sincere men; and even their honest
+scepticism was not entirely excluded. As in the canon of the Bible,
+Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon found place in the same volume that
+contains the Law and the Prophets, so at a later time people did not
+object to put the philosophical works of Maimonides and the songs of Judah
+Hallevi on the same level with the Code of the Law compiled by R. Isaac
+Alfasi, and the commentaries on the Bible by R. Solomon b. Isaac.(7) None
+of them was declared infallible, but also to none of them, as soon as
+people were convinced of the author's sincerity, was denied the homage due
+to seekers after truth. Almost every author was called Rabbi ("my master")
+or Rabbenu ("our master"),(8) and nearly every book was regarded more or
+less as a contribution to the great bulk of the Torah. It was called
+Writ,(9) and was treated with a certain kind of piety. But, by a series of
+accidents too long to be related here, sincerity ceased and sport took its
+place. I refer to the casuistic schools commonly known by the name of
+Pilpulists(10) (the "seasoned" or the "sharp" ones), who flourished in the
+last two centuries preceding ours. To the authors of this unhappy period,
+a few glorious exceptions always allowed, the preceding Jewish literature
+did not mean a "fountain of living waters," supplying men with truth and
+religious inspiration, but rather a kind of armoury providing them with
+juristic cases over which to fight, and to out-do each other in sophistry
+and subtlety. As a consequence they cared little or nothing for that part
+of the Jewish literature that appeals less to the intellect than to the
+feelings of men. In short, religion consisted only of complicated cases
+and innumerable ordinances, in which the wit of these men found delight.
+But the emotional part of it, whose root is the Faith and Love of men, was
+almost entirely neglected.
+
+But it was precisely these higher religious emotions that were Baalshem's
+peculiar province, and it was to them that he assigned in his religious
+system a place befitting their importance and their dignity. And the
+locality where his ministration lay was curiously adapted for such
+propaganda. To that universal study of the Law of which I have just spoken
+there was one exception. That exception was amongst the Jews in the
+territories which bordered on the Carpathian Mountains, and comprise the
+principalities of Moldavia, and Wallachia, Bukowina, and the Ukraine.
+
+It is historically certain that the first arrival of the Jews in Roumania
+was at a very early date, but there is no trace of any intellectual
+productivity among the immigrants until recent times, and it is admitted
+that the study of the Law was almost entirely neglected. It was in these
+districts of mental, and perhaps we might add of even spiritual, darkness
+that Chassidism took its rise and achieved its first success. "The sect of
+the Chassidim," says one of the bitterest but most trustworthy of their
+opponents, "first gained ground in the most uncivilised provinces; in the
+wild ravines of Wallachia and the dreary steppes of the Ukraine."
+
+Apart from the genius of its founder, Chassidism owed its rapid growth to
+the intellectual barrenness of these districts as compared with the
+intellectual fertility of the other regions where Jews most thickly
+congregated. The Roumanian Jews were to some extent under the jurisdiction
+of the Rabbis of Poland. Now the Poles were celebrated even in Germany for
+the elaboration of their casuistry. These over-subtle Rabbis, delighting
+in the quibbles of their sophistry, and reducing religion to an unending
+number of juristic calculations and all sorts of possibilities and
+impossibilities, were but too apt to forget the claims of feeling in their
+eager desire to question and to settle everything. They may have been
+satisfactory guides in matters spiritual to the men of their own stamp,
+but they were of no avail to their Roumanian brethren who failed to
+recognise religion in the garb of casuistry. It was, therefore, not
+surprising that a revolt against the excess of intellectualism should have
+sprung up and flourished in those districts where the inhabitants were
+constitutionally incapable of appreciating the delights of argument. The
+field was ready, and in the fulness of time came the sower in the person
+of Baalshem.
+
+In the above estimate of the Polish Rabbis there undoubtedly lurks a touch
+of exaggeration. But it represents the view which the Chassidim took of
+their opponents. The whole life of Baalshem is a protest against the
+typical Rabbi thus conceived. The essential difference in the ideals of
+the two parties is perhaps best illustrated in those portions of their
+biographical literature where legend treads most closely upon the heels of
+fact.
+
+The hero of Polish Rabbinic biography at five years of age can recite by
+heart the most difficult tractates of the Talmud; at eight he is the
+disciple of the most celebrated teacher of the time, and perplexes him by
+the penetrative subtlety of his questions; while at thirteen he appears
+before the world as a full-fledged Doctor of the Law.
+
+The hero of the Chassidim has a totally different education, and his
+distinctive glory is of another kind. The legendary stories about
+Baalshem's youth tell us little of his proficiency in Talmudic studies;
+instead of sitting in the Beth Hammidrash with the folios of some
+casuistic treatise spread out before him, Baalshem passes his time singing
+hymns out of doors, or under the green trees of the forest with the
+children. Satan, however, says the Chassid, is more afraid of these
+innocent exercises than of all the controversies in the Meheram Shiff.(11)
+It was through external nature, the woods of his childhood, the hills and
+wild ravines of the Carpathians where he passed many of his maturer years,
+that Baalshem, according to his disciples, reached his spiritual
+confirmation. The Chassidic hero had no celebrated Rabbi for his master.
+He was his own teacher. If not self-taught, it was from angelic lips, or
+even the Divine voice itself, that he learned the higher knowledge. From
+the source whence the Torah flowed Baalshem received heavenly lore. His
+method of self-education, his ways of life, his choice of associates were
+all instances of revolt; not only did he teach a wholly different theory
+and practice, but he and his disciples seem to have missed no opportunity
+of denouncing the old teachers as misleading and ungodly. Among the many
+anecdotes illustrating this feature, it is told how once, on the evening
+before the great Day of Atonement, Baalshem was noticed by his disciples
+to be, contrary to his usual custom, depressed and ill at ease. The whole
+subsequent day he passed in violent weeping and lamentations. At its close
+he once more resumed his wonted cheerfulness of manner. When asked for the
+explanation of his behaviour, he replied that the Holy Spirit had revealed
+to him that heavy accusations were being made against the Jewish people,
+and a heavy punishment had been ordained upon them. The anger of heaven
+was caused by the Rabbis, whose sole occupation was to invent lying
+premisses and to draw from them false conclusions. All the truly wise
+Rabbis of the olden time (such as the Tannaim, the Amoraim(12) and their
+followers, whom Baalshem regarded as so many saints and prophets) had now
+stood forth as the accusers of their modern successors by whom their words
+were so grossly perverted from their original meaning. On this account
+Baalshem's tears had been shed, and his prayers as usual had been
+successful. The impending judgment was annulled. On another occasion, when
+he overheard the sounds of eager, loud discussion issuing from a
+Rabbinical college, Baalshem, closing his ears with his hands, declared
+that it was such disputants who delayed the redemption of Israel from
+captivity. Satan, he said, incites the Rabbis to study those portions of
+Jewish literature only on which they can whet the sharpness of their
+intellects, but from all writings of which the reading would promote piety
+and the fear of God he keeps them away. "Where there is much study," says
+a disciple of Baalshem, "there is little piety." "Jewish Devils"(13) is
+one of the numerous polite epithets applied to the Rabbis by the friends
+of Baalshem. "Even the worst sinners are better than they; so blind are
+they in the arrogance of their self-conceit that their very devotion to
+the Law becomes a vehicle for their sin." It will be found when we deal
+with the most positive side of Baalshem's teaching that this antagonism to
+the attitude and methods of the contemporary Rabbis is further emphasised,
+and it will readily be seen that his whole scheme of religion and of
+conduct in relation to God and man rendered this acknowledged hostility
+inevitable. In approaching this part of our subject it should be
+remembered that, as stated above, Baalshem himself wrote nothing. For a
+knowledge of his sayings we are therefore dependent on the reports of his
+friends and disciples. And it is not unfrequently necessary to supplement
+these by the teaching of his followers, whom we may suppose in large
+measure to have caught the spirit of their master. Unfortunately the
+original authorities are in a difficult Hebrew patois which often obscures
+the precise meaning of whole passages.
+
+The originality of Baalshem's teaching has been frequently impugned,
+chiefly by the suggestion that he drew largely from the Zohar (Book of
+Brightness).(14) This mystical book, "the Bible of the Cabbalists,"
+whether we regard its subject-matter or its history and influence, is
+unique in literature. Its pretended author is Simeon ben Yochai, a great
+Rabbi of the second century, but the real writer is probably one Moses de
+Leon, a Spanish Jew, who lived eleven centuries later. The book is one of
+the most interesting literary forgeries, and is a marvellous mixture of
+good and evil. A passage of delicate religious fancy is succeeded by
+another of gross obscenity in illustration and suggestion; true piety and
+wild blasphemy are strangely mingled together. Baalshem undoubtedly had
+studied the Zohar, and he even is reported to have said that the reading
+of the Zohar had enabled him to see into the whole universe of things.
+But, for all that, Baalshem was no copyist; and the Zohar, although it may
+have suggested a hint to him here and there, was not the source whence his
+inspiration was drawn.
+
+Its attraction for Baalshem is sufficiently explained by the fantastic,
+imaginative, and emotional nature of its contents. It lent itself more
+easily than the older Rabbinical literature to new explanations unthought
+of by its author. But even the Talmud and its early commentaries became
+apocalyptic to the heroes of Chassidism. Nay, the driest and most legal
+disquisitions about _meum_ and _tuum_ could be translated into parables
+and allegories and symbols full of the most exalted meanings. Baalshem,
+like every other religious reformer, was partially the product of his age.
+The influences of the past, the history and literature of his own people,
+helped to make him what he was. But they do not rob him of his
+originality. He was a religious revivalist in the best sense; full of
+burning faith in his God and his cause; convinced utterly of the value of
+his work and the truth of his teaching.
+
+Although there can be no real doubt of Baalshem's claim to originality, it
+should be borne in mind that his teaching is not only distinctively
+Jewish, but that for every part of it parallels and analogies could be
+found in the older Hebrew literature. Indeed it is not wonderful that in a
+literature, extending over 2000 years, of a people whose chief thoughts
+have been religion, and who have come in contact with so many external
+religious and philosophic influences, the germs can be discovered of
+almost every conceivable system, and the outline of almost every
+imaginable doctrine.
+
+The keynote of all Baalshem's teachings is the Omnipresence, or more
+strictly the Immanence, of God. This is the source from which flows
+naturally every article of his creed; the universality of the Divinity is
+the foundation of the entire Chassidic fabric. The idea of the constant
+living presence of God in all existence permeates the whole of Baalshem's
+scheme; it is insisted on in every relation; from it is deduced every
+important proposition and every rule in conduct of his school.
+
+All created things and every product of human intelligence owe their being
+to God. All generation and all existence spring from the thought and will
+of God. It is incumbent upon man to believe that all things are pervaded
+by the divine life, and when he speaks he should remember that it is this
+divine life which is speaking through him. There is nothing which is void
+of God. If we imagine for a moment such a thing to be, it would instantly
+fall into nothingness. In every human thought God is present. If the
+thought be gross or evil, we should seek to raise and ennoble it by
+carrying it back to its origin. So, if a man be suddenly overwhelmed by
+the aspect of a beautiful woman, he should remember that this splendour of
+beauty is owing to the all-pervading emanation from the divine. When he
+remembers that the source of corporeal beauty is God, he will not be
+content to let his thought abide with the body when he can rise to the
+inward contemplation of the infinite soul of beauty, which is God. A
+disciple of Baalshem has said: Even as in the jewels of his beloved the
+lover sees only the beauty of her he loves, so does the true lover of God
+see in all the appearances of this world, the vitalising and generative
+power of his divine master. If you do not see the world in the light of
+God you separate the creation from its Creator. He who does not fully
+believe in this universality of God's presence has never properly
+acknowledged God's Sovereignty, for he excludes God from an existing
+portion of the actual world. The word of God (to Baalshem, a synonym for
+God himself), which "is settled in heaven" and "established on earth," is
+still and always speaking, acting, and generating throughout heaven and
+earth in endless gradations and varieties. If the vitalising word were to
+cease, chaos would come again. The belief in a single creation after which
+the Master withdrew from his completed work, is erroneous and heretical.
+The vivifying power is never withdrawn from the world which it animates.
+Creation is continuous; an unending manifestation of the goodness of God.
+All things are an affluence from the two divine attributes of Power and
+Love, which express themselves in various images and reflections.
+
+This is the doctrine of universality in Chassidism. God, the father of
+Israel, God the Merciful, God the All-powerful, the God of Love, not only
+created everything but is embodied in everything. The necessity of
+believing this doctrine is the cardinal Dogma. But as creation is
+continuous so also is revelation. This revelation is only to be grasped by
+faith. Faith, therefore, is more efficacious than learning. Thus it is
+that in times of persecution, the wise and the foolish, the sinner and the
+saint, are wont alike to give up their life for their faith. They who
+could render no answer to the questions of the casuist are yet willing to
+die the most cruel of deaths rather than deny their faith in the One and
+Supreme God. Their strength to face danger and death is owing to that
+divine illumination of the soul which is more exalted than knowledge.
+
+We should thus regard all things in the light of so many manifestations of
+the Divinity. God is present in all things; therefore there is good,
+actual or potential, in all things. It is our duty everywhere to seek out
+and to honour the good, and not to arrogate to ourselves the right to
+judge that which may seem to be evil. In thinking therefore of a fellow-
+man, we should above all things realise in him the presence of the spirit
+of good. Whence we have the Doctrine that each of us, while thinking
+humbly of himself, should always be ready to think well, and always slow
+to think evil, of another. This explains the Chassidic attitude towards
+erring humanity. Baalshem viewed human sin and infirmity in a very
+different light from that of the ordinary Rabbi. Ever conscious of the
+Divine side of Humanity, he vigorously combated the gratuitous assumption
+of sinfulness in man which was a fertile subject with contemporary
+preachers. They, among the Roumanian Jews as in other communities,
+delighted chiefly to dwell on the dark side of things, and found their
+favourite theme in elaborate descriptions of the infernal punishments that
+were awaiting the sinner after death. It is related how on one occasion
+Baalshem rebuked one of these. The preacher had been denouncing woe to an
+audience of whom he knew nothing whether for evil or for good. Baalshem,
+indignant at this indiscriminative abuse and conceited arrogation of the
+divine office of judgment, turned on him in the following words: "Woe upon
+thee who darest to speak evil of Israel! Dost not know that every Jew,
+when he utters ever so short a prayer at the close of day, is performing a
+great work before which the angels in heaven bow down?" Great, as it would
+seem, was the value set by Baalshem upon the smallest evidence of the
+higher nature in man, and few there were, as he believed, who, if their
+spirit was not darkened by pride, did not now and again give proof of the
+divine stamp in which God had created them. No sin so separates us from
+God that we need despair of return. From every rung of the moral ladder,
+no matter how low, let man seek God. If he but fully believe that nothing
+is void of God, and that God is concealed in the midst of apparent ruin
+and degradation, he will not fear lest God be far from him. God is
+regained in a moment of repentance, for repentance "transcends the limits
+of space and time." And he who leads the sinner to repentance causes a
+divine joy; it is as though a king's son had been in captivity and were
+now brought back to his father's gaze.
+
+Baalshem refused to regard any one as wholly irredeemable. His was an
+optimistic faith. God was to be praised in gladness by the dwellers in
+this glorious world. The true believer, recognising the reflection of God
+in every man, should hopefully strive, when that reflection was obscured
+by sin, to restore the likeness of God in man. The peculiar detestability
+of sin lies in this, that man rejects the earthly manifestations of the
+Divinity and pollutes them. One of Baalshem's disciples delighted in the
+saying that the most hardened sinners were not to be despaired of, but
+prayed for. None knows the heart of man, and none should judge his
+neighbour. Let him who burns with zeal for God's sake, exercise his zeal
+on himself, not others. Baalshem said, "Let no one think himself better
+than his neighbour, for all serve God; each according to the measure of
+understanding which God has given him."
+
+From this position it is a natural step to Baalshem's view of prayer. He
+is reputed to have said that all the greatness he had achieved was the
+issue not of study but of prayer. But true prayer "must move," as Baalshem
+phrased it, "in the realms above," and not be concerned with affairs
+sublunary. Your prayer should not be taken up with your wishes and needs,
+but should be the means to bring you nigh to God. In prayer man must lay
+aside his own individuality, and not even be conscious of his existence;
+for if, when he prays, Self is not absolutely quiescent, the object of
+prayer is unattainable. Indeed it is only through God's grace that after
+true prayer man is yet alive; to such a point has the annihilation of self
+proceeded.
+
+It may be necessary to caution the reader against ascribing to Baalshem
+any modern rationalistic notions on the subject of prayer. The power of
+prayer, in the old-fashioned sense, to produce an answer from God was
+never doubted by Baalshem for a moment. Baalshem's deity is not restricted
+towards any side by any philosophic considerations. All Baalshem meant was
+that any reference or regard to earthly requirements was unworthy and
+destructive of this communion of man with God. The wise man, says
+Baalshem, does not trouble the king with innumerable petitions about
+trifles. His desire is merely to gain admission into the king's presence
+and to speak with him without a go-between. To be with the king whom he
+loves so dearly is for him the highest good. But his love for the king has
+its reward; for the king loves him.
+
+It has already been implied that, with regard to our duty towards our
+fellow-man, we must not only honour him for the good, and abstain from
+judging the evil that may be in him, but must pray for him. Furthermore we
+must work for his spiritual and moral reclamation. In giving practical
+effect in his own life to this doctrine, Baalshem's conduct was in
+striking contrast to that of his contemporaries. He habitually consorted
+with outcasts and sinners, with the poor and uneducated of both sexes,
+whom the other teachers ignored. He thus won for his doctrines a way to
+the heart of the people by adapting his life and language to their
+understanding and sympathies. In illustration of this, as well as of his
+hatred of vanity and display, it is told how, on the occasion of his being
+accorded a public reception by the Jews on his arrival at Brody, instead
+of addressing to them in the conventional fashion some subtle discourse
+upon a Talmudical difficulty, he contented himself with conversing upon
+trivial topics in the local dialect with some of the less important
+persons in the crowd.
+
+This incident is perhaps the more noteworthy because it occurred in Brody,
+which was at that time a seat of learning and Rabbinic culture,--a place
+where, for that very reason, Chassidism was never able to gain a foothold.
+It is probable enough that Baalshem in his visits to this town kept aloof
+from the learned and the wise, and sought to gather round him the
+neglected and humbler elements of Jewish society. It is well known that
+Baalshem consorted a good deal with the innkeepers of the district, who
+were held in very low repute among their brethren. The following remark by
+one of his followers is very suggestive in this respect. Just as only
+superficial minds attach a certain holiness to special places, whilst with
+the deeper ones all places are alike holy, so that to them it makes no
+difference whether prayers be said in the synagogue or in the forest; so
+the latter believe that not only prophecies and visions come from heaven,
+but that every utterance of man, if properly understood, contains a
+message of God. Those who are absorbed in God will easily find the divine
+element in everything which they hear, even though the speaker himself be
+quite ignorant of it.
+
+This line of conduct gave a fair opening for attack to his opponents, an
+opportunity of which they were not slow to avail themselves. Baalshem was
+pointed at as the associate of the lowest classes. They avenged themselves
+for his neglect of and hostility to the learned by imputing the worst
+motives to his indifference to appearances. He was accused of idling about
+the streets with disreputable characters, and one polemical treatise draws
+the vilest inferences from his apparent familiarity with women. To this
+charge Baalshem's conduct, innocent in itself, gave some colour; for his
+views and habits in relation to women marked a strong divergence from
+current customs. The position of women in contemporary circles was neither
+debased nor inevitably unhappy, but it was distinctly subordinate. Their
+education was almost entirely neglected, and their very existence was
+practically ignored. According to the Chassidic doctrine of Universality,
+woman was necessarily to be honoured. "All Jews," says one Chassid, "even
+the uneducated and the women, believe in God." Baalshem frequently
+associated with women, assigning to them not only social equality, but a
+high degree of religious importance.
+
+His own wife he reverenced as a saint; when she died he abandoned the hope
+of rising to heaven while yet alive, like Elijah of old, saying mournfully
+that undivided such translation might have happened, but for him alone it
+was impossible. Then again in a form of religion utilising so largely the
+emotions of Faith and Love there was a strong appeal to the female mind.
+The effect of this was soon evident, and Baalshem did not neglect to
+profit by it. Among the most devoted of his early adherents were women.
+One of them was the heroine of a favourite anecdote concerning Baalshem's
+work of Love and Rescue. It is related that in a certain village there
+dwelt a woman whose life was so disgraceful that her brothers at last
+determined to kill her. With this object they enticed her into a
+neighbouring wood, but guided by the Holy Spirit Baalshem intervened at
+the critical moment, and dissuading the men from their purpose rescued the
+sinner. The woman afterwards became a sort of Magdalen in the new
+community.
+
+Above I have endeavoured to throw together in some order of sequence the
+doctrines and practical rules of conduct which Baalshem and his early
+disciples seem to have deduced from their central idea of the omnipresence
+of God. This was necessary in order to give a connected idea of their
+creed, but it is right to say that nowhere in Chassidic literature have
+these deductions been logically co-ordinated. Perhaps their solitary
+attempt to formulate and condense their distinctive views is confined to a
+statement of their idea of piety or service of God, and an examination of
+three cardinal virtues, Humility, Cheerfulness, and Enthusiasm. What the
+Chassidim held as to true service brings into relief Baalshem's
+characteristic manner of regarding the Law.
+
+By the service of God was generally understood a life which fulfilled the
+precepts of the written and oral law. Baalshem understood by it a certain
+attitude towards life as a whole. For, as God is realised in life, each
+activity of life when rightly conceived and executed is at once a
+manifestation and a service of the Divine. All things have been created
+for the glory and service of God. The smallest worm serves Him with all
+its power. Thus, while eating, drinking, sleeping, and the other ordinary
+functions of the body are regarded by the old Jewish moralists as mere
+means to an end, to Baalshem they are already a service of God in
+themselves. All pleasures are manifestations of God's attribute of love;
+and, so regarded, they are at once spiritualised and ennobled. Man should
+seek to reach a higher level of purity and holiness before partaking of
+food and drink, than even before the study of the Law. For when the Torah
+had once been given by God the whole world became instinct with its grace.
+He who speaks of worldly matters and religious matters as if they were
+separate and distinct, is a heretic.
+
+Upon the continual and uninterrupted study of the Law, Baalshem lays but
+little stress. He accepted the ordinary belief that the Law (under which
+term are included not only the Pentateuch, but the whole Old Testament and
+the major portion of the old Rabbinic literature) was a revelation of God.
+But, as the world itself is equally a divine revelation, the Torah becomes
+little more than a part of a larger whole. To understand it aright one
+needs to penetrate to the inward reality--to the infinite light which is
+revealed in it. We should study the Law not as we study a science for the
+sake of acquiring knowledge (he who studies it so has in truth been
+concerning himself with its mere outward form), but we should learn from
+it the true service of God. Thus the study of the law is no end in itself.
+It is studied because, as the word of God, God is more easily discerned
+and absorbed in this revelation of Him than in any other. The Torah is
+eternal, but its explanation is to be made by the spiritual leaders of
+Judaism. It is to be interpreted by them in accordance with the Attribute
+of the age. For he regarded the world as governed in every age by a
+different Attribute of God--one age by the Attribute of Love, another by
+that of Power, a third again, by Beauty, and so on--and the explanation of
+the Torah must be brought into agreement with it. The object of the whole
+Torah is that man should become a Torah himself. Every man being a Torah
+in himself, said a disciple of Baalshem, has got not only his Abraham and
+Moses, but also his Balaam and Haman: he should try to expel the Balaam
+and develop the Abraham within him. Every action of man should be a pure
+manifestation of God.
+
+The reason why we should do what the Law commands is not to gain grace
+thereby in the eyes of God, but to learn how to love God and to be united
+to Him. The important thing is not how many separate injunctions are
+obeyed, but how and in what spirit we obey them. The object of fulfilling
+these various ordinances is to put oneself, as it were, on the same plane
+with God, and thus, in the ordinary phrase of the religious mystic, to
+become one with Him, or to be absorbed in Him. People should get to know,
+says Baalshem, what the unity of God really means. To attain a part of
+this indivisible unity is to attain the whole. The Torah and all its
+ordinances are from God. If I therefore fulfil but one commandment in and
+through the love of God, it is as though I have fulfilled them all.
+
+I have now briefly to refer to the three virtues to which the Chassidim
+assigned the highest place of honour. Of these the first is called in
+Hebrew "Shiphluth,"(15) and is best rendered by our word "Humility," but
+in Chassidic usage it includes the ideas of modesty, considerateness, and
+sympathy. The prominence given to these qualities is in sharp contrast to
+the faults of conceit, vanity, and self-satisfaction, against which
+Baalshem was never weary of protesting. He regarded these as the most
+seductive of all forms of sin. But a few minutes before his death he was
+heard to murmur, "O vanity, vanity! even in this hour of death thou darest
+to approach me with thy temptations: 'Bethink thee, Israel, what a grand
+funeral procession will be thine because thou hast been so wise and good.'
+O vanity, vanity! beshrew thee." "It should be indifferent to man," says
+the master, "whether he be praised or blamed, loved or hated, reputed to
+be the wisest of mankind or the greatest of fools. The test of the real
+service of God is that it leaves behind it the feeling of humility. If a
+man after prayer be conscious of the least pride or self-satisfaction, if
+he think, for instance, that he has earned a reward by the ardour of his
+spiritual exercises, then let him know that he has prayed not to God but
+to himself. And what is this but disguised idolatry? Before you can find
+God you must lose yourself." The Chassidim treated Shiphluth from two
+sides: a negative side in thinking humbly of oneself, a positive in
+thinking highly of one's neighbour, in other words the love for our
+fellow-man.
+
+He who loves the father will also love his children. The true lover of God
+is also a lover of man. It is ignorance of one's own errors that makes one
+ready to see the errors of others. "There is no sphere in heaven where the
+soul remains a shorter time than in the sphere of merit, there is none
+where it abides longer than in the sphere of Love."
+
+The second Cardinal Virtue is "Cheerfulness," in Hebrew "Simchah."(16)
+Baalshem insisted on cheerfulness of heart as a necessary attitude for the
+due service of God. Once believe that you are really the servant and the
+child of God and how can you fall again into a gloomy condition of mind?
+Nor should the inevitable sins which we all must commit disturb our glad
+serenity of soul. For is not repentance ready at hand by which we may
+climb back to God? Every penitent thought is a voice of God. Man should
+detect that voice in all the evidence of his senses, in every sight and
+sound of external nature. It is through his want of faith in the
+universality of God's presence that he is deaf to these subtle influences
+and can read only the lessons which are inscribed in books.
+
+The reader will be prepared to learn that Baalshem, taking this cheerful
+view of things, was opposed to every kind of asceticism. Judaism, or
+rather Israelitism, it is true, was not originally much of an ascetic
+religion. But there can be little doubt that in the course of history
+there came in many ascetic doctrines and practices, quite enough at least
+to encourage such tender souls the bent of whose minds lay in this
+direction. To one of these, a former disciple, Baalshem wrote: "I hear
+that you think yourself compelled from religious motives to enter upon a
+course of fasts and penances. My soul is outraged at your determination.
+By the counsel of God I order you to abandon such dangerous practices,
+which are but the outcome of a disordered brain. Is it not written 'Thou
+shalt not hide thyself from thine own flesh?' Fast then no more than is
+prescribed. Follow my command and God shall be with you." On another
+occasion Baalshem was heard to observe that it is a machination of Satan
+to drive us into a condition of gloom and despondency in which the
+smallest error is regarded as a deadly sin. Satan's object is to keep us
+away from the true service of God, and God can only be truly served from a
+happy and confident disposition. Anxious scrupulosity in details is
+therefore to be avoided. It is the counsel of the Devil to persuade us
+that we never have done and shall never do our duty fully, and that moral
+progress is impossible. Such ideas beget melancholy and despair, which are
+of evil.
+
+The third virtue is called in the Hebrew Chassidic literature
+"Hithlahabuth,"(17) and is derived from a verb meaning "to kindle" or "set
+on fire." The substantive "Hithlahabuth," so far as I am aware, was first
+coined by Baalshem's followers. It is best rendered by our word
+"Enthusiasm." Every religious action, to be of any avail, must be done
+with enthusiasm. A mere mechanical and lifeless performance of an
+ordinance is valueless. A man is no step nearer the goal if he thinks,
+forsooth, that he has done his duty when he has gone through the whole
+round of laws in every section of the code. This essential enthusiasm is
+only begotten of Love. The service of fear, if not wholly useless, is yet
+necessarily accompanied by a certain repulsion and heaviness, which
+effectually prevent the rush and ardour of enthusiasm. The inspiration of
+true service is its own end. There is no thought of this world, and there
+is none of the world to come. In the Talmud there is frequent reference to
+one Rabbi Elisha ben Abuyah, an apostate from Judaism, who, when urged to
+repent, replied that repentance was useless, and that for this mournful
+belief he had direct divine authority. For he had been told by a voice
+from heaven that even though he repented he would be excluded from sharing
+the happiness of the world to come. Of him it was said by one of the
+Chassidim, "This man indeed missed a golden opportunity. How purely could
+he have served God, knowing that for his service there could never be a
+reward!"
+
+From the conception of Enthusiasm springs the quality of mobility,
+suggesting spiritual progress, and commonly opposed by Baalshem and his
+followers to the dull religious stagnation of self-satisfied
+contemporaries. Man should not imagine himself to have attained the level
+of the righteous; let him rather regard himself as a penitent who should
+make progress every day. Always to remain on the same religious plane,
+merely repeating to-day the religious routine of yesterday, is not true
+service. There must be a daily advance in the knowledge and love of the
+Divine Master. Mere freedom from active sin is not sufficient; such
+negative virtue may be but another word for the chance absence of
+temptation. What boots it never to have committed a sin if sin lies
+concealed in the heart? It is only the uninterrupted communion with God
+which will raise and ennoble your thoughts and designs, and cause the
+roots of sin to die. The patriarch Abraham, without any command from God,
+fulfilled the whole Torah, because he perceived that the Law was the life
+of all created things. In the Messianic age the law will no longer seem to
+man as something ordained for him from without; but the law will be within
+the hearts of men; it will seem natural and self-evident to them, because
+they will realise that God and life are manifested through the law.
+
+Baalshem, who dealt largely in parable, has left the following, which we
+may fitly add to our somewhat inadequate presentation of his doctrine.
+
+There was once a king who built himself a glorious palace. By means of
+magical illusion it seemed as if the palace were full of devious corridors
+and mazes, preventing the approach to the royal presence. But as there was
+much gold and silver heaped up in the entrance halls, most people were
+content to go no further, but take their fill of treasure. The king
+himself they did not notice. At last the king's intimate had compassion
+upon them and exclaimed to them, "All these walls and mazes which you see
+before you do not in truth exist at all. They are mere illusions. Push
+forward bravely, and you shall find no obstacle."
+
+We must not interpret the parable to mean that Baalshem denied the reality
+or even the importance of the actual phenomenal world. The very contrary
+is the truth. The world is for him full of God, penetrated through and
+through by the divine, and therefore as real as God himself. It was quite
+in Baalshem's manner when one of his disciples declared that only fools
+could speak of the world as vanity or emptiness. "It is in truth a
+glorious world. We must only learn how rightly to make use of it. Call
+nothing common or profane: by God's presence all things are holy."
+
+Above we have reviewed the essential doctrines of Baalshem and his
+immediate followers; we have now to see how they fared at the hands of the
+sect which he founded. This is a sad part of our task, for the subsequent
+history of Chassidism is almost entirely a record of decay. As formulated
+by its founder the new creed amounted to a genuine Reformation, pure and
+lofty in ideal. After his death unhappily it was rapidly corrupted and
+perverted. This was due almost exclusively to the dangerous and
+exaggerated development of a single point in his teaching. That point, the
+honour due to the divine in man, was relatively a minor article in the
+original creed. But the later Chassidism has given it a distorted and
+almost exclusive importance wholly out of proportion to the grander and
+more essential features of Baalshem's teaching, until the distinctive
+feature of the Chassidism of to-day is an almost idolatrous service of
+their living leaders. What little there is to say of the history of the
+sect after Baalshem's death would be unintelligible without some
+explanation of the origin and growth of this unfortunate perversion.
+
+It has been explained that Baalshem laid but little stress upon the study
+of the Law or the observance of its precepts in themselves, but regarded
+them only as means to an end. The end is union with God. Man has to
+discover the presence of God in the Divine word and will. Now this
+mystical service of God, although perhaps sufficing to sensitive and
+enthusiastic natures, is scarcely plain or definite enough for ordinary
+men. Few can realise abstractions: and yet fewer can delight in them and
+find in their contemplation sufficient nurture for their religious needs.
+What then had Chassidism to offer to the ordinary majority who could not
+recognise God in all the plenitude of His disguise? The want of something
+tangible whereon to fix the minds of the people, which has confronted the
+teachers of so many creeds, was also encountered by the Chassidim, and
+they unfortunately found their way out of the difficulty by relying on and
+developing their doctrine of man's position in the Universe. Man's ideal
+is to be a law himself; himself a clear and full manifestation of God.
+Now, not only is he God's servant and child, but in highest development he
+becomes himself a part of God, albeit in human shape, so that he may
+become wholly one with his divine Father. But if man may reach this
+highest level of holiness, he is virtually a kind of God-man, whom his
+fellow-men of lower levels perceive by reason of his manhood, but his
+essential office consists in raising them up to God by reason of his
+Divinity.
+
+The few chosen spirits who through the successful persistency with which
+they have sought God in all things have become, though yet on earth,
+absorbed in Him, are known in Chassidic literature by the name of the
+"Zaddikim." The Hebrew word Zaddik(18) means "just" or "righteous," and
+the term was probably chosen in conscious opposition to the title of
+Rabbinic heroes, "disciples of the wise." For the Zaddik is not so much
+the product of learning as of intuition: his final consummation is reached
+by a sudden and direct illumination from God. The Zaddik not only
+resembles Moses, but, in virtue of his long communion with the Divine, he
+is also the true child of God. He is, moreover, a vivifying power in
+creation, for he is the connecting bond between God and his creatures. He
+is the source of blessing and the fount of grace. Man must therefore learn
+to love the Zaddik, so that through the Zaddik he may win God's grace. He
+who does not believe in the Zaddik is an apostate from God. Here then we
+have the fatal exaggeration to which I have alluded, and here its logical
+consequence. The step to man-worship is short.
+
+This peculiar doctrine of the Intermediary soon became the distinguishing
+feature of Chassidism. By a Chassid was understood not a man who held such
+and such opinions in theology and religion, but a believer in the Zaddik,
+and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship of the Zaddik.
+Every other doctrine of Chassidism was rapidly pushed into the background
+and overlooked. Even the grand and fundamental doctrine of Omnipresence in
+the Creation was veiled by the special presence in the Zaddik. Chassidism
+became mere Zaddikism, and its subsequent history is identical with the
+downward development of that cult.
+
+Whether Baalshem named his successor is doubtful. But the lead after his
+death was assumed by his disciple Beer of Mizriez. This man's conversion
+to Chassidism was an important event for the new community; his piety and
+learning were beyond dispute, and, whereas during Baalshem's life
+Chassidism had found its chief adherents among the lower classes of
+society, Beer managed to gather round him many of the most learned among
+his contemporaries. It was to these new and ardent disciples of Beer that
+the expansion of Chassidism was chiefly due. They came together from many
+quarters, and after Beer's death separated and preached the new doctrine
+far and wide. Many even went forth during the lifetime of their master,
+and at his command, to found fresh branches of the new sect. Like Beer
+himself, they directed their efforts mainly to winning over the educated
+sections of the Jews. The elder men paid little heed to their word, but
+the youths, just fresh from their casuistic studies, which had sharpened
+their wits and starved their souls, lent a ready ear and an eager heart to
+the new doctrine. The uneducated were by no means excluded; to them
+Chassidism held out a deeper consolation and a grander hope than the
+current Rabbinism of the age; they therefore joined the young community in
+large numbers without any special effort being necessary to gain them
+over.
+
+In their methods of Prayer the Chassidim most conspicuously differed from
+the older communities. Laying as they did supreme stress on the importance
+and efficacy of prayer, they soon found it necessary to secede from the
+existing synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves. The usual
+salaried Reader "with the beautiful voice and empty head," who naturally
+regarded his function as a matter of business, was done away with and his
+place taken either by the Zaddik himself or by some other distinguished
+person in the community. The Chassidim also effected many changes in the
+liturgy. Instead of the German they adopted the Spanish ritual. They
+excised many prayers which, lacking the authority of antiquity, were
+cumbrous in form or objectionable in matter. They inserted new prayers and
+hymns of their own. They paid little regard to the prescribed hours at
+which public worship should be held. Prayer began when they had got
+themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind. Frequent ablutions,
+perusal of mystical writings, introspective meditation were the means by
+which they sought to gain the befitting mood. The prayers themselves were
+accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement. Some in the
+zeal of their devotion began to dance; others were rapt in a motionless
+ecstasy; some prayed aloud; others in solemn silence. They justified their
+abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that you cannot order a
+child when to speak with its father: such restraint were fit only for
+slaves.
+
+As a rule the larger number of the younger Chassidim were able to devote
+their whole time to religious exercises. It was the custom among the Jews
+in Eastern Europe for the young men to live at the expense of their own or
+their wives' parents, in order that they might give themselves up entirely
+to religious study. According to the old notions, this meant the study of
+the Talmud and its Commentaries; the Chassidim who cared little for the
+legal side of Jewish literature betook themselves to the literature of
+edification and mysticism. No small part of their time was taken up with
+endless conversations about the Zaddik, his piety, goodness, and self-
+sacrifice and the wonderful miracles which he had wrought. If a Zaddik was
+living in his own town, the youthful Chassid spent as many hours as he
+could in the Zaddik's company, in order to observe and study this embodied
+Torah as constantly as possible. Where no Zaddik was at hand, periodical
+pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived, and endless were the
+tales which were afterwards repeated, to those who were obliged to stay at
+home, of the Zaddik's marvellous wisdom and extraordinary deeds. The last
+hours of the Sabbath day were looked upon as a special season of grace,
+and the Chassidim were therefore in the habit of collecting together in
+the waning of the Sabbath and celebrating the so-called "Supper of the
+Holy Queen." The meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as well
+as by hymns and prayers.
+
+The Chassidim were second to no other sect in their loyalty and affection
+for each other. No sacrifice for a brother Chassid was too great. They
+knew no difference of rich and poor, old and young, wise and ignorant; for
+they all, with one accord, worshipped one common ideal, the Zaddik, who in
+his exalted position was equally raised above them all. Before him all
+minor differences of rank disappeared. When a Chassid travelled, he had no
+scruple in asking for lodging or entertainment in the house of any Chassid
+who could afford to give them. If he was in money difficulties the purse
+of his host was at his disposal. If that was not sufficient, it was
+supplemented by a grant from the fund of the community. These gifts were
+not looked upon in the light of charity either by giver or receiver; they
+were made to the Zaddik, to whom all Chassidim alike were debtors. It
+sometimes even happened that a Zaddik said that the son of some rich
+merchant was to marry the daughter of a poor schoolmaster, and both
+parties were equally delighted to fulfil the wish of their beloved chief.
+
+It may easily be imagined that the innovations of the Chassidim provoked
+the wrath of the orthodox communities. But in their detestation of the
+Rabbis the Chassidim returned in full measure all the hatred they
+received. The Zaddik is the Moses of his age: the Rabbis its Korah and
+Abiram. Where the Chassidic party in any community gained the upper hand,
+the Rabbi was deposed and a Zaddik, if that was possible, elected in his
+place. The issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the
+Jewish race was a rigorous persecution. In many places the Chassidim were
+excommunicated, in others their leaders were publicly scourged and put
+into the stocks. Their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly
+closed. But persecution produced only the usual result of increasing the
+popularity and the numbers of the sect. The devotion of the Chassidim to
+each other and to their common cause was increased a hundred-fold by
+suffering. In one case a distinguished Zaddik was accused of treason,
+before the Russian authorities, and was thrown into prison. In Russia,
+however, the power of money is considerable, and on payment of a large
+ransom not only was the beloved Zaddik released but as an obvious
+consequence his reputation greatly profited: the day of his release was
+celebrated as a yearly festival, while his sufferings were regarded by his
+followers as a sin-offering that atoned for the iniquities of his age.
+From this time the government maintained a purely neutral attitude towards
+the new sect, and ere long the persecution by the orthodox ceased.
+
+The cessation of persecution may possibly be accounted for by the fact
+that Chassidism as a secession soon ceased to be formidable. There were
+early divisions within the sect. Even Beer's disciples began to quarrel
+over theological differences and to found separate communities. When once
+the course of corruption and spiritual decay had begun, it was the
+interest of the false Zaddikim to accentuate these differences. Each
+Zaddik sought to have a whole little sect to himself, from which to draw
+an undivided revenue. And each deluded little sect as it arose boasted of
+the exclusive possession of the true Zaddik.
+
+It must not be supposed that these strictures apply to the whole class of
+Zaddikim. The greater number of Baalshem's leading disciples as well as
+Beer's were beyond question men of pure, unalloyed piety, who would have
+rejected with scorn any idea of making a trade of their sacred profession.
+Their motives and their zeal were alike ideal. Many gave up highly paid
+posts as Rabbis when they joined the new sect. Some emigrated to Palestine
+to lead a holy life on holy ground, others sought to become religious
+specialists, following out practically, although with some exaggeration, a
+favourite doctrine of the Founder, that he who observes but one
+commandment devotedly and lovingly, may reach the goal desired: the union
+with God. Thus one Zaddik made it his business never to tell the smallest
+falsehood, whatever the cost or the inconvenience of truth might be. It is
+related that the Russian Government, suspecting the Jews of his town of
+smuggling, consented to withdraw the charge if he declared his brethren
+innocent. Having no alternative but either to bring misfortune on his
+brethren or to tell an untruth, he prayed to God to save him from this
+dilemma by sending death upon him. And lo! when the officials came to
+fetch him before the law court they found him dead. Another, thinking that
+the commandment in Exodus xxiii. 3, relating to the help that should be
+given to a neighbour or enemy when "his ass is lying under its burden,"
+was practically unobserved, devoted himself to its fulfilment. He was
+continually to be seen in the streets, helping one man to load his waggon,
+and another to drag his cart out of the mire. A third made the service of
+the oppressed his religious specialty. It is said that one day his wife,
+having had a quarrel with her maid, was setting out to the magistrate of
+the town to obtain satisfaction. Noticing that her husband was about to
+accompany her, she asked him whither he was bound. He replied, "to the
+magistrate." His wife declared that it was below his dignity to take any
+part in a quarrel with a servant. She could deal with the matter herself.
+The Zaddik replied, "That may be, but I intend to represent your maid, who
+when accused by my wife will find no one willing to take her part." And
+then, bursting into a passion of tears, he quoted Job xxxi. 13: "If I did
+despise the cause of my man-servant or of my maid-servant, when they
+contended with me, what shall I do when God riseth up?"
+
+Several Zaddikim were learned men and thinkers of no ordinary kind. The
+works of Solomon Ladier or of Mendel Witipsker, read with attention and
+without Western preconceptions, certainly give the impression of both
+originality and depth of thought. But most characteristic of all is the
+passionate yearning of authors such as these towards the Divine. The
+reader is astonished and moved by the intense sincerity and ardour of
+their longing after God. But, despite the adherence of these worthy men,
+the fate of Chassidism, as a regenerative force, was sealed from the day
+when Zaddikism replaced the original doctrines of the sect.
+
+For, apart from the obvious theological considerations already suggested,
+there are two points of inherent weakness in the cult of the Zaddik which
+naturally doomed it to perversion and failure. The necessary
+qualifications for "Zaddikship" are wholly undefined. We hear a great deal
+about what a Zaddik actually is, but we hear very little about what he
+should be. The Zaddik has many virtues, but we are nowhere told what are
+his indispensable qualifications. Moreover, the Zaddik is a being who can
+be comprehended by the understanding as little as an angel, or as God
+Himself. He is realised by faith, not conceived by thought. Hence there is
+no human test of a true Zaddik except the test of miracles; and every
+student of religious history knows the deceitful character of that test.
+
+The second source of danger arose from the Chassidim holding it to be
+their sacred duty to provide for the Zaddik a life of comfort and ease.
+The Zaddik must pursue his divine avocations undisturbed by grosser cares.
+But what were the consequences? The Chassidim believed they could win the
+grace and blessing of the Zaddik by the richness and variety of their
+gifts. A Zaddik's career became a very profitable concern. The result of
+both defects was that not only was the opportunity given for every
+scheming charlatan to become a Zaddik, but inducements were offered to
+make the deception lucrative. Hence the anxiety of the false Zaddikim,
+already noticed, to found separate communities.
+
+Among the Chassidim of to-day there is not one in ten thousand who has the
+faintest conception of those sublime ideas which inspired Baalshem and his
+immediate disciples. It is still the interest of the wretched ringleaders
+of a widely spread delusion to crush and keep down every trace of
+reflection and thought so that they may play at will with the conscience
+and purses of their adherents. The new scientific movement, inaugurated by
+such men as Krochmal, Zunz, and others who came under the influence of the
+German critical spirit, found in them its hottest and most fanatical
+opponents. That the cult of the Zaddikim has not led to still more
+disastrous consequences is solely due to the fact that the Chassidim in
+general have remained faithful to the Law. It is the Law, against the
+excessive study of which the original Chassidim protested, that has put
+limits to the license of its modern false prophets.
+
+Amid much that is bad, the Chassidim have preserved through the whole
+movement a warm heart, and an ardent, sincere faith. There is a certain
+openness of character and a ready friendliness about even the modern
+Chassidim which are very attractive. Religion is still to them a matter of
+life and death. Their faith is still real enough to satisfy the demands of
+a Luther, but it is diverted and wasted upon unworthy objects. If
+Chassidism is to be reformed, its worship must no longer be of man; it
+must be brought back again to the source of all Beauty, all Wisdom, and
+all Goodness; it must be restored to God.
+
+
+
+
+
+II. NACHMAN KROCHMAL AND THE "PERPLEXITIES OF THE TIME"
+
+
+In her good-natured panegyric of mediocrity which is known under the title
+of _Scenes of Clerical Life_, George Eliot remarked: "Let us hope that
+there is a saving ignorance."
+
+Strange as this demand may sound, the wish of the great novelist to see
+her favoured mediocrities "saved," has been shared by the great majority
+of mankind. I know that I, at least, echo that desire with all my heart.
+And I am afraid that I am prompted by some rather selfish reasons. It
+would be somewhat hard, when one is born with small abilities, but a great
+desire for being saved, to be deprived of the hope held out by the author
+of _Adam Bede_.
+
+But there are some, I am afraid, who are not satisfied with this dictum of
+George Eliot. They show a strong tendency to make salvation a monopoly of
+ignorance. This is a little too selfish. With all due respect to every
+form of ignorance, sacred as well as profane, we ought, I think, to
+believe that there is also such a thing as a saving knowledge. Nay, we
+might go even farther. There may be certain epochs in history when there
+is hardly any other path to salvation than knowledge, and the deep search
+after truth.
+
+We all know the words of the Psalmist, "The Lord preserveth the simple."
+But as there are periods in the life of the individual when na�vet� has to
+give way to sagacity and reflection, so there are times in history at
+which Providence does not choose to leave men in simplicity. At such times
+doubts arise, as though of themselves; questions suddenly become open when
+they had been supposed solved for centuries; and the human mind is stirred
+by a sceptical breeze of which no man can tell whence it came. One may
+under those circumstances be indifferent, but one can be simple no more.
+
+Even in such cases, however, man has no cause to despair. When our dearest
+beliefs are shaken by all kinds of doubts, Providence sends us also great
+thinkers, earnest lovers of truth, who devote their lives to enlightening
+our puzzled minds. Not that these men try to answer all the questions by
+which we feel perplexed. They endeavour to satisfy us, partly by showing
+that many of our difficulties are not difficulties at all, but merely
+arise from superficiality, and partly by proving that the great cause
+about which we feel so much anxiety does not exactly depend on the
+solution of the questions that are troubling us. They give to the things
+which are dearer to us than our life a fresh aspect, which enables us to
+remain attached to them with the same devotion and love as before. To
+speak again in the words of the Psalmist: "Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit,
+and they are created, and Thou renewest the face of the earth."
+
+This spirit that renews the face of things is what I understand by "saving
+knowledge." As men of that saving knowledge we may regard Rabban Johanan
+ben Zaccai(19) and his disciples, who made it possible for Judaism to
+survive the destruction of the Temple, which some believed to involve the
+end of the religion. As such men we may look upon R. Saadiah Gaon and his
+followers, who worked at a time when Judaism was menaced in its inner
+life, namely in the tradition, by the attempts of the narrow-minded
+Caraites to convert it into a bookish religion.(20) Such men were
+Maimonides and his successors, who came to the aid of religion when it had
+got into dogmatic troubles by reason of its coming into contact with
+various philosophical systems. And in order to approach the subject of the
+present essay, I venture to say that a man of such saving knowledge was
+also Nachman Krochmal, who lived and laboured in the first half of the
+present century, when Judaism had been terribly shaken by the scepticism
+of Voltaire, and the platitudes of the so-called Mendelssohnian school.
+
+Nachman Krochmal was born on the 17th of February in the year 1785. His
+father, Solomon Krochmal, was a merchant of Brody, a commercial frontier
+town in the north-east of Galicia in Austria. In his early years Solomon
+often used to visit Berlin for business purposes. He is said to have seen
+Mendelssohn there on one occasion, and to have learned greatly to revere
+the Jewish sage. And it is not unlikely that Nachman's subsequent
+admiration for Mendelssohn was partly due to his father's influence.
+
+Solomon was a man of considerable wealth, and he, therefore, endeavoured
+to give his son the best possible education. But as a respectable member
+of a Polish community a hundred years ago, Solomon had to follow the
+fashion adopted by his neighbours, and the best possible education
+consisted in affording the child an opportunity to study the Talmud and
+other Rabbinical works. All other languages and their literatures were
+sealed books to the child--a very absurd and regrettable fashion indeed.
+But let us not be too hard on Polish Jews. I have been told that there are
+countries on our globe where people have been driven by the force of
+fashion into the opposite extreme; where, with few exceptions, they think
+that the Talmud, as well as the whole Hebrew literature, must needs be
+excluded from the programme of a gentleman's education.
+
+Happily, or the reverse, Krochmal's childhood did not last long, for in
+the year 1798 we find that Nachman, a boy of fourteen, was already married
+to a Miss Haberman in Zolkiew. As a result of this foolish custom of
+marrying at so very early an age, Nachman was hardly ever a boy; we have
+at once to deal with him as a man.
+
+It was then customary in Poland, and perhaps is so still, for the father
+of the bride to provide for the support of the young couple for some years
+after their marriage. In order to reduce the expense of this arrangement,
+the bridegroom had to reside in the same house as his father-in-law. Thus
+we see Krochmal removing from Brody to Zolkiew, the native town of his
+wife. Here Krochmal lived in the house of her father for many years,
+entirely devoted to his studies; and he certainly needed all his time for
+them. For he now began to expand the sphere of his education, to embrace
+subjects quite new to him. By his marriage Nachman seems to have gained a
+certain amount of independence, and the first use he made of it was to
+study the _Guide of the Perplexed_(21) of Maimonides, the _Commentaries_
+of Ibn Ezra on the Bible,(22) and other more or less philosophical works
+written in the Hebrew language. His next step was to learn German; but, as
+his biographers inform us, he was not able to follow this course without
+undergoing many struggles, and overcoming many obstacles.
+
+It would lead us too far to give a full account of the difficulties which
+the young scholar had to conquer while pursuing his new studies. They will
+be sufficiently characterised by the following extract from a Hebrew
+letter of his disciple, Solomon Leb Rapoport, who, writing in 1841
+concerning his master and friend, remarks: "Consider this, ye inhabitants
+of Germany"--and, I may add, ye inhabitants of England--"and you will be
+astounded. It is easy for you to avoid being one-sided, and to study
+different sciences, for you possess many schools and teachers from every
+branch of learning. It is not so in Poland and Russia even at present,
+much less was it so forty years ago. There is no teacher, no guide, no
+supporter, for the Jew who desires any sort of improvement. The Jew who
+wishes to enter on a new path of learning has to prepare the road for
+himself. And when he has entered on it, his friend will come to him and
+ask, 'Is it true that you have got scientific books in your house? Mind
+you do not mention it to any one. There are enough bigots in the town to
+persecute you and all your family if they get scent of it.' " It was under
+these conditions that Krochmal pursued his studies, which were by no means
+few or easy, for he was not content with a knowledge of only the lighter
+portions of German literature. He soon began to read the works of Lessing,
+Mendelssohn, and more especially of Kant, who always remained his
+favourite philosopher. In his later years he also became acquainted with
+the writings of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. But to the last he could not
+console himself for having missed the advantages of a systematic
+university education.
+
+After having learned German, Krochmal proceeded to acquire a knowledge of
+Latin and French, and to read the best books written in those languages.
+To deepen his knowledge of Hebrew, he studied Arabic and Syraic, but we
+are unable to say how far he succeeded in mastering these languages. With
+these studies, which appear to have occupied our philosopher for an
+interval of ten years after his marriage, the first period of his life
+seems also to end. But the hard work of ten years did not pass over the
+delicate youth without undermining his health for ever. At the age of
+twenty-four, Krochmal fell sick of an illness which compelled him to
+interrupt his work. He was forced to go to Lemberg to consult the doctors
+of that town, and he had to remain there for a long time. And now began
+Krochmal's career as a teacher. For during his stay at Lemberg there
+gathered round him a band of young scholars whom Krochmal's fame had
+already reached. It is useless to enumerate the names of all these
+students. Among them figured Isaac Erter, Samson Bloch, A. Bodek, and many
+others. The most gifted of them was undoubtedly Rapoport, who afterwards
+became even more famous than his master Krochmal. It is not easy to define
+accurately the relation that subsisted between these two men. Graetz, in
+his history, calls Rapoport a disciple of Krochmal. Rapoport himself, in
+his memoir of Krochmal, describes the latter as a dear friend with whom he
+was wont to discuss literary topics. Zunz does not mention Rapoport at all
+in his account of our author. It seems to me that this relation may be
+most aptly defined by the Talmudic term "Talmid-Chaber,"(23) "disciple-
+colleague."
+
+Indeed, Krochmal's whole method of teaching was rather that of a companion
+than of a professor. He gave no set lectures on particular subjects, but
+conveyed his instruction rather by means of suggestive conversations with
+his younger friends. His usual habit was to walk with his pupils in the
+neighbourhood of the town, and to try to influence their minds each in
+accordance with its bent. If any of his disciples showed an inclination
+for poetry, Krochmal sought to refine his taste by directing his attention
+to the best works in Hebrew and German literature. To another, whose fancy
+strayed into mysticism, he recommended the writings of Philo and Ibn Ezra,
+at the same time suggesting how the works of the latter should be
+interpreted. A third who, like Rapoport, was interested in historical
+researches, Krochmal instructed in the methods of critical inquiry.
+
+There must have been some fascinating charm in Nachman's personality,
+which made him irresistible to all who came into contact with him.
+Rapoport has described his first interview with Krochmal. "It is more than
+thirty years since I first made his acquaintance, and beheld the glory of
+his presence. Though he was in weak health, still his soul was strong; and
+as soon as I conversed with him there came over me a spirit of judgment
+and knowledge. I felt almost transformed into another man." Elsewhere the
+same writer says: "Oh, how sweet to me were these walks with
+Krochmal--sweeter than all the pleasures of this world. I could never have
+enough of his wisdom; with his every word he conveyed a new lesson."
+
+After a lengthy stay at Lemberg, Krochmal partially, though not entirely,
+recovered from his severe illness; he remained weak and pale for the rest
+of his days. His antagonists, the Chassidim, believed him to be possessed
+by a demon who could find no better dwelling-place than in the person of
+this arch-heretic. Had it been in their power they would probably have
+dragged him to some exorcist for the purpose of driving out his German,
+French, Latin, and other symptoms of demoniacal heresy. Happily the
+orthodox were powerless to do this, so Krochmal was left unmolested, and
+was allowed to resume his walks and studies. It may be here remarked that
+Krochmal in general avoided giving the Chassidim any cause for reasonable
+complaint. Rapoport asserts that his master was "deeply religious and a
+strict observer of the law. He was zealously anxious to perform every
+ordinance, Biblical or Rabbinical." The only liberty that Krochmal claimed
+for himself and his disciples was the right to study what they thought
+best and in the way they thought best. When this liberty was attacked, he
+showed a firmness and resolution which would hardly have been expected
+from this quiet and gentle man. To one of his pupils, who made concessions
+to the Chassidim and their Zaddikim worship, Krochmal wrote: "Be firm in
+this matter unless you wish to earn the contempt of every honest man. One
+who is afraid of these people, and debases himself before them bears a
+mean soul that was born to slavery. The man that wishes to rise above the
+mob, with its confused notions and corrupt morality, must be courageous as
+a lion in conquering the obstacles that beset his path. Consideration of
+what people will say, what bigots will whisper, what crafty enemies will
+scheme--questions such as these can have but one effect,--to darken the
+intellect and confuse the faculty of judgment."
+
+So Krochmal continued his studies without interruption till 1814, when the
+death of his wife's mother brought his period of ease and comfort to an
+end. His father-in-law seems to have died some time before, and Krochmal
+was forced to seek his own living. He became a merchant, but it is to be
+regretted that he did not prove as successful a man of business as he was
+a man of letters. He found it a hard struggle to earn a living. But the
+severest trial which he had to undergo was the death of his wife in 1826.
+In a letter, dating from about this time, to a friend who had asked him
+for assistance in his philosophical inquiries, Krochmal wrote--"How can I
+help you now? I am already an old man; my head is gray, and my health is
+broken. In the last three years I have met with many misfortunes. My
+beloved wife died after a long illness. My daughter will soon leave me to
+get married, my elder son will depart to seek his livelihood, and I shall
+be left alone with only a child of ten years, the son of my old age. I
+will lift up mine eyes unto the hills: From whence shall my help come?"
+
+Nachman was evidently in very low spirits at this time, but he was in too
+true a sense a philosopher to despair. He turned for comfort to his
+studies, and at this dark epoch of his life he first became acquainted
+with the Philosophy of Hegel, whose system he was wont to call the
+"Philosophy of Philosophies."
+
+For the next ten years the works of Hegel and inquiries into Jewish
+history appear to have absorbed all the leisure that his mercantile
+occupation left him. We shall presently see what the result of these
+studies was. No fresh subjects were undertaken by Krochmal in the last
+years of his life; he had already acquired a fund of knowledge vast enough
+to engage all his thoughts. There are, however, some remaining points in
+his private circumstances which it may not be uninteresting to mention.
+
+Krochmal, as has been already related, was not prosperous in his business.
+Things went from bad to worse, and he was compelled in 1836 to seek a
+situation. "There ought to be literary men poor," some writer has
+maintained, "to show whether they are genuine or not." This test Krochmal
+successfully passed through. Even as a young man Nachman's strength of
+character was admired by his contemporaries not less than his rare
+learning. In his subsequent distress, he gave evidence of the truth of
+this judgment. Despite his poverty, his friends could not prevail upon him
+to accept the post of Rabbi in any Jewish community. "I am unwilling," he
+wrote to a friend, "to be the cause of dissensions in any Jewish
+congregation. I should prefer to die of hunger rather than become a Rabbi
+under present circumstances." He expressed his views on this subject even
+more decidedly on a later occasion when the Berlin congregation offered
+him the post of Chief Rabbi in that town. In a letter, conveying his
+refusal of this honourable office, he says: "I never thought of becoming
+the Conscience-counsellor (_Gewissensrath_) of men. My line of studies was
+not directed to that end, nor would it accord with my disposition and
+sentiments. The only post that I should care to accept would be that of
+teacher in the Jewish Theological Seminary, which, as I was informed, you
+were thinking of establishing in Berlin." The plan to found such an
+institution was not realised till forty years later, and in the interval
+Nachman had to look for his living in other regions than Jewish theology.
+Being in poor circumstances, and as his children and friends had left him,
+he felt very lonely at Zolkiew. "Nobody cares for me here," he writes,
+"and I am equally indifferent." His one desire was to obtain a situation
+at Brody, possibly as book-keeper with a salary of some thirty pounds a
+year, on condition that he would be expected to devote only half the day
+to his business duties, thus securing for himself leisure for
+philosophical studies.
+
+His terms were accepted, and he obtained the humble post he sought. He
+remained in Brody for the next two years, 1836-8, but at the end of 1838
+he fell so dangerously ill that he could no longer resist the pressing
+request of his daughter to live with her at Tarnopol. She had urged him to
+take this step even previous to his removal to Brody, but he had declined
+on the plea that he preferred to live by the labour of his hands. Now,
+however, he yielded to her wish, and betook himself to Tarnopol, where for
+two years longer he lived affectionately tended by his children and
+respected by all who knew him. In May 1840, Krochmal's illness began to
+develop fatal symptoms, and he died in the arms of his daughter on the
+31st of July (the first of Ab), at the age of fifty-five. As Zunz happily
+remarked: "This great man was born on the 7th of Adar, the birthday of
+Moses (according to Jewish tradition), and died on the first of Ab, the
+anniversary of the death of Aaron, the High Priest."
+
+I have tried in the foregoing remarks to give a short sketch of our
+Rabbi's life according to the accounts of Zunz, Rapoport, and Letteris.
+There is one other point to which I must allude, as it involves a
+consideration on which Letteris seems to lay much stress. This biographer
+appears to think that Krochmal was in his youth greatly influenced by the
+society in which he moved, consisting as it did of many learned and
+enlightened men. There is, too, the oft-quoted saying of Goethe:--
+
+
+    Wer den Dichter will verstehen
+    Muss in Dichters Lande gehen.
+
+
+And I am probably expected to give some account of the state of society in
+which Nachman grew up. I regret that I must ask to be excused from doing
+so. I cannot consent to take the reader to Krochmal's land. And if I might
+venture to give him my humble advice, I should only say, "By all means
+stop at home." Goethe may be right about the poet, but his remark does not
+apply to the case of the scholar. It may be true, as some think, that
+every great man is the product of his time, but it certainly does not
+follow that he is the product of his country. Nor could I name any other
+country of which Krochmal was the product. Many a city no doubt boasted
+itself a town full of "_Chakhamim_ and _Sopherim_"(24) as the Hebrew
+phrase is, or, as we would express it, "a seat of learning," full of
+scholars of the ancient and modern schools. But neither these ancient
+scholars nor the modern were of a kind to produce a real scholar and an
+enlightened thinker like Krochmal. There were many men who knew by heart
+the whole of the Halachic works of Maimonides, the Mishnah, and even the
+whole of the Babylonian Talmud. This is very imposing. But if you look a
+little closer, you will find that with a few exceptions--such as the school
+of R. Elijah Wilna--these men, generally speaking, hardly deserve the name
+of scholars at all. They were rather a sort of studying engines. The
+steam-engine passes over a continent, here through romantic scenery, there
+in the midst of arid deserts, by stream and mountain and valley, always
+with the same monotonous hum and shriek. So these scholars went through
+the Talmud with never changing feelings. They did not rejoice at the
+description which is given in tractate _Biccurim_(25) of the procession
+formed when the first-fruits were brought into the Holy Temple. They were
+not much saddened when reading in tractate _Taanith_(26) of the unhappy
+days so recurrent in Jewish history. They were not delighted by the wisdom
+of _Seder Nezikin_,(27) which deals with civil law; nor were they vexed of
+_Seder Taharoth_,(28) which treats of the laws of cleanliness and
+uncleanliness, that by their exaggeration gave cause to much dissension in
+the time of the Temple. The pre-Talmudic literature, such as the _Siphra_,
+_Siphr�_, and _Mechilta_(29)--the only existing means of obtaining an
+insight into the Talmud--were altogether neglected. All that these readers
+cared for was to push on to the end, and the prayer recited at the close
+was of more importance to them than the treatise they had perused.
+
+Not less melancholy was the spectacle presented by the so-called men of
+"Enlightenment" (_Aufkl�rung_). They belonged chiefly to the rationalistic
+school of Mendelssohn, but they equalled their master neither in knowledge
+nor in moral character. It was an enlightenment without foundation in real
+scholarship, and did not lead to an ideal life, though again I must add
+that there were exceptions. These men were rather what Germans would term
+_Sch�ngeister_, a set of dilettanti who cared to study as little as
+possible, and to write as much as possible. They wrote bad grammars,
+superficial commentaries on the Bible, and terribly dull poems. Of this
+literature, with the exception of Erter's _Watchman_,(30) there is
+scarcely a work that one would care to read twice. Most of them despised
+Rabbinism, but without understanding its noblest forms as they are to be
+traced in the Talmud and later Hebrew literature. They did not dislike
+Judaism, but the only Judaism they affected was one "which does not oppose
+itself to anything in particular"; or, as Heine would have described it,
+"Eine reinliche Religion." In one respect these little men were great: in
+mutual admiration, which reached such a pitch that such titles as "Great
+Luminary," "World-famed Sage," were considered altogether too
+insignificant and commonplace.
+
+I will now pass to the writings of Krochmal. It must be premised that
+Krochmal was not a voluminous author. All his writings, including a few
+letters which were published in various Hebrew periodicals, would scarcely
+occupy four hundred pages. Krochmal used to call himself "der ewige
+Student" (the perpetual pupil). He did not read books, nor study
+philosophical systems, with the object of writing books of his own on
+them. He read and studied in order that he might become a better and a
+wiser man. Besides, he did not think himself competent to judge on grave
+subjects, nor did he consider his judgment, even if he formed one, worthy
+of publication. He counselled his friends to be equally slow in publishing
+their views to the world. "Be not," he wrote to a correspondent,--"be not
+hasty in forming your opinions before you have studied the literature of
+the subject with care and devotion. This is no easy matter, for no man can
+obtain any real knowledge of the Torah and philosophy unless he is
+prepared to give himself up in single-hearted devotion to his studies."
+Severe though he was to his friends, he was still more severe to himself.
+Though he had been collecting materials on subjects of Jewish history and
+philosophy from his early youth, it was not until he had endured much
+persuasion and pressure from his friends that he began to write down his
+thoughts in a connected form. We thus possess only one work from the pen
+of this author; but that work is the _Guide of the Perplexed of the
+Time_,(31) a posthumous book published in 1851, eleven years after
+Krochmal's death. His work had been much interrupted by illness during the
+last years of his life, and as a necessary consequence many parts of his
+treatise finally remained in an unfinished state. Krochmal commissioned
+his children to hand over his papers to Zunz, who was to arrange and edit
+them as best he might. Zunz, who in his reverence for Krochmal went so far
+as to call him the man of God, gladly accepted the task, in which he was
+aided by Steinschneider. Unfortunately, the work was published in Lemberg,
+a place famous for spoiling books. Even the skill of these two great
+masters did not suffice to save Krochmal's work from the fate to which all
+the books printed in Lemberg seem inevitably doomed. Thus Krochmal's work
+is printed on bad paper, and with faint ink; it is full of misprints and
+the text is sometimes confused with the notes. A second edition appeared
+in Lemberg in 1863; but, it is scarcely necessary to add, the reprint is
+even worse than the original issue.
+
+The work occupies some 350 pages, and is divided into seventeen chapters.
+The opening six treat of Religion in general. The author first indicates
+the opposite dangers to which men are liable. On the one hand, men are
+exposed to extravagant phantasy (_Schw�rmerei_), superstition and
+ceremonialism (_Werkheiligkeit_). Some, on the other hand, in their
+endeavour to avoid this danger, fall into the opposite extreme,
+materialism, unbelief, and moral degeneracy as a consequence of their
+neglect of all law. He proceeds to say: Even in the ritual part of
+religion, such as the regulations of the Sabbath, the dietary laws and so
+forth, we find abstract definitions necessary, and differences of opinions
+prevalent. In the dogmatic aspects of religion, dealing as they do with
+the grave subjects of metaphysics, the mystery of life and death, the
+destiny of man, his relation to God, reward and punishment, the inner
+meaning of the laws,--in these spiritual matters, the difficulty of
+accurate definition must be far greater and the opportunities for
+difference of opinion more frequent and important. What guide are we to
+follow, seeing that every error involves the most dangerous consequences?
+Shall we abandon altogether the effort of thinking on these grave
+subjects? Such a course is impossible. Do not believe, says Krochmal, that
+there ever was a time when the religious man was entirely satisfied by
+deeds of righteousness, as some people maintain. On the contrary, every
+man, whether an independent thinker or a simple believer, always feels the
+weight of these questions upon him. Every man desires to have some ideal
+basis for his actions which must constitute his real life in its noblest
+moments. Krochmal here quotes a famous passage from the Midrash.(32) The
+Torah, according to one of our ancient sages, may be compared to two
+paths, the one burning with fire, the other covered with snow. If a man
+enters on the former path he will die by the heat; if he walks by the
+latter path he will be frozen by the snow. What, then, must he do? He must
+walk in the middle, or, as we should say, he must choose the golden mean.
+But, as Krochmal suggests, the middle way in historical and philosophical
+doubts does not consist, as some idle heads suppose, in a kind of
+compromise between two opposing views. If one of two contending parties
+declares that twice two make six, while his opponent asserts that twice
+two make eight, a sort of compromise might be arrived at by conceding that
+twice two make seven. But such a compromise would be as false as either
+extreme; and the seeker after the truth must revert to that mean which is
+the heart of all things, independently of all factions, placing himself
+above them.
+
+Having dealt with the arguments relating to the existence of God as
+elaborated in the philosophical systems of his time, Krochmal leads up to
+his treatment of the History of Israel by a chapter on the ideal gifts
+bestowed upon the various ancient nations, which, possessed by them
+through many centuries, were lost when their nationality ceased. We next
+come, in Chapter VII., to the ideal gifts of Israel. These are the
+religious gift and the faculty and desire for seeking the ideal of all
+ideals, namely, God. But Israel, whose mission it was to propagate this
+ideal, was, even as other nations, subject to natural laws; and its
+history presents progress and reaction, rise and decline. Krochmal devotes
+his next three chapters to showing how, in the history of Israel, as in
+other histories, may be detected a triple process. These three stages are
+the budding, the period of maturity, and the decay. As the history of
+Israel is more a history of religion than of politics and battles, its
+rise and decline correspond more or less with Israel's attachment to God,
+and its falling away from Him. The decay would be associated with the
+adoption of either of the extremes, the dangerous effects of which have
+been already mentioned. But "through progress and backsliding, amid
+infectious contact with idolatry, amid survival of old growths of
+superstition, of the crude practices of the past; amid the solicitation of
+new aspects of life; in material prosperity and in material ruin," Israel
+was never wholly detached from God. In the worst times it had its judges
+or its prophets, its heroes or its sages, its Rabbis or its philosophers,
+who strove to bring Israel back to its mission, and who succeeded in their
+efforts to do so. Even in its decay traces of the Divine spirit made
+themselves felt, and revived the nation, which entered again on a triple
+course and repeated its three phases. The first of these three-fold epochs
+began, according to Krochmal's eighth chapter, with the times of the
+Patriarchs, and ended with the death of Gedaliah after the destruction of
+the first Temple. Next, in the following two chapters, Krochmal finds the
+second triple movement in the interval between the prophets of the exile
+in Babylon and the death of Bar-Cochba about 135 A.C. The author also
+hints at the existence of a third such epoch beginning with R. Judah the
+Patriarch, the compiler of the Mishnah (220 A.C.),(33) and ending with the
+expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492). This idea is not further
+developed by Krochmal; but it would be interesting to ask, by the way, in
+which phase of the three-fold process--rise, maturity, or decay--are we at
+the present time?
+
+The next five chapters may be regarded as an excursus on the preceding
+two. Krochmal discusses the Biblical books which belong to the period of
+the Exile and of the Second Temple, such as the Second Isaiah, certain
+Exilic and Maccabean psalms, Ecclesiastes, certain Apocryphal books, and
+the work of the Men of the Great Synagogue. They contain, again,
+researches on the various sects, such as the Assideans, Sadducees,
+Pharisees, Essenes, the Gnostics, the Cabbalists and their relation to the
+latter, and the Minim,(34) who are mentioned in the Talmud. In another
+part of this excursus Krochmal describes the systems of the Alexandrian
+Jewish philosophers, such as Philo and Aristobulus, and discusses their
+relation to certain theosophic ideas in various Midrash-collections. The
+author also attempts to prove the necessity of Tradition; he shows its
+first traces in the Bible, and explains the term Sopherim (scribes); and
+he points out the meaning of the phrase "A law unto Moses from Mount
+Sinai,"(35) and similar expressions. He gives a summary of the development
+of the Halachah in its different stages, the criteria by which the older
+Halachahs may be discriminated; he seeks to arrive at the origin of the
+Mishnah, and deals with various cognate topics. In another discourse
+Krochmal endeavours to explain the term Agadah,(36) its origin and
+development; the different kinds of Agadah and their relative value.
+Chapter XVI. contains the Prolegomena to a philosophy of the Jewish
+religion in accordance with the principles laid down by Hegel. In the
+seventeenth and last chapter the author gives a general introduction to
+the Philosophy of Ibn Ezra, and quotes illustrative extracts.
+
+The space of an essay does not permit me to give further details of
+Krochmal's book. I am conscious that the preceding outline is deficient in
+quality as well as in quantity. Yet, even from this meagre abstract, the
+reader will gather that Krochmal reviews many of the great problems which
+concern religion in general and Judaism in particular. Zunz somewhere
+remarks that Krochmal was inspired in his work by the study of Hegel, just
+as Maimonides had been by the study of Aristotle. I give this statement
+solely on the authority of Zunz, as I myself have never made a study of
+the works of the German philosopher, and am therefore unable to express an
+opinion on the question.
+
+Now there is no doubt that Krochmal's book is not without defects. The
+materials are not always well arranged, there is at times a want of
+proportion in the length at which the various points are treated, and the
+author occasionally seems to wander from the subject in hand. But we shall
+be better able to account for these and similar technical faults, as well
+as to appreciate the real value of the author's work, if we consider the
+following fact. Nachman Krochmal's object was to elaborate a philosophy of
+Jewish history, to trace the leading ideas that ran through it, and the
+ultimate causes that led to its various phases. But, unfortunately, at the
+time when Krochmal began to write, there did not exist a Jewish history at
+all. The labours of Zunz were conducted in an altogether different field.
+Not to mention the names of the younger scholars then unborn, Graetz, the
+author of the _History of the Jews_, and Weiss, who wrote a history of the
+Tradition, were still studying at college. Frankel's masterly essays on
+the Essenes and the Septuagint, his well-known work, _Introduction to the
+__ Mishnah_, and the results of Geiger's most interesting and suggestive
+researches on the older and later Halachah, and on the Pharisees and
+Sadducees, had yet to be written. Rapoport's great treatise, _Erech
+Millin_,(37) had not been published at that time, and Steinschneider was
+not yet working at his historical sketch of Jewish literature. It was not
+till six years after Krochmal's death (viz. in 1846) that Landauer's
+memorable studies on the Jewish mystics were given to the world. Even the
+bad books of Julius F�rst, such as his _History of the Canon_, and his
+still worse _History of Jewish Literature in Babylon_, were then
+unwritten. Neither the most charlatanic _History of the Opinions and
+Teachings of All the Jewish Sects_, by Peter Beer, the universal provider,
+nor Jost's most honest but narrow-minded and superficial _History of the
+Jews_, was of much use to Krochmal. Jost's more scholarly works were not
+published till long afterwards. Krochmal was thus without the guidance of
+those authorities to which we are now accustomed to turn for information.
+Excepting the aid that he derived from the writings of Azariah de
+Rossi,(38) Krochmal was therefore compelled to prosecute all the necessary
+research for himself; he had to establish the facts of Jewish history as
+well as to philosophise upon them. Hence, in the very midst of his
+philosophical analysis, the author was bound to introduce digressions on
+historical subjects, in order to justify as well as to form the basis of
+that analysis. He had to survey the ground and to collect the materials,
+besides constructing the plan of the edifice and working at its erection.
+Nevertheless, it is precisely for these historical excursuses that
+Krochmal has deserved the gratitude of posterity. He it was who taught
+Jewish scholars how to submit the ancient Rabbinic records to the test of
+criticism and the way in which they might be utilised for the purpose of
+historical studies; he it was who enabled them to trace the genesis of the
+tradition, and to watch the inner germination of that vast organism. He
+even indicated to them how they might continue to connect their own lives
+with it, how they might derive nourishment from it, and in their turn
+further its growth. I may assert with the utmost confidence that there is
+scarcely a single page in Krochmal's book that did not afterwards give
+birth to some essay or monograph or even elaborate treatise, though their
+authors were not always very careful about mentioning the source of their
+inspiration. Thus Krochmal justly deserves the honourable title assigned
+to him by one of our greatest historians, who terms him the Father of
+Jewish Science.
+
+So far, I have been speaking of the importance of Krochmal's treatise and
+of its significance in the region of Jewish Science. It is necessary, I
+think, to add a few words with regard to the general tendency of his whole
+work. I have already alluded to the characteristic modesty of Krochmal; I
+have pointed out how little he cared for publicity, how dearly he loved
+retirement. The question accordingly presents itself--What can have been
+the real and sufficient causes that prevailed upon him to yield to the
+solicitations of his friends and to write upon what the Talmud would term
+"matters standing on the heights of the world"?
+
+The answer to this question may, I think, be found in the title of
+Krochmal's book, the _Guide of the Perplexed of the Time_. It is indeed a
+rather unusual coincidence for the title of a Hebrew book to have any
+connection with its subject matter. The same merit is possessed by the
+_Guide of the Perplexed_ of Maimonides, the title of which undoubtedly
+suggested that of Krochmal's treatise. There is, however, one little
+addition in Krochmal's title that contains a most important lesson for us.
+I mean the words "of the Time." By these words Krochmal reminds us that,
+great as are the merits of the immortal work of Maimonides--and it would be
+difficult to exaggerate its value and importance--still it will no longer
+suffice for us. For, as Krochmal himself remarks, every time has its own
+perplexities, and therefore needs its own guide. In order to show that
+these words are no idle phrase, I shall endeavour to illustrate them by
+one example at least. In the _Guide of the Perplexed_ of Maimonides, Part
+II., Chapter XXVI., occurs a passage which runs thus: "In the famous
+chapters known as the 'Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great,'(39) I find R.
+Eliezer the Great saying something more extraordinary than I have ever
+seen in the utterances of any believer in the Law of Moses. I refer to the
+following passage: 'Whence were the heavens created? He (God) took part of
+the light of His garment, He stretched it like a cloth, and thus the
+heavens were extending continually, as it is said (Ps. civ. 2): He
+covereth Himself with light as with a garment, He stretcheth the heavens
+like a curtain. Whence was the earth created? He took of the snow under
+the throne of glory, and threw it; according to the words (in Job xxxvii.
+6), He said to the snow be thou earth.' These are the words given there
+(in the 'Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great'), and I, in my surprise, ask,
+What was the belief of this sage? Did he think it impossible that
+something be produced from nothing?... If the terms 'the light of His
+garment' and the 'snow of glory' mean something eternal (as matter) they
+_must_ be rejected.... In short, it is a passage that greatly confuses the
+notions of all intelligent and religious persons. I am unable to explain
+it sufficiently."
+
+So far Maimonides; and we are quite able to conceive his perplexity in
+dealing with this passage. On one side, Maimonides himself believed that
+Judaism is a dogmatic religion, and that one of its dogmas is the
+principle of _Creatio ex nihilo_. On the other side, he found R.
+Eliezer--one of the greatest authorities of the early part of the second
+century--apparently denying this dogma. The perplexity was indeed a serious
+one for Maimonides, but we find no difficulty whatever in extricating
+ourselves from it. In the first place, there are many who cling to the
+theory which holds that there are no dogmas in Judaism at all, and to them
+Maimonides' difficulty would have no relevance. Secondly, those who
+believe that there are dogmas in Judaism may regard such expressions as
+those quoted above from the "Chapters of R. Eliezer" in the light of mere
+poetical metaphors, or may call them fairy tales or legends, or include
+them in some other section of literature, known under the name of
+folklore, which is an excuse for every absurdity, the fortunate authors of
+which are responsible neither to philosophy nor to religion, and sometimes
+not even to common sense. But there is a third consideration that affords
+the best solution of the difficulty. The "Chapters of R. Eliezer," despite
+their pompous title, are not the work of R. Eliezer at all. Criticism has
+taught us to attach no importance to the heading of a chapter or the
+title-page of a book. We are now in a position to judge from the tone,
+style, and contents of the work, that the "Chapters of R. Eliezer" is a
+later compilation of the eighth century, and that its author could not
+have been R. Eliezer, the teacher of R. Akiba, in the second century. In
+this way, these particular difficulties of Maimonides solve themselves for
+us in a sufficiently easy way. But it is just these solutions that open up
+new difficulties and perplexities which did not exist for the generation
+of the great Spanish philosopher. Suppose that we accept the view that
+Judaism is not a dogmatic religion. But how are we to conceive a religion
+without dogmas, or, if you prefer the expression, without principles or
+bases of belief? Or is Judaism, as some platitudinarians think, a mere
+national institute with some useful dietary and sanitary laws, but with
+nothing that makes for the sanctification of man, with no guidance to
+offer us in the great problems of our life, and in the greatest anxieties
+of the human soul? On the other hand, granted that we may consider certain
+things as mere legend, how are we to discriminate between these and the
+things that must be taken seriously? Does it depend on the nature of the
+subject, or on the position of the book in the canon of Hebrew literature?
+In the thirteenth century symbolical meanings were given to certain
+difficult passages in the Talmud; but the process was carried further, and
+the Biblical narratives were subjected by philosophers to a like
+treatment. R. Solomon ben Adereth and his colleagues (in the thirteenth
+century) settled the question by indiscriminately excommunicating all
+young men who should study philosophy; but this method is scarcely one to
+be commended for present use.
+
+The third, or the philological solution of difficulties, leads to fresh
+troubles. A hundred years ago men were in that happy state of mind in
+which they knew everything. They knew the exact author and date of every
+Psalm; they knew the author of each and every ancient Midrash; they knew
+the originator of every law and ordinance; they even knew the writer of
+the Zohar, and of other mystical books. There were certainly a few who did
+not know all these things, among them Ibn Ezra, Azariah de Rossi, and the
+two Delmedigos.(40) But they were merely a miserable historical blunder,
+men who had no right to be born when they were. But the philological
+method has swept away all this knowingness as by a deluge from heaven, and
+men find that they know nothing. True, there linger on a few who still
+know all these things, but it is they who are now the anachronism. These,
+and such as these, are the perplexities of our time, to the resolution of
+which the labours of Krochmal and of a noble band of scholars have been
+directed in this century.
+
+Have these perplexities, we must ask, and these puzzles been solved by
+Krochmal and his coadjutors? We may with all certainty answer: They have
+only pointed out the way, it is for ourselves to proceed by it. It would
+be unreasonable to expect that difficulties which have been accumulating
+during the course of thousands of years should be solved by the men of one
+or two generations. Again, we live in a century in which excavations and
+discoveries in other fields have added at once to our knowledge and to our
+uncertainty. Each country, we might almost say, over and above the
+perplexities that trouble mankind in general, has its own special
+difficulties which are entirely unknown to those who dwell outside its
+frontiers. I am not disposed to discuss these difficulties in this place.
+Nor have I the ability to do so. But of two things I am perfectly certain:
+the first is, that for a solution of these difficulties which, in the
+language of Maimonides, "confuse the notions of all intelligent and
+religious persons," the only hope is in true knowledge and not in
+ignorance; and secondly, this knowledge can only be obtained by a
+combination of the utmost reverence for religion and the deepest devotion
+to truth. The poor old Rabbis who have been so foully decried by their
+calumniators as hedonists, and so foolishly praised by sorry apologists as
+materialistic optimists, strongly insisted that when a man woos the truth,
+his suit can only prosper if he is influenced by the purest and most
+single-hearted affection. "A man," says the Siphr�, "must not say: 'I will
+study the Torah in order that I may attain the title of Rabbi or savant,
+or that I may become rich by it, or that I may be rewarded for it in the
+world to come.' He must study for love's sake." Such a knowledge, which is
+free from all taint of worldliness and of other-worldliness, a knowledge
+sought simply and solely for pure love of God, who is Truth,--such a
+knowledge is in the highest sense a saving knowledge, and Nachman Krochmal
+was in possession of it.
+
+
+
+
+
+III. RABBI ELIJAH WILNA, GAON
+
+
+The three great stars of German literature are usually characterised by
+German scholars in the following way: Goethe they say represents the
+beautiful, Schiller the ideal, while Lessing represents truth. I think
+that we may apply the same characteristics to the three great luminaries,
+with which the Jewish middle ages ceased--for as Zunz somewhere remarked,
+the Jewish middle ages lasted till the beginning of the eighteenth
+century--and the modern age of Judaism opened. I am thinking of Mendelssohn
+in Germany, Israel Baalshem, the founder of the sect of the Chassidim in
+Podolia, and Elijah Wilna, or as he is more frequently called, the
+Gaon,(41) the Great One, in Lithuania.
+
+As to Mendelssohn, enough, and perhaps more than enough, has already been
+written and spoken about his merits in awakening the sense for the
+beautiful and the harmonious which was almost entirely dormant among the
+Jews of his age. In regard to the second, namely, Israel Baalshem, I have
+only to refer the reader to the first essay in this volume. The subject of
+the present essay will be R. Elijah Wilna, who, among the Jews, as Lessing
+among the Germans, represented truth, both by his life and by his literary
+activity.
+
+I say that the Gaon represented truth, but these words must be taken _cum
+grano salis_. For I do not mean at all to say that he was in possession of
+the whole truth, still less in _exclusive_ possession of it. It is true as
+we shall learn in the course of this essay, that the Gaon was a genius of
+the first order. But there are matters of truth, the obtaining of which
+cannot be accomplished by genius alone. R. Elijah Wilna did not know any
+other language than Hebrew. Truths, therefore, which are only to be
+reached through the medium of other languages, remained a secret to him.
+Again, records of ancient times which are buried in the shelves of remote
+libraries or under the ruins of past civilisations are not always a matter
+of intuition. Even the most gifted of men have to wait patiently till
+these are brought to light by the aid of spade and shovel, or the pen of
+some obscure copyist. But R. Elijah lived at a time when excavation had as
+yet done very little for Semitic studies, and when a Jew scarcely got
+admittance into the great libraries of Europe. Thus much truth which we
+get now in a very easy way was beyond this seer's eye.
+
+But even if all the libraries on earth had been at his disposal, even if
+he had read all the cuneiform writings which ornament the British Museum,
+and had deciphered all the Hieroglyphics which the Louvre possesses, even
+in that case we should not be justified in terming him a representative of
+the truth, without qualifying our words.
+
+"Truth," said the old Rabbis, "is the Seal of the Holy One, praised be
+He." But Heaven has no Lord Chancellor. Neither men nor angels are trusted
+with the great Seal. They are only allowed to catch a glimpse of it, or
+rather to long after this glimpse. However, even the longing and effort
+for this glimpse will bring man into communion with God, and make his life
+divine. And the life of the Gaon was, as we shall see, one long effort and
+unceasing longing after the truth.
+
+Again, if I say that the Gaon represented truth, you must not think that
+he lacked the two other qualities. A life entirely devoted to such a great
+cause as that of seeking the truth is, _ipso facto_, ideal and harmonious.
+It is only in his influence on Judaism--more particularly on the Jews in
+the North of Europe--that this feature in his life becomes more prominent
+than his other admirable qualities.
+
+In what this truth consisted, how the Gaon arrived at it, and by what
+means he conveyed it to others, we shall see in the course of this essay.
+
+R. Elijah was born at Wilna in the year 1720. His father, Solomon Wilna,
+is called by his biographers the great Rabbi Solomon, and is said to have
+been the descendant of R. Moses Rivkas, the author of a learned work,
+containing notes to the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro.(42)
+
+Having quoted the biographers, I must point out that there are only two
+biographies of the Gaon: the one by Finn, in his book _Faithful City_,(43)
+on the celebrities of Wilna, the other by Nachman of Horodna, in his book
+_Ascension of Elijah_.(44) The former is a very honest account of the
+Gaon's life, but a little too short. The latter is too long, or rather too
+much intermixed with that sort of absurd legend, the authors of which are
+incapable of marking the line which separates the monster from the hero.
+
+Even in the region of imagination we must not for a moment forget the good
+advice given to us by one of our greatest scholars who had to deal with a
+kindred subject: "He," says this scholar, "who banishes the thought of
+higher and lower from his study, degrades it into a mere means of
+gratifying his curiosity, and disqualifies it for the lofty task which it
+is called upon to perform for modern society." We shall thus cling to the
+higher and stop at the hero.
+
+Our hero was the first-born of five brothers. They were all famous men in
+their little world. According to the tradition in Wilna, Elijah was a
+lovely child, with beautiful eyes, and goodly to look at, or as it is
+expressed in another place, "as beautiful as an angel!" The tradition, or
+rather the legend, relates that as a child of six years he was already the
+pupil of R. Moses Margalith, the famous author of a commentary on the
+Talmud of Jerusalem. At the age of seven years he is said to have already
+perplexed the Chief Rabbi of his native town by his controversial skill in
+Talmudical subjects. At the early age of nine he was acquainted with the
+contents of the Bible, the Mishnah, the Talmud and its ancient
+commentaries; and even the Cabbalistic works of R. Isaac Loria were no
+secret to the youthful scholar.(45) At the age of twelve years he is said
+to have acquired the seven liberal arts, and to have puzzled the scholars
+of Wilna by his astronomical knowledge. At thirteen, when according to
+Jewish law he attained his majority, he was already the accomplished or
+"the great one" (Gaon); so far tradition. I am afraid that tradition is
+here, against all experience, too exact in its dates. But we may learn
+from it that the child Elijah showed many signs of the future Gaon, and
+was therefore considered as the prodigy of his age. Again it is likewise
+pretty certain that no man could boast of having been the master of
+Elijah. He was not the product of any school, nor was he biassed by the
+many prejudices of his time. He was allowed to walk his own way in his
+struggle after truth.
+
+It is rather an unfortunate thing that history is so much made up of
+parallels and contrasts that the historian or even the biographer cannot
+possibly point out the greatness of some men without touching, however
+slightly, on the smallness of others. It is only natural that every strong
+shining object should push the minor lights of its surroundings into the
+background and darken them. Thus, when we are speaking of the superiority
+of the Gaon, we cannot escape hinting at least at the shortcomings of his
+contemporaries, as well as of his predecessors.
+
+To indicate briefly in what this superiority consisted, I will premise
+here a few words from a _Responsum_ by one of his great predecessors, the
+Gaon Rabbi Hai.(46) Consulted by a student as to the meaning of certain
+mystical passages in the tractate _Chagigah_,(47) Rabbi Hai, in warning
+his correspondent not to expect from him a long philosophical
+dissertation, writes as follows: "Know that it never was our business to
+palliate matters and explain them in a way of which the author never could
+have thought. This is fashionable with other people, but our method is to
+explain the words of this or that authority in accordance with his own
+meaning. We do not pledge ourselves that this meaning is 'right rule' in
+itself, for there _do_ exist statements made by the old authorities that
+cannot be accepted as norm." Thus far the words of the Gaon of the tenth
+century, which speak volumes. The Gaon of the eighteenth century followed
+the same course. All his efforts were directed to this point; namely, to
+find out the true meaning of the Mishnah, the true meaning of the
+Gemara,(48) the true meaning of the Gaonim, the true meaning of the great
+codifiers, and the true meaning of the commentators on the ancient
+Rabbinical literature. Whether this meaning would be acceptable to us
+mattered very little to him. His only object was to understand the words
+of his predecessors, and this he obtained, as we shall soon see, by the
+best critical means. This was the method of the Gaon; that of other
+scholars (at least of the great majority) was dictated by entirely
+different considerations. They would not suffer the idea that the great
+man could be wrong at times. To them, all that he said was "right rule."
+Now suppose a great author like Maimonides had overlooked an important
+passage in the Talmud or any other statement by a great authority, the
+alternative remaining to them was either to explain away the passage of
+the Talmud or to give the words of Maimonides a strange meaning. This led
+originally to the famous method of the _Pilpul_ (casuistry), a kind of
+spiritual gymnastic, which R. Liva of Prague in the sixteenth century, and
+many others condemned as most pernicious to Judaism and leading to the
+decay of the study of the Torah.
+
+Now it is beyond doubt that the method of the two Gaonim is the only right
+one. But, in justice to the casuistic school, which includes many a great
+name, it is only right to remember that this impartiality towards
+acknowledged authorities as maintained by our hero is not at all such an
+easy matter as we imagine. We quote often with great satisfaction the
+famous saying, _Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates, sed magis amica veritas_,
+"Plato is our friend, so is Socrates, but Truth is, or rather ought to be,
+our greatest friend." This sounds very nicely, but let us only realise
+what difficulties it involves. To be a friend of Socrates or Plato means
+to know them, or in other words to have a thorough knowledge of the
+writings of the one and the recorded utterances of the other. But such a
+knowledge can with most men only be obtained by devoting one's _whole_
+life to the study of their works, so that there is not left much time for
+new friendships. And the few who are able to save a few years after long
+wanderings with these Greek philosophers, seldom see the necessity of new
+friendships. For what else did those long courtships of Plato or Aristotle
+mean except that those who conducted them thought that thereby they would
+wed Truth?
+
+This impartiality is the more difficult when these friends are invested
+with a kind of religious authority where humility and submission are most
+important factors. The history of Lanfranc, the predecessor of Anselm of
+Canterbury, gives a striking example of what this submission meant in the
+Middle Ages. One day, we are told, when he was still an ordinary monk, he
+was reading at the table and pronounced a word as it ought to be
+pronounced, but not as seemed right to the person presiding, who bade him
+say it differently; "as if he had said _docere_, with the middle syllable
+long, as is right, and the other had corrected it into _docere_, with the
+middle short, which is wrong; for that Prior was not a scholar. But the
+wise man, knowing that he owed obedience rather to Christ than to Donatus,
+the grammarian, gave up his pronunciation, and said what he was wrongly
+told to say; for to make a short syllable long, or a long one short, he
+knew to be no deadly sin, but not to obey one set over him in God's behalf
+was no light transgression."(49)
+
+But this admiration--and here we turn again to the Gaon--must not prevent us
+from believing that Providence is not confined to such ungrammatical
+Priors, and that the men who are really working on behalf of God are those
+who teach us to pronounce rightly, and to think rightly, and to take
+matters as they are, not as we desire them to be on account of our
+friends.
+
+As for the critical means to which I have alluded, the Gaon himself said
+somewhere that simplicity is the best criterion of truth, and this is the
+most characteristic feature of all his literary career. The Gaon studied
+Hebrew grammar in order to obtain a clear notion of the language in which
+the Scriptures are written. He tried to attain to the knowledge of the
+Bible by reading the Bible itself; and was not satisfied to become
+acquainted with its contents from the numerous quotations which are made
+from it in Rabbinical literature. Again, he studied mathematics,
+astronomy, and philosophy, as far as they could be found in Hebrew books.
+Certainly the Gaon did not study these subjects for their own sake, and
+they were considered by him only as a means to the end, or as the phrase
+goes, as the "hand-maidens" of Theology, the queen of all sciences. But it
+may be looked upon as a mark of great progress in an age when Queen
+Theology had become rather sulky, continually finding fault with her hand-
+maidens, and stigmatising every attention paid to them as conducive to
+disloyalty. To these accusations the Gaon answered that Queen Theology
+does not study her own interests. Knowledge of all arts and sciences, the
+Gaon maintained, is necessary for the real understanding of the Torah
+which embraces the whole of them. From his own writings it is evident that
+he himself was familiar with Euclid, and his _Ayil Meshulash_ contains
+several original developments of Euclid. It was at his suggestion that a
+certain Baruch of Sclow translated Euclid into the Hebrew language.
+
+Another way which led the Gaon to the discovery of many truths was his
+study of the pre-Talmudic literature, and of the Jerusalem Talmud. By some
+accident or other it came to pass that only the Babylonian Talmud was
+recognised as a guide _in the practices of religious life_. As the great
+teachers and their pupils cared more for satisfying the religious wants of
+their flocks than for theoretic researches, the consequence was that a
+most important part of the ancient Rabbinic literature was almost entirely
+neglected by them for many centuries. And it was certainly no
+exaggeration, when R. Elijah said that even the Gaonim and Maimonides,
+occupied as they were with the practical part of the law, did not pay
+sufficient attention to the Talmud of Jerusalem and the Tosephta.(50) The
+Gaon was no official head of any Jewish community, and was but little
+troubled by decisions of questions which concern daily life. He was thus
+in a position to leave for a little while the Babylonian Talmud and to
+become acquainted with the guides of the guide. I refer to Siphra, Siphr�,
+Mechilta, Tosephta, the Seder Olam,(51) the Minor Tractates,(52) and above
+all the Talmud of Jerusalem, which, regarded from an historical and
+critical point of view, is even of more importance than its Babylonian
+twin-brother. But by this means there came a new light upon the whole of
+ancient Rabbinic literature. The words of the Torah, the Midrash says, are
+poor in one place, but we shall find them rich in another place. The Gaon
+by his acquaintance with the _whole_ of the Torah had no difficulty
+whatever in discovering the rich places. If there was a difficult passage
+in this or that Tractate, he showed, by giving a reference to some other
+place, that it was wanting in some words or lines. Obscure passages in the
+Mishnah he tried to elucidate by parallel passages in the Tosephta. The
+too complicated controversies of the Babylonian Talmud he tried to explain
+by comparing them with the more ancient and more simple Talmud of
+Jerusalem.
+
+There is little to be told of the Gaon's private affairs. Even the date of
+his marriage with a certain Miss Anna of Kaidon is not mentioned by his
+biographers. But it may be taken for granted that, in accordance with the
+custom in Poland, he married at a very early age, say about eighteen
+years. It was also when a young man that he travelled for some years
+through Poland and Germany. It is rather difficult to say what his object
+may have been in making these travels--for the Gaon was not the man to
+travel for pleasure's sake. Perhaps it was to become acquainted with the
+great Rabbis of these countries. It is also possible, as others maintain,
+that the Gaon considered the many privations which a traveller had to
+endure a hundred and fifty years ago, as an atonement for his imaginary
+sins. Indeed we find in many ascetic books that travelling, or as they
+term it "receiving upon oneself to be banished into the exile,"(53) is
+recommended as a very successful substitute for penance. At least it seems
+that the coachmen whom the Gaon employed on his journeys looked at it from
+this point of view. One of them went so far in adding to the privations of
+the Gaon as to run away with his carriage when the Rabbi alighted from it
+in order to read his prayers. But the reading of the Eighteen
+Benedictions(54) must not be interrupted excepting in the case of danger;
+and the Gaon did not consider it very dangerous to be left without money
+and without luggage.
+
+These travels ended in the year 1745. The Gaon left Wilna again at a later
+date with the purpose of going to Palestine and settling there. But he
+found so many obstacles on his way that he was soon compelled to give up
+his favourite plan and to return to his native town. It is not known
+whether he left Wilna again.
+
+The position which the Gaon occupied in Wilna was, as already hinted, that
+of a private man. He could never be prevailed upon to accept the post of
+Rabbi or any other office in a Jewish community. I am unable to give the
+reason for his declining all the offers made to him in this direction. But
+it may be suggested here that it was in the time of the Gaon that there
+arose a bitter struggle between the Rabbi and the Jewish wardens of his
+native town, which ended in the abolition of the office of Rabbi. The
+history of the struggle is the more irritating, as it arose from the
+pettiest reasons imaginable. People actually discovered that there was no
+light in the house of the Rabbi after the middle of the night, which fact
+might lead to the conclusion that he did not study later than 12 o'clock
+P.M. What an idle man! And this idleness was the less pardonable in the
+eyes of the community, as the Rabbi's wife was so unfortunate as not to
+have been polite enough to some Mrs. Warden. Under such circumstances we
+must not wonder if the Gaon did not find it very desirable to meddle with
+congregational affairs in an official capacity. The relation of the Gaon
+to his contemporaries resembles rather the position in the olden times of
+a Tanna or Amora,(55) who neither enjoyed the title of Nasin or that of Ab
+Beth Din.(56) Like R. Akiba, or Mar Samuel, the Gaon became influential
+among his contemporaries only by his teaching and his exemplary life.
+
+It must be said in praise of the Jews of Wilna that, notwithstanding their
+petty behaviour towards their ecclesiastical chief, they willingly
+submitted to the authority of the Gaon (who was devoid of all official
+authority). They revered him as a saint. To converse with the Gaon was
+considered as a happy event in the life of a Jew in Wilna, to be of any
+use to him as the greatest distinction a man could attain on earth. But
+what is remarkable is the readiness with which even scholars acknowledged
+the authority of the Gaon. Scholars are usually more slow in recognising
+greatness than simple mortals. Every new luminary does not only outshine
+their minor lights and thus hurt their personal vanity, but it threatens
+also sometimes to obscure certain traditions which they wish to keep
+prominently in view. But the literary genius of the Gaon was too great to
+be opposed with success, and his piety and devotion to religion far above
+suspicion. Thus the Gaon was very soon recognised by his contemporaries as
+their master and guide; not only in literary questions, but also in
+matters of belief and conduct.
+
+It would lead me too far to name here all the Gaon's disciples. It seems
+as if all the great scholars in his country considered themselves to be
+more or less his pupils. The Gaon used to give in the Beth Hammidrash,
+which he founded, public lectures on various subjects, and the students
+who attended these lectures also claimed the honour of being called his
+pupils. I shall mention here only his greatest disciple, R. Chayim
+Walosin, who, after the Gaon, influenced his countrymen more than any
+other scholar of that time. This R. Chayim also did not occupy any
+official post among his brethren. He was a cloth manufacturer by
+profession, and was very prosperous in his business. But it did not
+prevent him from being devoted to Hebrew literature, and he enjoyed a
+wide-spread fame as a great scholar. But as soon as the fame of the Gaon
+reached him, he left cloth manufactory and scholarship behind, and went to
+Wilna to "learn Torah" from the mouth of the great master. It must be
+noticed that even the giving up of his claim to scholarship was no little
+sacrifice. All our learning, said some scholar in Wilna, disappeared as
+soon as we crossed the threshold of the Gaon's house. He made every
+disciple who came into close contact with him begin at the beginning. He
+taught them Hebrew grammar, Bible, Mishnah, and many other subjects, which
+were, as already mentioned, very often neglected by the Talmudists of that
+time. R. Chayim had also to go through all this course. Some would have
+considered such treatment a degradation. R. Chayim, however, became the
+more attached to his master for it.
+
+In such a way the life of the Gaon was spent, studying by himself or
+teaching his pupils. It must be understood that to learn Torah meant for
+the Gaon more than mere brain work for the purpose of gaining knowledge.
+To him it was a kind of service to God. Contemporaries who watched him
+when he was studying the Torah observed that the effect wrought on the
+personality of the Gaon was the same as when he was praying. With every
+word his countenance flushed with joy; with every line he was gaining
+strength for proceeding further. Only by looking at matters from this
+point of view shall we be able to understand the devotion and the love of
+the Gaon for study.
+
+There has been, no doubt, among the Russian Jews a strong tendency to
+exaggerate the intellectual qualities of the Gaon. But one can readily
+excuse such a tendency. He was gifted by nature with such a wonderful
+memory that, having read a book once, he was able to recite it by heart
+for the rest of his life. Not less admirable was his sure grasp. The most
+complicated controversies in the Talmud, into which other scholars would
+require whole days and weeks to find their way, the Gaon was able to read
+by a glance at the pages. Already as a boy he is said to have gone through
+in a single night the tractates _Zebachim_ and _Menachoth_,(57) containing
+not less than two hundred and thirty pages, the contents of which are
+sometimes so difficult as to make even an aged scholar despair of
+understanding them. Again, he possessed so much common-sense that all the
+intellectual tricks of the casuistic schools did not exist for him. And
+nevertheless his biographers tell us that he was so much occupied by his
+studies, that he could not spare more than one hour and a half for sleep
+out of twenty-four hours. This is, no doubt, an exaggeration. But let us
+say five hours a day. He had not time to take his meals regularly. He used
+also, according to tradition, to repeat every chapter in the Bible, every
+passage in the Talmud, hundreds of times, even if they presented no
+difficulty at all. But it was, as already said, a matter of love for the
+Gaon; of love, not of passing affection.
+
+Nothing on earth could be more despicable to the Gaon than amateurs who
+dabble with ancient literature. To understand a thing clearly made him
+happy. He is said to have spent more than six months on a single Mishnah
+in the tractate _Kilayim_,(58) and felt himself the happiest man when he
+succeeded in grasping its real meaning. Not to be able to go into the
+depth of a subject, to miss the truth embedded in a single passage, caused
+him the most bitter grief. A story told by his pupil, R. Chayim, may
+illustrate this fact. One Friday, narrates R. Chayim, the servant of the
+Gaon came to him with the message that his master wanted to see him as
+soon as possible. R. Chayim went instantly. When he came into the house,
+he found the Gaon lying in bed with a bandage on his head and looking very
+ill. The wife of the Gaon also reported to him that it was more than three
+days since her husband had taken any food, and that he had hardly enjoyed
+any sleep all this time. All this misery was caused by reason of not
+having been able to understand some difficult passages in the Talmud of
+Jerusalem. The Gaon now asked his disciples to resume with him their
+researches. Heaven, he said, might have mercy upon them and open their
+eyes, for it is written, "Two are better than one": and lo! Heaven did
+have mercy on them; they succeeded in getting the true meaning of the
+passage. The Gaon recovered instantly, and master and disciple had a very
+joyful Sabbath.
+
+He is also reported to have said on one occasion, he would not like to
+have an angel for his teacher who would reveal to him all the mysteries of
+the Torah. Such a condition is only befitting the world to come, but in
+_this_ world only things which are acquired by hard labour and great
+struggle are of any value. The German representative of truth expressed
+the same thought in other words, which are well worth repeating here: "Did
+the Almighty," says Lessing, "holding in His right hand Truth and in His
+left Search after Truth, deign to tender me the one I might prefer, in all
+humility and without hesitation I should select Search after Truth."
+
+This absorption of all his being in the study of the Torah may also, I
+think, account for the fact that his biographers have so little to say
+about the family of the Gaon. Of his wife, we know only that she died in
+the year 1783. Not much fuller is our knowledge about his children. The
+biographers speak of them as of the family "which the Lord has blessed,"
+referring to his two sons, Rabbi Aryeh Leb and Rabbi Abraham, who were
+known as great scholars and very pious men. The latter one is best known
+by his edition of a collection of smaller Midrashim. Mention is also made
+of the Gaon's sons-in-law, especially one Rabbi Moses of Pinsk. But this
+is all, and we are told nothing either about their lives or their
+callings. From his famous letter which he sent to his family when on his
+way to Palestine, we see that he was rather what one may call a severe
+father. He bids his wife punish his children most severely for swearing,
+scolding, and speaking untruth. He also advises her to live as retired a
+life as possible. Retirement he considers as a condition _sine qua non_
+for a religious life. He even advises his daughter to read her prayers at
+home, for in the synagogue she may get envious of the finer dresses of her
+friends, which is a most terrible sin. The only tender feature in this
+letter is perhaps where he implores his wife to be kind to his mother on
+account of her being a widow, and it were a great sin to cause her the
+least annoyance. From other passages we may gather that his family had at
+times to suffer hunger and cold by the excessive occupation of their
+father with the study of the Torah and other religious works. In short,
+the Gaon was a one-sided, severe ascetic, and would never have deserved
+the title of a good father, a good husband, an amiable man or any other
+appellation derived from those ordinary "household decencies" which, as
+Macaulay informs us, half of the tombstones claim for those who lie behind
+them. But I am very much afraid that many a great man who has made his
+mark in history could never claim these household virtues as his own. I do
+not want to enter here into the question whether Judaism be an ascetic
+religion or not. But even those who think Judaism identical with what is
+called "making the best of this life," will not dispute the fact that
+Jewish literature contains within it enough ascetic elements to justify
+the conduct of our greatest men whose lives were one long-continued self-
+denial and privation. "The Torah," says the Talmud, "cannot be obtained
+unless a man is prepared to give his life for it," or as the Talmud puts
+it, in another place, "if it be thy desire not to die, cease to live
+before thou diest." This was the principle by which the Gaon's life was
+actuated. And as he did not spare himself, he could not spare others. We
+could not expect him to act differently. The Scriptures tell us: "Thou
+shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." But how is it with the man who never
+loved himself, who never gave a thought to himself, who never lived for
+himself, but only for what he considered to be his duty and his mission
+from God on earth? Such a man we cannot expect to spend his time on
+coaxing and caressing us. As to the charge of one-sidedness at which I
+have hinted, if the giving up of everything else for the purpose of
+devoting oneself to a scholarly and saintly life is one-sidedness, the
+Gaon must certainly bear this charge; but in a world where there are so
+many on the other side, we ought, I think, to be only too grateful to
+Providence for sending us from time to time great and strong one-sided
+men, who, by their counterbalancing influence, bring God's spoilt world to
+a certain equilibrium again. To appease my more tender readers, I should
+like only to say that there is no occasion at all for pitying Mrs. Gaon.
+It would be a miserable world indeed if a good digestion and stupidity
+were, as a certain author maintained, the only conditions of happiness.
+Saints are happy in their sufferings, and noble souls find their happiness
+in sacrificing themselves for these sufferers.
+
+Another severe feature in the life of the Gaon showed itself in his
+dispute with the Chassidim. I regret not to be able to enter here even
+into a brief account of the history of this struggle. I shall only take
+leave to say that I am afraid each party was right, the Gaon as well as
+the Chassidim; the latter, in attacking the Rabbis of their time, who
+mostly belonged to the casuistic schools, and in their intellectual
+pursuits almost entirely neglected the emotional side of religion; but
+none the less was the Gaon right in opposing a system which, as I have
+shown above, involved the danger of leading to a worship of men.
+
+Excepting this incident, the Gaon never meddled with public affairs. He
+lived in retirement, always occupied with his own education and that of
+his disciples and friends. It is most remarkable that, in spite of his
+hard work and the many privations he had to endure, he enjoyed good health
+almost all his life. He never consulted a doctor. It was not until the
+year 1791, in the seventieth year of his life, that he began to feel the
+decline of his health. But he was not much interrupted by the failure of
+his powers. As a means of recovery, he esteemed very highly the
+conversation of the preacher Jacob of Dubna, better known as the Dubna
+Maggid,(59) whose parables and sallies of wit the Gaon used to enjoy very
+much. On the eve of the Day of Atonement in the year 1797, he fell very
+ill and gave his blessing to his children. He died on the third day of the
+Feast of Tabernacles, with the branch of the Lulab(60) in his hands. The
+Feast of Joy, relates a contemporary, was turned into days of mourning. In
+all the streets of Wilna were heard only lamenting and crying voices. The
+funeral orations delivered on this occasion in Wilna, as well as in other
+Jewish communities, would form a small library. His disciples wept for
+their master, the people of Wilna for the ornament of their native town,
+and the feeling of the Jews in general was that "the Ark of God was taken
+away."
+
+After the foregoing sketch, the reader will hardly expect me to give an
+account of the Gaon's literary productions. The results of so long a life
+and such powers of mind devoted to one cause with such zeal and fervour,
+would furnish by themselves the subject of a whole series of essays. The
+tombstone set on his grave by his pious admirers bears the inscription,
+"The Gaon gave heed and sought and set in order"--that is to say, he wrote
+commentaries or notes on--"the Bible, the Mishnah, both Talmuds, the
+Siphr�, Siphra, the Zohar, and many other works." Inscriptions on
+tombstones are proverbial for exaggeration, and we all know the saying,
+"as mendacious as an epitaph." But a glance at the catalogue of the
+British Museum under the heading of Elijah Wilna, will show that this
+inscription makes a praiseworthy exception. We will find that this list
+might be lengthened by many other works of great importance for Jewish
+life and thought. His commentary to the Code of R. Joseph Caro, in which
+one will find that in many cases he knew the sources of the religious
+customs and usages, put together in this work, better than its compiler
+himself, would have been sufficient to place him at the head of Halachic
+scholarship, whilst his notes and textual emendations to the Tosephta and
+Seder Olam, to the restoration of which he contributed so much, would have
+sufficed to establish his fame as a critic of the first order. And this is
+the more astonishing when we consider that all this was done without
+manuscripts or any other aid, and by mere intuition. We cannot wonder that
+scholars who had the opportunity of visiting great libraries and saw how
+the emendations of the Gaon agreed sometimes with the readings given in
+the best manuscripts exclaimed very often: "Only by inspiration could he
+have found out these secrets." We have no need to go so far; we shall
+simply say with the Talmud, "The powers of the real sage surpass those of
+the prophet." Nay, even had we possessed only his _Gleanings_, which form
+a kind of _obiter dicta_ on various topics of Jewish literature, the Gaon
+would have remained a model of clear thinking and real ingenuity for all
+future generations.
+
+However, a real appreciation of the Gaon's greatness as a scholar would
+only be possible either by a thorough study of his works, to which I have
+alluded, or by giving many specimens of them. The short space I am limited
+to makes such an undertaking impossible. I shall therefore use what
+remains to me to say a few words on the salutary influence the Gaon had on
+his countrymen, the Russian Jews.
+
+The Russian Jew is still a riddle to us. We know this strange being only
+from the Reports of the Board of Guardians or from bombastic phrases in
+public speeches; for he has always been the victim of platform orators,
+
+
+    So over violent or over civil,
+    That every man with them is God or Devil.
+
+
+From all, however, that I can gather from the best Jewish writers in
+Russia, I can only judge that the Russian Jew, when transplanted to a
+foreign soil, where he is cut off from the past and uncertain of his
+future, is for the time at least in a position in which his true character
+cannot be truly estimated. His real life is to be sought in his own
+country. There, amidst his friends and kinsmen who are all animated by the
+same ideals, attached to the same traditions, and proud of the same
+religious and charitable institutions, everything is full of life and
+meaning to him. Thus, a certain Russian writer addresses his younger
+colleagues who find so much fault with the bygone world: "Go and see how
+rich we always were in excellent men. In every town and every village you
+would find scholars, saints, and philanthropists. Their merits could
+sustain worlds, and each of them was an ornament of Israel." And he
+proceeds to give dozens of names of such excellent men, who are not all
+indeed known to us, but with whom the Russian Jew connects many noble and
+pious reminiscences of real greatness and heroic self-denial, and of whom
+he is justly proud.
+
+The focus, however, of all this spiritual life is the Yeshibah (Talmudical
+College)(61) in Walosin. I hope that a glance at its history and
+constitution will not be found uninteresting. The intellectual originator
+of this institution which bears the name _Yeshibah Ets Chayim_ (Tree of
+Life College),(62) was the Gaon himself. Being convinced that the study of
+the Torah is the very life of Judaism, but that this study must be
+conducted in a scientific, not in a scholastic way, he bade his chief
+disciple, the R. Chayim already mentioned, to found a college in which
+Rabbinical literature should be taught according to his own true method.
+It would seem that, as long as the Gaon was alive, R. Chayim preferred to
+be a pupil rather than a teacher. When, however, the Gaon died, R. Chayim
+did not rest till he had carried out the command of his master, and in the
+year 1803 the College was opened in Walosin. The cloth manufacturer and
+disciple now became Rabbi and master. He began on a small scale, teaching
+at first only a few pupils. But even for the sustenance of a small number
+he had not sufficient means, and his pious wife sold her jewellery to help
+him in accomplishing his favourite plan. This is the best refutation of
+the French proverb _Avare comme une Rabbine_. The number, however,
+increased daily, and before he died (1828), he was fortunate enough to
+lecture to a hundred students. The number of students in the year 1888
+amounted to 400, and the Russian Jews are thus right in asserting that
+they have the greatest Talmudical College in the world. It is evident that
+no private charity by a single man, however great, could suffice to
+maintain such large numbers. Thus R. Chayim was already compelled to
+appeal to the liberality of his Russian brethren. The name of R. Chayim,
+and the still greater name of his master, were recommendation enough, and
+besides private offerings, many communities promised large sums towards
+supporting the students in Walosin. From time to time also messengers are
+sent out by the committee to promote the interests of the Yeshibah. The
+writers to whom I owe these data tell us that these messengers travel to
+all parts of the world to collect offerings for Walosin: so that it is a
+standing joke with the students that the existence of the mythical river
+Sambatyon(63) may be questioned after all, otherwise it must long have
+been discovered by these messengers who explore the whole world in their
+journeys. But it would seem that this world is only a very small one. For
+the whole income of the Yeshibah has never exceeded the sum of about
+�1800. Of this a certain part is spent in providing the salaries of the
+teaching staff and proctors, and on the repairs of the building; whilst
+the rest is distributed amongst the students. Considering that no
+scholarship exceeds �13--it is only the forty immortals of Walosin who
+receive such high stipends--considering again that the great majority of
+the students belong to the poorer classes and thus receive no remittance
+from their parents, we may be sure that the words of the Talmud: "This is
+the way to study the Torah; eat bread and salt, drink water by measure,
+sleep on the earth, and live a life of care," are carried out by them
+literally. But it would seem that the less they eat and the less they
+sleep, the more they work. Indeed the industry and the enthusiasm of these
+Bachurim (_alumni_)(64) in the study of the Torah is almost unsurpassable.
+The official hours alone extend from nine in the morning until ten in the
+evening, while many of the students volunteer to continue their studies
+till the middle of the night, or to begin the day at three in the morning.
+
+As to the subject of these studies, it is confined, as may be imagined, to
+the exploration of the old Rabbinic literature in all its branches. But it
+would be a mistake to think that the modern spirit has left Walosin quite
+untouched. It would be impossible that among 400 thinking heads there
+should not be a few who are interested in mathematics, others again in
+philosophy or history, while yet others would conjugate the irregular
+verbs of some classical language when moving to and fro over their Talmud
+folios and pretending to "_learn_." Indeed, almost all the writers who
+demand that these subjects should be introduced as obligatory into the
+programme of Walosin, belonged themselves to this Yeshibah. And it is
+these writers who betray the secret how secular knowledge is now invading
+the precincts of Walosin, as well as of other Talmudical Colleges in spite
+of all obstacles and prohibitions. In conquering these difficulties seem
+to consist the pleasures of life of many Bachurim at Walosin. Look only at
+that undergraduate, how, after a heavy day's work he is standing there in
+the street reading Buckle's _History of Civilisation_ in the moonlight!
+Poor man, he is not so romantic as to prefer the moonlight to a cheerful,
+warm room, with the more prosaic light of a candle, but he has got tired
+of knocking at the door, for his landlady, to whom he has neglected to pay
+rent for the last three terms, made up her mind to let him freeze to-
+night. But still more cruel to him is his fellow-sufferer, who is also
+wandering in the streets with an overloaded brain and empty stomach; he
+roughly shakes him out of his dreams by telling him that Buckle is long
+ago antiquated, and that he had better study the works of Herbert Spencer,
+who has spoken the last word on every vital subject in the world. Still
+these two starving and freezing representatives of English thought in
+Walosin form only an exception. The general favourites are the
+representatives of Jewish thought. That such books as the _Guide of the
+Perplexed_, by Maimonides, the Metaphysical Researches of Levi b.
+Gershom,(65) and other philosophical works of the Spanish school are read
+by the Walosin students it is needless to say. These books now form a part
+of the Rabbinic literature, and it would be almost unorthodox to suspect
+their readers. But is worth noticing that even the productions of the
+modern historico-critical school, such as the works of Zunz, Frankel,
+Graetz, Weiss, are very popular with the Bachurim, being much read and
+discussed by them.
+
+Thus Walosin deserves rightly to be considered as the centre of Jewish
+thought in Russia, in which the spirit of the Gaon is still working.
+
+I have very often, however, heard doubts expressed as to the continuance
+of this spirit when, as it is to be hoped, better times come for the Jews
+in Russia. Is it not to be feared that liberty and emancipation will
+render untenable ideas and notions which arose under entirely different
+circumstances? There is no need of entertaining such fears. Rabbi Jedaiah
+of Bedres(66) concludes his philosophical work _Examination of the World_,
+with the following words: "The conclusion of the whole matter is, go
+either to the right, my heart, or go to the left, but believe all that R.
+Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides) has believed, the last of the Gaonim by
+time, but the first in rank." About five hundred years have passed away
+since these lines were written. Time, as we have seen, has brought another
+Gaon, and probably Time will favour us in future with still another. But
+times have also altered. The rebellious hearts of a liberal age are not
+likely to obey always the command, "believe all that the Gaon said." But
+the heart of man will in all ages retain idealism enough to love and
+revere the greatest of men and to follow what was best in them.
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. NACHMANIDES(67)
+
+
+R. Chayim Vital, in his _Book of the Transmigrations of Souls_, gives the
+following bold characteristic of the two great teachers of Judaism,
+Maimonides and Nachmanides. Their souls both sprang forth from the head of
+Adam--it is a favourite idea of the Cabbalists to evolve the whole of ideal
+humanity from the archetype Adam--but the former, Maimonides, had his
+genius placed on the left curl of Adam, which is all judgment and
+severity, whilst that of the latter, Nachmanides, had its place on the
+right curl, which represents rather mercy and tenderness.
+
+I start from these words in order to avoid disappointment. For Nachmanides
+was a great Talmudist, a great Bible student, a great philosopher, a great
+controversialist, and, perhaps, also a great physician; in one word, great
+in every respect, possessed of all the culture of his age. But, as I have
+already indicated by the passage quoted by way of introduction, it is not
+of Nachmanides in any of these excellent qualities that I wish to write
+here. For these aspects of his life and mind I must refer the reader to
+the works of Graetz, Weiss, Steinschneider, Perles, and others. I shall
+mostly confine myself to those features and peculiarities in his career
+and works which will illustrate Nachmanides the tender and compassionate,
+the Nachmanides who represented Judaism from the side of emotion and
+feeling, as Maimonides did from the side of reason and logic.
+
+R. Moses ben Nachman, or Bonastruc de Portas, as he was called by his
+fellow-countrymen, or Nachmanides, as he is commonly called now, was born
+in Gerona about the year 1195. Gerona is a little town in the province of
+Catalonia in Spain. But though in Spain, Gerona was not distinguished for
+its philosophers or poets like Granada, Barcelona, or Toledo. Situated as
+it was in the North of Spain, Gerona was under the influence of Franco-
+Jewish sympathies, and thus its boast lay in the great Talmudists that it
+produced. I shall only mention the name of R. Zerahiah Hallevi Gerundi--so-
+called after his native place--whose strictures on the Code of R. Isaac
+Alfasi, which he began as a youth of nineteen years, will always remain a
+marvel of critical insight and independent research. Nachmanides is
+supposed by some authors to have been a descendant of R. Isaac ben Reuben
+of Barcelona, whose hymns are still to be found in certain rituals. The
+evidence for this is insufficient, but we know that he was a cousin of R.
+Jonah Gerundi, not less famous for his Talmudic learning than for his
+saintliness and piety. Nachmanides thus belonged to the best Jewish
+families of Gerona. Various great men are mentioned as his teachers, but
+we have certainty only about two, namely R. Judah ben Yakar, the
+commentator of the prayers, and R. Meir ben Nathan of Trinquintaines. The
+mystic, R. Ezra (or Azriel), is indeed alleged to have been his instructor
+in the Cabbalah, and this is not impossible, as he also was an inhabitant
+of Gerona; but it is more probable that Nachmanides was initiated into the
+Cabbalah by the R. Judah just mentioned, who also belonged to the mystical
+school.
+
+Whoever his masters were, they must have been well satisfied with their
+promising pupil, for he undertook, at the age of fifteen, to write
+supplements to the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi. Nor was it at a much later
+date that he began to compose his work, _The Wars of the Lord_, in which
+he defends this great codifier against the strictures of R. Zerahiah, to
+which we have referred above. I shall in the course of this essay have
+further occasion to speak of this latter work; for the present we will
+follow the career of its author.
+
+Concerning the private life of Nachmanides very little has come down to
+us. We only know that he had a family of sons and daughters. He was not
+spared the greatest grief that can befall a father, for he lost a son; it
+was on the day of the New Year.(68) On the other hand, it must have been a
+great source of joy to him when he married his son Solomon to the daughter
+of R. Jonah, whom he revered as a saint and a man of God. As a token of
+the admiration in which he held his friend, the following incident may be
+mentioned. It seems that it was the custom in Spain to name the first
+child in a family after his paternal grandfather; but Nachmanides ceded
+his right in behalf of his friend, and thus his daughter-in-law's first
+son was named Jonah. Another son of Nachmanides whom we know of was
+Nachman, to whom his father addressed his letters from Palestine, and who
+also wrote Novell� to the Talmud, still extant in MS. But the later
+posterity of Nachmanides is better known to fame. R. Levi ben Gershom was
+one of his descendants; so was also R. Simeon Duran;(69) whilst R. Jacob
+Sasportas, in the eighteenth century,(70) derived his pedigree from
+Nachmanides in the eleventh generation.
+
+As to his calling, he was occupied as Rabbi and teacher, first in Gerona
+and afterwards in Barcelona. But this meant as much as if we should say of
+a man that he is a philanthropist by profession, with the only difference
+that the treasures of which Nachmanides disposed were more of a spiritual
+kind. For his livelihood he probably depended upon his medical practice.
+
+I need hardly say that the life of Nachmanides, "whose words were held in
+Catalonia in almost as high authority as the Scriptures," was not without
+its great public events. At least we know of two.
+
+The one was about the year 1232, on the occasion of the great struggle
+about Maimonides' _Guide of the Perplexed_, and the first book of his
+great Compendium of the Law. The Maimonists looked upon these works almost
+as a new revelation, whilst the Anti-Maimonists condemned both as
+heretical, or at least conducive to heresy.(71) It would be profitless to
+reproduce the details of this sad affair. The motives may have been pure
+and good, but the actions were decidedly bad. People denounced each other,
+excommunicated each other, and did not (from either side) spare even the
+dead from the most bitter calumnies. Nachmanides stood between two fires.
+The French Rabbis, from whom most of the Anti-Maimonists were recruited,
+he held in very high esteem and considered himself as their pupil. Some of
+the leaders of this party were also his relatives. He, too, had, as we
+shall see later on, a theory of his own about God and the world little in
+agreement with that of Maimonides. It is worth noting that Nachmanides
+objected to calling Maimonides "our teacher Moses" (Rabbenu Mosheh),(72)
+thinking it improper to confer upon him the title by which the Rabbis
+honoured the Master of the Prophets. The very fact, however, that he had
+some theory of the Universe shows that he had a problem to solve, whilst
+the real French Rabbis were hardly troubled by difficulties of a
+metaphysical character. Indeed, Nachmanides pays them the rather doubtful
+compliment that Maimonides' work was not intended for them, who were
+barricaded by their faith and happy in their belief, wanting no protection
+against the works of Aristotle and Galen, by whose philosophy others might
+be led astray. In other words, their strength lay in an ignorance of Greek
+philosophy, to which the cultivated Jews of Spain would not aspire.
+Nachmanides was also a great admirer of Maimonides, whose virtues and
+great merits in the service of Judaism he describes in his letter to the
+French Rabbis. Thus, the only way left open to him was to play the part of
+the conciliator. The course of this struggle is fully described in every
+Jewish history. It is sufficient to say that, in spite of his great
+authority, Nachmanides was not successful in his effort to moderate the
+violence of either party, and that the controversy was at last settled
+through the harsh interference of outsiders who well-nigh crushed
+Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists alike.
+
+The second public event in the life of Nachmanides was his Disputation,
+held in Barcelona, at the Court and in the presence of King Jayme I., of
+Aragon, in the year 1263. It was the usual story. A convert to
+Christianity, named Pablo Christiani, who burned with zealous anxiety to
+see his former co-religionists saved, after many vain attempts in this
+direction, applied to the King of Aragon to order Nachmanides to take part
+in a public disputation. Pablo maintained that he could prove the justice
+of the Messianic claims of Jesus from the Talmud and other Rabbinic
+writings. If he could only succeed in convincing the great Rabbi of Spain
+of the truth of his argument, the bulk of the Jews was sure to follow. By
+the way, it was the same Talmud which some twenty years previously was, at
+the instance of another Jewish convert, burned in Paris, for containing
+passages against Christianity. Nachmanides had to conform with the command
+of the king, and, on the 21st of July, 1263, was begun the controversy,
+which lasted for four or five days.
+
+I do not think that there is in the whole domain of literature less
+profitable reading than that of the controversies between Jews and
+Christians. These public disputations occasionally forced the Jews
+themselves to review their position towards their own literature, and led
+them to draw clearer distinctions between what they regarded as religion
+and what as folklore. But beyond this, the polemics between Jews and
+Christians were barren of good results. If you have read one you have read
+enough for all time. The same casuistry and the same disregard of history
+turn up again and again. Nervousness and humility are always on the side
+of the Jews, who know that, whatever the result may be, the end will be
+persecution; arrogance is always on the side of their antagonists, who are
+supported by a band of Knights of the Holy Cross, prepared to prove the
+soundness of their cause at the point of their daggers.
+
+Besides, was there enough common ground between Judaism and thirteenth
+century Christianity to have justified the hope of a mutual understanding?
+The Old Testament was almost forgotten in the Church. The First Person in
+the Trinity was leading a sort of shadowy existence in art, which could
+only be the more repulsive to a Jew on that account. The largest part of
+Church worship was monopolised by devotion to the Virgin Mother, prayers
+to the saints, and kneeling before their relics. And a Jew may well be
+pardoned if he did not entertain higher views of this form of worship than
+Luther and Knox did at a later period. It will thus not be worth our while
+to dwell much on the matter of this controversy, in which the essence of
+the real dispute is scarcely touched. There are only two points in it
+which are worth noticing. The first is that Nachmanides declared the
+Agadoth(73) in the Talmud to be only a series of sermons (he uses this
+very word), expressing the individual opinions of the preacher, and thus
+possessing no authoritative weight. The convert Pablo is quite aghast at
+this statement, and accuses Nachmanides of heterodoxy.
+
+Secondly,--and here I take leave to complete the rather obscure passage in
+the controversy by a parallel in his book, _The Date of Redemption_,(74)
+quoted by Azariah de Rossi--that the question of the Messiah is not of that
+dogmatic importance to the Jews that Christians imagine. For even if Jews
+supposed their sins to be so great that they forfeited all the promises
+made to them in the Scriptures, or that, on some hidden ground, it would
+please the Almighty never to restore their national independence, this
+would in no way alter the obligations of Jews towards the Torah. Nor is
+the coming of the Messiah desired by Jews as an end in itself. For it is
+not the goal of their hopes that they shall be able again to eat of the
+fruit of Palestine, or enjoy other pleasures there; not even the chance of
+the restoration of sacrifices and the worship of the Temple is the
+greatest of Jewish expectations (connected with the appearance of the
+Messiah). What makes them long for his coming is the hope that they will
+then witness, in the company of the prophets and priests, a greater spread
+of purity and holiness than is now possible. In other words, the
+possibility for them to live a holy life after the will of God will be
+greater than now. But, on the other hand, considering that such a godly
+life under a Christian government requires greater sacrifices than it
+would under a Jewish king; and, considering again that the merits and
+rewards of a good act increase with the obstacles that are in the way of
+executing it--considering this, a Jew might even prefer to live under the
+King of Aragon than under the Messiah, where he would perforce act in
+accordance with the precepts of the Torah.
+
+Now there is in this statement much that has only to be looked upon as a
+compliment to the government of Spain. I am inclined to think that if the
+alternative laid before Nachmanides had been a really practical one, he
+would have decided in favour of the clement rule of the Messiah in
+preference to that of the most cruel king on earth. But the fact that he
+repeats this statement in another place, where there was no occasion to be
+over polite to the Government, tends to show, as we have said, that the
+belief in the Messiah was not the basis on which Nachmanides' religion was
+built up.
+
+The result of the controversy is contested by the different parties; the
+Christian writers claim the victory for Pablo, whilst the Jewish documents
+maintain that the issue was with Nachmanides. In any case, "_Der Jude wird
+verbrannt_." For in the next year (1264) all the books of the Jews in
+Aragon were confiscated and submitted to the censorship of a commission,
+of which the well-known author of the _Pugio Fidei_, Raymund Martini, was,
+perhaps, the most important member. The books were not burned this time,
+but had to suffer a severe mutilation; the anti-Christian passages, or
+such as were supposed to be so, were struck out or obliterated.
+Nachmanides' account of the controversy, which he probably published from
+a sense of duty towards those whom he represented, was declared to contain
+blasphemies against the dominant religion. The pamphlet was condemned to
+be burned publicly, whilst the author was, as it seems, punished with
+expulsion from his country. It is not reported where Nachmanides found a
+home during the next three years; probably he had to accept the
+hospitality of his friends, either in Castile or in the south of France;
+but we know that in the year 1267 he left Europe and emigrated to
+Palestine.
+
+Nachmanides was, at this juncture of his life, already a man of about
+seventy. But it would seem as if the seven decades which he had spent in
+the Spanish Peninsula were only meant as a preparation for the three years
+which he was destined to live in the Holy Land, for it was during this
+stage of his life that the greatest part of his _Commentary on the
+Pentateuch_ was written. In this work, as is agreed on all sides, his
+finest thoughts and noblest sentiments were put down.
+
+Before proceeding to speak of his works, let us first cast a glance at his
+letters from Palestine, forming as they do a certain link between his
+former life and that which was to occupy him exclusively for the rest of
+his days. We have three letters, the first of which I shall translate here
+_in extenso_.
+
+The letter was written soon after his arrival at Jerusalem in the year
+1267. It was addressed to his son Nachman, and runs as follows:--
+
+
+    "The Lord shall bless thee, my son Nachman, and thou shalt see the
+    good of Jerusalem. Yea, thou shalt see thy children's children
+    (Ps. cxxviii.), and thy table shall be like that of our father
+    Abraham!(75) In Jerusalem, the Holy City, I write this letter.
+    For, thanks and praise unto the rock of my salvation, I was
+    thought worthy by God to arrive here safely on the 9th of the
+    month of Elul, and I remained there till the day after the Day of
+    Atonement. Now I intend going to Hebron, to the sepulchre of our
+    ancestors, to prostrate myself, and there to dig my grave. But
+    what am I to say to you with regard to the country? Great is the
+    solitude and great the wastes, and, to characterise it in short,
+    the more sacred the places, the greater their desolation!
+    Jerusalem is more desolate than the rest of the country: Jud�a
+    more than Galilee. But even in this destruction it is a blessed
+    land. It has about 2000 inhabitants, about 300 Christians live
+    there who escaped the sword of the Sultan. There are no Jews. For
+    since the arrival of the Tartars, some fled, others died by the
+    sword. There are only two brothers, dyers by trade, who have to
+    buy their ingredients from the government. There the Ten Men(76)
+    meet, and on Sabbaths they hold service at their house. But we
+    encouraged them, and we succeeded in finding a vacant house, built
+    on pillars of marble with a beautiful arch. That we took for a
+    synagogue. For the town is without a master, and whoever will take
+    possession of the ruins can do so. We gave our offerings towards
+    the repairs of the house. We have sent already to Shechem to fetch
+    some scrolls of the Law from there which had been brought thither
+    from Jerusalem at the invasion of the Tartars. Thus they will
+    organise a synagogue and worship there. For continually people
+    crowd to Jerusalem, men and women, from Damascus, Zobah
+    (Aleppo),(77) and from all parts of the country to see the
+    Sanctuary and to mourn over it. He who thought us worthy to let us
+    see Jerusalem in her desertion, he shall bless us to behold her
+    again, built and restored, when the glory of the Lord will return
+    unto her. But you, my son, and your brothers and the whole of our
+    family, you all shall live to see the salvation of Jerusalem and
+    the comfort of Zion. These are the words of your father who is
+    yearning and forgetting, who is seeing and enjoying, Moses ben
+    Nachman. Give also my peace to my pupil Moses, the son of Solomon,
+    the nephew of your mother. I wish to tell him ... that there,
+    facing the holy temple, I have read his verses, weeping bitterly
+    over them. May he who caused his name to rest in the Holy Temple
+    increase your peace together with the peace of the whole
+    community."
+
+
+This letter may be illustrated by a few parallels taken from the appendix
+to Nachmanides' _Commentary to the Pentateuch_, which contains some rather
+incoherent notes which the author seems to have jotted down when he
+arrived in Jerusalem. After a lengthy account of the material as well as
+the spiritual glories of the holy city in the past, he proceeds to say:--
+
+
+    "A mournful sight I have perceived in thee (Jerusalem); only one
+    Jew is here, a dyer, persecuted, oppressed and despised. At his
+    house gather great and small when they can get the Ten Men. They
+    are wretched folk, without occupation and trade, consisting of a
+    few pilgrims and beggars, though the fruit of the land is still
+    magnificent and the harvests rich. Indeed, it is still a blessed
+    country, flowing with milk and honey.... Oh! I am the man who saw
+    affliction. I am banished from my table, far removed from friend
+    and kinsman, and too long is the distance to meet again.... I left
+    my family, I forsook my house. There with my sons and daughters,
+    and with the sweet and dear children whom I have brought up on my
+    knees, I left also my soul. My heart and my eyes will dwell with
+    them for ever.... But the loss of all this and of every other
+    glory my eyes saw is compensated by having now the joy of being a
+    day in thy courts (O Jerusalem), visiting the ruins of the Temple
+    and crying over the ruined Sanctuary; where I am permitted to
+    caress thy stones, to fondle thy dust, and to weep over thy ruins.
+    I wept bitterly, but I found joy in my tears. I tore my garments,
+    but I felt relieved by it."
+
+
+Of some later date is his letter from Acra, which may be considered as a
+sort of ethical will, and which has been justly characterised as a eulogy
+of humility. Here is an extract from it:--
+
+
+    "Accustom yourself to speak gently to all men at all times, and
+    thus you will avoid anger, which leads to so much sin.... Humility
+    is the first of virtues; for if you think how lowly is man, how
+    great is God, you will fear Him and avoid sinfulness. On the
+    humble man rests the divine glory; the man that is haughty to
+    others denies God. Look not boldly at one whom you address....
+    Regard every one as greater than thyself.... Remember always that
+    you stand before God, both when you pray and when you converse
+    with others.... Think before you speak.... Act as I have bidden
+    you, and your words, and deeds, and thoughts, will be honest, and
+    your prayers pure and acceptable before God."
+
+
+The third letter is addressed to his son (R. Solomon?) who was staying (in
+the service of the king) in Castile. It is in its chief content a eulogy
+of chastity.(78) Probably Nachmanides had some dread of the dangerous
+allurements of the court, and he begs his son never to do anything of
+which he knows that his father would not approve, and to keep his father's
+image always before his eyes.
+
+As to his works, we may divide them into two classes. The one would
+contain those of a strictly legalistic (Halachic), whilst the other those
+of a more homiletic-exegetical and devotional character (Agadic). As
+already indicated in the preliminary lines of this paper, I cannot dwell
+long on the former class of our author's writings. It consists either of
+Glosses or Novell� to the Talmud, in the style and manner of the French
+Rabbis, or of Compendia of certain parts of the Law after the model set by
+R. Isaac Alfasi or Maimonides, or in defences of the "Earlier Authorities"
+against the strictures made on them by a later generation. A few words
+must be said with regard to these defences; for they reveal that deep
+respect for authority which forms a special feature of Nachmanides'
+writings. His _Wars of the Lord_, in which he defends Alfasi against R.
+Zerahiah of Gerona, was undertaken when he was very young, whilst his
+defence of the author of the _Halachoth Gedoloth_(79) against the attacks
+of Maimonides, which he began at a much more mature age, shows the same
+deference "to the great ones of the past." Indeed, he says in one place,
+"We bow before them (the earlier authorities), and though their words are
+not quite evident to us we submit to them"; or, as he expresses himself
+elsewhere, "Only he who dips (deeply enough) in the wisdom of the 'ancient
+ones' will drink the pure (old) wine." But it would be unjust to the
+genius of Nachmanides to represent him as a blind worshipper of authority.
+Humble and generous in disposition, he certainly would bow before every
+recognised authority, and he would also think it his duty to take up the
+cudgels for him as long as there was even the least chance of making an
+honourable defence. But when this chance had gone, when Nachmanides was
+fully convinced that his hero was in the wrong, he followed no guide but
+truth. "Notwithstanding," he says in his introduction to the defences of
+the _Halachoth Gedoloth_, "my desire and delight to be the disciple of the
+Earlier Authorities, to maintain their views and to assert them, I do not
+consider myself a 'donkey carrying books.' I will explain their way and
+appreciate their value, but when their views are inconceivable to my
+thoughts, I will plead in all modesty, but shall judge according to the
+sight of my eyes. And when the meaning is clear I shall flatter none, for
+the Lord gives wisdom in all times and ages." But, on the other hand,
+there seems to have been a certain sort of literary agnosticism about
+Nachmanides which made it very difficult for him to find the "clear
+meaning." The passage in the _Wars of the Lord_ to the effect "that there
+is in the art (of commenting) no such certain demonstration as in
+mathematics or astronomy," is well known and has often been quoted; but
+still more characteristic of this literary agnosticism is the first
+paragraph of the above-mentioned defences of the _Halachoth Gedoloth_.
+Whilst all his predecessors accepted, on the authority of R. Simlai,(80)
+the number (613) of the commandments as an uncontested fact, and based
+their compositions on it, Nachmanides questions the whole matter, and
+shows that the passages relating to this enumeration of laws are only of a
+homiletical nature, and thus of little consequence. Nay, he goes so far as
+to say, "Indeed the system how to number the commandments is a matter in
+which I suspect all of us (are mistaken) and the truth must be left to him
+who will solve all doubts." We should thus be inclined to think that this
+adherence to the words of the earlier Authorities was at least as much due
+to this critical scepticism as to his conservative tendencies.
+
+The space left to me I shall devote to the second class of his writings,
+in which Nachmanides worked less after given types. These reveal to us
+more of his inner being, and offer us some insight into his theological
+system. The great problem which seems to have presented itself to
+Nachmanides' mind was less how to reconcile religion with reason than how
+to reconcile man with religion. What is man? The usual answer is not
+flattering. He is an animal that owes its existence to the same instinct
+that produces even the lower creatures, and he is condemned, like them, to
+go to a place of worm and maggot. But, may not one ask, why should a
+creature so lowly born, and doomed to so hapless a future, be burdened
+with the awful responsibility of knowing that he is destined "to give
+reckoning and judgment before the King of kings, the Holy One, blessed be
+He"? It is true that man is also endowed with a heavenly soul, but this
+only brings us back again to the antithesis of flesh and spirit which was
+the stumbling-block of many a theological system. Nor does it help us much
+towards the solution of the indicated difficulty; for what relation can
+there be between this _materia impura_ of body and the pure intellect of
+soul? And again, must not the unfavourable condition in which the latter
+is placed through this uncongenial society heavily clog and suppress all
+aspiration for perfection? It is "a house divided against itself," doomed
+to an everlasting contest, without hope for co-operation or even of
+harmony.
+
+The works _The Sacred Letter_ and _The Law of Man_ may be considered as an
+attempt by Nachmanides, if not to remove, at least to relieve the
+harshness of this antithesis. The former, in which he blames Maimonides
+for following Aristotle in denouncing certain desires implanted in us by
+nature as ignominious and unworthy of man, may, perhaps, be characterised
+as a vindication of the flesh from a religious point of view. The contempt
+in which "that Greek," as Nachmanides terms Aristotle, held the flesh is
+inconsistent with the theory of the religious man, who believes that
+everything (including the body, with all its functions) is created by God,
+whose work is perfect and good, without impure or inharmonious parts. It
+is only sin and neglect that disfigure God's creations. I cannot enter
+into any further details of this work, but I may be permitted to remark
+that there is a very strong similarity between the tendency of the _Sacred
+Letter_ and certain leading ideas of Milton. Indeed, if the first two
+chapters of the former were a little condensed and put into English, they
+could not be better summarised than by the famous lines in the _Paradise
+Lost_:--
+
+
+    Whatever hypocrites austerely talk
+    Of purity, and place, and innocence,
+    Defaming as impure what God declares
+    Pure, and commands to some, leaves free to all,
+    Our Maker bids increase; who bids abstain
+    But our destroyer, foe to God and man?
+    Hail, wedded love, mysterious law!...
+    Far be it that I should write thee sin or blame
+    Or think thee unbefitting holiest place,
+    Perpetual fountain of domestic sweets.
+
+
+The second of these two works, the _Law of Man_, may be regarded as a
+sanctification of grief, and particularly of the grief of griefs, death.
+The bulk of the book is legalistic, treating of mourning rites, burial
+customs, and similar topics; but there is much in the preface which bears
+on our subject. For here again Nachmanides takes the opportunity of
+combating a chilling philosophy, which tries to arm us against suffering
+by stifling our emotions. "My son," he says, "be not persuaded by certain
+propositions of the great philosophers who endeavour to harden our hearts
+and to deaden our sensations by their idle comfort, which consists in
+denying the past and despairing of the future. One of them has even
+declared that there is nothing in the world over the loss of which it is
+worth crying, and the possession of which would justify joy. This is an
+heretical view. Our perfect Torah bids us to be joyful in the day of
+prosperity and to shed tears in the day of misfortune. It in no way
+forbids crying or demands of us to suppress our grief. On the contrary,
+the Torah suggests to us that to mourn over heavy losses is equivalent to
+a service of God, leading us, as it does, to reflect on our end and ponder
+over our destiny."
+
+This destiny, as well as Reward and Punishment in general, is treated in
+the concluding chapter of the _Law of Man_, which is known under the title
+of _The Gate of Reward_.(81) Nachmanides does not conceal from himself the
+difficulties besetting inquiries of this description. He knows well enough
+that in the last instance we must appeal to that implicit faith in the
+inscrutable justice of God with which the believer begins. Nevertheless he
+thinks that only the "despisers of wisdom" would fail to bring to this
+faith as full a conviction as possible, which latter is only to be gained
+by speculation. I shall have by and by occasion to refer to the results of
+this speculation. Here we must only notice the fact of Nachmanides
+insisting on the _bodily_ resurrection which will take place after the
+coming of the Messiah, and will be followed by the _Olam Habba_(82) (the
+life in the world to come) of which the Rabbis spoke.
+
+Irrational as this belief may look, it is only a consequence of his
+theory, which, as we have seen, assigns even to the flesh an almost
+spiritual importance. Indeed, he thinks that the soul may have such an
+influence on the body as to transform the latter into so pure an essence
+that it will become safe for eternity. For, as he hints in another place,
+by the continual practising of a thing the whole man, the body included,
+becomes so identified with the thing that we call him after it, just as
+the Holy Singer said: I am prayer,(83) so that--
+
+
+          Oft converse with heavenly habitants
+    Begins to cast a beam on the outward shape,
+    The unpolluted temple of the mind,
+    And turns it by degrees to the soul's essence,
+    Till all be made immortal.
+
+
+But if even the body holds such a high position as to make all its
+instincts and functions, if properly regulated, a service of God, and to
+destine it for a glorious future of eternal bliss and rejoicing in God, we
+can easily imagine what a high place the soul must occupy in the system of
+Nachmanides. To be sure it is a much higher one than that to which
+philosophy would fain admit her. A beautiful parable of the Persian poet
+Yellaladeen (quoted by the late Mr. Lowell) narrates that "One knocked at
+the beloved's door, and a voice asked from within, 'Who is there?' and he
+answered, 'It is I.' Then the voice said, 'This house will not hold me and
+thee,' and the door was not opened. Then went the lover into the desert
+and fasted and prayed in solitude, and after a year he returned and
+knocked again at the door, and again the voice asked 'Who is there?' and
+he said 'It is thyself'; and the door was opened to him." This is also the
+difference between the two schools--the mystical and the philosophical--with
+regard to the soul. With the rationalist the soul is indeed a superior
+abstract intelligence created by God, but, like all His creations, has an
+existence of its own, and is thus separated from God. With the mystic,
+however, the soul is God, or a direct emanation from God. "For he who
+breathes into another thing (Gen. ii. 7) gives unto it something of his
+own breath (or soul)," and as it is said in Job xxxii. 8, "And the soul of
+the Almighty giveth them understanding." This emanation, or rather
+immanence--for Nachmanides insists in another place that the Hebrew term
+employed for it, _Aziluth_,(84) means a permanent dwelling with the thing
+emanating--which became manifest with the creation of man, must not be
+confounded with the moving soul (or the _Nephesh Chayah_),(85) which is
+common to man with all creatures.
+
+It may be remarked here that Nachmanides endows all animals with a soul
+which is derived from the "Superior Powers," and its presence is proved by
+certain marks of intelligence which they show. By this fact he tries to
+account for the law prohibiting cruelty to animals, "all souls belonging
+to God." Their original disposition was, it would seem, according to
+Nachmanides, peaceful and harmless.
+
+
+                    About them frisking played
+    All beasts of earth, since wild, and of all chase
+    In wood or wilderness, forest or den.
+
+
+It was only after man had sinned that war entered into creation, but with
+the coming of the Messiah, when sin will disappear, all the living beings
+will regain their prim�val gentleness, and be reinstituted in their first
+rights.
+
+The special soul of man, however, or rather the "over-soul," was pre-
+existent to the creation of the world, treasured up as a wave in the sea
+or fountain of souls--dwelling in the eternal light and holiness of God.
+There, in God, the soul abides in its ideal existence before it enters
+into its material life through the medium of man; though it must be noted
+that, according to Nachmanides' belief in the Transmigration of souls, it
+is not necessary to perceive in the soul of every new-born child, "a fresh
+message from heaven" coming directly from the fountain-head. Nachmanides
+finds this belief indicated in the commandment of levirate marriage, where
+the child born of the deceased brother's wife inherits not only the name
+of the brother of his actual father, but also his soul, and thus
+perpetuates his existence on earth. The fourth verse of Ecclesiastes ii.
+Nachmanides seems to interpret to mean that the very generation which
+passes away comes up again, by which he tries to explain the difficulty of
+God's visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their children; the latter
+being the very fathers who committed the sins. However, whatever trials
+and changes the soul may have to pass through during its bodily existence,
+its origin is in God and thither it will return in the end, "just as the
+waters rise always to the same high level from which their source sprang
+forth."
+
+It is for this man, with a body so superior, and a soul so sublime--more
+sublime than the angels--that the world was _created_. I emphasise the last
+word, for the belief in the creation of the world by God from nothing
+forms, according to Nachmanides, the first of the three fundamental dogmas
+of Judaism. The other two also refer to God's relation to the world and
+man. They are the belief in God's Providence and his _Yediah_.(86)
+Creation from nothing is for Nachmanides the keynote to his whole
+religion, since it is only by this fact, as he points out in many places,
+that God gains real dominion over nature. For, as he says, as soon as we
+admit the eternity of matter, we must (logically) deny God even "the power
+of enlarging the wing of a fly, or shortening the leg of an ant." But the
+whole Torah is nothing if not a record of God's mastery in and over the
+world, and of His miraculous deeds. One of the first proclamations of
+Abraham to his generation was that God is the Lord (or Master) of the
+world (Gen. xviii. 33). The injunction given to Abraham, and repeated
+afterwards to the whole of Israel (Gen. xvii. 2, and Deut. xviii. 13), to
+be perfect with God, Nachmanides numbers as one of the 613 commandments,
+and explains it to mean that man must have a whole belief in God without
+blemish or reservation, and acknowledge Him possessed of power over nature
+and the world, man and beast, devil and angel, power being attributable to
+Him alone. Indeed, when the angel said to Jacob, "Why dost thou ask after
+my name" (Gen. xxxii. 29), he meant to indicate by his question the
+impotence of the heavenly host, so that there is no use in knowing their
+name, the power and might belonging only to God.
+
+We may venture even a step further, and maintain that in Nachmanides'
+system there is hardly room left for such a thing as nature or "the order
+of the world." There are only two categories of miracles by which the
+world is governed, or in which God's Providence is seen. The one is the
+category of the manifest miracles, as the ten plagues in Egypt, or the
+crossing of the Red Sea; the other is that of the hidden miracles, which
+we do not perceive as such, because of their frequency and continuity. "No
+man," he declares, "can share in the Torah of our Teacher, Moses (that is,
+can be considered a follower of the Jewish religion), unless he believes
+that all our affairs and events, whether they concern the masses or the
+individual, are all miracles (worked by the direct will of God),
+attributing nothing to nature or to the order of the world." Under this
+second order he classes all the promises the Torah makes to the righteous,
+and the punishments with which evil-doers are threatened. For, as he
+points out in many places, there is nothing in the nature of the
+commandments themselves that would make their fulfilment necessarily
+prolong the life of man, and cause the skies to pour down rain, or, on the
+other hand, would associate disobedience to them with famine and death.
+All these results can, therefore, only be accomplished in a supernatural
+way by the direct workings of God.
+
+Thus miracles are raised to a place in the regular scheme of things, and
+the difficulty regarding the possibility of God's interferences with
+nature disappears by their very multiplication. But a still more important
+point is, that, by this unbroken chain of miracles, which unconditionally
+implies God's presence to perform them, Nachmanides arrives at a theory
+establishing a closer contact between the Deity and the world than that
+set forth by other thinkers. Thus, he insists that the term _Shechinah_,
+or _Cabod_(87) (Glory of God), must not be understood, with some Jewish
+philosophers, as something separate from God, or as _glory created_ by
+God. "Were this the case," he proceeds to say, "we could not possibly say,
+'Blessed be the glory of the Lord from his place,' since every mark of
+worship to anything _created_ involves the sin of idolatry." Such terms as
+_Shechinah_, or _Cabod_, can therefore only mean the immediate divine
+presence. This proves, as may be noted in passing, how unphilosophical the
+idea of those writers is who maintain that the rigid monotheism of the
+Jews makes God so transcendental that He is banished from the world. As we
+see, it is just this assertion of His absolute Unity which not only
+suffers no substitute for God, but also removes every separation between
+Him and the world. Hence also Nachmanides insists that the prophecy even
+of the successors of Moses was a direct communion of God with the prophet,
+and not, as others maintained, furnished through the medium of an angel.
+
+The third fundamental dogma, _Yediah_, includes, according to Nachmanides,
+not only the omniscience of God--as the term is usually translated--but also
+His recognition of mankind and His special concern in them. Thus, he
+explains the words in the Bible with regard to Abraham, "For I know him"
+(Gen. xviii. 19), to indicate the special attachment of God's Providence
+to the patriarch, which, on account of his righteousness, was to be
+uninterrupted for ever; whilst in other places we have to understand,
+under God's knowledge of a thing, his determination to deal with it
+compassionately, as, for instance, when Scripture says that God knew
+(Exod. ii. 25), it means that His relation to Israel emanated from His
+attribute of mercy and love. But just as God knows (which means loves) the
+world, He requires also to be recognised and known by it. "For this was
+the purpose of the whole creation, that man should recognise and know Him
+and give praise to His name," as it is said, "Everything that is called by
+my name (meaning, chosen to promulgate God's name), for my glory have I
+created it."
+
+It is this fact which gives Israel their high prerogative, for by
+receiving the Torah they were the first to know God's name, to which they
+remained true in spite of all adversities; and thus accomplished God's
+intention in creating the world. It is, again, by this Torah that the
+whole of Israel not only succeeded in being real prophets (at the moment
+of the Revelation), but also became _Segulah_,(88) which indicates the
+inseparable attachment between God and His people, whilst the righteous
+who never disobey His will become the seat of His throne.
+
+The position of the rest of humanity is also determined by their relation
+to the Torah. "It is," Nachmanides tells us, "a main principle to know
+that all that man contrives to possess of knowledge and wisdom is only the
+fruits of the Torah or the fruits of its fruits. But for this knowledge
+there would be no difference between man and the lower animated species.
+The existence of the civilised nations of the world does not disprove this
+rule both Christians and Mahometans being also the heirs of the Torah. For
+when the Romans gained strength over Israel they made them translate the
+Torah which they studied, and they even accommodated some of their laws
+and institutions to those of the Bible." Those nations, however, who live
+far away from the centre of the world (the Holy Land) and never come into
+contact with Israel are outside the pale of civilisation, and can hardly
+be ranked together with the human species. "They are the isles afar off,
+that have not heard my fame, neither have seen my glory."
+
+What Nachmanides meant by maintaining that all knowledge and wisdom were
+"the fruits of the Torah, or the fruits of these fruits," will be best
+seen from his _Commentary on the Pentateuch_. I have already made use of
+this Commentary in the preceding quotations, but, being the greatest of
+the works of Nachmanides, it calls for some special attention by itself.
+Its general purpose is edification, or as he says, "to appease the mind of
+the students (labouring under persecution and troubles) when they read the
+portion on Sabbaths and festivals, and to attract their heart by simple
+explanations and sweet words." The explanations occupy a considerable
+space. As Dr. Perles has shown in his able essay on this work of
+Nachmanides, our author neglected no resource of philology or arch�ology
+accessible in his age which could contribute to establish the "simple
+explanations" on a sound scientific basis. The prominent feature of this
+Commentary, however, is the "sweet words." Indeed, how sweet and soothing
+to his contemporaries must have been such words as we read at the end of
+the "Song of Moses" (Deut. xxxii.): "And behold there is nothing
+conditional in this Song. It is a charter testifying that we shall have to
+suffer heavily for our sins, but that, nevertheless, God will not destroy
+us, being reconciled to us (though we shall have no merits), and forgiving
+our sins for his name's sake alone.... And so our Rabbis said, Great is
+this song, embracing as it does both the past (of Israel) and the future,
+this world and the world to come.... And if this song were the composition
+of a mere astrologer we should be constrained to believe in it,
+considering that all its words were fulfilled. How much more have we to
+hope with all our hearts and to trust to the word of God, through the
+mouth of his prophet Moses, the faithful in all his house, like unto whom
+there was none, whether before him or after him." A part of these sweet
+words may also be seen in the numerous passages in which he attempts to
+account for various laws, and to detect their underlying principles.
+
+For though "the Torah is the expression of God's simple and absolute will,
+which man has to follow without any consideration of reward," still this
+will is not arbitrary, and even that class of laws which are called
+_chukkim_(89) (which means, according to some Jewish commentators,
+motiveless decrees) have their good reasons, notwithstanding that they are
+unfathomable to us. "They are all meant for the good of man, either to
+keep aloof from us something hurtful, or to educate us in goodness, or to
+remove from us an evil belief and to make us know his name. This is what
+they (the Rabbis) meant by saying that commandments have a purifying
+purpose, namely, that man being purified and tried by them becomes as one
+without alloy of bad thoughts and unworthy qualities." Indeed, the soul of
+man is so sensitive to every impurity that it suffers a sort of infection
+even by an unintentional sin. Hence the injunction to bring a _Korban_
+(sacrifice) even in this case; the effect of the _Korban_, as its
+etymology (_Karab_)(90) indicates, is to bring man back to God, or rather
+to facilitate this approach. All this again is, as Nachmanides points out,
+only an affluence from God's mercy and love to mankind. God derives no
+benefit from it. "If he be righteous what can he give thee?" And even
+those laws and institutions which are intended to commemorate God's
+wonders and the creation of the world (for instance, the Passover festival
+and the Sabbath) are not meant for His glorification, or, as Heine
+maliciously expressed it:--
+
+
+    Der Weltkapellenmeister hier oben
+    Er selbst sogar h�rt gerne loben
+    Gleichfalls seine Werke....
+
+
+"For all the honour (we give to Him), and the praising of His work are
+counted by Him less than nothing and as vanity to Him." What He desires is
+that we may know the truth, and be confirmed in it, for this makes us
+worthy of finding in Him "our Protector and King."
+
+The lessons which Nachmanides draws from the various Biblical narratives
+also belong to these "sweet words." They are mostly of a typical
+character. For, true as all the stories in the Scriptures are, "the whole
+Torah is," as he tells us (with allusion to Gen. v. 1.), "the book of the
+generations of Adam," or, as we should say, a history of humanity written
+in advance. Thus the account of the six days of the creation is turned
+into a prophecy of the most important events which would occur during the
+succeeding six thousand years, whilst the Sabbath is a forecast of the
+millennium in the seventh thousand, which will be the day of the Lord.
+Jacob and Esau are, as in the old Rabbinic homilies generally, the
+prototypes of Israel and Rome; and so is the battle of Moses and Joshua
+with Amalek indicative of the war which Elijah and the Messiah the son of
+Joseph will wage against Edom (the prototype of Rome), before the Redeemer
+from the house of David will appear.(91) Sometimes these stories convey
+both a moral and a pre-justification of what was destined to happen to
+Israel. So Nachmanides' remarks with reference to Sarah's treatment of
+Hagar (Gen. xvi. 6): "Our mother Sarah sinned greatly by inflicting this
+pain on Hagar, as did also Abraham, who allowed such a thing to pass; but
+God saw her affliction and rewarded her by a son (the ancestor of a wild
+race), who would inflict on the seed of Abraham and Sarah every sort of
+oppression." In this he alluded to the Islamic empires. Nor does he
+approve of Abraham's conduct on the occasion of his coming to Egypt, when
+he asked Sarah to pass as his sister (Gen. xii.). "Unintentionally,"
+Nachmanides says, "Abraham, under the fear of being murdered, committed a
+great sin when he exposed his virtuous wife to such a temptation. For he
+ought to have trusted that God would save both him and his wife.... It is
+on account of this deed that his children had to suffer exile under the
+rule of Pharaoh. There, where the sin was committed, also the judgment
+took place." It is also worth noticing that, in opposition to Maimonides,
+he allows no apology for the attack of Simeon and Levi on the population
+of Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 25). It is true that they were idolaters, immoral,
+and steeped in every abomination; but Jacob and his sons were not
+commissioned with executing justice on them. The people of Shechem trusted
+their word, therefore they ought to have spared them. Hence Jacob's
+protest, and his curse against their wrath, which would have been quite
+unjustified had he looked on the action of his sons as a good work.
+
+Besides these typical meanings, the matters of the Torah have also their
+symbolical importance, which places them almost above the sphere of human
+conception; they are neither exactly what they seem to be nor entirely
+what their name implies, but a reflex from things unseen, which makes any
+human interference both preposterous and dangerous. Of "the things
+_called_ Tree of Life and Tree of Knowledge," Nachmanides tells us that
+their mystery is very great, reaching into higher worlds. Otherwise, why
+should God, who is good and the dispenser of good, have prevented Adam
+from eating the fruit (of the latter), whilst in another place he says:
+"And if thou wilt be worthy, and understand the mystery of the word
+_Bereshith_(92) (with which the Torah begins), thou wilt see that in truth
+the Scripture, though apparently speaking of matters here below (on
+earth), is always pointing to things above (heaven);" for "every glory and
+every wonder, and every deep mystery, and all beautiful wisdom are hidden
+in the Torah, sealed up in her treasures."
+
+It is very characteristic of the bent of Nachmanides' mind, that he is
+perhaps the first Jewish writer who mentions the apocryphal book _The
+Wisdom of Solomon_, which he knew from a Syriac version, and which he
+believed to be genuine. And when we read there (vii. 7-25), "Wherefore I
+prayed and understanding was given to me. I called upon God and the spirit
+of wisdom came upon me.... For God has given me unmistakable knowledge to
+know how the world was made, and the operations of the planets. The
+beginning, ending, and midst of the times, the alterations and the
+turnings of the sun, the changes of the seasons, the natures of the living
+creatures and the furies of the wild beasts, the force of the spirits and
+the reasonings of men, the diversities of plants and the virtues of the
+roots. All such things that are either secret or manifest, them I
+knew"--the wise king was, according to Nachmanides (who quotes the passages
+which I have just cited), speaking of the Torah, which is identical with
+this wisdom, a wisdom which existed before the creation, and by which God
+planned the world. Hence it bears the impression of all the universe,
+whilst on the other hand when it is said, "The king brought me into his
+chambers," those secret recesses of the Torah are meant in which all the
+great mysteries relating to Creation and to the Chariot (Ezekiel i.) are
+hidden.
+
+We must content ourselves with these few sparks struck from the glowing
+fires of these inner compartments, which, imperfectly luminous as my
+treatment has left them, may yet shed some light on the personality of
+Nachmanides, which is the main object of this essay. But I do not propose
+to accompany the mystic into the "chambers of the king," lest we may soon
+get into a labyrinth of obscure terms and strange ways of thinking for
+which the Ariadne thread is still wanting. We might also be confronted by
+the Fifty Gates of Understanding, the Thirty-Two Paths of Wisdom, and the
+Two Hundred and Thirty-One Permutations or Ciphers of the Alphabet, the
+key to which I do not hold. It is also questionable whether it would
+always be worth while to seek for it. When one, for instance, sees such a
+heaping on of nouns (with some Cabbalists) as the Land of Life, the Land
+of Promise, the Lord of the World, the Foundation Stone, Zion, Mother,
+Daughter, Sister, the Congregation of Israel, the Twin Roes, the Bride,
+Blue, End, Oral Law, Sea, Wisdom, etc., meant to represent the same thing
+or attribute, and to pass one into another, one cannot possibly help
+feeling some suspicion that one stands before a conglomerate of words run
+riot, over which the writer had lost all control.
+
+Indeed Nachmanides himself, in the preface to the above-mentioned
+Commentary, gives us the kind advice not to meditate, or rather brood,
+over the mystical hints which are scattered over this work, "speculation
+being (in such matters) folly, and reasoning over them fraught with
+danger." Indeed, the danger is obvious. I have, to give one or two
+instances, already alluded to the theory which accepts the Torah or the
+Wisdom as an agent in the creation of the world. But the mystic pushes
+further, and asks for the Primal Being to which this Wisdom owes its
+origin. The answer given is from the great Nothing, as it is written, And
+the Wisdom shall be found from Nothing.(93) What is intended by this, if
+it means anything, is probably to divest the first cause of every possible
+quality which by its very qualifying nature must be limiting and
+exclusive. Hence, God becomes the Unknowable. But suppose a metaphysical
+Hamlet, who, handling words indelicately, should impetuously exclaim, To
+be or not to be, that is the question?--into what abyss of utter negations
+would he drag all those who despair, by his terrible Nothing.
+
+On the other hand, into what gross anthropomorphisms may we be drawn by
+roughly handling certain metaphors which some Cabbalists have employed in
+their struggling after an adequate expression of God's manifestations in
+His attribute of love, if we forget for a single moment that they are only
+figures of speech, but liable to get defiled by the slightest touch of an
+unchaste thought.
+
+But the greater the dangers that beset the path of mysticism, the deeper
+the interest which we feel in the mystic. In connection with the above-
+mentioned warning, Nachmanides cites the words from the Scriptures, "But
+let not the priests and the people break through to come up unto the Lord,
+lest he break forth upon them" (Exod. xix. 24). Nevertheless, when we read
+in the Talmud the famous story of the four Rabbis(94) who went up into the
+_Pardes_, or Garden of Mystical Contemplation, we do not withhold our
+sympathy, either from Ben Azzai, who shot a glance and died, or from Ben
+Zoma, who shot a glance and was struck (in his mind). Nay, we feel the
+greatest admiration for these daring spirits, who, in their passionate
+attempt to "break through" the veil before the Infinite, hazarded their
+lives, and even that which is dearer than life, their minds, for a single
+glance. And did R. Meir deny his sympathies even to Other One or Elisha
+ben Abuyah, who "cut down the plants"? He is said to have heard a voice
+from heaven, "Return, oh backsliding children, except Other One," which
+prevented his repentance. Poor fallen Acher, he mistook hell for heaven.
+But do not the struggle and despair which led to this unfortunate
+confusion rather plead for our commiseration?
+
+Nachmanides, however, in his gentle way, did not mean to storm heaven.
+Like R. Akiba, "he entered in peace, and departed in peace." And it was by
+this peacefulness of his nature that he gained an influence over posterity
+which is equalled only by that of Maimonides. "If he was not a profound
+thinker," like the author of the _Guide of the Perplexed_, he had that
+which is next best--"he felt profoundly." Some writers of a rather
+reactionary character even went so far as to assign to him a higher place
+than to Maimonides. This is unjust. What a blank would there have been in
+Jewish thought but for Maimonides' great work, on which the noblest
+thinkers of Israel fed for centuries! As long as Job and Ecclesiastes hold
+their proper place in the Bible, and the Talmud contains hundreds of
+passages suggesting difficulties relating to such problems as the creation
+of the world, God's exact relation to it, the origin of evil, free will
+and predestination, none will persuade me that philosophy does not form an
+integral part of Jewish tradition, which, in its historical developments,
+took the shape which Maimonides and his successors gave to it. If
+Maimonides' _Guide_, which he considered as an interpretation of the Bible
+and of many strange sayings in the old Rabbinic homilies in the Talmud, is
+Aristotelian in its tone, so is tradition too; even the Talmud in many
+places betrays all sorts of foreign influences, and none would think of
+declaring it un-Jewish on this ground. I may also remark in passing that
+the certainty with which some writers deprecate the aids which religion
+may receive from philosophy is a little too hasty. For the question will
+always remain, What religion? The religion of R. Moses of Tachau or R.
+Joseph Jabez(95) would certainly have been greatly endangered by the
+slightest touch of speculation, while that of Bachya,(96) Maimonides,
+Jedaiah of Bedres, and Delmedigo undoubtedly received from philosophy its
+noblest support, and became intensified by the union.
+
+But apart from that consideration, the sphere of the activity of these two
+leaders seems to have been so widely different that it is hardly just to
+consider them as antagonists, or at least to emphasise the antagonism too
+much. Maimonides wrote his chief work, the _Guide_, for the few elect,
+who, like Ibn Tibbon(97) for instance, would traverse whole continents if
+a single syllogism went wrong. And if he could be of use to one wise man
+of this stamp, Maimonides would do so at the risk of "saying things
+unsuitable for ten thousand fools." But with Nachmanides, it would seem,
+it was these ten thousand who formed the main object of his tender care.
+They are, as we have seen, cultivated men, indeed "students," having
+enjoyed a proper education; but the happy times of abstract thinking have
+gone, and being under a perpetual strain of persecutions and cares, they
+long for the Sabbath and Festivals, which would bring them both bodily and
+spiritual recreation. They find no fault with religion, a false syllogism
+does not jar on their ears; what they are afraid of is that, being engaged
+as they are, all the six days of work, in their domestic affairs, religion
+may be too good a thing for them. "To appease their minds," to edify them,
+to make life more sweet and death less terrible to them, and to show them
+that even their weaknesses, as far as they are conditioned by nature, are
+not irreconcilable with a holy life, was what Nachmanides strove after.
+Now and then he permits them a glance into the mystical world in which he
+himself loved to move, but he does not care to stifle their senses into an
+idle contemplation, and passes quickly to some more practical application.
+To be sure, the tabernacle is nothing but a complete map of the superlunar
+world; but nevertheless its rather minute description is meant to teach us
+"that God desires us to work."
+
+This tendency toward being useful to the great majority of mankind may
+account for the want of consistency of which Nachmanides was so often
+accused. It is only the logician who can afford to be thoroughgoing in his
+theory, and even he would become most absurd and even dangerous but for
+the redeeming fact "that men are better than their principles." But with
+Nachmanides these "principles" would have proved even more fatal. Could
+he, for instance, have upset authority in the face of the ten thousand?
+They need to be guided rather than to guide. But he does not want them to
+follow either the Gaon or anybody else slavishly, "the gates of wisdom
+never having been shut," whilst on the other hand he hints to them that
+there is something divine in every man, which places him at least on the
+same high level with any authority. Take another instance--his wavering
+attitude between the Maimonists and the Anti-Maimonists, for which he was
+often censured. Apart from other reasons, to which I have pointed above,
+might he not have felt that, in spite of his personal admiration for
+Maimonides' genius, he had no right to put himself entirely on the side
+where there was little room for the ten thousand who were entrusted to his
+guidance, whilst the French Rabbis, with all their prejudices and
+intolerance, would never deny their sympathies to simple emotional folk?
+
+This tender and absorbing care for the people in general may also account
+for the fact that we do not know of a single treatise by Nachmanides of a
+purely Cabbalistic character in the style of the _Book of Weight_, by
+Moses de Leon, or the _Orchard_, by R. Moses Cordovora, or the _Tree of
+Life_ by R. Isaac Loria.(98) The story that attributes to him the
+discovery of the _Zohar_ in a cave in Palestine, from whence he sent it to
+Catalonia, needs as little refutation as the other story connected with
+his conversion to the Cabbalah, which is even more silly and of such a
+nature as not to bear repetition. The _Lilac of Mysteries_(99) and other
+mystical works passed also for a long time under his name, but their claim
+to this honour has been entirely disproved by the bibliographers, and they
+rank now among the _pseudepigraphica_. It is true that R. Nissim, of
+Gerona, said of Nachmanides that he was too much addicted to the belief in
+the Cabbalah, and as a fellow-countryman he may have had some personal
+knowledge about the matter. But as far as his writings go, this belief
+finds expression only in incidental remarks and occasional citations from
+the Bahir,(100) which he never thrusts upon the reader. It was chiefly
+when philosophy called in question his deep sympathies with even lower
+humanity, and threatened to withdraw them from those ennobling influences
+under which he wanted to keep them, that he asserted his mystical
+theories.
+
+Nachmanides' inconsistency has also proved beneficial in another respect.
+For mysticism has, by its over-emphasising of the divine in man, shown a
+strong tendency to remove God altogether and replace Him by the creature
+of His hands. Witness only the theological bubble of Shabbethai
+Tsebi--happily it burst quickly enough--which resulted in mere idolatry (in
+more polite language, Hero Worship) on the one side, and in the grossest
+antinomianism on the other. Nachmanides, however, with a happy
+inconsistency, combined with the belief of man's origin in God, a not less
+strong conviction of man's liability to sin, of the fact that he _does_
+sin--even the patriarchs were not free from it, as we have seen above--and
+that this sin _does_ alienate man from God. This healthy control over
+man's extravagant idea of his own species was with Nachmanides also a
+fruit of the Torah, within the limits of which everything must move, the
+mystic and his aspirations included, whilst its fair admixture of 365 _Do
+not's_ with 248 _Do's_ preserved him from that "holy doing nothing" which
+so many mystics indulged in, and made his a most active life.
+
+Much of this activity was displayed in Palestine, "the land to which the
+providence of God is especially attached," and which was, as with R. Judah
+Hallevi, always "his ideal home." There he not only completed his
+_Commentary on the Pentateuch_, but also erected synagogues, and engaged
+in organising communities, whose tone he tried to elevate both by his
+lectures and by his sermons. His career in Palestine was not a long one,
+for he lived there only about three years, and in 1270 he must already
+have been dead. A pretty legend narrates that when he emigrated to
+Palestine his pupils asked him to give them a sign enabling them to
+ascertain the day of his death. He answered them that on that day a rift
+in the shape of a lamp would be seen in the tombstone of his mother. After
+three years a pupil suddenly noticed this rift, when the mourning over the
+Rabbi began. Thus, stone, or anything else earthly, breaks finally, and
+the life of the master passes into light.
+
+What life meant to him, how deeply he was convinced that there is no other
+life but that originating in God, how deeply stirred his soul was by the
+consciousness of sin, what agonies the thought of the alienation from God
+caused him, how he felt that there is nothing left to him but to throw
+himself upon the mercy of God, and how he rejoiced in the hope of a final
+reunion with Him--of all these sentiments we find the best expression in
+the following religious poem, with which this paper may conclude.
+Nachmanides composed it in Hebrew, and it is still preserved in some
+rituals as a hymn, recited on the Day of Atonement. It is here given in
+the English translation of Mrs. Henry Lucas.(101)
+
+
+    Ere time began, ere age to age had thrilled,
+    I waited in his storehouse, as he willed;
+    He gave me being, but, my years fulfilled,
+        I shall be summoned back before the King.
+
+    He called the hidden to the light of day,
+    To right and left, each side the fountain lay,
+    From out the stream and down the steps, the way
+        That led me to the garden of the King.
+
+    Thou gavest me a light my path to guide,
+    To prove my heart's recesses still untried;
+    And as I went, thy voice in warning cried:
+        "Child! fear thou him who is thy God and King!"
+
+    True weight and measure learned my heart from thee;
+    If blessings follow, then what joy for me!
+    If nought but sin, all mine the shame must be,
+        For that was not determined by the King.
+
+    I hasten, trembling, to confess the whole
+    Of my transgressions, ere I reach the goal
+    Where mine own words must witness 'gainst my soul,
+        And who dares doubt the writing of the King?
+
+    Erring, I wandered in the wilderness,
+    In passion's grave nigh sinking powerless;
+    Now deeply I repent, in sore distress,
+        That I kept not the statutes of the King!
+
+    With worldly longings was my bosom fraught,
+    Earth's idle toys and follies all I sought;
+    Ah! when he judges joys so dearly bought,
+        How greatly shall I fear my Lord and King!
+
+    Now conscience-stricken, humbled to the dust,
+    Doubting himself, in thee alone his trust,
+    He shrinks in terror back, for God is just--
+        How can a sinner hope to reach the King?
+
+    Oh, be thy mercy in the balance laid,
+    To hold thy servant's sins more lightly weighed,
+    When, his confession penitently made,
+        He answers for his guilt before the King.
+
+    Thine is the love, O God, and thine the grace,
+    That folds the sinner in its mild embrace;
+    Thine the forgiveness, bridging o'er the space
+        'Twixt man's works and the task set by the King.
+
+    Unheeding all my sins, I cling to thee;
+    I know that mercy shall thy footstool be:
+    Before I call, oh, do thou answer me,
+        For nothing dare I claim of thee, my King!
+
+    O thou, who makest guilt to disappear,
+    My help, my hope, my rock, I will not fear;
+    Though thou the body hold in dungeon drear,
+        The soul has found the palace of the King!
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+The third letter of Nachmanides to which I have alluded above, is embodied
+in the following will by R. Solomon, son of the martyr Isaac. Neither the
+date nor the country of the testator is known, but style and language make
+it probable that he was a Spanish Jew, and lived in the fourteenth
+century. I give here a translation from the whole document as it is to be
+found in the Manuscripts.
+
+
+    These are the regulations which I, Solomon, the son of the martyr,
+    Rabbi Isaac, the son of R. Zadok, of blessed memory, draw up for
+    myself. That as long as I am in good health, and free from
+    accident, and think of it, I shall not eat before I have studied
+    one page of the Talmud or of its commentaries. Should I transgress
+    this rule intentionally, I must not drink wine on that day, or I
+    shall pay half a _Zehub_(102) to charity. Again, that I shall
+    every week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and once in
+    the Aramaic version. Should I intentionally omit completing the
+    Lesson as above, then I must pay two _Zehubs_ to charity. Again,
+    that I shall every Sabbath take three meals, consisting of bread
+    or fruit. Should I omit to do so, I must give in charity half a
+    _Zehub_. Again, in order to subdue my appetites, and not to enjoy
+    in this world more than is necessary for the maintenance of my
+    body, I must not eat at one meal more than one course of meat, and
+    not more than two courses altogether; nor must I drink more than
+    two cups of wine at one meal, apart from the blessing-cup (over
+    which grace is said), except on Sabbath, Festivals, Chanukah (the
+    Maccabean Dedication Feast), New Moon, and at other religious
+    meals (for instance, wedding-dinners and similar festive
+    occasions). Again, I must not have any regular meal on the day
+    preceding Sabbath or Festivals. I must not have during the day
+    more than one course, so that I shall enter upon the holy day with
+    a good appetite. Should I transgress this resolve intentionally I
+    shall have to fast a day, or to pay two _Zehubs_. Again, that I
+    shall not eat the fish called _burbot_,(103) if I think of it.
+    Again, even on the above-mentioned days, I must not eat more than
+    three courses at a meal, nor drink more than three cups of wine,
+    exclusive of the blessing-cup. Again, ... I must not swear by God,
+    nor mention the name of Heaven without a purpose, nor curse any
+    man in the name of God. Should I, God forbid, transgress it, I
+    must not drink more than one cup of wine on that day exclusive of
+    the blessing-cup. Should I, however, transgress this after dinner,
+    I must abstain from wine the following day. Should I transgress
+    it, I have to pay half a _Zehub_. Again, that I shall get up every
+    night to praise God, to supplicate for His mercy, and to confess.
+    On those nights when confession is not to be said (Sabbaths and
+    Festivals), I shall say hymns and psalms. This I shall do when I
+    am in my house, and in good health, free from any accident. Should
+    I transgress it, I shall drink not more than one cup of wine the
+    following day, except the blessing-cup. I again take upon myself
+    to give in charity the following proportion of my expenditure--from
+    each dress which I shall have made for myself or for one member of
+    my family, costing more than ten _Zehubs_, I must pay one
+    _Pashut_(104) for each ten _Zehubs_. Again, if I should buy an
+    animal, or a slave, or a female slave, or ground, that I shall
+    also pay at the same rate. And if I shall buy clothes for sale,
+    called _fashas_, I shall pay two _Pashuts_ for each garment. As
+    often as I have occasion to say the benediction of thanksgivings
+    for having escaped danger I shall pay a _Zehub_, except when I am
+    travelling [also involving danger in those times!], in which case
+    I shall have to pay a _Zehub_ on my arrival, and two _Pashuts_
+    daily during the journey. Again, from every kind of fish bought
+    for me, costing more than a _Zehub_, I shall pay a _Pashut_ for
+    each _Zehub_. And also, if I shall be deemed worthy by God to
+    marry my children, and to be present at their wedding, to cause
+    them to give to the poor from the dowry brought to them by their
+    wives, whether in money or in kind, at the rate of one per cent.
+    If God will find me worthy of having sons, I must give in charity
+    according to my means at the time.
+
+    I shall also, between New Year and the Day of Atonement in each
+    year, calculate my profits during the past year and (after
+    deducting expenses) give a tithe thereof to the poor. Should I be
+    unable to make an accurate calculation, then I shall give
+    approximately. This tithe I shall put aside, together with the
+    other money for religious (charitable) purpose, to dispose of it
+    as I shall deem best. I also propose to have the liberty of
+    employing the money in any profitable speculation with a view to
+    augmenting it. But in respect of all I have written above I shall
+    not hold myself guilty if I transgress, if such transgression be
+    the result of forgetfulness; but in order to guard against it, I
+    shall read this through weekly.
+
+    I also command my children to take upon themselves as many of the
+    above regulations as may be in their power to observe, and also to
+    bind them (_i.e._ the regulations), from generation to generation,
+    upon their children. And he who carries them out, and even adds to
+    them, at pain of discomfort to himself, shall merit a special
+    blessing. And this is the text of the will which I, the above-
+    mentioned Solomon, draw up for my children, may God preserve them.
+    That they shall pray thrice daily, and endeavour always to utter
+    their prayers with devotion. Again, that this prayer shall be said
+    in the _Beth Hammidrash_, or in the synagogue together with the
+    congregation. Again, that they shall apply all their powers to
+    maintain the synagogues and the houses of study, which our
+    ancestors have built, as well as to continue the endowments
+    established by my ancestors and myself. They must always endeavour
+    to imitate them, so that goodness shall never cease from among
+    them. Again, that they shall always have a chair on which a volume
+    of the Talmud, or some other Talmudical work, shall lie; so that
+    they shall always open a book when they come home. At least, they
+    shall read in any book they like four lines before taking their
+    meal. Again, that they shall every week read the Lesson twice in
+    the Hebrew text, and once in the Aramaic version. Again, to take
+    three meals on the Sabbath....
+
+    Again, that they shall be always modest, merciful, and charitable,
+    for these are the qualities by which the children of Israel are
+    known. Let also all their thoughts and meditations be always
+    directed to the service of the Lord, and be as charitable and
+    benevolent as possible, for this is all that remains to man of his
+    labour. They shall also endeavour to regulate their diet according
+    to the rules laid down by Rabbi Moses (b. Maimon, or Maimonides),
+    so as to fulfil the words of Scripture: "The righteous eateth to
+    the satisfying of his soul." And let them always be careful not to
+    take the name of God in vain, to be honest in all business
+    transactions, and let their yea be always yea. They shall always
+    be under the obligation to train their children to the Study of
+    the Torah, but one shall devote his life exclusively to the study
+    thereof. And it shall be incumbent upon his brothers to support
+    this one, and to invest his moneys, and to provide for him that he
+    and his family may live respectably, so that he be not distracted
+    by worldly cares from his studies. Let also the elder love the
+    younger brothers as their own children, and the younger respect
+    the elder as a parent. Thus they may always bear in mind that they
+    are of a God-fearing family. Let them love and honour scholars,
+    thus to merit the honour of having scholars for their sons and
+    sons-in-law. This will they shall themselves read weekly, and
+    shall also make it incumbent upon their children, from generation
+    to generation, to read weekly, in order to fulfil what is written
+    (Gen. xviii. 19), "For I know him that he will command his
+    children," etc., and also the words of Isaiah (lix. 21), "And this
+    is my covenant," etc. But as often as they shall read this will,
+    they shall also read the two letters below written, which Rabbi
+    Moses ben Nachman sent to his sons, with a view of being
+    serviceable to them in many respects. Should, heaven forbid, they
+    be by any sad accident prevented from fulfilling the injunctions
+    above laid down, they must fine themselves by not drinking wine on
+    that day, or by eating one course less at the dinner, or by giving
+    some fine in charity....
+
+
+And this is the letter which the above-mentioned Rabbi sent from the Holy
+Land to Castile, when his son was staying before the king (in his
+service):--
+
+
+    "... May God bless you and preserve you from sin and punishment.
+    Behold, our master, King David, had a son, wise and of an
+    understanding heart, like unto whom there was never one before or
+    after. Nevertheless he said to him (1 Kings ii. 2): 'And keep the
+    charge of the Lord thy God,' etc. He also said to him: 'And thou,
+    my son, know the God of thy father' (1 Chron. xxviii. 9). Now, my
+    son, if thou wilt measure thyself with Solomon, thou wilt find
+    thyself a worm--not a man, merely an insect; nevertheless, if thou
+    wilt seek God, he will make thee great; and if thou wilt forsake
+    him, thou wilt be turned out and forsaken. My son, be careful that
+    thou read the _Shema_(105) morning and evening, as well as that
+    thou say the daily prayers. Have always with thee a Pentateuch
+    written correctly, and read therein the Lesson for each
+    Sabbath.... 'Cast thy burden upon the Lord,' for the thing which
+    thou believest far from thee is often very near unto thee. Know,
+    again, that thou art not master over thy words, nor hast power
+    over thy hand; but everything is in the hand of the Lord, who
+    formeth thy heart.... Be especially careful to keep aloof from the
+    women [of the court?]. Know that our God hates immorality, and
+    Balaam could in no other way injure Israel than by inciting them
+    to unchastity. [Here come many quotations from Malachi and
+    Ezra.]... My son, remember me always, and let the image of my
+    countenance be never absent from before thine eyes. Love not that
+    which I hate.... Let the words of the Psalmist be always upon thy
+    lips, 'I am a stranger in the earth: hide not thy commandments
+    from me' (Ps. cxix. 19); and God, who is good and the dispenser of
+    good, shall increase thy peace and prolong thy life in peace and
+    happiness, and promote thy honour according to thy wish and the
+    wish of thy father who begat thee, Moses ben Nachman."
+
+
+
+
+
+V. A JEWISH BOSWELL
+
+
+There is a saying in the Talmud "Nothing exists of which there is not some
+indication in the Torah." These words are often quoted, and some modern
+authors have pressed them so far as to find even the discoveries of
+Columbus and the inventions of Watt and Stephenson indicated in the Law.
+This is certainly misapplied ingenuity. But it is hardly an exaggeration
+to maintain that there is no noble manifestation of real religion, no
+expression of real piety, reverence, and devotion, to which Jewish
+literature would not offer a fair parallel.
+
+Thus it will hardly be astonishing to hear that Jewish literature has its
+Boswell to show, more than three centuries before the Scottish gentleman
+came to London to admire his Johnson, and more than four centuries before
+the Sage of Chelsea delivered his lectures on Hero Worship. And this
+Jewish Boswell was guided only by the motives suggested to him in the old
+Rabbinic literature. In this literature the reverence for the great man,
+and the absorption of one's whole self in him, went so far that one Rabbi
+declared that the whole world was only created to serve such a man as
+company.(106)
+
+Again, the fact that, in the language of the Rabbis, the term for studying
+the Law and discussing it is "to attend" or rather "to serve the disciples
+of the Wise" may also have led people to the important truth that the
+great man is not a lecturing machine, but a sort of living Law himself.
+"When the man," said one Rabbi, "has wholly devoted himself to the Torah,
+and thoroughly identified himself with it, it becomes almost his own
+Torah." Thus people have not only to listen to his words but to observe
+his whole life, and to profit from all his actions and movements.
+
+This was what the Jewish Boswell sought to do. His name was Rabbi Solomon,
+of St. Goar, a small town on the Rhine, while the name of the master whom
+he served was R. Jacob, the Levite, better known by his initials Maharil,
+who filled the office of Chief Rabbi in Mayence and Worms successively.
+The main activity of Maharil falls in the first three decades of the
+fifteenth century. Those were troublous times for a Rabbi. For the
+preceding century with its persecution and sufferings--one has only to
+think of the Black Death and its terrible consequences for the Jews--led to
+the destruction of the great Schools, the decay of the study of the Law,
+and to the dissolution of many congregations. Those which remained lost
+all touch with each other, so that almost every larger Jewish community
+had its own _Minhag_ or ritual custom.(107)
+
+It was Maharil who brought some order into this chaos, and in the course
+of time his influence asserted itself so strongly that the rules observed
+by him in the performing of religious ceremonies were accepted by the
+great majority of the Jewish communities. Thus the personality of Maharil
+himself became a standing Minhag, suppressing all the other Minhagim
+(customs).
+
+But there must have been something very strong and very great about the
+personality of the man who could succeed in such an arduous task. For we
+must not forget that the Minhag or custom in its decay degenerates into a
+kind of religious fashion, the worst disease to which religion is liable,
+and the most difficult to cure. It is therefore an irreparable loss both
+for Jewish literature and for Jewish history, that the greatest part of
+Maharil's posthumous writings are no longer extant, so that our knowledge
+about him is very small. But the little we know of him we owe chiefly to
+the communicativeness of his servant, the Solomon of St. Goar whom I
+mentioned above.
+
+Solomon not only gave us the "Customs" of his master, but also observed
+him closely in all his movements, and conscientiously wrote down all that
+he saw and heard, under the name of _Collectanea_. It seems that the bulk
+of these _Collectanea_ was also lost. But in the fragments that we still
+possess we are informed, among other things, how Maharil addressed his
+wife, how he treated his pupils, how careful he was in the use of his
+books, and even how clean his linen was. Is this not out-Boswelling
+Boswell?
+
+The most striking point of agreement between the Boswell of the fifteenth
+and him of the eighteenth century, is that they both use the same passage
+from the Talmud to excuse the interest in trifles which their labours of
+love betrayed. Thus Solomon prefaces his _Collectanea_ with the following
+words: "It is written, His leaf shall not wither. These words were
+explained by our Sages to mean that even the idle talk of the disciples of
+the wise deserves a study. Upon this interpretation I have relied. In my
+love to R. Jacob the Levite, I collected everything about him. I did not
+refuse even small things, though many derided me. Everything I wrote down,
+for such was the desire of my heart."
+
+Thus far Solomon. Now, if we turn to the introduction to Boswell's _Life
+of Johnson_, we read the following sentence: "For this almost
+superstitious reverence, I have found very old and venerable authority
+quoted by our great modern prelate, Secker, in whose tenth sermon there is
+the following passage: 'Rabbi Kimchi, a noted Jewish commentator who lived
+about five hundred years ago, explains that passage in the first Psalm,
+"His leaf also shall not wither" from Rabbins yet older than himself, that
+even the idle talk, so he expressed it, of a good man ought to be
+regarded.' "
+
+Croker's note to this passage sounds rather strange. This editor says:
+"Kimchi was a Spanish Rabbi, who died in 1240. One wonders that Secker's
+good sense should have condescended to quote this far-fetched and futile
+interpretation of the simple and beautiful metaphor, by which the Psalmist
+illustrates the prosperity of the righteous man." Now Kimchi died at least
+five years earlier than Croker states, but dates, we know from Macaulay's
+essay on the subject, were not Croker's strong point. But one can hardly
+forgive the editor of Boswell this lack of sympathy. Had he known what
+strong affinity there was between his most Christian author and the humble
+Jew Solomon, he would have less resented this condescension of Archbishop
+Secker.
+
+As for the Jewish Boswell himself, we know very little about him. The only
+place in which he speaks about his own person is that in which he derives
+his pedigree from R. Eleazar ben Samuel Hallevi (died 1357), and says that
+he was generally called "Der gute (the good) R. Salman." He well deserved
+this appellation. In his Will we find the following injunction to his
+children: "Be honest, and conscientious in your dealing with men, with
+Jews as well as Gentiles, be kind and obliging to them; do not speak what
+is superfluous." And wisdom is surely rare enough to render inappropriate
+a charge of superfluousness against the work of those who in bygone times
+spent their energies in gathering the crumbs that fell from the tables of
+the wise.
+
+
+
+
+
+VI. THE DOGMAS OF JUDAISM
+
+
+The object of this essay is to say about the dogmas of Judaism a word
+which I think ought not to be left unsaid.
+
+In speaking of dogmas it must be understood that Judaism does not ascribe
+to them any saving power. The belief in a dogma or a doctrine without
+abiding by its real or supposed consequences (_e.g._ the belief in
+_creatio ex nihilo_ without keeping the Sabbath) is of no value. And the
+question about certain doctrines is not whether they possess or do not
+possess the desired charm against certain diseases of the soul, but
+whether they ought to be considered as characteristics of Judaism or not.
+
+It must again be premised that the subject, which occupied the thoughts of
+the greatest and noblest Jewish minds for so many centuries, has been
+neglected for a comparatively long time. And this for various reasons.
+First, there is Mendelssohn's assertion, or supposed assertion, in his
+_Jerusalem_, that Judaism has no dogmas--an assertion which has been
+accepted by the majority of modern Jewish theologians as the only dogma
+Judaism possesses. You can hear it pronounced in scores of Jewish pulpits;
+you can read it written in scores of Jewish books. To admit the
+possibility that Mendelssohn was in error was hardly permissible,
+especially for those with whom he enjoys a certain infallibility. Nay,
+even the fact that he himself was not consistent in his theory, and on
+another occasion declared that Judaism _has_ dogmas, only that they are
+purer and more in harmony with reason than those of other religions; or
+even the more important fact that he published a school-book for children,
+in which the so-called Thirteen Articles were embodied, only that instead
+of the formula "I believe," he substituted "I am convinced,"--even such
+patent facts did not produce much effect upon many of our modern
+theologians.(108) They were either overlooked or explained away so as to
+make them harmonise with the great dogma of dogmalessness. For it is one
+of the attributes of infallibility that the words of its happy possessor
+must always be reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the
+unbeliever as gross contradictions.
+
+Another cause of the neglect into which the subject has fallen is that our
+century is an _historical_ one. It is not only books that have their fate,
+but also whole sciences and literatures. In past times it was religious
+speculation that formed the favourite study of scholars, in our time it is
+history with its critical foundation on a sound philology. Now as these
+two most important branches of Jewish science were so long neglected--were
+perhaps never cultivated in the true meaning of the word, and as Jewish
+literature is so vast and Jewish history so far-reaching and eventful, we
+cannot wonder that these studies have absorbed the time and the labour of
+the greatest and best Jewish writers in this century.
+
+There is, besides, a certain tendency in historical studies that is
+hostile to mere theological speculation. The historian deals with
+realities, the theologian with abstractions. The latter likes to shape the
+universe after his system, and tells us how things _ought to be_, the
+former teaches us how they _are_ or _have been_, and the explanation he
+gives for their being so and not otherwise includes in most cases also a
+kind of justification for their existence. There is also the _odium
+theologicum_, which has been the cause of so much misfortune that it is
+hated by the historian, whilst the superficial, rationalistic way in which
+the theologian manages to explain everything which does not suit his
+system is most repulsive to the critical spirit.
+
+But it cannot be denied that this neglect has caused much confusion.
+Especially is this noticeable in England, which is essentially a
+theological country, and where people are but little prone to give up
+speculation about things which concern their most sacred interest and
+greatest happiness. Thus whilst we are exceedingly poor in all other
+branches of Jewish learning, we are comparatively rich in productions of a
+theological character. We have a superfluity of essays on such delicate
+subjects as eternal punishment, immortality of the soul, the day of
+judgment, etc., and many treatises on the definition of Judaism. But
+knowing little or nothing of the progress recently made in Jewish
+theology, of the many protests against all kinds of infallibility, whether
+canonised in this century or in olden times, we in England still maintain
+that Judaism has no dogmas as if nothing to the contrary had ever been
+said. We seek the foundation of Judaism in political economy, in hygiene,
+in everything except religion. Following the fashion of the day to esteem
+religion in proportion to its ability to adapt itself to every possible
+and impossible metaphysical and social system, we are anxious to squeeze
+out of Judaism the last drop of faith and hope, and strive to make it so
+flexible that we can turn it in every direction which it is our pleasure
+to follow. But alas! the flexibility has progressed so far as to classify
+Judaism among the invertebrate species, the lowest order of living things.
+It strongly resembles a certain Christian school which addresses itself to
+the world in general and claims to satisfy everybody alike. It claims to
+be socialism for the adherents of Karl Marx and Lassalle, worship of man
+for the followers of Comte and St. Simon; it carefully avoids the word
+"God" for the comfort of agnostics and sceptics, whilst on the other hand
+it pretends to hold sway over paradise, hell, and immortality for the
+edification of believers. In such illusions many of our theologians
+delight. For illusions they are; you cannot be everything if you want to
+be anything. Moreover, illusions in themselves are bad enough, but we are
+menaced with what is still worse. Judaism, divested of every higher
+religious motive, is in danger of falling into gross materialism. For what
+else is the meaning of such declarations as "Believe what you like, but
+conform to this or that mode of life"; what else does it mean but "We
+cannot expect you to believe that the things you are bidden to do are
+commanded by a higher authority; there is not such a thing as belief, but
+you ought to do them for conventionalism or for your own convenience."
+
+But both these motives--the good opinion of our neighbours, as well as our
+bodily health--have nothing to do with our nobler and higher sentiments,
+and degrade Judaism to a matter of expediency or diplomacy. Indeed, things
+have advanced so far that well-meaning but ill-advised writers even think
+to render a service to Judaism by declaring it to be a kind of enlightened
+Hedonism, or rather a moderate Epicureanism.
+
+I have no intention of here answering the question, What is Judaism? This
+question is not less perplexing than the problem, What is God's world?
+Judaism is also a great Infinite, composed of as many endless Units, the
+Jews. And these Unit-Jews have been, and are still, scattered through all
+the world, and have passed under an immensity of influences, good and bad.
+If so, how can we give an exact definition of the Infinite, called
+Judaism?
+
+But if there is anything sure, it is that the highest motives which worked
+through the history of Judaism are the strong belief in God and the
+unshaken confidence that at last this God, the God of Israel, will be the
+God of the whole world; or, in other words, Faith and Hope are the two
+most prominent characteristics of Judaism.
+
+In the following pages I shall try to give a short account of the manner
+in which these two principles of Judaism found expression, from the
+earliest times down to the age of Mendelssohn; that is, to present an
+outline of the history of Jewish Dogmas. First, a few observations on the
+position of the Bible and the Talmud in relation to our theme.
+Insufficient and poor as they may be in proportion to the importance of
+these two fundamental documents of Judaism, these remarks may nevertheless
+suggest a connecting link between the teachings of Jewish antiquity and
+those of Maimonides and his successors.
+
+I begin with the Scriptures.
+
+The Bible itself hardly contains a command bidding us _to believe_. We are
+hardly ordered, _e.g._, to believe in the existence of God. I say hardly,
+but I do not altogether deny the existence of such a command. It is true
+that we do not find in the Scripture such words as: "You are commanded to
+believe in the existence of God." Nor is any punishment assigned as
+awaiting him who denies it. Notwithstanding these facts, many Jewish
+authorities--among them such important men as Maimonides, R. Judah Hallevi,
+Nachmanides--perceive, in the first words of the Ten Commandments, "I am
+the Lord thy God," the command to believe in His existence.(109)
+
+Be this as it may, there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that the Bible,
+in which every command is dictated by God, and in which all its heroes are
+the servants, the friends, or the ambassadors of God, presumes such a
+belief in every one to whom those laws are dictated, and these heroes
+address themselves. Nay, I think that the word "belief" is not even
+adequate. In a world with so many visible facts and invisible causes, as
+life and death, growth and decay, light and darkness; in a world where the
+sun rises and sets; where the stars appear regularly; where heavy rains
+pour down from the sky, often accompanied by such grand phenomena as
+thunder and lightning; in a world full of such marvels, but into which no
+notion has entered of all our modern true or false explanations--who but
+God is behind all these things? "Have the gates," asks God, "have the
+gates of death been open to thee? or hast thou seen the doors of the
+shadow of death?... Where is the way where light dwelleth? and as for
+darkness, where is the place thereof?... Hath the rain a father? or who
+hath begotten the drops of dew?... Canst thou bind the sweet influences of
+Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?... Canst thou send lightnings, that
+they may go, and say unto thee, Here we are?" (Job xxxviii.). Of all these
+wonders, God was not merely the _prima causa_; they were the result of His
+direct action, without any intermediary causes. And it is as absurd to say
+that the ancient world believed in God, as for a future historian to
+assert of the nineteenth century that it believed in the effects of
+electricity. We _see_ them, and so antiquity _saw_ God. If there was any
+danger, it lay not in the denial of the existence of a God, but in having
+a wrong belief. Belief in as many gods as there are manifestations in
+nature, the investing of them with false attributes, the misunderstanding
+of God's relation to men, lead to immorality. Thus the greater part of the
+laws and teachings of the Bible are either directed against polytheism,
+with all its low ideas of God, or rather of gods; or they are directed
+towards regulating God's relation to men. Man is a servant of God, or His
+prophet, or even His friend. But this relationship man obtains only by his
+conduct. Nay, all man's actions are carefully regulated by God, and
+connected with His holiness. The 19th chapter of Leviticus, which is
+considered by the Rabbis as the portion of the Law in which the most
+important articles of the Torah are embodied, is headed, "Ye shall be
+holy, for I the Lord your own God am holy." And each law therein
+occurring, even those which concern our relations to each other, is _not_
+founded on utilitarian reasons, but is ordained because the opposite of it
+is an offence to the holiness of God, and profanes His creatures, whom He
+desired to be as holy as He is.(110)
+
+Thus the whole structure of the Bible is built upon the visible fact of
+the existence of a God, and upon the belief in the relation of God to men,
+especially to Israel. In spite of all that has been said to the contrary,
+the Bible _does_ lay stress upon belief, where belief is required. The
+unbelievers are rebuked again and again. "For all this they sinned still,
+and believed not for His wondrous work," complains Asaph (Ps. lxxviii.
+32). And belief is praised in such exalted words as, "Thus saith the Lord,
+I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of thine espousals,
+when thou wentest after me in the wilderness, in a land that was not sown"
+(Jer. ii. 2). The Bible, especially the books of the prophets, consists,
+in great part, of promises for the future, which the Rabbis justly termed
+the "Consolations."(111) For our purpose, it is of no great consequence to
+examine what future the prophets had in view, whether an immediate future
+or one more remote, at the end of days. At any rate, they inculcated hope
+and confidence that God would bring to pass a better time. I think that
+even the most advanced Bible critic--provided he is not guided by some
+modern Aryan reasons--must perceive in such passages as, "The Lord shall
+reign for ever and ever," "The Lord shall rejoice in his works," and many
+others, a hope for more than the establishment of the "national Deity
+among his votaries in Palestine."
+
+We have now to pass over an interval of many centuries, the length of
+which depends upon the views held as to the date of the close of the
+canon, and examine what the Rabbis, the representatives of the prophets,
+thought on this subject. Not that the views of the author of the _Wisdom
+of Solomon_, of Philo and Aristobulus, and many others of the Jud�o-
+Alexandrian school would be uninteresting for us. But somehow their
+influence on Judaism was only a passing one, and their doctrines never
+became authoritative in the Synagogue. We must here confine ourselves to
+those who, even by the testimony of their bitterest enemies, occupied the
+seat of Moses.
+
+The successors of the prophets had to deal with new circumstances, and
+accordingly their teachings were adapted to the wants of their times. As
+the result of manifold foreign influences, the visible fact of the
+existence of God as manifested in the Bible had been somewhat obscured.
+Prophecy ceased, and the Holy Spirit which inspired a few chosen ones took
+its place. Afterwards this influence was reduced to the hearing of a Voice
+from Heaven, which was audible to still fewer. On the other hand the
+Rabbis had this advantage that they were not called upon to fight against
+idolatry as their predecessors the prophets had been. The evil inclination
+to worship idols was, as the Talmud expresses it allegorically, killed by
+the Men of the Great Synagogue, or, as we should put it, it was suppressed
+by the sufferings of the captivity in Babylon. This change of
+circumstances is marked by the following fact:--Whilst the prophets mostly
+considered idolatry as the cause of all sin, the Rabbis show a strong
+tendency to ascribe sin to a defect in, or a want of, belief on the part
+of the sinner. They teach that Adam would not have sinned unless he had
+first denied the "Root of all" (or the main principle), namely, the belief
+in the Omnipresence of God. Of Cain they say that before murdering his
+brother he declared: "There is no judgment, there is no judge, there is no
+world to come, and there is no reward for the just, and no punishment for
+the wicked."(112)
+
+In another place we read that the commission of a sin in secret is an
+impertinent attempt by the doer to oust God from the world. But if
+unbelief is considered as the root of all evil, we may expect that the
+reverse of it, a perfect faith, would be praised in the most exalted
+terms. So we read: Faith is so great that the man who possesses it may
+hope to become a worthy vessel of the Holy Spirit, or, as we should
+express it, that he may hope to obtain by this power the highest degree of
+communion with his Maker. The Patriarch Abraham, notwithstanding all his
+other virtues, only became "the possessor of both worlds" by the merit of
+his strong faith. Nay, even the fulfilment of a single law when
+accompanied by true faith is, according to the Rabbis, sufficient to bring
+man nigh to God. And the future redemption is also conditional on the
+degree of faith shown by Israel.(113)
+
+It has often been asked what the Rabbis would have thought of a man who
+fulfils every commandment of the Torah, but does not believe that this
+Torah was given by God, or that there exists a God at all. It is indeed
+very difficult to answer this question with any degree of certainty. In
+the time of the Rabbis people were still too simple for such a diplomatic
+religion, and conformity in the modern sense was quite an unknown thing.
+But from the foregoing remarks it would seem that the Rabbis could not
+conceive such a monstrosity as atheistic orthodoxy. For, as we have seen,
+the Rabbis thought that unbelief must needs end in sin, for faith is the
+origin of all good. Accordingly, in the case just supposed they would have
+either suspected the man's orthodoxy, or would have denied that his views
+were really what he professed them to be.
+
+Still more important than the above cited Agadic passages is one which we
+are about to quote from the tractate Sanhedrin. This tractate deals with
+the constitution, of the supreme law-court, the examination of the
+witnesses, the functions of the judges, and the different punishment to be
+inflicted on the transgressors of the law. After having enumerated various
+kinds of capital punishment, the Mishnah adds the following words: "These
+are (the men) who are excluded from the life to come: He who says there is
+no resurrection from death; he who says there is no Torah given from
+heaven, and the Epikurus."(114) This passage was considered by the Rabbis
+of the Middle Ages, as well as by modern scholars, the _locus classicus_
+for the dogma question. There are many passages in the Rabbinic literature
+which exclude man from the world to come for this or that sin. But these
+are more or less of an Agadic (legendary) character, and thus lend
+themselves to exaggeration and hyperbolic language. They cannot,
+therefore, be considered as serious legal dicta, or as the general opinion
+of the Rabbis.
+
+The Mishnah in Sanhedrin, however, has, if only by its position in a legal
+tractate, a certain _Halachic_ (obligatory) character. And the fact that
+so early an authority as R. Akiba made additions to it guarantees its high
+antiquity. The first two sentences of this Mishnah are clear enough. In
+modern language, and positively speaking, they would represent articles of
+belief in Resurrection and Revelation. Great difficulty is found in
+defining what was meant by the word _Epikurus_. The authorities of the
+Middle Ages, to whom I shall again have to refer, explain the Epikurus to
+be a man who denies the belief in reward and punishment; others identify
+him with one who denies the belief in Providence; while others again
+consider the Epikurus to be one who denies Tradition. But the parallel
+passages in which it occurs incline one rather to think that this word
+cannot be defined by one kind of heresy. It implies rather a frivolous
+treatment of the words of Scripture or of Tradition. In the case of the
+latter (Tradition) it is certainly not honest difference of opinion that
+is condemned; for the Rabbis themselves differed very often from each
+other, and even Medi�val authorities did not feel any compunction about
+explaining Scripture in variance with the Rabbinic interpretation, and
+sometimes they even went so far as to declare that the view of this or
+that great authority was only to be considered as an isolated opinion not
+deserving particular attention. What they did blame was, as already said,
+scoffing and impiety. We may thus safely assert that reverence for the
+teachers of Israel formed the third essential principle of Judaism.(115)
+
+I have still to remark that there occur in the Talmud such passages as
+"the Jew, even if he has sinned, is still a Jew," or "He who denies
+idolatry is called a Jew." These and similar passages have been used to
+prove that Judaism was not a positive religion, but only involved the
+negation of idolatry. But it has been overlooked that the statements
+quoted have more a legal than a theological character. The Jew belonged to
+his nationality even after having committed the greatest sin, just as the
+Englishman does not cease to be an Englishman--in regard to treason and the
+like--by having committed a heinous crime. But he has certainly acted in a
+very un-English way, and having outraged the feelings of the whole nation
+will have to suffer for his misconduct. The Rabbis in a similar manner did
+not maintain that he who gave up the belief in Revelation and
+Resurrection, and treated irreverently the teachers of Israel, severed his
+connection with the Jewish nation, but that, for his crime, he was going
+to suffer the heaviest punishment. He was to be excluded from the world to
+come.
+
+Still, important as is the passage quoted from Sanhedrin, it would be
+erroneous to think that it exhausted the creed of the Rabbis. The liturgy
+and innumerable passages in the Midrashim show that they ardently clung to
+the belief in the advent of the Messiah. All their hope was turned to the
+future redemption and the final establishment of the Kingdom of Heaven on
+earth. Judaism, stripped of this belief, would have been for them devoid
+of meaning. The belief in reward and punishment is also repeated again and
+again in the old Rabbinic literature. A more emphatic declaration of the
+belief in Providence than is conveyed by the following passages is hardly
+conceivable. "Everything is foreseen, and free will is given. And the
+world is judged by grace." Or, "the born are to die, and the dead to
+revive, and the living to be judged. For to know and to notify, and that
+it may be known that He (God) is the Framer and He the Creator, and He the
+Discerner, and He the Judge, and He the Witness," etc.(116)
+
+But it must not be forgotten that it was not the habit of the Rabbis to
+lay down, either for conduct or for doctrine, rules which were commonly
+known. When they urged the three points stated above there must have been
+some historical reason for it. Probably these principles were controverted
+by some heretics. Indeed, the whole tone of the passage cited from
+Sanhedrin is a protest against certain unbelievers who are threatened with
+punishment. Other beliefs, not less essential, but less disputed, remain
+unmentioned, because there was no necessity to assert them.
+
+It was not till a much later time, when the Jews came into closer contact
+with new philosophical schools, and also new creeds which were more liable
+than heathenism was to be confused with Judaism, that this necessity was
+felt. And thus we are led at once to the period when the Jews became
+acquainted with the teachings of the Mohammedan schools. The Caraites came
+very early into contact with non-Jewish systems. And so we find that they
+were also the first to formulate Jewish dogmas in a fixed number, and in a
+systematic order. It is also possible that their separation from the
+Tradition, and their early division into little sects among themselves,
+compelled them to take this step, in order to avoid further sectarianism.
+
+The number of their dogmas amounts to ten. According to Judah Hadasi
+(1150), who would appear to have derived them from his predecessors, their
+dogmas include the following articles:--1. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 2. The
+existence of a Creator, God; 3. This God is an absolute unity as well as
+incorporeal; 4. Moses and the other prophets were sent by God; 5. God has
+given to us the Torah, which is true and complete in every respect, not
+wanting the addition of the so-called Oral Law; 6. The Torah must be
+studied by every Jew in the original (Hebrew) language; 7. The Holy Temple
+was a place elected by God for His manifestation; 8. Resurrection of the
+dead; 9. Punishment and reward after death; 10. The Coming of the Messiah,
+the son of David.
+
+How far the predecessors of Hadasi were influenced by a certain Joseph
+Albashir (about 950), of whom there exists a manuscript work, "Rudiments
+of Faith," I am unable to say. The little we know of him reveals more of
+his intimacy with Arabic thoughts than of his importance for his sect in
+particular and for Judaism in general. After Hadasi I shall mention here
+Elijah Bashazi, a Caraite writer of the end of the fifteenth century. This
+author, who was much influenced by Maimonides, omits the second and the
+seventh articles. In order to make up the ten he numbers the belief in the
+eternity of God as an article, and divides the fourth article into two. In
+the fifth article Bashazi does not emphasise so strongly the completeness
+of the Torah as Hadasi, and omits the portion which is directed against
+Tradition. It is interesting to see the distinction which Bashazi draws
+between the Pentateuch and the Prophets. While he thinks that the five
+books of Moses can never be altered, he regards the words of the Prophets
+as only relating to their contemporaries, and thus subject to changes. As
+I do not want to anticipate Maimonides' system, I must refrain from giving
+here the articles laid down by Solomon Troki in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. For the articles of Maimonides are copied by this
+writer with a few slight alterations so as to dress them in a Caraite
+garb.
+
+I must dismiss the Caraites with these few remarks, my object being
+chiefly to discuss the dogmas of the Synagogue from which they had
+separated themselves. Besides, as in everything Caraitic, there is no
+further development of the question. As Bashazi laid them down, they are
+still taught by the Caraites of to-day. I return to the Rabbanites.(117)
+
+As is well known, Maimonides (1130-1205), was the first Rabbanite who
+formulated the dogmas of the Synagogue. But there are indications of
+earlier attempts. R. Saadiah Gaon's (892-942) work, _Creeds and Opinions_,
+shows such traces. He says in his preface, "My heart sickens to see that
+the belief of my co-religionists is impure and that their theological
+views are confused." The subjects he treats in this book, such as
+creation, unity of God, resurrection of the dead, the future redemption of
+Israel, reward and punishment, and other kindred theological subjects
+might thus, perhaps, be considered as the essentials of the creed that the
+Gaon desired to present in a pure and rational form. R. Hannaneel, of
+Kairowan,(118) in the first half of the eleventh century, says in one of
+his commentaries that to deserve eternal life one must believe in _four_
+things: in God, in the prophets, in a future world where the just will be
+rewarded, and in the advent of the Redeemer. From R. Judah Hallevi's
+_Cusari_, written in the beginning of the twelfth century, we might argue
+that the belief in the election of Israel by God was the cardinal dogma of
+the author.(119) Abraham Ibn Daud, a contemporary of Maimonides, in his
+book _The High Belief_,(120) speaks of _rudiments_, among which, besides
+such metaphysical principles as unity, rational conception of God's
+attributes, etc., the belief in the immutability of the Law, etc., is
+included. Still, all these works are intended to furnish evidence from
+philosophy or history for the truth of religion rather than to give a
+definition of this truth. The latter task was undertaken by Maimonides.
+
+I refer to the thirteen articles embodied in his first work, _The
+Commentary to the Mishnah_. They are appended to the Mishnah in Sanhedrin,
+with which I dealt above. But though they do not form an independent
+treatise, Maimonides' remarks must not be considered as merely incidental.
+
+That Maimonides was quite conscious of the importance of this exposition
+can be gathered from the concluding words addressed to the reader: "Know
+these (words) and repeat them many times, and think them over in the
+proper way. God knows that thou wouldst be deceiving thyself if thou
+thinkest thou hast understood them by having read them once or even ten
+times. Be not, therefore, hasty in perusing them. I have not composed them
+without deep study and earnest reflection."
+
+The result of this deep study was that the following Thirteen Articles
+constitute the creed of Judaism. They are:--
+
+1. The belief in the existence of a Creator; 2. The belief in His Unity;
+3. The belief in His Incorporeality; 4. The belief in His Eternity; 5. The
+belief that all worship and adoration are due to Him alone; 6. The belief
+in Prophecy; 7. The belief that Moses was the greatest of all Prophets,
+both before and after him; 8. The belief that the Torah was revealed to
+Moses on Mount Sinai; 9. The belief in the Immutability of this revealed
+Torah; 10. The belief that God knows the actions of men; 11. The belief in
+Reward and Punishment; 12. The belief in the coming of the Messiah; 13.
+The belief in the Resurrection of the dead.
+
+The impulse given by the great philosopher and still greater Jew was
+eagerly followed by succeeding generations, and Judaism thus came into
+possession of a dogmatic literature such as it never knew before
+Maimonides. Maimonides is the centre of this literature, and I shall
+accordingly speak in the remainder of this essay of Maimonists and Anti-
+Maimonists. These terms really apply to the great controversy that raged
+round Maimonides' _Guide of __ the Perplexed_, but I shall, chiefly for
+brevity's sake, employ them in these pages in a restricted sense to refer
+to the dispute concerning the Thirteen Articles.
+
+Among the Maimonists we may probably include the great majority of Jews,
+who accepted the Thirteen Articles without further question. Maimonides
+must indeed have filled up a great gap in Jewish theology, a gap,
+moreover, the existence of which was very generally perceived. A century
+had hardly elapsed before the Thirteen Articles had become a theme for the
+poets of the Synagogue. And almost every country where Jews lived can show
+a poem or a prayer founded on these Articles. R. Jacob Molin (1420) of
+Germany speaks of metrical and rhymed songs in the German language, the
+burden of which was the Thirteen Articles, and which were read by the
+common people with great devotion. The numerous commentaries and homilies
+written on the same topic would form a small library in themselves.(121)
+But on the other hand it must not be denied that the Anti-Maimonists, that
+is to say those Jewish writers who did not agree with the creed formulated
+by Maimonides, or agreed only in part with him, form also a very strong
+and respectable minority. They deserve our attention the more as it is
+their works which brought life into the subject and deepened it. It is not
+by a perpetual Amen to every utterance of a great authority that truth or
+literature gains anything.
+
+The Anti-Maimonists can be divided into two classes. The one class
+categorically denies that Judaism has dogmas. I shall have occasion to
+touch on this view when I come to speak of Abarbanel. Here I pass at once
+to the second class of Anti-Maimonists. This consists of those who agree
+with Maimonides as to the existence of dogmas in Judaism, but who differ
+from him as to what these dogmas are, or who give a different enumeration
+of them.
+
+As the first of these Anti-Maimonists we may regard Nachmanides, who, in
+his famous _Sermon in the Presence of the King_, speaks of three
+fundamental principles: Creation (that is, non-eternity of matter),
+Omniscience of God, and Providence. Next comes R. Abba Mari ben Moses, of
+Montpellier. He wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and is
+famous in Jewish history for his zeal against the study of philosophy. We
+possess a small pamphlet by him dealing with our subject, and it forms a
+kind of prologue to his collection of controversial letters against the
+rationalists of his time.(122) He lays down three articles as the
+fundamental teachings of Religion: 1. Metaphysical: The existence of God,
+including His Unity and Incorporeality; 2. Mosaic: _Creatio ex nihilo_ by
+God--a consequence of this principle is the belief that God is capable of
+altering the laws of nature at His pleasure; 3. Ethical: Special
+Providence--_i.e._ God knows all our actions in all their details. Abba
+Mari does not mention Maimonides' Thirteen Articles. But it would be false
+to conclude that he rejected the belief in the coming of the Messiah, or
+any other article of Maimonides. The whole tone and tendency of this
+pamphlet is polemical, and it is therefore probable that he only urged
+those points which were either doubted or explained in an unorthodox way
+by the sceptics of his time.
+
+Another scholar, of Provence, who wrote but twenty years later than Abba
+Mari--R. David ben Samuel d'Estella (1320)--speaks of the seven pillars of
+religion. They are: Revelation, Providence, Reward and Punishment, the
+Coming of the Messiah, Resurrection of the Dead, _Creatio ex nihilo_, and
+Free Will.(123)
+
+Of authors living in other countries, I have to mention here R. Shemariah,
+of Crete, who flourished at about the same time as R. David d'Estella, and
+is known from his efforts to reconcile the Caraites with the Rabbanites.
+This author wrote a book for the purpose of furnishing Jewish students
+with evidence for what he considered the five fundamental teachings of
+Judaism, viz.: 1. The Existence of God; 2. The Incorporeality of God; 3.
+His Absolute Unity; 4. That God created heaven and earth; 5. That God
+created the world after His will 5106 years ago--5106 (1346 A.C.), being
+the year in which Shemariah wrote these words.(124)
+
+In Portugal, at about the same time, we find R. David ben Yom-Tob Bilia
+adding to the articles of Maimonides thirteen of his own, which he calls
+the "Fundamentals of the Thinking Man." Five of these articles relate to
+the functions of the human soul, that, according to him, emanated from
+God, and to the way in which this divine soul receives its punishment and
+reward. The other eight articles are as follows: 1. The belief in the
+existence of spiritual beings--angels; 2. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 3. The
+belief in the existence of another world, and that this other world is
+only a spiritual one; 4. The Torah is above philosophy; 5. The Torah has
+an outward (literal) meaning and an inward (allegorical) meaning; 6. The
+text of the Torah is not subject to any emendation; 7. The reward of a
+good action is the good work itself, and the doer must not expect any
+other reward; 8. It is only by the "commands relating to the heart," for
+instance, the belief in one eternal God, the loving and fearing Him, and
+not through good actions, that man attains the highest degree of
+perfection.(125) Perhaps it would be suitable to mention here another
+contemporaneous writer, who also enumerates twenty-six articles. The name
+of this writer is unknown, and his articles are only gathered from
+quotations by later authors. It would seem from these quotations that the
+articles of this unknown author consisted mostly of statements emphasising
+the belief in the attributes of God: as, His Eternity, His Wisdom and
+Omnipotence, and the like.(126)
+
+More important for our subject are the productions of the fifteenth
+century, especially those of Spanish authors. The fifteen articles of R.
+Lipman Muhlhausen, in the preface to his well-known _Book of Victory_(127)
+(1410), differ but slightly from those of Maimonides. In accordance with
+the anti-Christian tendency of his polemical book, he lays more stress on
+the two articles of Unity and Incorporeality, and makes of them four. We
+can therefore dismiss him with this short remark, and pass at once to the
+Spanish Rabbis.
+
+The first of these is R. Chasdai Ibn Crescas, who composed his famous
+treatise, _The Light of God_, about 1405. Chasdai's book is well known for
+its attacks on Aristotle, and also for its influence on Spinoza. But
+Chasdai deals also with Maimonides' Thirteen Articles, to which he was
+very strongly opposed. Already in his preface he attacks Maimonides for
+speaking, in his _Book of the Commandments_, of the belief in the
+existence of God as an "affirmative precept." Chasdai thinks it absurd;
+for every commandment must be dictated by some authority, but on whose
+authority can we dictate the acceptance of this authority? His general
+objection to the Thirteen Articles is that Maimonides confounded dogmas or
+_fundamental beliefs_ of Judaism, without which Judaism is inconceivable,
+with beliefs or _doctrines_ which Judaism inculcates, but the denial of
+which, though involving a strong heresy, does not make Judaism impossible.
+He maintains that if Maimonides meant only to count fundamental teachings,
+there are not more than seven; but that if he intended also to include
+doctrines, he ought to have enumerated sixteen. As beliefs of the first
+class--namely, fundamental beliefs--he considers the following articles: 1.
+God's knowledge of our actions; 2. Providence; 3. God's omnipotence--even
+to act against the laws of nature; 4. Prophecy; 5. Free will; 6. The aim
+of the Torah is to make man long after the closest communion with God. The
+belief in the existence of God, Chasdai thinks, is an axiom with which
+every religion must begin, and he is therefore uncertain whether to
+include it as a dogma or not. As to the doctrines which every Jew is bound
+to believe, but without which Judaism is not impossible, Chasdai divides
+them into two sections: (_a_) 1. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 2. Immortality of
+the soul; 3. Reward and Punishment; 4. Resurrection of the dead; 5.
+Immutability of the Torah; 6. Superiority of the prophecy of Moses; 7.
+That the High Priest received from God the instructions sought for, when
+he put his questions through the medium of the Urim and Thummim; 8. The
+coming of the Messiah. (_b_) Doctrines which are expressed by certain
+religious ceremonies, and on belief in which these ceremonies are
+conditioned: 1. The belief in the efficacy of prayer--as well as in the
+power of the benediction of the priests to convey to us the blessing of
+God; 2. God is merciful to the penitent; 3. Certain days in the year--for
+instance, the Day of Atonement--are especially qualified to bring us near
+to God, if we keep them in the way we are commanded. That Chasdai is a
+little arbitrary in the choice of his "doctrines," I need hardly say.
+Indeed, Chasdai's importance for the dogma-question consists more in his
+critical suggestions than in his positive results. He was, as we have
+seen, the first to make the distinction between fundamental teachings
+which form the basis of Judaism, and those other simple Jewish doctrines
+without which Judaism is not impossible. Very daring is his remark, when
+proving that Reward and Punishment, Immortality of the soul, and
+Resurrection of the dead must not be considered as the basis of Judaism,
+since the highest ideal of religion is to serve God without any hope of
+reward. Even more daring are his words concerning the Immutability of the
+Law. He says: "Some have argued that, since God is perfection, so must
+also His law be perfect, and thus unsusceptible of improvement." But he
+does not think this argument conclusive, though the fact in itself (the
+Immutability of the Law) is true. For one might answer that this
+perfection of the Torah could only be in accordance with the intelligence
+of those for whom it was meant; but as soon as the recipients of the Torah
+have advanced to a higher state of perfection, the Torah must also be
+altered to suit their advanced intelligence. A pupil of Chasdai
+illustrates the words of his master by a medical parallel. The physician
+has to adapt his medicaments to the various stages through which his
+patient has to pass. That he changes his prescription does not, however,
+imply that his medical knowledge is imperfect, or that his earlier
+remedies were ignorantly chosen; the varying condition of the invalid was
+the cause of the variation in the doctor's treatment. Similarly, were not
+the Immutability of the Torah a "doctrine," one might maintain that the
+perfection of the Torah would not be inconsistent with the assumption that
+it was susceptible of modification, in accordance with our changing and
+progressive circumstances. But all these arguments are purely of a
+theoretic character; for, practically, every Jew, according to Chasdai,
+has to accept all these beliefs, whether he terms them fundamental
+teachings or only Jewish doctrines.(128)
+
+Some years later, though he finished his work in the same year as Chasdai,
+R. Simeon Duran (1366-1444,) a younger contemporary of the former, made
+his researches on dogmas. His studies on this subject form a kind of
+introduction to his commentary on Job, which he finished in the year 1405.
+Duran is not so strongly opposed to the Thirteen Articles as Chasdai, or
+as another "thinker of our people," who thought them an arbitrary
+imitation of the thirteen attributes of God. Duran tries to justify
+Maimonides; but nevertheless he agrees with "earlier authorities," who
+formulated the Jewish creed in Three Articles--The Existence of God,
+Revelation, and Reward and Punishment--under which Duran thinks the
+Thirteen Articles of Maimonides may be easily classed. Most interesting
+are his remarks concerning the validity of dogmas. He tells us that only
+those are to be considered as heretics who abide by their own opinions,
+though they know that they are contradictory to the views of the Torah.
+Those who accept the fundamental teachings of Judaism, but are led by
+their deep studies and earnest reflection to differ in details from the
+opinions current among their co-religionists, and explain certain passages
+in the Scripture in their own way, must by no means be considered as
+heretics. We must, therefore, Duran proceeds to say, not blame such men as
+Maimonides, who gave an allegorical interpretation to certain passages in
+the Bible about miracles, or R. Levi ben Gershom, who followed certain un-
+Jewish views in relation to the belief in _Creatio ex nihilo_. Only the
+views are condemnable, not those who cherish them. God forbid, says Duran,
+that such a thing should happen in Israel as to condemn honest inquirers
+on account of their differing opinions. It would be interesting to know of
+how many divines as tolerant as this persecuted Jew the fifteenth century
+can boast.(129)
+
+We can now pass to a more popular but less original writer on our theme. I
+refer to R. Joseph Albo, the author of the _Roots_,(130) who was the pupil
+of Chasdai, a younger contemporary of Duran, and wrote at a much later
+period than these authors. Graetz has justly denied him much originality.
+The chief merit of Albo consists in popularising other people's thoughts,
+though he does not always take care to mention their names. And the
+student who is a little familiar with the contents of the _Roots_ will
+easily find that Albo has taken his best ideas either from Chasdai or from
+Duran. As it is of little consequence to us whether an article of faith is
+called "stem," or "root," or "branch," there is scarcely anything fresh
+left to quote in the name of Albo. The late Dr. L�w, of Szegedin, was
+indeed right, when he answered an adversary who challenged him--"Who would
+dare to declare me a heretic as long as I confess the Three Articles laid
+down by Albo?" with the words "Albo himself." For, after all the subtle
+distinctions Albo makes between different classes of dogmas, he declares
+that every one who denies even the immutability of the Law or the coming
+of the Messiah, which are, according to him, articles of minor importance,
+is a heretic who will be excluded from the world to come. But there is one
+point in his book which is worth noticing. It was suggested to him by
+Maimonides, indeed; still Albo has the merit of having emphasised it as it
+deserves. Among the articles which he calls "branches" Albo counts the
+belief that the perfection of man, which leads to eternal life, can be
+obtained by the fulfilling of _one_ commandment. But this command must, as
+Maimonides points out, be done without any worldly regard, and only for
+the love of God. When one considers how many platitudes are repeated year
+by year by certain theologians on the subject of Jewish legalism, we
+cannot lay enough stress on this article of Albo, and we ought to make it
+better known than it has hitherto been.(131)
+
+Though I cannot enter here into the enumeration of the Maimonists, I must
+not leave unmentioned the name of R. Nissim ben Moses of Marseilles, the
+first great Maimonist, who flourished about the end of the thirteenth
+century, and was considered as one of the most enlightened thinkers of his
+age.(132) Another great Maimonist deserving special attention is R.
+Abraham ben Shem-Tob Bibago, who may perhaps be regarded as the most
+prominent among those who undertook to defend Maimonides against the
+attacks of Chasdai and others. Bibago wrote _The Path of Belief_(133) in
+the second half of the fifteenth century, and was, as Dr. Steinschneider
+aptly describes him, a _Denkgl�ubiger_. But, above all, he was a believing
+Jew. When he was once asked, at the table of King John II., of Aragon, by
+a Christian scholar, "Are you the Jewish philosopher?" he answered, "I am
+a Jew who believes in the Law given to us by our teacher Moses, though I
+have studied philosophy." Bibago was such a devoted admirer of Maimonides
+that he could not tolerate any opposition to him. He speaks in one passage
+of the prudent people of his time who, in desiring to be looked upon as
+orthodox by the great mob, calumniated the Teacher (Maimonides), and
+depreciated his merits. Bibago's book is very interesting, especially in
+its controversial parts; but in respect to dogmas he is, as already said,
+a Maimonist, and does not contribute any new point on our subject.
+
+To return to the Anti-Maimonists of the second half of the fifteenth
+century. As such may be considered R. Isaac Aramah, who speaks of three
+foundations of religion: _Creatio ex nihilo_, Revelation (?), and the
+belief in a world to come.(134) Next to be mentioned is R. Joseph Jabez,
+who also accepts only three articles: _Creatio ex nihilo_, Individual
+Providence, and the Unity of God.(135) Under these three heads he tries to
+classify the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides.
+
+The last Spanish writer on our subject is R. Isaac Abarbanel. His treatise
+on the subject is known under the title _Top of Amanah_,(136) and was
+finished in the year 1495. The greatest part of this treatise forms a
+defence of Maimonides, many points in which are taken from Bibago. But, in
+spite of this fact, Abarbanel must not be considered a Maimonist. It is
+only a feeling of piety towards Maimonides, or perhaps rather a fondness
+for argument, that made him defend Maimonides against Chasdai and others.
+His own view is that it is a mistake to formulate dogmas of Judaism, since
+every word in the Torah has to be considered as a dogma for itself. It was
+only, says Abarbanel, by following the example of non-Jewish scholars that
+Maimonides and others were induced to lay down dogmas. The non-Jewish
+philosophers are in the habit of accepting in every science certain
+indisputable axioms from which they deduce the propositions which are less
+evident. The Jewish philosophers in a similar way sought for first
+principles in religion from which the whole of the Torah ought to be
+considered as a deduction. But, thinks Abarbanel, the Torah as a revealed
+code is under no necessity of deducing things from each other, for all the
+commands came from the same divine authority, and, therefore, all are
+alike evident, and have the same certainty. On this and similar grounds
+Abarbanel refused to accept dogmatic articles for Judaism, and he thus
+became the head of the school that forms a class by itself among the Anti-
+Maimonists to which many of the greatest Cabbalists also belong. But it is
+idle talk to cite this school in aid of the modern theory that Judaism has
+no dogmas. As we have seen, it was rather an _embarras de richesse_ that
+prevented Abarbanel from accepting the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. To
+him and to the Cabbalists the Torah consists of at least 613 Articles.
+
+Abarbanel wrote his book with which we have just dealt, at Naples. And it
+is Italy to which, after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, we have to
+look chiefly for religious speculation. But the philosophers of Italy are
+still less independent of Maimonides than their predecessors in Spain.
+Thus we find that R. David Messer Leon, R. David Vital, and others were
+Maimonists. Even the otherwise refined and original thinker, R. Elijah
+Delmedigo (who died about the end of the fifteenth century) becomes almost
+impolite when he speaks of the adversaries of Maimonides in respect to
+dogmas. "It was only," he says, "the would-be philosopher that dared to
+question the articles of Maimonides. Our people have always the bad habit
+of thinking themselves competent to attack the greatest authorities as
+soon as they have got some knowledge of the subject. Genuine thinkers,
+however, attach very little importance to their objections."(137)
+
+Indeed, it seems as if the energetic protests of Delmedigo scared away the
+Anti-Maimonists for more than a century. Even in the following seventeenth
+century we have to notice only two Anti-Maimonists. The one is R. Tobijah,
+the Priest (1652), who was of Polish descent, studied in Italy, and lived
+as a medical man in France. He seems to refuse to accept the belief in the
+Immutability of the Torah, and in the coming of the Messiah, as
+fundamental teachings of Judaism.(138) The other, at the end of the
+seventeenth century (1695), is R. Abraham Chayim Viterbo, of Italy. He
+accepts only six articles: 1. Existence of God; 2. Unity; 3.
+Incorporeality; 4. That God was revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai, and that
+the prophecy of Moses is true; 5. Revelation (including the historical
+parts of the Torah); 6. Reward and Punishment. As to the other articles of
+Maimonides, Viterbo, in opposition to other half-hearted Anti-Maimonists,
+declares that the man who denies them is _not_ to be considered as a
+heretic; though he ought to believe them.(139)
+
+I have now arrived at the limit I set to myself at the beginning of this
+essay. For, between the times of Viterbo and those of Mendelssohn, there
+is hardly to be found any serious opposition to Maimonides worth noticing
+here. Still I must mention the name of R. Saul Berlin (died 1794); there
+is much in his opinions on dogmas which will help us the better to
+understand the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. As the reader has seen, I
+have refrained so far from reproducing here the apologies which were made
+by many Maimonists in behalf of the Thirteen Articles. For, after all
+their elaborate pleas, none of them was able to clear Maimonides of the
+charge of having confounded dogmas or fundamental teachings with
+doctrines. It is also true that the Fifth Article--that prayer and worship
+must only be offered to God--cannot be considered even as a doctrine, but
+as a simple precept. And there are other difficulties which all the
+distinctions of the Maimonists will never be able to solve. The only
+possible justification is, I think, that suggested by a remark of R. Saul.
+This author, who was himself--like his friend and older contemporary
+Mendelssohn--a strong Anti-Maimonist, among other remarks, maintains that
+dogmas must never be laid down but with regard to the necessities of the
+time.(140)
+
+Now R. Saul certainly did not doubt that Judaism is based on eternal
+truths which can in no way be shaken by new modes of thinking or changed
+circumstances. What he meant was that there are in every age certain
+beliefs which ought to be asserted more emphatically than others, without
+regard to their theological or rather logical importance. It is by this
+maxim that we shall be able to explain the articles of Maimonides. He
+asserted them, because they were necessary for his time.
+
+We know, for instance, from a letter of his son and from other
+contemporaries, that it was just at his time that the belief in the
+incorporeality of God was, in the opinion of Maimonides, a little relaxed.
+Maimonides, who thought such low notions of the Deity dangerous to
+Judaism, therefore laid down an article against them. He tells us in his
+_Guide_ that it was far from him to condemn any one who was not able to
+demonstrate the Incorporeality of God, but he stigmatised as a heretic one
+who refused to believe it. This position might be paralleled by that of a
+modern astronomer who, while considering it unreasonable to expect a
+mathematical demonstration of the movements of the earth from an ordinary
+unscientific man, would yet regard the person who refused to believe in
+such movements as an ignorant faddist.
+
+Again, Maimonides undoubtedly knew that there may be found in the
+Talmud--that bottomless sea with its innumerable undercurrents--passages
+that are not quite in harmony with his articles; for instance, the well-
+known dictum of R. Hillel, who said, there is no Messiah for Israel--a
+passage which has already been quoted _ad nauseam_ by every opponent of
+Maimonides from the earliest times down to the year of grace 1896.
+Maimonides was well aware of the existence of this and similar passages.
+But, being deeply convinced of the necessity of the belief in a future
+redemption of _Israel_--in opposition to other creeds which claim this
+redemption exclusively for their own adherents--Maimonides simply ignored
+the saying of R. Hillel, as an isolated opinion which contradicts all the
+consciousness and traditions of the Jew as expressed in thousands of other
+passages, and especially in the liturgy. Most interesting is Maimonides'
+view about such isolated opinions in a letter to the wise men of
+Marseilles. He deals there with the question of free will and other
+theological subjects. After having stated his own view he goes on to say:
+"I know that it is possible to find in the Talmud or in the Midrash this
+or that saying in contradiction to the views you have heard from me. But
+you must not be troubled by them. One must not refuse to accept a
+doctrine, the truth of which has been proved, on account of its being in
+opposition to some isolated opinion held by this or that great authority.
+Is it not possible that he overlooked some important considerations when
+he uttered this strange opinion? It is also possible that his words must
+not be taken literally, and have to be explained in an allegorical way. We
+can also think that his words were only to be applied with regard to
+certain circumstances of his time, but never intended as permanent
+truths.... No man must surrender his private judgment. The eyes are not
+directed backwards but forwards." In another place Maimonides calls the
+suppression of one's own opinions--for the reason of their being
+irreconcilable with the isolated views of some great authority--a moral
+suicide.
+
+By such motives Maimonides was guided when he left certain views hazarded
+in the Rabbinic literature unheeded, and followed what we may perhaps call
+the religious instinct, trusting to his own conscience. We may again be
+certain that Maimonides was clear-headed enough to see that the words of
+the Torah: "And there arose no prophet since in Israel like unto Moses"
+(Deut. xxxiv. 10), were as little intended to imply a doctrine as the
+passage relating to the king Josiah, "And like unto him was there no king
+before him that turned to the Lord with all his heart ... neither after
+him arose there any like him" (2 Kings xxiii. 25). And none would think of
+declaring the man a heretic who should believe another king to be as pious
+as Josiah. But living among followers of the "imitating creeds" (as he
+calls Christianity and Mohammedism), who claimed that their religion had
+superseded the law of Moses, Maimonides, consciously or unconsciously,
+felt himself compelled to assert the superiority of the prophecy of Moses.
+And so we may guess that every article of Maimonides which seems to offer
+difficulties to us contains an assertion of some relaxed belief, or a
+protest against the pretensions of other creeds, though we are not always
+able to discover the exact necessity for them. On the other hand,
+Maimonides did not assert the belief in free will, for which he argued so
+earnestly in his _Guide_. The common "man," with his simple unspeculative
+mind, for whom these Thirteen Articles were intended, "never dreamed that
+the will was not free," and there was no necessity of impressing on his
+mind things which he had never doubted.(141)
+
+So much about Maimonides. As to the Anti-Maimonists, it could hardly
+escape the reader that in some of the quoted systems the difference from
+the view of Maimonides is only a logical one, not a theological. Of some
+authors again, especially those of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries, it is not at all certain whether they intended to oppose
+Maimonides. Others again, as for instance R. Abba Mari, R. Lipman, and R.
+Joseph Jabez, acted on the same principle as Maimonides, urging only those
+teachings of Judaism which they thought endangered. One could now, indeed,
+animated by the praiseworthy example given to us by Maimonides, also
+propose some articles of faith which are suggested to us by the
+necessities of our own time. One might, for instance, insert the article,
+"I believe that Judaism is, in the first instance, a divine religion,
+_not_ a mere complex of racial peculiarities and tribal customs." One
+might again propose an article to the effect that Judaism is a
+proselytising religion, having the mission to bring about God's kingdom on
+earth, and to include in that kingdom all mankind. One might also submit
+for consideration whether it would not be advisable to urge a little more
+the principle that religion means chiefly a _Weltanschauung_ and worship
+of God by means of holiness both in thought and in action. One would even
+not object to accept the article laid down by R. Saul, that we have to
+look upon ourselves as sinners. Morbid as such a belief may be, it would,
+if properly impressed on our mind, have perhaps the wholesome effect of
+cooling down a little our self-importance and our mutual admiration that
+makes all progress among us almost impossible.
+
+But it was not my purpose to ventilate here the question whether
+Maimonides' articles are sufficient for us, or whether we ought not to add
+new ones to them. Nor do I attempt to decide what system we ought to
+prefer for recitation in the Synagogue--that of Maimonides or that of
+Chasdai, or of any other writer. I do not think that such a recital is of
+much use. My object in this sketch has been rather to make the reader
+_think_ about Judaism, by proving that it regulates not only our actions,
+but also our thoughts. We usually urge that in Judaism religion means
+life; but we forget that a life without guiding principles and thoughts is
+a life not worth living. At least it was so considered by the greatest
+Jewish thinkers, and hence their efforts to formulate the creed of
+Judaism, so that men should not only be able to do the right thing, but
+also to think the right thing. Whether they succeeded in their attempts
+towards formulating the creed of Judaism or not will always remain a
+question. This concerns the logician more than the theologian. But surely
+Maimonides and his successors _did_ succeed in having a religion depending
+directly on God, with the most ideal and lofty aspirations for the future;
+whilst the Judaism of a great part of our modern theologians reminds one
+very much of the words with which the author of _Marius the Epicurean_
+characterises the Roman religion in the days of her decline: a religion
+which had been always something to be done rather than something to be
+thought, or believed, or loved.
+
+Political economy, hygiene, statistics, are very fine things. But no sane
+man would for them make those sacrifices which Judaism requires from us.
+It is only for God's sake, to fulfil His commands and to accomplish His
+purpose, that religion becomes worth living and dying for. And this can
+only be possible with a religion which possesses dogmas.
+
+It is true that every great religion is "a concentration of many ideas and
+ideals," which make this religion able to adapt itself to various modes of
+thinking and living. But there must always be a point round which all
+these ideas concentrate themselves. This centre is Dogma.
+
+
+
+
+
+VII. THE HISTORY OF JEWISH TRADITION
+
+
+There is an anecdote about a famous theologian to the effect that he used
+to tell his pupils, "Should I ever grow old and weak--which usually drives
+people to embrace the safer side--and alter my opinions, then pray do not
+believe me." The concluding volume of Weiss's _History of Jewish
+Tradition_(142) shows that there was no need for our author to warn his
+pupils against the dangers accompanying old age. For though Weiss had,
+when he began to write this last volume, already exceeded his three-score
+and ten, and, as we read in the preface, had some misgivings as to whether
+he should continue his work, there is no trace in it of any abatement of
+the great powers of the author. It is marked by the same freshness in
+diction, the same marvellous scholarship, the same display of astonishing
+critical powers, and the same impartial and straightforward way of judging
+persons and things, for which the preceding volumes were so much
+distinguished and admired.
+
+This book, which is recognised as a standard work abroad, is, I fear,
+owing to the fact of its being written in the Hebrew language, not
+sufficiently known in this country. Weiss does not want _our_ recognition;
+we are rather in need of his instruction. Some general view of his
+estimate of Jewish Tradition may, therefore, be of service to the student.
+It is, indeed, the only work of its kind. Zunz has confined himself to the
+history of the Agadah. Graetz gave most of his attention to the political
+side of Jewish history. But comparatively little has been done for the
+Halachah, though Frankel, Geiger, Herzfeld, and others have treated some
+single points in various monographs. Thus it was left for Weiss to write
+the _History of Tradition_, which includes both the Agadah and the
+Halachah. The treatment of this latter must have proved, in consequence of
+the intricate and intractable nature of its materials, by far the more
+difficult portion of his task.
+
+In speaking of the _History_ of Tradition, a term which suggests the
+fluctuating character of a thing, its origin, development, progress, and
+retrogression, we have already indicated that Weiss does not consider even
+the Halachah as having come down from heaven, ready-made, and definitely
+fixed for all time. To define it more clearly, Tradition is, apart from
+the few ordinances and certain usages for which there is no precedent in
+the Bible, the history of interpretation of the Scriptures, which was
+constantly liable to variation, not on grounds of philology, but through
+the subjective notions of successive generations regarding religion and
+the method and scope of its application.
+
+Weiss's standpoint with reference to the Pentateuch is the conservative
+one, maintaining both its unity and its Mosaic authorship. Those passages
+and accounts in the Bible in which the modern critic discerns traces of
+different traditional sources, are for Weiss only indicative of the
+various stages of interpretation through which the Pentateuch had to pass.
+The earliest stage was a very crude one, as may be seen from the case of
+Jephthah's vow, for which only a misinterpretation of certain passages in
+the Pentateuch (Gen. xxii. 2; Num. xxv. 4) could be made responsible. Nor
+was Jephthah, who felt himself bound to carry out his vow, acquainted with
+the provision for dissolving vows(143) that was sufficiently familiar to
+later ages. When, on the other hand, Jeremiah declared sacrifices to be
+altogether superfluous, and said that God did not command Israel, when he
+brought them from the land of Egypt, concerning burnt offerings or
+sacrifices (vii. 22), he was not in contradiction with Leviticus, but
+interpreted the laws contained in this book as a concession to popular
+custom, though not desirable on their own account. This concession,
+whenever it was of a harmless nature, the prophets carried so far as to
+permit altars outside the Tabernacle or Temple, though this was against
+the plain sense of Deuteronomy. Elijah even bewailed their destruction (1
+Kings xix. 10). He and other prophets probably interpreted the law in
+question as directed against the construction and maintenance of several
+chief sanctuaries, but not against sacrificing in different places on
+minor occasions. This is evidently a free interpretation, or rather
+application, of the Law. Occasionally the conception as to when and how a
+law should be applied took a completely negative form. In this manner is
+to be explained the action of Solomon in suspending the Fast of the Day of
+Atonement before the festival he was going to celebrate in honour of the
+consecration of the Temple (1 Kings viii. 65), the king being convinced
+that on this unique occasion the latter was of more religious importance
+than the former. Weiss thinks that the later custom of holding public
+dances in the vineyards on the 10th of Tishri might have had its origin in
+this solemn, but also joyful, festival. Ezekiel, again, though alluding
+more frequently than any other prophet to the laws in the Pentateuch, is
+exceedingly bold in his interpretation of them, as, for instance, when he
+says that _priests_ shall not eat anything that is dead or torn (xliv.
+31), which shows that he took the verses in Exod. xxii. 30, and Deut. xiv.
+20, to have been meant only as a good advice to the laymen to refrain from
+eating these unclean things, but not as having for them the force of a
+real commandment.
+
+Starting from this proposition, that there existed always some sort of
+interpretation running side by side with the recognised Scriptures, which
+from the very looseness of its connection with the letter of the Scripture
+could claim to be considered a thing independent in itself, and might
+therefore be regarded as the _Oral Law_, in contradistinction to the
+_Written Law_, the author passes to the age of the Second Temple, the
+period to which the rest of the first volume is devoted. In these pages
+Weiss reviews the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, the ordinances of the Men
+of the Great Synagogue, the institutions of the Scribes, the Lives of the
+so-called Pairs,(144) the characteristics of the three sects, the
+Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes, and the differences between the schools
+of Shammai and Hillel. To each of these subjects Weiss gives his fullest
+attention, and his discussions of them would form perfect monographs in
+themselves. To reproduce all the interesting matter would mean to
+translate the whole of this portion of his work into English. I shall only
+draw attention to one or two points.
+
+First, this liberal interpretation was active during the whole period
+referred to. Otherwise no authority could have abolished the _lex
+talionis_, or have permitted war on Sabbath, or made the condition that no
+crime should be punished without a preceding warning (which was chiefly
+owing to the aversion of the Rabbis to the infliction of capital
+punishment), or have sanctioned the sacrificing of the Passover when the
+14th of Nisan fell on Sabbath. Indeed Shemaiah and Abtalyon, in whose name
+Hillel communicated this last law, were called the Great
+Interpreters.(145)
+
+Secondly, as to the so-called _laws given to Moses on Sinai_.(146) Much
+has been said about these. The distinction claimed for them by some
+scholars, viz. that they were never contested, is not tenable, considering
+that there prevailed much difference of opinion about some of them. Nor is
+the theory that they were ancient religious usages, dating from time
+immemorial, entirely satisfactory. For though the fact may be true in
+itself, this could not have justified the Rabbis in calling them all
+Sinaitic laws, especially when they were aware that not a few of them were
+contested by certain of their colleagues, a thing that would have been
+quite impossible if they had a genuine claim to Mosaic authority. But if
+we understand Weiss rightly these laws are only to be considered as a
+specimen of the whole of the Oral Law, which was believed to emanate, both
+in its institutional and in its expository part, from the same authority.
+The conviction was firmly held that everything wise and good, be it
+ethical or ceremonial in its character, whose effect would be to
+strengthen the cause of religion, was at least potentially contained in
+the Torah, and that it only required an earnest religious mind to find it
+there. Hence the famous adage that "everything which any student will
+teach at any future time was already communicated to Moses on Mount
+Sinai"; or the injunction that any acceptable truth, even if discovered by
+an insignificant man in Israel, should be considered as having the
+authority of a great sage or prophet, or even of Moses himself. The
+principle was that the words of the Torah are "fruitful and multiply."
+
+It will probably be said that the laws of clean and unclean, and such
+like, have proved rather too prolific; but if we read Weiss carefully, we
+shall be reminded that it was by the same process of propagation that the
+Rabbis developed from Deut. xxii. 8, a whole code of sanitary and police-
+laws which could even now be studied with profit; from the few scanty
+civil laws in Exod. xxi., a whole _corpus juris_, which might well excite
+the interest and the admiration of any lawyer; and from the words "And
+thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children," a complete school-
+system on the one hand, and on the other the _r�sum�_ of a liturgy that
+appears to have sufficed for the spiritual needs of more than fifty
+generations of Israelites.
+
+Before we pass to the age of the Tannaim,(147) the subject of Weiss's
+second volume, we must take account of two important events which have
+greatly influenced the further development of Tradition. I refer to the
+destruction of the Temple and the rise of Christianity. With the former
+event Judaism ceased to be a political commonwealth, and if "the nation
+was already in the times of Ezra converted into a church,"--an assertion,
+by the way, which has not the least basis in fact,--it became the more so
+after it had lost the last remains of its independence. But it was a
+church without priests, or, since such a thing, as far as history teaches
+us, has never existed, let us rather call it a Synagogue.
+
+From this fact diverse results flowed. A Synagogue can exist not only
+without priests, but also without sacrifices, for which prayer and charity
+were a sufficient substitute. With the progress of time also many
+agricultural laws, as well as others relating to sacerdotal purity,
+gradually became obsolete, though they lingered on for some generations,
+and, as a venerable reminiscence of a glorious time, entered largely into
+Jewish literature. This disappearance of so many laws and the weakening of
+the national element, however, required, if Judaism was to continue to
+exist, the strengthening of religion from another side. The first thing
+needed was the creation of a new religious centre which would not only
+replace the Temple to a certain degree, but also bring about a greater
+solidarity of views, such as would render impossible the ancient
+differences that divided the schools of Hillel and Shammai. The creator of
+this centre was R. Johanan ben Zaccai, who founded the school of Jamnia,
+and invested it with the same authority and importance as the Sanhedrin
+had enjoyed during Temple times. The consciousness that they were standing
+before a new starting-point in history, with a large religious inheritance
+from the past, actuated them not only to collect the old traditional laws
+and to take stock of their religious institutions, but also to give them
+more definite shape and greater stability. As many of these traditions
+were by no means undisputed, the best thing was to bring them under one or
+other heading of the Scriptures. This desire gave the impulse to the
+famous hermeneutic schools of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael.
+
+The next cause that contributed to give a more determinate expression to
+the Law was the rise of Christianity. This is not the place to give an
+account of the views which the Rabbis entertained of Christianity. Suffice
+it to say they could not see in the destruction of the Law its fulfilment.
+They also thought that under certain conditions it is not only the letter
+that killeth, but also the spirit, or rather that the spirit may sometimes
+be clothed in a letter, which, in its turn, will slay more victims than
+the letter against which the loudest denunciations have been levelled.
+Spirit without letter, let theologians say what they will, is a mere
+phantasm. However, the new sect made claims to the gift of prophecy,
+which, as they thought, placed them above the Law. It would seem that this
+was a time of special excitement. The student of the Talmud finds that
+such marvels as predicting the future, reviving the dead, casting out
+demons, crossing rivers dry-shod, curing the sick by a touch or prayer,
+were the order of the day, and performed by scores of Rabbis. Voices from
+heaven were often heard, and strange visions were frequently beheld.
+Napoleon I. is said to have forbidden the holy coat of Treves to work
+miracles. The Jewish legislature, however, had no means of preventing
+these supernatural workings; but when the Rabbis saw their dangerous
+consequences, they insisted that miracles should have no influence on the
+interpretation and development of the Law. Hence the saying with regard to
+Lev. xxvii. 34, that no prophet is authorised to add a new law. And when
+R. Eliezer b. Hyrkanos (about 120 A.C.) thought to prove the justice of
+his case by the intervention of miracles, the majority answered that the
+fact of this or that variation, effected at his bidding, in the
+established order of nature, proved nothing for the soundness of his
+argument. Nay, they even ignored the _Bath-Kol_(148) (the celestial
+voice), which declared itself in favour of R. Eliezer, maintaining that
+the Torah having once been given to mankind, it is only the opinion of the
+majority that should decide on its interpretation and application. Very
+characteristic is the legend connected with this fact. When one of the
+Rabbis afterwards met Elijah and asked him what they thought in heaven of
+the audacity of his colleagues, the prophet answered, "God rejoiced and
+said, my children have conquered me."
+
+Into such discredit did miracles fall at that period, whilst the opinion
+of the interpreting body, or the Sanhedrin, became more powerful than
+ever. These were merely dogmatical consequences. But new laws were enacted
+and old ones revived, with the object of resisting Christian influences
+over the Jews. To expand the Oral Law, and give it a firm basis in the
+Scriptures, were considered the best means of preserving Judaism intact.
+"Moses desired," an old legend narrates, "that the Mishnah also (that is
+Tradition) should be written down;" but foreseeing the time when the
+nations of the world would translate the Torah into Greek, and would
+assert their title to rank as the Children of God, the Lord refused to
+permit tradition to be recorded otherwise than by word of mouth. The claim
+of the Gentiles might then be refuted by asking them whether they were
+also in possession of "the Mystery." The Rabbis therefore concentrated
+their attention upon "the Mystery," and this contributed largely towards
+making the expository methods of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael, to which I have
+above referred, the main object of their study in the schools.
+
+It would, however, be a mistake to think that the Sanhedrin now spent
+their powers in "enforcing retrograde measures and creating a strange
+exegesis." I especially advise the student to read carefully that
+admirable chapter (VII., of Vol. II.) in which Weiss classifies all the
+Ordinances, "Fences," Decrees, and Institutions, dating both from this and
+from earlier ages, under ten headings, and also shows their underlying
+principles. The main object was to preserve the Jewish religion by
+strengthening the principle of Jewish nationality, and to preserve the
+nationality by the aid of religion. But sometimes the Rabbis also
+considered it necessary to preserve religion against itself, so to speak,
+or, as they expressed it, "When there is time to work for the Lord, they
+make void thy Torah." This authorised the _Beth Din_(149) to act in
+certain cases against the letter of the Torah. "The welfare of the World"
+was another great consideration. By "World" they understood both the
+religious and the secular world. From a regard to the former resulted such
+"Fences" and Ordinances as were directed against "the transgressors," as
+well as the general injunction to "keep aloof from what is morally
+unseemly, and from whatever bears any likeness thereto." In the interests
+of the latter--the welfare of the secular world--they enacted such laws as
+either tended to elevate the position of women, or to promote the peace
+and welfare of members of their own community, or to improve the relations
+between Jews and their Gentile neighbours. They also held the great
+principle that nothing is so injurious to the cause of religion as
+increasing the number of sinners by needless severity. Hence the
+introduction of many laws "for the benefit of penitents," and the maxim
+not to issue any decree which may prove too heavy a burden to the majority
+of the community. The relaxation of certain traditional laws was also
+permitted when they involved a serious loss of property, or the sacrifice
+of a man's dignity. Some old decrees were even permitted to fall into
+oblivion when public opinion was too strong against them, the Rabbis
+holding that it was often better for Israelites to be unconscious sinners
+than wilful transgressors. The _Minhag_, or religious custom, also played
+an important part, it being assumed that it must have been first
+introduced by some eminent authority; but, if there was reason to believe
+that the custom owed its origin to some fancy of the populace, and that it
+had a pernicious effect on the multitude, no compunction was felt in
+abolishing it.
+
+Very important it is to note that the Oral Law had not at this period
+assumed a character of such rigidity that all its ordinances, etc., had to
+be looked upon as irremovable for all times. With those who think
+otherwise, a favourite quotation is the administratory measure laid dawn
+in Tractate _Evidences_,(150) I. 5, where we read that no _Beth Din_ has
+the right of annulling the dicta of another _Beth Din_, unless it is
+stronger in numbers (having a larger majority) and greater in wisdom than
+its fellow tribunal. Confess with becoming modesty that the world is
+always going downhill, decreasing both in numbers and in wisdom, and the
+result follows that any decision by the earlier Rabbis is fixed law for
+all eternity. Weiss refutes such an idea not only as inconsistent with the
+nature of Tradition, but also as contradictory to the facts. He proves by
+numerous instances that the Rabbis did abolish ordinances and decrees
+introduced by preceding authorities, and that the whole conception is
+based on a misunderstanding. For the rule in question, as Weiss clearly
+points out, originally only meant that a _Beth Din_ has no right to undo
+the decrees of another _contemporary Beth Din_, unless it was justified in
+doing so by the weight of its greater authority. This was necessary if a
+central authority was to exist at all. Weiss is indeed of opinion that the
+whole passage is a later interpolation from the age of R. Simeon b.
+Gamaliel II., when certain Rabbis tried to emancipate themselves from the
+authority of the Patriarch. But it was not meant that the decision of a
+_Beth Din_ should have perpetual binding power for all posterity. This was
+left to the discretion of the legislature of each generation, who had to
+examine whether the original cause for maintaining such decision still
+existed.
+
+The rest of this volume is for the greater part taken up with complete
+monographs of the Patriarchs and the heads of the schools of that age,
+whilst the concluding chapters give us the history of the literature, the
+Midrash, Mechilta, Siphra, Siphr�, Mishnah, etc., which contain both the
+Halachic and the Agadic sayings emanating from these authorities.
+
+With regard to these Patriarchs, I should like only to remark that Weiss
+defends them against the charge made by Schorr and others, who accuse them
+of having assumed too much authority on account of their noble descent,
+and who describe their opponents as the true friends of the people. Weiss
+is no lover of such specious phrases. The qualifications required for the
+leadership of the people were a right instinct for the necessities of
+their time, a fair amount of secular knowledge, and, what is of chief
+importance, an unbounded love and devotion to those over whose interests
+they were called to watch. These distinctions, as Weiss proves, the
+descendants of Hillel possessed in the highest degree. It is true that
+occasionally, as for instance in the famous controversy of R. Gamaliel II.
+with R. Joshua b. Hananiah, or that of R. Simeon b. Gamaliel II. with R.
+Nathan and R. Meir, they made their authority too heavily felt;(151) but
+this was again another necessity of those troubled times, when only real
+unity could save Israel.
+
+However, Weiss is no partisan, and the love he lavishes on his favourite
+heroes does not exhaust his resources of sympathy and appreciation for
+members of the other schools. Weiss is no apologist either, and does not
+make the slightest attempt towards explaining away even the defects of R.
+Akiba in his somewhat arbitrary method of interpretation, which our author
+thinks much inferior to the expository rules of R. Ishmael; but this does
+not prevent him from admiring his excellences.
+
+Altogether it would seem that Weiss thinks R. Akiba more happy in his
+quality as a great saint than in that of a great exegete. What is most
+admirable is the instinct with which Weiss understands how to emphasise
+the right thing in its right place. As an indication of the literary
+honesty and marvellous industry of our author, I would draw attention to
+the fact that the sketch of R. Akiba and his school alone is based on more
+than two thousand quotations scattered over the whole area of the Rabbinic
+literature; but he points in a special note to a sentence attributed to R.
+Akiba, which presents the whole man and his generation in a single stroke.
+I refer to that passage in Tractate _Joys_,(152) in which R. Akiba speaks
+of the four types of sufferers. He draws the comparison of a king
+chastising his children; the first son maintains stubborn silence, the
+second simply rebels, the third supplicates for mercy, and the fourth (the
+best of sons) says: "Father, proceed with thy chastisement, as David said,
+Wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity and cleanse me from my sin" (Ps. li.
+4). This absolute submission to the will of God, which perceives in
+suffering only an expression of His fatherly love and mercy, was the ideal
+of R. Akiba.
+
+The great literary production of this period was the Mishnah, which,
+through the high authority of its compiler, R. Judah the Patriarch, his
+saintliness and popularity, soon superseded all the collections of a
+similar kind, and became the official text-book of the Oral Law. But a
+text requires interpretation, whilst other collections also demanded some
+attention. This brings us to the two _Talmuds_, namely, the Talmud of
+Jerusalem and the Talmud of Babylon, the origin and history of which form
+the subject of Weiss's third volume.
+
+Here again the first chapters are more of a preliminary character, giving
+the student some insight into the labyrinth of the Talmud. The two
+chapters entitled "The instruments employed in erecting the great
+Edifice," and the "Workmanship displayed by the Builders," give evidence
+of almost unrivalled familiarity with the Rabbinical literature, and of
+critical powers of the rarest kind. Now these instruments were by no means
+new, for, as Weiss shows, the Amoraim employed in interpreting the Mishnah
+the same explanatory rules that are known to us from the School of R.
+Ishmael as "the Thirteen Rules by which the Torah is explained," though
+they appear in the Talmud under other names, and are in reality only a
+species of Midrash. Besides this there comes another element into play. It
+was the exaggerated awe of all earlier authorities that endeavoured to
+reconcile the most contradictory statements by means of a subtle dialectic
+for which the schools in Babylon were especially famous. There were
+certainly many opponents of this system, and from the monographs which
+Weiss gives on the various heads of the western and eastern schools we see
+that not all followed this method, and some among them even condemned it
+in the strongest words. However, it cannot be denied that there is a
+strong scholastic feature in the Talmud, which is very far from what we
+should look for in a trustworthy exegesis. Thus we must not always expect
+to find in the Talmud the true meaning of the sayings of their
+predecessors, and it is certain that a more scientific method in many
+cases has led to results the very opposite of those at which the later
+Rabbis have arrived. This fact was already recognised in the sixteenth
+century, though only in part, by R. Yom-Tob Heller and others. Only he
+insisted that in this matter a line must be drawn between theory and
+practice. But Weiss gives irrefragable proofs that even this line was
+often overstepped by the greatest authorities, though they remained always
+within the limits of Tradition. Indeed, as Weiss points out, not every
+saying to be found in the Talmud is to be looked upon as representing
+Tradition; for there is much in it which only gives the individual opinion
+or is merely an interpolation of later hands; nor does the Talmud contain
+the _whole_ of Tradition, this latter proceeding and advancing with the
+time, and corresponding to its conditions and notions. As we read Weiss,
+the conviction is borne in upon us that there was a Talmud before, and
+another after _The Talmud_.
+
+Much space in this volume is given to the Agadah and the so-called
+"Teachers of the Agadah." Weiss makes no attempt at apology for that which
+seems to us strange, or even repugnant in this part of the Rabbinic
+literature. The greatest fault to be found with those who wrote down such
+passages as appear objectionable to us is, perhaps, that they did not
+observe the wise rule of Johnson, who said to Boswell on a certain
+occasion, "Let us get serious, for there comes a fool." And the fools
+unfortunately did come in the shape of certain Jewish commentators and
+Christian controversialists, who took as serious things which were only
+the expression of a momentary impulse, or represented the opinion of some
+isolated individual, or were meant simply as a piece of humorous by-play,
+calculated to enliven the interest of a languid audience. But on the other
+hand, as Weiss proves, the Agadah contains also many elements of real
+edification and eternal truths as well as abundant material for building
+up the edifice of dogmatic Judaism. Talmudical quotations of such a nature
+are scattered by thousands over Weiss's work, particularly in those
+chapters in which he describes the lives of the greatest Rabbinical
+heroes. But the author lays the student under special obligations by
+putting together in the concluding pages of this volume some of these
+sentences, and classifying them under various headings. I give here a few
+extracts. For the references to authorities I must direct the reader to
+the original:--
+
+"The unity of God is the keystone of dogmatic Judaism. The Rabbis give
+Israel the credit of having proclaimed to the world the unity of God. They
+also say that Israel took an oath never to change Him for another God.
+This only God is eternal, incorporeal, and immutable. And though the
+prophets saw Him in different aspects, He warned them that they must not
+infer from the visions vouchsafed to them that there are different Gods.
+'I am the first,' He tells them, which implies that he had no father, and
+the words, 'There is no God besides me,' mean that he has no son. Now,
+this God, the God of Israel, is holy in every thinkable way of holiness.
+He is merciful and gracious, as it is said, 'And I will be gracious to
+whom I will be gracious,' even though he who is the recipient of God's
+grace has no merit of his own. 'And I will show mercy to whom I will show
+mercy,' that is, even to those who do not deserve it. His attributes are
+righteousness, loving-kindness, and truth. God speaks words of eternal
+truth, even as He himself is the eternal life. All that the Merciful One
+does is only for good, and even in the time of His anger He remembers His
+graciousness, and often suppresses His attribute of judgment before His
+attribute of mercy. But with the righteous God is more severe than with
+the rest of the world, and when His hand falls in chastening on His saints
+His name becomes awful, revered, and exalted. This God of Israel, again,
+extends His providence over all mankind, and especially over Israel. By
+His eye everything is foreseen, yet freedom of choice is given, and the
+world is judged by grace, yet all according to the works wrought. Hence,
+know what is above thee, a seeing eye and a hearing ear, and that all thy
+deeds are written in a book.
+
+"They [the Rabbis] believed that God created the world out of nothing,
+without toil and without weariness. This world was created by the
+combination of His two attributes, mercy and justice. He rejoices in His
+creation, and if the Maker praises it, who dares to blame it? And if He
+exults in it, who shall find a blemish in it? Nay, it is a glorious and a
+beautiful world. It is created for man, and its other denizens were all
+meant but to serve him. Though all mankind are formed after the type of
+Adam, no one is like his fellow-man (each one having an individuality of
+his own). Thus he is able to say, 'For my sake, also, was the world
+created'; and with this thought his responsibilities increase. But the
+greatest love shown to man is that he was created in the image of God. Man
+is a being possessed of free will, and, though everything is given on
+pledge, whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow. Everything is in
+the gift of Heaven except the fear of God. In man's heart abide both the
+evil inclination and the good inclination; and the words of Scripture,
+'Thou shalt not bow down before a strange god,' point to the strange god
+who is within man himself, who entices him to sin in this world, and gives
+evidence against him in the next. But the Holy One--blessed be He!--said, 'I
+have created the evil inclination, but I have also created its antidote,
+the Torah.' And when man is occupied with the Torah and in works of
+charity, he becomes the master of the evil inclination; otherwise, he is
+its slave. When man reflects the image of God, he is the lord of creation,
+and is feared by all creatures; but this image is defaced by sin, and then
+he has no power over the universe, and is in fear of all things.
+
+"Another principle of Judaism is the belief in reward and punishment. 'I
+am the Lord, your God,' means, 'it is I who am prepared to recompense you
+for your good actions, and to bring retribution upon you for your evil
+deeds.' God does not allow to pass unrewarded even the merit of a kind and
+considerate word. By the same measure which man metes out, it shall be
+meted out to him. Because thou drownedst others, they have drowned thee,
+and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves be drowned. Though
+it is not in our power to explain either the prosperity of the wicked or
+the affliction of the righteous, nevertheless know before whom thou
+toilest, and who thy employer is, who will pay thee the reward of thy
+labour. Here at thy door is a poor man standing, and at his right hand
+standeth God. If thou grantest his request, be certain of thy reward; but
+if thou refusest, think of him who is by the side of the poor, and will
+avenge it on thee. 'God seeketh the persecuted' to defend him, even though
+it be the wicked who is persecuted by the righteous. The soul of man is
+immortal, the souls of the righteous being treasured up under the throne
+of God. Know that everything is according to the reckoning, and let not
+thy imagination give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge
+for thee, for perforce thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and
+thou livest perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt
+in the future have to give account and reckoning before the Supreme King
+of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.
+
+"The advent of the Messiah is another article of the belief of the Rabbis.
+But if a man tell thee that he knows when the redemption of Israel will
+take place, believe him not, for this is one of the unrevealed secrets of
+the Almighty. The mission of Elijah is to bring peace into the world,
+while the Messiah, in whose days Israel will regain his national
+independence, will lead the whole world in repentance to God. On this, it
+is believed, will follow the resurrection of the dead.
+
+"Another main principle in the belief of the Rabbis is the election of
+Israel, which imposes on them special duties, and gives them a peculiar
+mission. Beloved are Israel, for they are called the children of God, and
+His firstborn. 'They shall endure for ever' through the merit of their
+fathers. There is an especial covenant established between God and the
+tribes of Israel. God is their father, and He said to them, My children,
+even as I have no contact with the profanity of the world, so also
+withdraw yourselves from it. And as I am holy, be ye also holy. Nay,
+sanctify thyself by refraining even from that which is not forbidden thee.
+There is no holiness without chastity.
+
+"The main duty of Israel is to sanctify the name of God, for the Torah was
+only given that His great name might be glorified. Better is it that a
+single letter of the law be cast out than that the name of Heaven be
+profaned. And this also is the mission of Israel in this world: to
+sanctify the name of God, as it is written, 'This people have I formed for
+myself, that they may show forth my praise.' Or, 'And thou shalt love the
+Lord thy God,' which means, Thou shalt make God beloved by all creatures,
+even as Abraham did. Israel is the light of the world; as it is said, 'And
+nations shall walk by thy light.' But he who profanes the name of Heaven
+in secret will suffer the penalty thereof in public; and this whether the
+Heavenly Name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness.
+
+"Another duty towards God is to love Him and to fear Him. God's only
+representative on earth is the God-fearing man. Woe unto those who are
+occupied in the study of the Torah, but who have no fear of God. But a
+still higher duty it is to perform the commandments of God from love. For
+greater is he who submits to the will of God from love than he who does so
+from fear.
+
+"Now, how shall man love God? This is answered in the words of Scripture,
+'And these words shall be upon thy heart.' For by them thou wilt recognise
+Him whose word called the world into existence, and follow His divine
+attributes.
+
+"God is righteous; be ye also righteous, O Israel. By righteousness the
+Rabbis understand love of truth, hatred of lying and backbiting. The seal
+of the Holy One, blessed be He, is Truth, of which the actions of man
+should also bear the impress. Hence, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay, nay.
+He who is honest in money transactions, unto him this is reckoned as if he
+had fulfilled the whole of the Torah. Greater is he who earns his
+livelihood by the labour of his hands than even the God-fearing man;
+whilst the righteous judge is, as it were, the companion of God in the
+government of the world. For upon three things the world stands: upon
+truth, upon judgment, upon peace; as it is said, 'Judge ye the truth and
+the judgment of peace in your gates.' But he who breaks his word, his sin
+is as great as if he worshipped idols; and God, who punished the people of
+the time of the Flood, will also punish him who does not stand by his
+word. Such a one belongs to one of the four classes who are not admitted
+into the presence of the Shechinah; these are the scoffers, the hypocrites
+(who bring the wrath of God into the world), the liars, and the
+slanderers. The sin of the slanderer is like that of one who would deny
+the root (the root of all religion, _i.e._ the existence of God). The
+greatest of liars, however, is he who perjures himself, which also
+involves the sin of profanation of the name of God. The hypocrite, who
+insinuates himself into people's good opinions, who wears his phylacteries
+and is enwrapped in his gown with the fringes, and secretly commits sins,
+equally transgresses the command, 'Thou shalt not take the name of the
+Lord thy God in vain.'
+
+"God is gracious and merciful; therefore man also should be gracious and
+merciful. Hence, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself,' which is a
+main principle in the Torah. What is unpleasant to thyself, do not unto
+thy neighbour. This is the whole Torah, to which the rest is only to be
+considered as a commentary. And this love is also extended to the
+stranger, for as it is said with regard to Israel, 'And thou shalt love
+thy neighbour as thyself,' so is it also said, 'And thou shalt love him
+(the stranger) as thyself.' And thus said God to Israel, 'My beloved
+children, Am I in want of anything that I should request it of you? But
+what I ask of you is that you should love, honour, and respect one
+another.' Therefore, love mankind, and bring them near to the Torah. Let
+the honour of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own. Condemn not thy
+fellow-man until thou art come into his place, and judge all men in the
+scale of merit. Say not 'I will love scholars, but hate their disciples;'
+or even, 'I will love the disciples, but hate the ignorant,' but love all,
+for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer. Indeed, during the
+age of the second Temple, men studied the Torah and the commandments, and
+performed works of charity, but they hated each other, a sin that
+outweighs all other sins, and for which the holy Temple was destroyed. Be
+careful not to withdraw thy mercy from any man, for he who does so rebels
+against the kingdom of God on earth. Walk in the ways of God, who is
+merciful even to the wicked, and as He is gracious alike to those who know
+Him, and to those who know Him not, so be thou. Indeed, charity is one of
+the three pillars on which the world is based. It is more precious than
+all other virtues. The man who gives charity in secret is greater even
+than Moses our teacher. An act of charity and love it is to pray for our
+fellow-man, and to admonish him. 'Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy
+neighbour, and not suffer sin upon him' (Lev. xix. 18), means it is thy
+duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be, even if he be thy
+superior; for Jerusalem was only destroyed for the sin of its people in
+not admonishing one another. The man whose protest would be of any weight,
+and who does not exercise his authority (when any wrong is about to be
+committed), is held responsible for the whole world.
+
+"Peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love. Be of the disciples
+of Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace. Let every man be cautious in
+the fear of God; let him ever give the soft answer that turneth away
+wrath; let him promote peace, not only among his own relatives and
+acquaintances, but also among the Gentiles. For (the labour of) all the
+prophets was to plant peace in the world. Be exceeding lowly of spirit,
+since the hope of man is but the worm. Be humble as Hillel, for he who is
+humble causes the Divine presence to dwell with man. But the proud man
+makes God say, 'I and he cannot dwell in the same place.' He who runs
+after glory, glory flees from him, and he who flees from glory, glory
+shall pursue him. Be of those who are despised rather than of those who
+despise; of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors; be of those who
+bear their reproach in silence and answer not.
+
+"Another distinctive mark of Judaism is faith in God, and perfect
+confidence in Him. Which is the right course for a man to choose for
+himself? Let him have a strong faith in God, as it is said, 'Mine eye
+shall be upon the faithful (meaning those possessing faith in God) of the
+land.' And so also Habakkuk based the whole Torah on the principle of
+faith, as it is said, 'And the just shall live by his faith' (ii. 4). He
+who but fulfils a single commandment in absolute faith in God deserves
+that the Holy Spirit should rest on him. Blessed is the man who fears God
+in private, and trusts in Him with all his heart, for such fear and trust
+arms him against every misfortune. He who puts his trust in the Holy One,
+blessed be He, God becomes his shield and protection in this world and in
+the next. He who has bread in his basket for to-day, and says, 'What shall
+I have to eat to-morrow?' is a man of little faith. One consequence of
+real faith is always to believe in the justice of God's judgments. It is
+the duty of man to thank God when he is visited with misfortune as he does
+in the time of prosperity. Therefore, blessed is the man who, when visited
+by suffering, questions not God's justice. But what shall he do? Let him
+examine his conduct and repent.
+
+"For repentance is the greatest prerogative of man. Better is one hour of
+repentance and good deeds in this world than the whole life of the world
+to come. The aim of all wisdom is repentance and good deeds. The place
+where the truly penitent shall stand is higher than that of the righteous.
+Repentance finds its special expression in prayer; and when it is said in
+Scripture, 'Serve God with all thy heart,' by this is meant, serve Him by
+prayer, which is even greater than worship by means of sacrifices. Never
+is a prayer entirely unanswered by God. Therefore, even though the sword
+be on a man's neck, let him not cease to supplicate God's mercy. But
+regard not thy prayer as a fixed mechanical task, but as an appeal for
+mercy and grace before the All-Present; as it is said, 'For He is gracious
+and full of mercy, slow to anger, abounding in loving-kindness, and
+repenteth him of the evil.' "
+
+The last two volumes of Weiss's work deal with the history of Tradition
+during the Middle Ages, that is, from the conclusion of the Talmud to the
+compilation of the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro. I have already
+indicated that with Weiss Tradition did not terminate with the conclusion
+of the Talmud. It only means that a certain undefinable kind of
+literature, mostly held in dialogue form and containing many elements of
+Tradition, was at last brought to an end. The authorities who did this
+editorial work were the so-called _Rabbanan Saburai_(153) and the
+_Gaonim_, whose lives and literary activity are fully described by Weiss.
+But, while thus engaged in preserving their inheritance from the past,
+they were also enriching Tradition by new contributions, both the Saburai
+and the Gaonim having not only added to and diminished from the Talmud,
+but having also introduced avowedly new ordinances and decrees, and
+created new institutions.
+
+Now, it cannot be denied that a few of these ordinances and decrees had a
+reforming tendency (see the second and twentieth chapters of vol. iv.); in
+general, however, they took a more conservative turn than was the case in
+the previous ages. This must be ascribed to the event of the great schism
+within the Rabbinical camp itself. I refer to the rise of Caraism, which
+took place during the first half of the eighth century.
+
+There is probably no work in which the Halachic or legalistic side of this
+sect is better described than in this volume of Weiss. I regret that I am
+unable to enter into its details. But I cannot refrain from pointing to
+one of the main principles of the Caraites. This was "Search the
+Scriptures." Now this does not look very dissimilar from the principle
+held by the Rabbis. For what else is the Talmud, but a thorough searching
+through the Bible for whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances?
+The light which the Caraites applied to the searching of the Scriptures
+was the same which illumined the paths of the Rabbis' investigations. They
+employed most of the expository rules of the Tannaite schools. The fact is
+that they were only determined to find something different from what the
+Rabbis found in the Scriptures. They wanted to have gloomy Sabbaths and
+Festivals, and discovered authority for it in the Bible; they wanted to
+retain most of the dietary laws which had their root only in Tradition,
+but insisted on petty differences which they thought might be inferred
+from the Scriptures, and they created a new "order of inheritance," and
+varied the forbidden degrees in marriage, in all which the only merit was
+that they were in contradiction to the interpretation of the Rabbis. They
+also refused to accept the Liturgy of Rabbinical Judaism, but never
+succeeded in producing more than a patch-work from verses of the Bible,
+which, thus recast, they called a prayer-book. There were undoubtedly
+among their leaders many serious and sincere men, but they give us the
+impression of prigs, as for instance, Moses Darai, when he reproaches the
+Rabbinical Jews for having an "easy religion," or Israel Hammaarabi, when
+he recommended his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering of animals,
+as having the special advantage that his decisions were always on the more
+stringent side. Those who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land were by the
+Caraites canonised as "mourners." The Rabbanite R. Judah Hallevi also
+visited the ruins of Jerusalem, but he did something more than "mourn and
+sigh and cry," he became a God-intoxicated singer, and wrote the "Zion-
+Elegy." The novel terminology which they use in their exegetical and
+theological works, was only invented to spite the Rabbanites, and marks
+its authors as pedants. On the other hand, it is not to be denied that
+their opponents did not employ the best means to conciliate them. The
+Middle Ages knew no other remedy against schism than excommunication, and
+the Gaonim were the children of their time. Nor were the arguments which
+the latter brought forward in defence of Tradition always calculated to
+convince the Caraites of their error. When R. Saadiah, in his apology for
+the institution of the Second Day of the Festival,(154) went the length of
+assigning to it a Sinaitic origin, he could only succeed in making the
+Caraites more suspicious of the claims of Tradition than before. In a
+later generation one of his own party, R. Hai Gaon, had to declare his
+predecessor's words a "controversial exaggeration." The zeal which some of
+the Gaonim showed in their defence of such works as the _Chambers_ and the
+_Measure of the Stature_(155) was a not less unfortunate thing, for it
+involved the Rabbanites in unnecessary responsibilities for a new class of
+literature of doubtful origin, which in succeeding centuries was disowned
+by the best minds in Judaism.
+
+The Gaonic period, to which we also owe the rise of the Massorah and the
+introduction of points in the text of the Bible--of which Weiss treats
+fully in the twenty-third and twenty-fourth chapters of vol. iv.--comes to
+an end with the death of R. Hai. The famous schools of Sura and
+Pumbeditha, over which these two Gaonim presided, fell into decay, and
+Babylon ceased to be the centre of Judaism. To be more exact, we should
+say that Judaism had no longer any real centre. Instead of dwelling in one
+place for centuries, we now have to be perpetually on our journey,
+accompanying our authors through all the inhabited parts of the
+world--France, Italy, Spain, Germany, with an occasional trip to Africa and
+Russia. There we shall meet with the new schools, each of which, though
+interpreting the same Torah, occupied with the study of the same Talmud,
+and even conforming more or less to the same mode of life, has an
+individuality and character of its own, reflecting the thought and habits
+of the country which it represents. Thus "geographical Judaism" becomes a
+factor in history which no scholar can afford to neglect. It is true that
+Judaism never remained entirely unbiassed by foreign ideas, and our author
+points in many a place to Persian, Greek, and Roman influences on
+Tradition; still, these influences seem to have undergone such a thorough
+"Judaization" that it is only the practised eye of the scholar that is
+able to see through the transformation. But it requires no great skill to
+discriminate between the work produced by a Spanish and that of a French
+Rabbi. Though both would write in Hebrew, they betray themselves very soon
+by the style, diction, and train of thought peculiar to each country. The
+Spaniard is always logical, clear, and systematising, whilst the French
+Rabbi has very little sense of order, is always writing occasional notes,
+has a great tendency to be obscure, but is mostly profound and critical.
+Hence the fact that whilst Spain produced the greatest codifiers of the
+law, we owe to France and Germany the best commentaries on the Talmud.
+What these codes and commentaries meant for Judaism the student will find
+in Weiss's book, and still more fully in his admirable essays on Rashi
+(Solomon b. Isaac), Maimonides, and R. Jacob Tam (published in his
+periodical, _Beth Talmud_, and also separately). It is enough for us here
+only to notice the fact of the breadth of Tradition, which could include
+within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics, Maimonides,
+Solomon b. Gabirol, and Abn Ezra on one side, and the simple "non-
+questioning" Rabbenu Gershom, Rashi, and Jacob Tam on the other.
+
+The last three centuries, which occupy our author's attention in the fifth
+volume, are not remarkable for their progress. The world lives on the
+past. The rationalists write treatises on Maimonides' philosophical works,
+whilst the German Talmudists add commentary to commentary. It is, indeed,
+the reign of authority, "modified by accidents." Such an accident was the
+struggle between the Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists, or the rise of the
+Cabbalah, or the frequent controversies with Christians, all of which
+tended to direct the minds of people into new channels of thought. But
+though this period is less original in its work, it is not on that account
+less sympathetic. One cannot read those beautiful descriptions which Weiss
+gives of R. Meir of Rothenburg and his school, or of R. Asher and his
+descendants, without feeling that one is in an atmosphere of saints, who
+are the more attractive the less they were conscious of their own
+saintliness. The only mistake, perhaps, was that the successors of these
+"Chassidim or pious men of Germany" looked on many of the religious
+customs that were merely the voluntary expression of particularly devout
+souls as worthy of imitation by the whole community, and made them
+obligatory upon all.
+
+This brings us to the question of the Code already mentioned (by R. Joseph
+Caro), with which Weiss's work concludes. I have already transgressed the
+limits of an essay, without flattering myself that I have done anything
+like justice to the greatest work on Jewish Tradition which modern Jewish
+genius has produced. But I should not like the reader to carry away with
+him the false impression that our author shares in the general cry, "Save
+us from the Codifiers." Weiss, himself a Rabbi, and the disciple of the
+greatest Rabbis of the first half of this century, is quite aware of the
+impossibility of having a law without a kind of manual to it, which brings
+the fluid matter into some fixed form, classifying it under its proper
+headings, and this is what we call codifying the law. And thus he never
+passes any attempt made in this direction without paying due tribute to
+its author--be it Maimonides or Caro. But however great the literary value
+of a code may be, it does not invest it with the attribute of
+infallibility, nor does it exempt the student or the Rabbi who makes use
+of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and
+subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied
+to Tradition. Indeed, Weiss shows that Maimonides deviated in some cases
+from his own code, when it was required by circumstances.
+
+Nor do I know any modern author who is more in favour of strong authority
+than Weiss. His treatment of the struggle between the Patriarch R.
+Gamaliel and his adversaries, which I have touched on above, proves this
+sufficiently. What Weiss really objects to, is a _weak_ authority--I mean
+that phonograph-like authority which is always busy in reproducing the
+voice of others without an opinion of its own, without originality,
+without initiative and discretion. The real authorities are those who,
+drawing their inspiration from the past, also understand how to reconcile
+us with the present and to prepare us for the future.
+
+
+
+
+
+VIII. THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE RETRIBUTION IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE
+
+
+"Blessed be he who knows." These are the words with which Nachmanides, in
+his classical treatise, _Gate of Reward_, dismisses a certain theory of
+the Gaonim with regard to this question; after which he proceeds to
+expound another theory, which seems to him more satisfactory. This mode of
+treatment implies that, unsatisfactory as the one or other theory may
+appear to us, it would be presumptuous to reject either entirely, there
+being only One who knows the exact truth about the great mystery. But we
+may indicate our doubt about one doctrine by putting by its side another,
+which we may affirm to be not more absolutely true, but more probable.
+This seems to have been the attitude, too, of the compilers of the ancient
+Rabbinical literature, in which the most conflicting views about this
+grave subject were embodied. Nor did the Synagogue in general feel called
+upon to decide between these views. There is indeed no want of theodicies,
+for almost every important expounder of Job, as well as every Jewish
+philosopher of note, has one with its own system of retribution. Thus
+Judaism has no fixed doctrine on the subject. It refused a hearing to no
+theory, for fear that it should contain some germ of truth, but on the
+same ground it accepted none to the exclusion of the others.
+
+These theories may, perhaps, be conveniently reduced to the two following
+main doctrines that are in direct opposition to each other, whilst all
+other views about the subject will be treated as the more or less logical
+results of the one or other doctrine.
+
+1. There is no death without (preceding) sin, nor affliction without
+(preceding) transgression.(156) This view is cited in the name of R. Ammi,
+who quoted in corroboration the verses Ez. xviii. 20, and Ps. lxxxix. 33.
+Though this Rabbi flourished towards the end of the third century, there
+is hardly any doubt that his view was held by the authorities of a much
+earlier date. For it can only be under the sway of such a notion of
+Retribution that the Tannaim were so anxious to assign some great crime as
+the antecedent to every serious calamity by which mankind was visited. The
+following illustrations will suffice:--"Pestilence comes into the world for
+capital crimes mentioned in the Torah, which are not brought before the
+earthly tribunal.... Noisome beasts come into the world for vain swearing
+and for profanation of the name (of God). Captivity comes upon the world
+for strange worship and incest, and for shedding of blood and for (not)
+giving release to the land." As an example of the misfortune befalling the
+individual I will merely allude to a passage in another tractate of the
+Talmud, according to which leprosy is to be regarded as the penalty for
+immorality, slander, perjury, and similar sins.(157)
+
+If we were now to complement R. Ammi's view by adding that there is no
+happiness without some preceding merit--and there is no serious objection
+to making this addition--then it would resolve itself into the theory of
+Measure for Measure, which forms a very common standard of reward and
+punishment in Jewish literature. Here are a few instances:--"Because the
+Egyptians wanted to destroy Israel by water (Exod. i. 22), they were
+themselves destroyed by the waters of the Red Sea, as it is said,
+Therefore I will _measure_ their former work into their bosom (Is. lxv.
+7);" whilst, on the other hand, we read, "Because Abraham showed himself
+hospitable towards strangers, providing them with water (Gen. xviii. 4),
+God gave to his children a country blessed with plenty of water (Deut.
+viii. 1)." Sometimes this form of retribution goes so far as to define a
+special punishment to that part of the body which mostly contributed to
+the committing of the sin. Thus we read, "Samson rebelled against God by
+his eyes, as it is said, Get her (the Philistine woman) for me, for she
+pleases _my eyes_ (Judg. xvi. 21); therefore his _eyes_ were put out by
+the Philistines (Judg. xviii. 9)"; whilst Absalom, whose sinful pride
+began by his _hair_ (2 Sam. xiv. 25), met his fate by his _hair_ (2 Sam.
+xviii. 9).(158) Nahum of Gemzo himself explained his blindness and the
+maimed condition of his arms and legs as a consequence of a specific
+offence in having neglected the duty of succouring a poor man. Addressing
+the dead body of the suppliant who perished while Nahum was delaying his
+help, he said, "Let my eyes (which had no pity for your pitiful gaze)
+become blind; may my hands and legs (that did not hasten to help thine)
+become maimed, and finally my whole body be covered with boils."(159)
+"This was the hand that wrote it," said Cranmer at the stake; "therefore
+it shall first suffer punishment."
+
+It is worth noticing that this retribution does not always consist in a
+material reward, but, as Ben Azzai expressed it: "The reward of a command
+is a command, and the reward of a transgression is a transgression."(160)
+So again: "Because Abraham showed himself so magnanimous in his treatment
+of the king of Sodom, and said, I will not take from thee a thread;
+therefore, his children enjoyed the privilege of having the command of
+Zizith, consisting in putting a thread or fringe in the border of their
+garments." In another passage we read, "He who is anxious to do acts of
+charity will be rewarded by having the means enabling him to do so."(161)
+In more general terms the same thought is expressed when the Rabbis
+explained the words, Ye shall sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy
+(Lev. xi. 44), to the effect that if man takes the initiative in holiness,
+even though in a small way, Heaven will help him to reach it to a much
+higher degree.(162)
+
+Notwithstanding these passages, to which many more might be added, it
+cannot be denied that there are in the Rabbinical literature many passages
+holding out promises of _material_ reward to the righteous as well as
+threatening the wicked with _material_ punishment. Nor is there any need
+of denying it. Simple-minded men--and such the majority of the Rabbis
+were--will never be persuaded into looking with indifference on pain and
+pleasure; they will be far from thinking that poverty, loss of children,
+and sickness are no evil, and that a rich harvest, hope of posterity, and
+good health, are not desirable things. It _does_ lie in our nature to
+consider the former as curses and the latter as blessings; "and if this be
+wrong there is no one to be made responsible for it but the Creator of
+nature." Accordingly the question must arise, How can a just and
+omnipotent God allow it to happen that men should suffer innocently? The
+most natural suggestion towards solving the difficulty would be that we
+are _not_ innocent. Hence R. Ammi's assertion that affliction and death
+are both the outcome of sin and transgression; or, as R. Chanina ben Dossa
+expressed it, "It is not the wild beast but sin which kills."(163)
+
+We may thus perceive in this theory an attempt "to justify the ways of God
+to man." Unfortunately it does not correspond with the real facts. The cry
+wrung from the prophets against the peace enjoyed by the wicked, and the
+pains inflicted on the righteous, which finds its echo in so many Psalms,
+and reaches its climax in the Book of Job, was by no means silenced in the
+times of the Rabbis. If long experience could be of any use, it only
+served to deepen perplexity. For all this suffering of the people of God,
+and the prosperity of their wicked persecutors, which perplexed the
+prophets and their immediate followers, were repeated during the death-
+struggle for independence against Rome, and were not lessened by the
+establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion. The only comfort
+which time brought them was, perhaps, that the long continuance of
+misfortune made them less sensible to suffering than their ancestors were.
+Indeed, a Rabbi of the first century said that his generation had by
+continuous experience of misery become as insensible to pain as the dead
+body is to a prick of a needle.(164) The an�sthetic effect of long
+suffering may, indeed, help one to endure pain with more patience, but it
+cannot serve as an apology for the deed of the inflictors of the pain. The
+question, then, how to reconcile hard reality with the justice of God,
+remained as difficult as ever.
+
+The most important passage in Rabbinical literature relating to the
+solution of this problem is the following:--With reference to Exod. xxxiii.
+13, R. Johanan said, in the name of R. Jos�, that, among other things,
+Moses also asked God to explain to him the method of his Providence, a
+request that was granted to him. He asked God, Why are there righteous
+people who are prosperous, and righteous who suffer; wicked who are
+prosperous and wicked who suffer? The answer given to him was, according
+to the one view, that the prosperity of the wicked and the suffering of
+the righteous are a result of the conduct of their ancestors, the former
+being the descendants of righteous parents and enjoying their merits,
+whilst the latter, coming from a bad stock, suffer for the sins of those
+to whom they owe their existence. This view was suggested by the
+Scriptural words, "Keeping mercy for thousands (of generations) ...
+visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children" (Exod. xxxiv. 7),
+which were regarded as the answer to Moses' question in the preceding
+chapter of Exodus.(165) Prevalent, however, as this view may have been in
+ancient times, the Rabbis never allowed it to pass without some
+qualification. It is true that they had no objection to the former part of
+this doctrine, and they speak very frequently of the "Merits of the
+Fathers" for which the remotest posterity is rewarded; for this could be
+explained on the ground of the boundless goodness of God, which cannot be
+limited to the short space of a lifetime. But there was no possibility of
+overcoming the moral objection against punishment of people for sins they
+have not committed.
+
+It will suffice to mention here that, with reference to Joshua vii. 24,
+25, the Rabbis asked the question, If he (Achan) sinned, what
+justification could there be for putting his sons and daughters to death?
+And by the force of this argument they interpreted the words of the
+Scriptures to mean that the children of the criminal were only compelled
+to be present at the execution of their father.
+
+Such passages, therefore, as would imply that children have to suffer for
+the sins of their parents are explained by the Rabbis as referring to
+cases in which the children perpetuate the crimes of their fathers.(166)
+The view of R. Jos�, which I have already quoted, had, therefore, to be
+dropped, and another version in the name of the same Rabbi is accepted.
+According to this theory the sufferer is a person either "entirely wicked"
+or "not perfectly righteous," whilst the prosperous man is a person either
+"perfectly righteous," or "not entirely wicked."
+
+It is hardly necessary to say that there is still something wanting to
+supplement this view, for the given classification would place the not
+entirely wicked on the same level with the perfectly righteous, and on a
+much higher level than the imperfectly righteous, who are undoubtedly far
+superior. The following passage may be regarded as supplying this missing
+something:--"The wicked who have done some good work are as amply rewarded
+for it in _this_ world as if they were men who have fulfilled the whole of
+the Torah, so that they may be punished for their sins in the next world
+(without interruption); whilst the righteous who have committed some sin
+have to suffer for it (in this world) as if "they were men who burned the
+Law," so that they may enjoy their reward in the world to come (without
+interruption).(167) Thus the real retribution takes place in the next
+world, the fleeting existence on earth not being the fit time either to
+compensate righteousness or to punish sin. But as, on the one hand, God
+never allows "that the merit of any creature should be cut short," whilst,
+on the other hand, He deals very severely with the righteous, punishing
+them for the slightest transgression; since, too, this reward and
+punishment are only of short duration, they must take place in this short
+terrestrial existence. There is thus established a sort of divine economy,
+lest the harmony of the next world should be disturbed.
+
+Yet another objection to the doctrine under discussion remains to be
+noticed. It is that it justifies God by accusing man, declaring every
+sufferer as more or less of a sinner. But such a notion, if carried to its
+last consequences, must result in tempting us to withhold our sympathies
+from him. And, indeed, it would seem that there were some non-Jewish
+philosophers who argued in this way. Thus a certain Roman official is
+reported to have said to R. Akiba, "How can you be so eager in helping the
+poor? Suppose only a king, who, in his wrath against his slave, were to
+set him in the gaol, and give orders to withhold from him food and drink;
+if, then, one dared to act to the contrary, would not the king be angry
+with him?"(168) There is some appearance of logic in this notion put into
+the mouth of a heathen. The Rabbis, however, were inconsistent people, and
+responded to the appeal which suffering makes to every human heart without
+asking too many questions. Without entering here into the topic of charity
+in the Rabbinic literature, which would form a very interesting chapter, I
+shall only allude now to the following incident, which would show that the
+Rabbis did not abandon even those afflicted with leprosy, which, according
+to their own notion, given above, followed only as a punishment for the
+worst crimes. One Friday, we are told, when the day was about to darken,
+the Chassid Abba Tachnah was returning home, bearing on his shoulders the
+baggage that contained all his fortune; he saw a leprous man lying on the
+road, who addressed him: "Rabbi, do me a deed of charity and take me into
+the town." The Rabbi now thought, "If I leave my baggage, where shall I
+find the means of obtaining subsistence for myself and my family? But if I
+forsake this leprous man I shall commit a mortal sin." In the end, he
+allowed the good inclination to prevail over the evil one, and first
+carried the sufferer to the town.(169) The only practical conclusion that
+the Rabbis drew from such theories as identify suffering with sin were for
+the sufferer himself, who otherwise might be inclined to blame Providence,
+or even to blaspheme, but would now look upon his affliction as a reminder
+from heaven that there is something wrong in his moral state. Thus we read
+in tractate _Berachoth_:(170) "If a man sees that affliction comes upon
+him, he ought to inquire into his actions, as it is said, Let us search
+and try our ways, and turn again to the Lord (Lam. iii. 40)." This means
+to say that the sufferer will find that he has been guilty of some
+offence. As an illustration of this statement we may perhaps consider the
+story about R. Huna, occurring in the same tractate.(171) Of this Rabbi it
+is said that he once experienced heavy pecuniary losses, whereupon his
+friends came to his house and said to him, "Let the master but examine his
+conduct a little closer." On this R. Huna answered, "Do you suspect me of
+having committed some misdeed?" His friends rejoined, "And do you think
+that God would pass judgment without justice?" R. Huna then followed their
+hint, and found that he did not treat his tenant farmer so generously as
+he ought. He offered redress, and all turned out well in the end.
+Something similar is to be found in the story of the martyrdom of R.
+Simeon ben Gamaliel and R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Of these Rabbis we are told
+that on their way to be executed the one said to the other, "My heart
+leaves me, for I am not aware of a sin deserving such a death"; on which
+the other answered, "It might have happened that in your function as judge
+you sometimes--for your own convenience--were slow in administering
+justice."(172)
+
+But even if the personal actions of the righteous were blameless, there
+might still be sufficient ground for his being afflicted and miserable.
+This may be found in his relations to his kind and surroundings, or, to
+use the term now more popular, by reason of human solidarity. Now, after
+the above remarks on the objections entertained by the Rabbis against a
+man's being punished for the sins of others, it is hardly necessary to say
+that their idea of solidarity has little in common with the crude notions
+of it current in very ancient times. Still, it can hardly be doubted that
+the relation of the individual to the community was more keenly felt by
+the Rabbis than by the leaders in any other society, modern or ancient.
+According to the view given by an ancient Rabbi whose name is unknown, it
+would, indeed, seem that to them the individual was not simply a member of
+the Jewish commonwealth, or a co-religionist, but a limb of the great and
+single body "Israel," and that as such he communicated both for good and
+evil the sensations of the one part to the whole. In the _Midrash_, where
+a parallel is to be found to this idea, the responsibility of the
+individual towards the community is further illustrated by R. Simeon ben
+Yochai, in the following way: "It is," we read there, "to be compared to
+people sitting on board a ship, one of the passengers of which took an awl
+and began to bore holes in the bottom of the vessel. Asked to desist from
+his dangerous occupation, he answered, 'Why, I am only making holes on my
+own seat,' forgetting that when the water came in it would sink the whole
+ship." Thus the sin of a single man might endanger the whole of humanity.
+It was in conformity with the view of his father that R. Eliezer, the son
+of R. Simeon (ben Yochai) said, "The world is judged after the merits or
+demerits of the majority, so that a single individual by his good or bad
+actions can decide the fate of his fellow-creatures, as it may happen that
+he is just the one who constitutes this majority."(173) Nor does this
+responsibility cease with the man's own actions. According to the Rabbis
+man is responsible even for the conduct of others--and as such liable to
+punishment--if he is indifferent to the wrong that is being perpetrated
+about him, whilst an energetic protest from his side could have prevented
+it. And the greater the man the greater is his responsibility. He may
+suffer for the sins of his family which is first reached by his influence;
+he may suffer for the sins of the whole community if he could hope to find
+a willing ear among them, and he may even suffer for the sins of the whole
+world if his influence extend so far, and he forbear from exerting it for
+good.(174) Thus the possibility is given that the righteous man may suffer
+with justice, though he himself has never committed any transgression.
+
+As a much higher aspect of this solidarity--and as may have already
+suggested itself to the reader from the passage cited above from the
+anonymous Rabbi--we may regard the suffering of the righteous as an
+atonement for the sins of their contemporaries. "When there will be
+neither Tabernacle nor the Holy Temple," Moses is said to have asked God,
+"what will become of Israel?" Whereupon God answers, "I will take from
+among them the righteous man whom I shall consider as pledged for them,
+and will forgive all their sins;" the death of the perfect man, or even
+his suffering being looked upon as an expiation for the shortcoming of his
+generation.(175)
+
+It is hardly necessary to remind the reader of the affinity of this idea
+with that of sacrifices in general, as in both cases it is the innocent
+being which has to suffer for the sins of another creature. But there is
+one vital point which makes all the difference. It is that in our case the
+suffering is not enforced, but is a voluntary act on the part of the
+sacrifice, and is even desired by him. Without entering here on the often-
+discussed theme of the suffering of the Messiah, I need only mention the
+words of R. Ishmael who, on a very slight provocation, exclaimed, "I am
+the atonement for the Jews," which means that he took upon him all their
+sins to suffer for them.(176) This desire seems to have its origin in
+nothing else than a deep sympathy and compassion with Israel. To suffer
+_for_, or, at least _with_ Israel was, according to the Rabbis, already
+the ideal of Moses. He is said, indeed, to have broken the Two Tables with
+the purpose of committing some sin, so that he would have either to be
+condemned together with Israel (for the sin of the golden calf), or to be
+pardoned together with them.(177) And this conduct was expected not only
+from the leaders of Israel, but almost from every Jew. "When Israel is in
+a state of affliction (as, for instance, famine) one must not say, I will
+rather live by myself, and eat and drink, and peace be unto thee, my soul.
+To those who do so the words of the Scriptures are to be applied: And in
+that day did the Lord God of Hosts call to weeping and to mourning, ...
+and behold joy and gladness.... Surely this iniquity shall not be purged
+out from you till ye die" (Is. xxii. 12-14). Another passage is to the
+effect that, when a man shows himself indifferent to the suffering of the
+community, there come the two angels (who accompany every Jew), put their
+hands on his head, and say, "This man who has separated himself shall be
+excluded from their consolations."(178)
+
+We might now characterise this sort of suffering as the chastisement of
+love (of the righteous) to mankind, or rather to Israel. But we must not
+confuse it with the Chastisement of Love often mentioned in the Talmud,
+though this idea also seems calculated to account for the suffering of the
+righteous. Here the love is not on the side of the sufferer, but proceeds
+from him who inflicts this suffering. "Him," says R. Huna, "in whom God
+delights he crushes with suffering." As a proof of this theory the words
+of Is. liii. 10 are given, which are interpreted to mean: him whom the
+Lord delights in He puts to grief. Another passage, by the same authority,
+is to the effect that where there is no sufficient cause for punishment
+(the man being entirely free from sin), we have to regard his suffering as
+a chastisement of love, for it is said: "Whom the Lord loveth He
+correcteth" (Proverbs iii. 11).(179) To what purpose He corrects him may,
+perhaps, be seen from the following passage: "R. Eleazar ben Jacob says:
+If a man is visited by affliction he has to be thankful to God for it: for
+suffering draws man to, and reconciles him with God, as it is said: For
+whom God loveth he correcteth."(180)
+
+It is in conformity with such a high conception that affliction, far from
+being dreaded, becomes almost a desirable end, and we hear many Rabbis
+exclaim, "Beloved is suffering," for by it fatherly love is shown to man
+by God; by it man obtains purification and atonement, by it Israel came in
+possession of the best gifts, such as the Torah, the Holy Land, and
+eternal life.(181) And so also the sufferer, far from being considered as
+a man with a suspected past, becomes an object of veneration, on whom the
+glory of God rests, and he brings salvation to the world if he bears his
+affliction with joyful submission to the will of God.(182) Continuous
+prosperity is by no means to be longed after, for, as R. Ishmael taught,
+"He who has passed forty days without meeting adversity has already
+received his (share of the) world (to come) in this life."(183) Nay, the
+standing rule is that the really righteous suffer, whilst the wicked are
+supposed to be in a prosperous state. Thus, R. Jannai said, "We (average
+people) enjoy neither the prosperity of the wicked nor the afflictions of
+the righteous,"(184) whilst his contemporary, Rab, declared that he who
+experiences no affliction and persecution does not belong to them (the
+Jews).(185)
+
+2. The second main view on Retribution is that recorded by the Rabbis as
+in direct opposition to that of R. Ammi. It is that there is suffering as
+well as death without sin and transgression. We may now just as well infer
+that there is prosperity and happiness without preceding merits. And this
+is, indeed, the view held by R. Meir. For in contradiction to the view
+cited above, R. Meir declares that the request of Moses to have explained
+to him the mysterious ways of Providence was _not_ granted, and the answer
+he received was, "And I will shew mercy on whom I will shew mercy" (Exod.
+xxxiii. 19), which means to say, even though he to whom the mercy is shown
+be unworthy of it. The old question arises how such a procedure is to be
+reconciled with the justice and omnipotence of God. The commentaries try
+to evade the difficulty by suggesting some of the views given above, as
+that the real reward and punishment are only in the world to come, or that
+the affliction of the righteous is only chastisement of love, and so on.
+From the passages I am about to quote, however, one gains the impression
+that some Rabbis rather thought that this great problem will indeed not
+bear discussion or solution at all. Thus we have the legend: "The angels
+said to God, why have you punished Adam with death? He answered, On
+account of his having transgressed my commandment (with regard to the
+eating of the tree of knowledge). But why had Moses and Aaron to die? The
+reply given to them is the words, Eccl. ix. 2: 'All things come alike to
+all; there is one event to the righteous and to the wicked, to the good
+and to the clean and to the unclean.' "(186) Another legend records, "When
+Moses ascended to heaven, God showed him also the great men of futurity.
+R. Akiba was sitting and interpreting the law in a most wonderful way.
+Moses said to God: Thou hast shown me his worth, show me also his reward;
+on which he is bidden to look back. There he perceives him dying the most
+cruel of deaths, and his flesh being sold by weight. Moses now asks: Is
+this the reward of such a life? whereupon God answers him: Be silent; this
+I have determined."(187)
+
+It is impossible not to think of the fine lines of the German poet:--
+
+
+    Warum schleppt sich blutend, elend,
+    Unter Kreuzlast der Gerechte,
+    W�hrend gl�cklich als ein Sieger
+    Trabt auf hohem Ross der Schlechte?
+
+    Also fragen wir best�ndig,
+    Bis man uns mit einer Handvoll
+    Erde endlich stopft die M�uler--
+    Aber ist das eine Antwort?
+
+
+Still, one might perhaps suggest that these passages when examined a
+little closer, not only contain a rebuke to man's importunity in wanting
+to intrude into the secrets of God, but also hint at the possibility that
+even God's omnipotence is submitted to a certain law--though designed by
+His own holy will--which He could not alter without detriment to the whole
+creation. Indeed, in one of the mystical accounts of the martyrdom of R.
+Akiba and other great Rabbis, God is represented as asking the sufferers
+to accept His hard decree without protest, unless they wish Him to destroy
+the whole world. In another place again, we read of a certain renowned
+Rabbi, who lived in great poverty, that once in a dream he asked the
+divine Shechinah how long he would have still to endure this bitter
+privation? The answer given to him was: "My son, will it please you that I
+destroy the world for your sake?"(188) It is only in this light that we
+shall be able to understand such passages in the Rabbinic literature as
+that God almost suffers Himself when He has to inflict punishment either
+on the individual or on whole communities. Thus God is represented as
+mourning for seven days (as in the case when one loses a child) before He
+brought the deluge on the world; He bemoans the fall of Israel and the
+destruction of the Temple, and the Shechinah laments even when the
+criminal suffers his just punishment. And it is not by rebelling against
+these laws that He tries to redeem His suffering. He himself has recourse
+to prayer, and says: "May it be my will that my mercy conquer my wrath,
+that my love over-rule my strict justice, so that I may treat my children
+with love."(189) If now man is equal to God, he has nevertheless, or
+rather on that account, to submit to the law of God without any outlook
+for reward or punishment; or, as Antigonos expressed it, "Be not as slaves
+that minister to the Lord with a view to receive recompense."(190)
+Certainly it would be hazardous to maintain that Antigonos's saying was a
+consequence of this doctrine; but, at any rate, we see a clear tendency to
+keep the thought of reward (in spite of the prominent part it holds in the
+Bible) out of view. Still more clearly is it seen when, with reference to
+Ps. cxii., "Blessed is the man ... that delighteth greatly in his
+commandments," Rabbi Eleazar remarks that the meaning is that the man
+desires only to do His commandments, but he does not want the rewards
+connected with them.(191) This is the more remarkable, as the whole
+contents of this psalm are nothing else than a long series of promises of
+various rewards, so that the explanation of Rabbi Eleazar is in almost
+direct contradiction to the simple meaning of the words. On the other
+hand, also, every complaint about suffering must cease. Not only is
+affliction no direct chastisement by God in the way of revenge; but even
+when it would seem to us that we suffer innocently, we have no right to
+murmur, as God himself is also suffering, and, as the Talmud expresses it,
+"It is enough for the slave to be in the position of his master."(192)
+
+This thought of the compassion--in its strictest sense of fellow-
+suffering--of God with His creatures becomes a new motive for avoiding sin.
+"Woe to the wicked," exclaims a Rabbi, "who by their bad actions turn the
+mercy of God into strict justice."(193) And the later mystics explain
+distinctly that the great crime of sin consists in causing pain, so to
+speak, to the Shechinah. One of them compared it with the slave who abuses
+the goodness of his master so far as to buy with his money arms to wound
+him. But, on the other hand, it becomes, rather inconsistently, also a new
+source of comfort; for, in the end, God will have to redeem Himself from
+this suffering, which cannot be accomplished so long as Israel is still
+under punishment.(194) Most interesting is the noble prayer by a Rabbi of
+a very late mystical school: "O God, speedily bring about the redemption.
+I am not in the least thinking of what I may gain by it. I am willing to
+be condemned to all tortures in hell, if only the Shechinah will cease to
+suffer."(195)
+
+If we were now to ask for the attitude of the Synagogue towards these two
+main views, we should have to answer that--as already hinted at the opening
+of this paper--it never decided for the one or the other. R. David Rocca
+Martino dared even to write a whole book in Defence of Adam proving that
+he committed no sin in eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge against
+the literal sense of the Scriptures, which were also taken by the Rabbis
+literally.(196) By this he destroyed the prospects of many a theodicy, but
+it is not known to me that he was severely rebuked for it. It has been
+said by a great writer that the best theology is that which is not
+consistent, and this advantage the theology of the Synagogue possesses to
+its utmost extent. It accepted with R. Ammi the stern principle of divine
+retribution, in as far as it makes man feel the responsibility of his
+actions, and makes suffering a discipline. But it never allowed this
+principle to be carried so far as to deny the sufferer our sympathy, and
+by a series of conscious and unconscious modifications, he passed from the
+state of a sinner into the zenith of the saint and the perfectly righteous
+man. But, on the other hand, the Synagogue also gave entrance to the very
+opposite view which, abandoning every attempt to account for suffering,
+bids man do his duty without any hope of reward, even as God also does
+His. Hence the remarkable phenomenon in the works of later Jewish
+moralists, that, whilst they never weary of the most detailed accounts of
+the punishments awaiting the sinner and the rewards in store for the
+righteous, they warn us most emphatically that our actions must not be
+guided by these unworthy considerations, and that our only motive should
+be the love of God and submission to His holy will.
+
+Nor must it be thought that the views of the Rabbis are so widely
+divergent from those enunciated in the Bible. The germ of almost all the
+later ideas is already to be found in the Scriptures. It only needed the
+process of time to bring into prominence those features which proved at a
+later period most acceptable. Indeed, it would seem that there is also a
+sort of domestication of religious ideas. On their first association with
+man there is a certain rude violence about them which, when left to the
+management of untutored minds, would certainly do great harm. But, let
+only this association last for centuries, during which these ideas have to
+be subdued by practical use, and they will, in due time, lose their former
+roughness, will become theologically workable, and turn out the greatest
+blessing to inconsistent humanity.
+
+
+
+
+
+IX. THE LAW AND RECENT CRITICISM(197)
+
+
+Professor Toy's work, _Judaism and Christianity_, gives an admirable
+conspectus of the results of the modern critical school in their bearing
+on the genesis of Christianity. The author takes various important
+doctrines of Christianity, traces them back to their origin in
+Israelitism, pursues their course through their various phases in Judaism,
+until they reach their final development in the teaching of Jesus and His
+disciples, which, in the author's judgment, is the consummation of that
+which the prophets and their successors had to give to the world. Laying
+so much stress as Professor Toy does on the saying, "By their fruits shall
+ye know them," he ought also, perhaps, to have told us what, in the course
+of time, has become of these several doctrines. For when, for instance,
+with regard to the doctrine of original sin, he remarks that "in certain
+systems of Christian theology the human race is involved in the
+condemnation of the first man" (p. 185, n. 1); or that, in the New
+Testament, "the demand for a mediating power between God and humanity is
+pushed to the farthest point which thought can occupy consistently with
+the maintenance of the absoluteness of the one Supreme Deity" (p. 121), he
+is rather evading a difficulty than answering it. Such elaboration would,
+however, have been outside the scope of Professor Toy's book, which claims
+only to be a sketch of the progress of thought from the Old Testament to
+the New. For his own solution of the indicated difficulty, Toy, to judge
+from his liberal standpoint, would probably refer us to Dr. Hatch's
+Hibbert lectures; the issue of such an appeal must, I imagine, remain for
+long doubtful and disputed.
+
+A delightful characteristic of Toy's book is its transparent clearness and
+sobriety, which will make it interesting reading, even to those who are
+acquainted with the writer's authorities in their original sources. Almost
+entirely new, as well as most suggestive, is the justice which Toy does to
+the law in recognising it as a factor for good in the history of religion.
+In this point Toy is not only up to his date, but beyond it. It is true
+that even the Pharisees have made some advance in the estimation of the
+liberal school. They are no longer condemned _en masse_ as so many
+hypocrites. It is even admitted that there were a few honest men among
+them, such as Rabban Gamaliel, the teacher of Paul, or R. Akiba, the
+patriot of Bethar. We are now too polite to be personal. But with regard
+to the law, on the other hand, there is at present a markedly opposite
+tendency. The general idea seems to be that, as the doctrine of the
+resurrection of Christ must be loosely interpreted in a spiritual sense,
+it must logically have been preceded by a universal spiritual death, and
+the germs of the disease which brought this death about are to be sought
+for in the law. Hence the strained efforts to discover in the law the
+source of all religious evil,--cant, hypocrisy, formalism, externalism,
+transcendentalism, and as many "isms" more, of bad reputation.
+
+It was probably with this current representation of the law in view that
+Toy, when speaking of the Levitical legislation, and of its fixing "men's
+minds on ceremonial details which, in some cases, it put into the same
+category and on the same level with moral duties," asks the question:
+"Would there not thence result a dimming of the moral sense and a
+confusion of moral distinctions? The ethical attitude of a man who could
+regard a failure in the routine of sacrifice as not less blameworthy than
+an act of theft cannot be called a lofty one" (p. 186). The answer which
+he gives is more favourable than such a leading question would induce us
+to expect. He tells us that, "in point of fact, the result was different"
+(_ibid_). "The Levitical law is not to be looked on as a mere extension
+and organisation of the ritual.... Its ritual was, in great part, the
+organised expression of the consciousness of sin" (p. 226). Of the law in
+general Toy says that it had "larger consequences than its mere details
+would suggest," for it "cultivated the moral sense of the people into
+results above its mechanical prescriptions," and "it developed the sense
+of sin, as Paul points out" (Gal. iii. 19), "and therewith a freer
+feeling, which brought the soul into more immediate contact with God" (p.
+227); whilst in another place he reminds us "that much of the law is
+moral, and that no one could fail to see a spiritual significance beneath
+its letter" (p. 245), and he even admits that "the great legal schools
+which grew up in the second century, if we may judge by the sayings of the
+teachers which have come down to us, did not fail to discriminate between
+the outward and the inward, the ceremonial and the moral" (p. 186).
+
+These and similar passages will suffice to show that Toy's estimate of the
+law is a very different one from that of Smend and his school. However, it
+must not be supposed that he is not on the look-out for the germs of the
+disease. He must find these germs somewhere, or else the progress, which
+his book is intended to illustrate, would be difficult to detect. And thus
+he repeats the old accusations, though not without modification.
+
+Professor Toy's objections may, perhaps, be summed up in the passage in
+which he represents the Jewish law as "an attempt to define all the
+beliefs and acts of life" (p. 239), or as "the embodiment of devotion to a
+fixed rule of belief and conduct" (p. 237). Toy does not entirely condemn
+this system, and even speaks of it as a "lofty attempt" (p. 239); but, on
+the whole, he considers that it must have resulted in bad theology, as
+well as in doubtful conduct. Without following Professor Toy over the
+whole area of his investigations, which would require a volume for itself,
+I will only take the opportunity of making a few general remarks upon the
+nature and character of this legal system, which seems to hold the key to
+the spiritual history of Judaism.
+
+First, as to its theology, Toy's description of the law as an attempt to
+define all the _beliefs_ of life--an assertion which is also made by
+Sch�rer--is not wholly accurate. For such an attempt was never made by
+Judaism. The few dogmas which Judaism possesses, such as the Existence of
+God, Providence, Reward, and Punishment--without which no revealed religion
+is conceivable--can hardly be called a creed in the modern sense of the
+term, which implies something external and foreign to man's own knowledge,
+and received only in deference to the weight of authority. To the Jew of
+the Christian era, these simpler dogmas were so self-evident that it would
+have cost him the greatest effort _not_ to believe them. Hence the fact
+that, whilst there have come down to us so many controverted points
+between the Sadducees and Pharisees with regard to certain juristic and
+ritual questions, we know of only one of an essentially dogmatic
+character, viz. the dispute concerning the Resurrection.
+
+It is thus difficult to imagine to what Professor Toy can be alluding when
+he speaks of the "interest they (the Jews) threw into the discussion and
+determination of minuti� of faith" (p. 241). Discussions upon _minuti�_ of
+faith are only to be read in the works of the later schoolmen (as Saadiah,
+Maimonides and their followers), in which such subtle problems as _Creatio
+ex nihilo_, the origin of evil, predestination, free will and similar
+subjects are examined; but this period is very distant from that with
+which Toy is concerned. The older schools and the so-called houses of
+Shammai and Hillel, most of whose members were the contemporaries of the
+Apostles, show very little predilection for such _minuti�_. Their
+discussions and differences of opinion about ritual matters are very
+numerous, scattered as they are over the whole of the ancient Rabbinic
+literature, but I can only remember two of a metaphysical character, or
+touching upon the _minuti�_ of faith. The one, dealing with the efficacy
+of certain sacrifices, discusses whether it only extends to the remission
+of the pending punishment for sins, or also includes their purification
+and washing away; the other considers the question whether it would not
+have been better for man not to have been created.(198) But this latter
+controversy, which is said to have lasted for two years and a half, by no
+means led to any big metaphysical or theological system, but only to the
+practical advice that, as we have been created, we ought to be watchful
+over our conduct. It is, indeed, a noteworthy feature of Judaism that
+theological speculations have never resulted in the formulation of any
+imposing or universal doctrine, but usually in divers ceremonial
+practices. To give one illustration: according to Professor Toy (p. 210)
+the conclusion which the author of 1 Tim. ii. 11-14 draws from the fact
+that woman was the immediate agent of the introduction of sin was the
+subordination of her sex. The Rabbis also noticed the same fact, and in
+their less abstract language speak of woman as having brought death and
+grief into the world; but the conclusion which they drew was that since
+woman had extinguished the "light of the world," she ought to atone for it
+by lighting the candles for the Sabbath.(199) Nor is Toy quite correct
+when he maintains that the conception of the Memra as Creator and Lord,
+etc., and as "representative of the immediate divine activity," did not
+keep its hold on Jewish thought, having been discarded in the later
+literature (p. 104). For the Shechinah of the Talmud, the _Metatron_(200)
+of the Gaonic-mystical literature, the Active Intelligence of the
+philosophical schools, as well as the Ten Sephiroth(201) (Emanations) of
+the Cabbalists, all owe their existence to the same theosophic scruples
+and subtleties in which the Logos of Philo and the Memra(202) of the
+Targums originated. Thus, they always kept--though under various
+forms--their hold on the Jewish mind. Judaism was always broad enough to
+accommodate itself to these formul�, which for the one may mean the most
+holy mysteries, and for the other empty and meaningless catchwords. The
+objection--in fact, the active opposition--of the Synagogue began when these
+possible or impossible explanations of the universe tended to transgress
+the bounds of abstract speculation, and, passing over into real concrete
+beings, to be worshipped as such. An instance from comparatively modern
+times might be found in one of the vagaries of the followers of the
+Pseudo-Messiah, Shabbethai Tsebi. For many generations the controversy had
+raged among the Cabbalists, whether the first of the above-mentioned Ten
+Emanations (called by some _Original Adam_, by others, _Crown_(203)) is to
+be considered as a part of the Deity or as something separate, and so to
+speak, having a reality in itself. The danger of establishing a Being near
+the Deity, having an existence of its own and invested with divine
+attributes, could not have escaped the thoughtful, and there are indeed
+some indications to this effect. The Synagogue as such, however, remained
+during the whole controversy strictly neutral, and allowed these
+theosophists to fight in the air as much as they liked. But the moment
+that the sect of Shabbethai Tsebi identified the incarnate Original Adam
+with their leader, and worshipped him as a sort of God-Messiah, the
+Synagogue at once took up a hostile attitude against those who separated
+God from His world, and, declaring Shabbethai Tsebi and his followers to
+be apostates, excluded them from Judaism for ever.
+
+Nor can it be proved that legalism or nomism has ever tended to suppress
+the spiritual side of religion, either in respect of consciousness of sin,
+or of individual love and devotion. With an equal logic quite the opposite
+might be argued. Professor Toy tells us himself that it is no "accident
+that along with this more definite expression of ethical-religious law we
+find the first traces of a more spiritual conception of righteousness in
+the 'new heart' of Jeremiah and Ezekiel" (p. 235), whilst in another
+passage we read that "a turning point is marked by the Deuteronomist
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel, who announce the principles of individual
+responsibility and inwardness of obedience" (p. 184). Now, two things are
+certain; first, that Ezekiel urges the necessity of the new heart as well
+as of individual responsibility more keenly than any of his predecessors;
+secondly, that in Ezekiel the legalistic tendency is more evident than in
+Deuteronomy and Jeremiah. The logical conclusion would thus be that the
+higher ideals of religion are not only not inconsistent with legalism, but
+are the very outcome of it, and the so-called Priestly Code, by the very
+fact of its markedly legalistic tendency, should be considered as a step
+in the right direction. The latter assertion sounds like a paradox, but it
+will seem less so when the prevailing characteristic of this portion of
+the Pentateuch, as given even by Kuenen, who is by no means a champion of
+the Law, is borne in mind. "The centre of gravity," according to the great
+Dutch critic, "lies for the priestly author elsewhere than for the
+prophet; it lies in man's attitude, not towards his fellow-men, but
+towards God; not in his social, but in his personal life" (_Hibbert
+Lectures_, p. 161). It is here that we seem to strike the keynote of the
+_Weltanschauung_ of the Priestly Legislation. In it man is more than a
+social being. He has also an individual life of his own, his joys and
+sorrows, his historical claims, his traditions of the past, and his hopes
+for the future--and all these have to be brought under the influence of
+religion, and to become sanctified through their relation to God. Hence,
+the work of the Priestly narrator and legislator opens with a cosmogony of
+his own, in which we find the grand theological idea of man being created
+in the Divine image; hence, too, his religious conception of the history
+of the nation and the control claimed by him over all the details of human
+life, which became with him so many opportunities for the worship of God.
+To him, God is not a mere figurehead; He not only reigns, but governs.
+Everywhere,--in the temple, in the judge's seat, in the family, in the
+farm, and in the market-place,--His presence is felt in enforcing the laws
+bearing His _imprimatur_, "I am the Lord thy God." By thus diffusing
+religion over the whole domain of human life--not confining it to the
+social institutions which are represented only by a few personages, such
+as the king, the princes, the priests, the judges or elders--they made it
+the common good of the whole people, and the feeling of personal
+responsibility for this good became much deeper than before. Thus it came
+to pass that whilst, during the first temple, the apostasy of kings and
+aristocracy involved the entire people, so that the words "And he (the
+king) did evil in the sight of the Lord," embrace the whole nation, during
+the second temple it was no longer of much consequence which side the
+political leaders took. Both during the Hellenistic persecutions, as well
+as afterwards in the struggles of some Maccabean kings with the Pharisees,
+the bulk of the people showed that they considered religion as their own
+personal affair, not to be regulated by the conscience of either priest or
+prince. It is true that this success may be largely ascribed to such
+contemporary religious factors as the Synagogue with its minimum of form,
+the Scribes with their activity as teachers, and the Psalmists with their
+divine enthusiasm; but the very circumstance that these factors arose and
+flourished under the influence of the Priestly Code would suffice to prove
+that its tendency was not so sacerdotal as some writers would have us
+believe. Jewish tradition indeed attributes the composition of the daily
+public prayers, as well as of others for private worship, to the very men
+whom modern biblical criticism holds responsible for the introduction of
+the Priestly Code. Now this fact may perhaps be disputed, but there is
+little doubt that the age in which these prayers were composed was one of
+flourishing legalism. Nor is there any proof that the synagogues and their
+ritual were in opposition to the temple. From the few documents belonging
+to this period, it is clear that there was no opposition to the legalistic
+spirit by which the Priestly Code was actuated. This would prove that
+legalism meant something more than tithes and sacrifices for the benefit
+of the priests.
+
+Nor is it true that the legal tendency aimed at narrowing the mind of the
+nation, turning all its thoughts into the one direction of the law. Apart
+from the fact that the Torah contained other elements besides its
+legalism, the prophets were not forgotten, but were read and interpreted
+from a very early age. It was under the predominance of the Law that the
+Wisdom literature was composed, which is by no means narrow or one-sided,
+but is even supposed by some critics to contain many foreign elements. In
+the book of Job, the great problems of man's existence are treated with a
+depth and grandeur never equalled before or since. This book alone ought
+partly to compensate the modern school for the disappearance of prophecy,
+which is usually brought as a charge against the Law. Then, too, the
+Psalms, placed by the same school in the post-exilic period, are nothing
+but another aspect of prophecy, with this difference, perhaps, that in the
+Prophets God speaks to man, while in the Psalms it is man who establishes
+the same communion by speaking to God. There is no reason why the critical
+school, with its broad conception of inspiration, and with its insistence
+that prophecy does _not_ mean prediction, should so strongly emphasise
+this difference. If "it is no longer as in the days of Amos, when the Lord
+Yahveh did nothing without revealing his counsel to his servants the
+prophets," there is in the days of the Psalmists nothing in man's heart,
+no element in his longings and meditations and aspirations, which was not
+revealed to God. Nay, it would seem that at times the Psalmist hardly ever
+desires the revelation of God's secrets. Let future events be what they
+may, he is content, for he is with God. After all his trials, he exclaims,
+"And yet I am continually with thee; thou hast taken hold of my right
+hand. According to thy purpose wilt thou lead me, and afterwards receive
+me with glory. Whom have I (to care for) in heaven? and possessing thee, I
+have pleasure in nothing upon earth. Though my flesh and my heart should
+have wasted away, God would for ever be the rock of my heart and my
+portion" (Ps. lxxiii. 23-26). How an age producing a literature containing
+passages like these--of which Wellhausen in his _Abriss_ (p. 95) justly
+remarks, that we are not worthy even to repeat them--can be considered by
+the modern school as wanting in intimate relation to God and inferior to
+that of the prophets is indeed a puzzle.
+
+Now a few words as to the actual life under the Law. Here, again, there is
+a fresh puzzle. On the one side, we hear the opinions of so many learned
+professors, proclaiming _ex cathedr�_, that the Law was a most terrible
+burden, and the life under it the most unbearable slavery, deadening body
+and soul. On the other side we have the testimony of a literature
+extending over about twenty-five centuries, and including all sorts and
+conditions of men, scholars, poets, mystics, lawyers, casuists, schoolmen,
+tradesmen, workmen, women, simpletons, who all, from the author of the
+119th Psalm to the last pre-Mendelssohnian writer--with a small exception
+which does not even deserve the name of a vanishing minority--give
+unanimous evidence in favour of this Law, and of the bliss and happiness
+of living and dying under it,--and this, the testimony of people who were
+actually living under the Law, not merely theorising upon it, and who
+experienced it in all its difficulties and inconveniences. The Sabbath
+will give a fair example. The law of the Sabbath is one of those
+institutions the strict observance of which was already the object of
+attack in early New Testament times. Nevertheless, the doctrine proclaimed
+in one of the Gospels--that the son of man is Lord also of the Sabbath--was
+also current among the Rabbis. They, too, taught that the Sabbath had been
+delivered into the hand of man (to break, if necessary), and not man
+delivered over to the Sabbath.(204) And they even laid down the axiom that
+a scholar who lived in a town, where among the Jewish population there
+could be the least possibility of doubt as to whether the Sabbath might be
+broken for the benefit of a dangerously sick person, was to be despised as
+a man neglecting his duty; for, as Maimonides points out, the laws of the
+Torah are not meant as an infliction upon mankind, "but as mercy, loving-
+kindness, and peace."(205)
+
+The attacks upon the Jewish Sabbath have not abated with the lapse of
+time. The day is still described by almost every Christian writer on the
+subject in the most gloomy colours, and long lists are given of minute and
+easily transgressed observances connected with it, which, instead of a day
+of rest, would make it to be a day of sorrow and anxiety, almost worse
+than the Scotch Sunday as depicted by continental writers. But it so
+happens that we have the prayer of R. Zadok, a younger contemporary of the
+Apostles, which runs thus: "Through the love with which Thou, O Lord our
+God, lovest Thy people Israel, and the mercy which Thou hast shown to the
+children of Thy covenant, Thou hast given unto us in love this great and
+holy Seventh Day."(206) And another Rabbi, who probably flourished in the
+first half of the second century, expresses himself (with allusion to
+Exod. xxxi. 13: Verily my Sabbaths ye shall keep ... that ye may know that
+I am the Lord that doth sanctify you)--"The Holy One, blessed be He, said
+unto Moses, I have a good gift in my treasures, and Sabbath is its name,
+which I wish to present to Israel. Go and bring to them the good
+tidings."(207) The form again of the Blessing over the Sanctification-
+cup(208)--a ceremony known long before the destruction of the Second
+Temple--runs: "Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, who hast sanctified us by
+Thy commandments, and hast taken pleasure in us, and in love and grace
+hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an inheritance." All these Rabbis
+evidently regarded the Sabbath as a gift from heaven, an expression of the
+infinite mercy and grace of God which He manifested to His beloved
+children.
+
+And the gift was, as already said, a _good_ gift. Thus the Rabbis
+paraphrase the words in the Scripture "See, for that the Lord hath given
+you the Sabbath" (Exod. xvi. 29): God said unto Israel behold the gem I
+gave you, My children I gave you the Sabbath for your good. Sanctify or
+honour the Sabbath by choice meals, beautiful garments; delight your soul
+with pleasure and I will reward you (for this very pleasure); as it is
+said: "And if thou wilt call the Sabbath a delight and the holy of the
+Lord honourable (that is honouring the Sabbath in this way) ... then shalt
+thou delight thyself in the Lord" (Is. lviii. 13, 14).(209)
+
+The delight of the Sabbath was keenly felt. Israel fell in love with the
+Sabbath, and in the hyperbolic language of the Agadah the Sabbath is
+personified as the "Bride of Israel," whilst others called it "Queen
+Sabbath,"(210) and they are actually jealous of a certain class of semi-
+proselytes who, as it seems, were willing to observe the Sabbath, but
+declined to submit to the covenant of Abraham. The Gentile Sabbath-
+keepers--who, like all the nations of the world, envy Israel their
+Sabbath--the Rabbis considered as shameless intruders deserving
+punishment.(211) No, it was Israel's own Queen or Bride Sabbath whose
+appearance in all her heavenly glory they were impatiently awaiting. Thus
+we are told of R. Judah b. Ilai that when the eve of the Sabbath came "he
+made his ablutions, wrapped himself up in his white linen with fringed
+borders looking like an angel of the Lord of Hosts," thus prepared for the
+solemn reception of Queen Sabbath. Another Rabbi used to put on his best
+clothes, and arise and invite the Sabbath with the words: "Come in Bride,
+come in."(212) What the Bride brought was peace and bliss. Nay, man is
+provided with a super soul for the Sabbath, enabling him to bear both the
+spiritual and the material delights of the day with dignity and
+solemnity.(213) The very light (or expression) of man's face is different
+on Sabbath, testifying to his inward peace and rest. And when man has
+recited his prayers (on the eve of the Sabbath) and thus borne testimony
+to God's creation of the world and to the glory of the Sabbath, there
+appear the two angels who accompany him, lay their hands on his head and
+impart to him their blessing with the words: "And thine iniquity is taken
+away and thy sin purged" (Is. vi. 7).(214) For nothing is allowed to
+disturb the peace of the Sabbath; not even "the sorrows of sin," though
+the Sabbath had such a solemn effect on people that even the worldly man
+would not utter an untruth on the Day of the Lord. Hence it was not only
+forbidden to pray on Sabbath for one's own (material) needs, but
+everything in the liturgy of a mournful character (as for instance the
+confession of sin, supplication for pardon) was carefully avoided. It was
+with difficulty, as the Rabbis say, that they made an exception in the
+case of condoling with people who had suffered loss through the death of
+near relatives. There is no room for morbid sentiment on Sabbath, for the
+blessing of the Lord maketh rich, and He addeth no sorrow with it (Prov.
+x. 22).(215) The burden of the Sabbath prayers is for peace, rest,
+sanctification, and joy (through salvation) and praise of God for this
+ineffable bliss of the Sabbath.
+
+Such was the Sabbath of the old Rabbis and the same spirit continued
+through all ages. The Sabbath was and is still celebrated by the people
+who did and do observe it, in hundreds of hymns, which would fill volumes,
+as a day of rest and joy, of pleasure and delight, a day in which man
+enjoys some foretaste of the pure bliss and happiness which are stored up
+for the righteous in the world to come. Somebody, either the learned
+professors, or the millions of the Jewish people, must be under an
+illusion. Which it is I leave to the reader to decide.
+
+It is also an illusion to speak of the burden which a scrupulous care to
+observe six hundred and thirteen commandments must have laid upon the Jew.
+Even a superficial analysis will discover that in the time of Christ many
+of these commandments were already obsolete (as for instance those
+relating to the tabernacle and to the conquest of Palestine), while others
+concerned only certain classes, as the priests, the judges, the soldiers,
+the Nazirites, or the representatives of the community, or even only one
+or two individuals among the whole population, as the King and the High-
+Priest. Others, again, provided for contingencies which could occur only
+to a few, as for instance the laws concerning divorce or levirate
+marriages, whilst many--such as those concerning idolatry, and incest, and
+the sacrifice of children to Moloch--could scarcely have been considered as
+a practical prohibition by the pre-Christian Jew; just as little as we can
+speak of Englishmen as lying under the burden of a law preventing them
+from burning widows or marrying their grandmothers, though such acts would
+certainly be considered as crimes. Thus it will be found by a careful
+enumeration that barely a hundred laws remain which really concerned the
+life of the bulk of the people. If we remember that even these include
+such laws as belief in the unity of God, the necessity of loving and
+fearing Him, and of sanctifying His name, of loving one's neighbour and
+the stranger, of providing for the poor, exhorting the sinner, honouring
+one's parents and many more of a similar character, it will hardly be said
+that the ceremonial side of the people's religion was not well balanced by
+a fair amount of spiritual and social elements. Besides, it would seem
+that the line between the ceremonial and the spiritual is too often only
+arbitrarily drawn. With many commandments it is rather a matter of opinion
+whether they should be relegated to the one category or the other.
+
+Thus, the wearing of Tephillin(216) or phylacteries has, on the one hand,
+been continually condemned as a meaningless superstition, and a pretext
+for formalism and hypocrisy. But, on the other hand, Maimonides, who can
+in no way be suspected of superstition or mysticism, described their
+importance in the following words: "Great is the holiness of the
+Tephillin; for as long as they are on the arm and head of man he is humble
+and God-fearing, and feels no attraction for frivolity or idle things, nor
+has he any evil thoughts, but will turn his heart to the words of truth
+and righteousness." The view which R. Johanan, a Palestinian teacher of
+the third century, took of the fulfilment of the Law, will probably be
+found more rational than that of many a rationalist of to-day. Upon the
+basis of the last verse in Hosea, "The ways of the Lord are right, and the
+just shall walk in them, but the transgressors shall fall therein," he
+explains that while one man, for instance, eats his paschal lamb with the
+purpose of doing the will of God who commanded it, and thereby does an act
+of righteousness, another thinks only of satisfying his appetite by the
+lamb, so that his eating it (by the very fact that he professes at the
+same time to perform a religious rite) becomes a stumbling-block for
+him.(217) Thus all the laws by virtue of their divine authority--and in
+this there was in the first century no difference of opinion between Jews
+and Christians--have their spiritual side, and to neglect them implies, at
+least from the individual's own point of view, a moral offence.
+
+The legalistic attitude may be summarily described as an attempt to live
+in accordance with the will of God, caring less for what God is than for
+what He wants us to be. But, nevertheless, on the whole this life never
+degenerated into religious formalism. Apart from the fact that during the
+second temple there grew up laws, and even beliefs, which show a decided
+tendency towards progress and development, there were also ceremonies
+which were popular with the masses, and others which were neglected. Men
+were not, therefore, the mere soulless slaves of the Law; personal
+sympathies and dislikes also played a part in their religion. Nor were all
+the laws actually put upon the same level. With a happy inconsistency men
+always spoke of heavier and slighter sins, and by the latter--excepting,
+perhaps, the profanation of the Sabbath--they mostly understood ceremonial
+transgressions. The statement made by Professor Toy (p. 243), on the
+authority of James (ii. 10), that "the principle was established that he
+who offended in one point was guilty of all," is hardly correct; for the
+passage seems rather to be laying down a principle, or arguing that
+logically the law ought to be looked upon as a whole, than stating a fact.
+The fact was that people did not consider the whole law as of equal
+importance, but made a difference between laws and laws, and even spoke of
+certain commandments, such as those of charity and kindness, as
+outweighing all the rest of the Torah. It was in conformity with this
+spirit that in times of great persecution the leaders of the people had no
+compunction in reducing the whole Law to the three prohibitions of
+idolatry, of incest, and of bloodshed. Only these three were considered of
+sufficient importance that men should rather become martyrs than
+transgress them.
+
+These, then, are some of the illusions and misrepresentations which exist
+with regard to the Law. There are many others, of which the complete
+exposure would require a book by itself. Meanwhile, in the absence of such
+a book to balance and correct the innumerable volumes upon the other side,
+Professor Toy has done the best he could with existing materials, and
+produced a meritorious work deserving of wide recognition and approval.
+
+
+
+
+
+X. THE HEBREW COLLECTION OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
+
+
+The Hebrew collection in the British Museum forms one of the greatest
+centres of Jewish thought. It is only surpassed by the treasures which are
+contained in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. The fame of these magnificent
+collections has spread far and wide. It has penetrated into the remotest
+countries, and even the Bachurim (_alumni_) of some obscure place in
+Poland, who otherwise neither care nor know anything about British
+civilisation, have a dim notion of the nature of these mines of Jewish
+learning.
+
+All sorts of legends circulate amongst them about the "millions" of books
+which belong to the "Queen of England." They speak mysteriously of an
+autograph copy of the Book of Proverbs, presented to the Queen of Sheba on
+the occasion of her visit to Jerusalem, and brought by the English troops
+as a trophy from their visit to Abyssinia, which is still ruled by the
+descendants of that famous lady. They also talk of a copy of the Talmud of
+Jerusalem which once belonged to Titus, afterwards to a Pope, was
+presented by the latter to a Russian Czar, and taken away from him by the
+English in the Crimean war; of a manuscript of the book _Light is
+Sown_,(218) which is so large that no shelf can hold it, and which
+therefore hangs on iron chains. How they long to have a glance at these
+precious things! Would not a man get wiser only by looking at the
+autograph of the wisest of men?
+
+But even the students of Germany and Austria, who are inaccessible to such
+fables, and by the aid of Zedner's, Steinschneider's, and Neubauer's
+catalogues have a fair notion of our libraries, cherish the belief that
+they would gain in scholarship and wisdom by examining these grand
+collections. How often have I been asked by Jewish students abroad: "Have
+you really been to the British Museum? Have you really seen this or that
+rare book or manuscript? Had you not great difficulties in seeing them? Is
+not the place where these heaps of jewels are treasured up always crowded
+by students and visitors?"
+
+Yet how little does our English public know of these wonderful things! We
+are fairly interested in Gr�co-Roman art. We betray much curiosity about
+the different Egyptian dynasties. We look with admiration at the cuneiform
+inscriptions in the Nimrod room. We do not even grudge a glance at the
+abominable idols of the savage tribes. But as to the productions of Jewish
+genius,--well, it is best to quote here the words of Heine, who ridiculed
+this indifference to everything that is Jewish, in the following lines:--
+
+
+    Alte Mumien, ausgestopfte,
+    Pharaonen von �gypten,
+    Merowinger Schattenk�n'ge,
+    Ungepuderte Perticken,
+
+    Auch die Zopfmonarchen China's
+    Porzellanpagodenkaiser--
+    Alle lernen sie answendig,
+    Kluge M�dchen, aber, Himmel!
+
+    Fragt man sie nach grossen Namen,
+    Aus dem grossen Goldzeitalter
+    Der arabisch-althispanisch
+    J�dischen Poetenschule,
+
+    Fragt man nach dem Dreigestirn
+    Nach Jehuda ben Halevy,
+    Nach dem Salomon Gabirol
+    Und dem Moses Iben Esra.
+
+    Fragt man nach dergleichen Namen,
+    Dann mit grossen Augen schaun
+    Uns die Kleinen an--alsdann
+    Stehn am Berge die Ochsinnen.
+
+
+Now Heine goes on to advise his beloved one to study the Hebrew language.
+It would be indeed the best remedy against this indifference. But this is
+so radical a cure that one cannot hope that it will be made use of by
+many. A few remarks in English, trying to give some notion of the Hebrew
+collection in the British Museum, may, therefore, not be considered
+altogether superfluous.
+
+The Hebrew collection in the Museum may be divided into two sections:
+Printed Books, and Manuscripts. The number of the printed books amounted
+in the year 1867, in which Zedner concluded his catalogue, to 10,100
+volumes. Within the last twenty-eight years about 5000 more have been
+added.
+
+This enormous collection has grown out of very small beginnings. The
+British Museum was first opened to the public in the year 1759. Amongst
+the 500,000 volumes which it possessed at that time only a single Jewish
+work, the _editio princeps_ of the Talmud (Bomberg, Venice, 1520-1523) was
+to be found on its shelves. According to an article by Zedner in the
+_Hebr�ische Bibliographie_ (ii. p. 88), this copy of the Talmud once
+belonged to Henry VIII. But very soon the Museum was enriched by a small
+collection of Hebrew books, presented to it by Mr. Solomon da Costa,
+surnamed Athias, who had emigrated to England from Holland. The
+translation of the Hebrew letter with which the donor accompanied his
+present to the Trustees of the Museum was first published in the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_, February 1760, and was afterwards republished by
+the Rev. A. L. Green, in an article in the _Jewish Chronicle_, 1859. I
+shall only reproduce here the passage relating to the history of this
+collection. After expressing his gratitude to the "crowning city, the city
+of London, in which he dwelt for fifty-four years in ease and quietness
+and safety," and telling us that he bequeaths these books to the British
+nation as a token of his gratitude, Da Costa proceeds to say that they are
+180 books, which had been gathered and bound for Charles II., with
+valuable bindings and marked with the king's own cipher. These books were
+intended as a present from the London Jewish community to Charles for
+certain privileges which he had bestowed on them. The sudden death of the
+king seems to have frustrated the intention of the first donors. The books
+were scattered, and Da Costa had to collect them again.
+
+Small as this collection is, it is most valuable on account of its
+including many early editions of Venice, Constantinople, Naples, etc. The
+original letter of Da Costa, with a full list of the 180 books, is
+preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (Additional, 4710-11).
+
+Of still greater importance is the Michaelis collection. It consists of
+4420 volumes, and was bought by the Trustees of the Museum in 1848. Other
+successive acquisitions, especially the purchase of a large number of
+printed books from the Almanzi collection, brought the Museum into
+possession of one of the most complete and one of the largest Hebrew
+libraries in the world.
+
+After the foregoing remarks on the quantity of this collection, I shall
+now attempt to give some idea of its quality. The following table, taken
+from the Preface of Zedner's _Catalogue_, shows its manifold contents:--
+
+
+    1. Bibles, 1260
+    2. Commentaries on the Bible, 510
+    3. Talmud, 730
+    4. Commentaries on the Talmud, 700
+    5. Codes of Law, 1260
+    6. Decisions, 520
+    7. Midrash, 160
+    8. Cabbalah, 460
+    9. Sermons, 400
+    10. Liturgies, 1200
+    11. Divine Philosophy, 690
+    12. Scientific works, 180
+    13. Grammars, Dictionaries, 450
+    14. History, Geography, 320
+    15. Poetry, Criticism, 770
+
+
+The reader can see that almost every branch of human thought, religious
+and secular, is amply represented in this collection. Looking at this
+table from a geographical point of view, we may perhaps classify the
+authors in the following way:--France and Germany in the Middle Ages,
+Poland and the East in modern times, are represented by the fourth, fifth,
+and sixth classes. The Rabbis of Spain and Italy would probably excel in
+the last five classes. In the productions of classes eight and nine all
+the before-mentioned countries would have an equal share. English Judaism,
+by reason of its large number of occasional prayers and wedding hymns
+(Zedner, pp. 472, 652), may perhaps be represented in the last class
+(criticism excluded). We in England are a pious, devotional people, and
+leave the thinking to others.
+
+But what is still more welcome to the student is the fact that all these
+branches of Jewish learning are represented in the British Museum by the
+best editions. It would be a rather tedious task to enumerate here all the
+early editions of which this collection can boast. There is hardly any
+Hebrew book of importance from the Bible down to the Code of R. Joseph
+Caro of which the Museum does not possess the first printed edition. There
+are also many books and editions in the Museum of which no second copy is
+known to be in existence. An enumeration of these rare books and editions
+would require long lists, the perusal of which would be rather trying. But
+I shall say a few words to show the importance of such early editions for
+the student. They possess, first, the advantage of being free from the
+misprints which crept in with every fresh republication. The art of
+editing books in a correct and scientific way is of a very recent date.
+And even Hebrew literature does not find that support from the public
+which would enable scholars to edit Jewish books in such a way as Roman
+and Greek classics are prepared by Oxford and Cambridge students. A new
+edition of a Hebrew book meant therefore an addition of new mistakes and
+misprints. And it is only by examining the _editiones principes_ that the
+scholar finds his way out of these perplexities.
+
+Another advantage is the fact that these early editions escaped the hand
+of the censor, whose office was not introduced till a comparatively late
+date. The same advantage is also possessed by the Hebrew books published
+at Constantinople, Salonica, and other Mohammedan cities. Only Christian
+countries indulged in the barbarous pleasure of burning and disfiguring
+Jewish books. It is one of the most touching points in the life of R.
+David Oppenheim, of Prague, who spent all his life and fortune in
+collecting Hebrew works, and whose collection now forms one of the
+greatest ornaments of the Bodleian Library, that he was not allowed by the
+censor to enjoy the use of his treasures. He had to put them under the
+protection of Lipman Cohen, his father-in-law in Hanover, many hundreds of
+miles from his own home. With the exception of the Bible hardly any Jewish
+books escaped mutilation. In certain Christian countries some books were
+not allowed to be published at all; of others, again, whole chapters had
+to be omitted, while of others many passages had to be expunged. The words
+Roman, Greek, Gentile, were strictly forbidden, and had to be changed into
+Turks, Arabs, Samaritans, or worshippers of the stars and planets. One can
+imagine what confusion such stupid alterations caused. Fancy what blunders
+would have been committed in history if the old chroniclers had been
+compelled to change the Pope into the Grand Turk or the Shah of Persia,
+the Christian rulers into as many califs and pashas, or Rome and Athens
+into Pekin and Mecca!
+
+It may perhaps be interesting to learn that Jews sometimes imitated their
+bitter enemies in this work of mutilation. Thus in the later editions of
+the _Book of Genealogies_ by Abraham Zacuto,(219) a passage was left out
+reproducing the evidence given by the widow of Moses de Leon to the effect
+that the cabbalistic work, the Zohar, was a forgery manufactured by her
+poor dear husband. Another omission of this kind is to be found in the
+Code of R. Joseph Caro, mentioned above. Here the earliest editions
+declare, in the heading of section 605, "a certain religious usage" to be
+"a custom of folly." In the republications, the last three words were left
+out. From such nonsensical omissions and changes only the earliest
+editions, which are abundant in the Museum, were exempt.
+
+A remarkable feature about the books of this Hebrew collection also is
+that many of them are provided in the margin with manuscript notes by
+their former possessors. These often happen to bear very great names in
+literature. I shall only mention here R. Jacob Emden, Almanzi, Michael,
+Gerundi, and Heidenheim. Of the works written by R. Jacob Emden, the
+Museum possesses an almost complete author's copy with abundant
+corrections, notes, and emendations by the author himself. His works are
+still very popular among Polish and Russian Jews, especially his Prayer-
+Book, and his Responses. It would be advisable for publishers in these
+countries to avail themselves of this copy on the occasion of a new
+edition. Of Christian scholars I should name here Isaac Casaubon. A rather
+amusing mistake occurs in Ben-Jacob's _Treasure of Books_ in connection
+with this name. Among the many valuable copies of Kimchi's grammatical
+work _Perfection_,(220) possessed by the Museum, there is included one
+which belonged to Casaubon, and is full of notes by him. The author of the
+_Treasure_ speaks of a _Perfection_ with notes by Rabbi Yitzchak Kasuban.
+I was at first at a loss to guess who that Rabbi Casaubon might be. When
+examining Zedner I found it was no other than the famous Christian
+scholar, Isaac Casaubon. It is not known that Casaubon's ambition lay in
+this direction. But when Philo was regarded as a Father of the Church, Ben
+Gabirol quoted for many centuries as a Mohammedan philosopher, why should
+not Casaubon obtain for once the dignity of a Rabbi?
+
+After having given the reader some notion of the collection of printed
+works, I should like now to invite him to accompany me through the
+Manuscript Department of the Museum. But I am afraid that I shall make a
+bad guide here; for the Museum is still without a descriptive catalogue of
+the Hebrew manuscripts, which is the only means of enabling the student to
+obtain a general view of the number and nature of these works. The
+manuscript catalogue of Dukes goes only as far as 1856. It was, as we
+shall soon see, just after this time that the Museum made its largest and,
+to a certain degree also, its most valuable acquisitions in Hebrew
+manuscripts. The following remarks must, therefore, not be taken as the
+result of a systematic study of this collection, which would be quite
+impossible without the aid of a catalogue. They rest partly on the
+descriptions given of a certain number of manuscripts in the catalogue by
+Dukes, but for the greater part on occasional glances at this or that MS.
+
+As to the history of the collection, it has grown out of small beginnings
+just as that of printed books. The collection of Dr. Sloane, which laid
+the foundation of the Museum Library, contained only nine Hebrew MSS.
+Later acquisitions, as the Harleian collection, the Cottonian collection,
+the Royal collection, and many other smaller collections marked as
+Additional up to 1854, increased the number of the Hebrew manuscripts to
+232. Of much more importance was the Almanzi collection, bought by the
+trustees of the Museum in 1865, and consisting of 335 MSS. Of succeeding
+acquisitions I shall mention here only the Yemen MSS., which were brought
+to this country by the famous Shapira. The number of Hebrew MSS. at the
+present day is said to exceed one thousand. But we must not forget that
+many MSS. contain more than one work; in some cases even three or four, so
+that the number of Hebrew works is far greater still.
+
+I shall now speak of the nature and importance of these MSS. As to their
+contents they may be easily grouped under the following headings: Biblical
+MSS., Commentaries (to the Bible) and Super-Commentaries, parts of the
+Talmud and their Commentaries, Theology, Philosophy and Ethics, Massorah,
+Grammar and Lexicography, Cabbalah, Poetry, Mathematics, Astronomy,
+Astrology and Magic, Historical and Polemical Literature, etc. All these
+branches of theological and secular learning and even of human folly are
+fairly represented in the collection of Hebrew MSS. in the Museum, though
+often only by a part or a fragment of a work.
+
+Thus the Babylonian Talmud is to be found only in two MSS. (Harl. 5508 and
+Add. 25,717) both of them including 11 Tractates, hardly a third part of
+the whole work. Indeed poor "Rabbinus Talmud" had to go to the _auto de
+f�_ on so many occasions that one cannot wonder if only disjointed limbs
+are to be found of him in libraries. The only complete MS. copy which
+escaped this vandalism is that in the Royal Library in Munich, from which
+Mr. Rabbinowicz has edited his monumental work, _Variae Lectiones of the
+Talmud_.
+
+All other libraries, Oxford included, have to be satisfied with fragments.
+Still worse, as it is seen, fared the Jerusalem Talmud, and excepting the
+well-known copy in Leyden from which the Venice edition was prepared, not
+even fragments of this Talmud are to be found in the majority of
+libraries. To my knowledge it is only the British Museum which can boast
+of the Jerusalem Talmud in MS. extending over _Order of Seeds_ and one
+tractate of _Order of Festivals_(221) (Or. 2122-24) with commentaries of
+R. Solomon Syrillo, the first few pages of which were edited by Dr.
+Lehmann of Mayence. The Museum also possesses a great part of the Tosephta
+extending over 14 Tractates (Add. 27,296). Of Midrashim we find in the
+Museum two excellent manuscripts of the Genesis _Rabbah_, one of the
+Leviticus _Rabbah_, and one of the _Siphra_ and the _Siphr�_ (Add. 27,169
+and 16,406), besides two copies of the Midrash _Haggadol_ and other
+Aagadic collections brought from Yemen. The _Midrash_ by Machir b. Abba
+Mari to the minor prophets included in the Harleian collection (5704) is
+unique. Of Liturgies, besides a great number of MSS. representing the most
+peculiar rites, I shall mention the Machzor(222) Vitri (Add. 27,200-1)
+composed by the disciples of R. Solomon b. Isaac, and forming in itself
+almost a small library. For, apart from the prayers for festivals and week
+days which gave it its title, it includes, besides the _Sayings of the
+Fathers_ with a large commentary, three of the Minor Tractates of the
+Talmud, many responses by German and French Rabbis, and a whole series of
+religious hymns by German and Spanish authors, and many other literary
+pieces. Cabbalah is represented by various valuable writings of the pre-
+Zoharistic time (see for instance Add. 15,299) and the works of R. Moses
+de Leon and R. Abraham Abulafia. Of Poetry, I shall point here to the
+Tarshish of R. Moses Ibn Ezra, the Makames by Judah Al Charisi (Add.
+27,122), and the Divan of R. Abraham of Bedres (Add. 27,188). Of works
+relating to grammar and lexicography, I may refer to a Codex (Add. 27,214)
+which contains the lexicon of R. Menahem ben Saruk, which is considered as
+the oldest Hebrew MS. in the Museum, dating from the year 1091. Of
+historical works, I mention the chronicle of R. Joseph the Priest (Add.
+27,122) and the letter of R. Sherira Gaon (Arundel 51), the oldest
+existing copy of this work (1189), which was edited by Dr. Neubauer in his
+_Medi�val Jewish Chronicles_.
+
+These examples will suffice to show the significance of the MSS.
+collection of this Library. And the student may rest assured that in
+whatever branch of Jewish thought he is interested, he will always find in
+the Museum some Hebrew manuscript useful for his purpose.
+
+I ought now to say a few words as to the value of this collection of
+manuscripts. Now, if the work contained in a MS. has never been edited, as
+for instance the Machzor Vitri(223) and so many others, its value is
+established by the mere fact of its existence. For those who published
+MSS. were not always guided by the best literary motives. And while they
+published and republished many books of which one edition would have been
+more than enough, many other works of the greatest importance for Jewish
+literature and history remained in manuscript. As an instance, it will
+suffice to mention here the Zohar, which has passed through twenty-four
+editions since the sixteenth century, whilst the earliest Jewish Midrash,
+the _Pessikta de Rab Kahana_, had to linger in the libraries till the year
+1868, when it was edited by Mr. S. Buber. Thus there are still many pearls
+of Jewish literature which exist only in MS. Likewise most publishers were
+careless in their choice of the manuscript from which our editions have
+been prepared. Almost the whole of Jewish literature will have to be re-
+edited before a scientific study of it will be possible. But such critical
+editions can only be obtained by the aid of the MSS. not yet made use of,
+in which better readings are to be found. From this fact even those MSS.
+the contents of which have been several times reprinted, as for instance
+the MSS. of the Midrash _Rabbah_, gain the greatest literary importance.
+And the more MSS. the editor of a work has at his disposal, the more
+certain is he of being able to furnish us with a good text.
+
+But even when the whole of Jewish literature lies before the student in
+the best of texts, there will still remain a great charm about
+manuscripts. Printed books, like the great mass of the modern society for
+which they are prepared, are devoid of any originality. They interest us
+only as classes, and it is very seldom that they have a story of their own
+to tell. It is quite different with manuscripts, where the fact of their
+having been produced by a living being invests them with a certain kind of
+individuality. This is specially the case with Hebrew MSS., which were not
+copied by men shut up in cloisters, but by sociable people living in the
+world and sharing its joys and sorrows. Even women were employed in this
+art, and I remember to have read in some MS. or catalogue a postscript by
+the lady copyist, which, if I remember rightly, ran as follows: "I beseech
+the reader not to judge me very harshly when he finds that mistakes have
+crept into this work; for when I was engaged in copying it God blessed me
+with a son, and thus I could not attend to my business properly."
+
+To be sure, some of these copyists were curious folk. Their mind as well
+as that of the world around them must have been of a peculiar constitution
+hardly conceivable to us. Take, for example, Benjamin, the copyist of a
+certain Machzor in the Museum (Add. 11,639). This Machzor was written in
+times of bitter persecution. The copyist, who was himself a learned man,
+alludes in one place to the sufferings which the Jews in a certain French
+town had to undergo in the year 1276. On one of them, the martyr R.
+Samson, Benjamin the copyist composed a lamentation written in a most
+mournful strain. But this lamentation is followed by a wine-song, one of
+the jolliest and wildest parodies for the feast of Purim.
+
+Speaking of this Machzor I should like to remark that it forms one of the
+greatest ornaments of the Museum. Besides including the whole of the
+Pentateuch, the above-mentioned Tarshish by R. Moses Ibn Ezra, and many
+other smaller literary pieces which would require a small volume to
+describe them properly, this MS. is most richly illuminated, and contains
+very many illustrations. The subjects of these illustrations are biblical,
+sometimes also apocryphal, such as--Adam and Eve in Paradise, Noah in the
+Ark, Abraham meeting the angels, Sarah behind the door listening to the
+conversation of her husband with his guests, Moses with the rod in his
+hands dividing the Red Sea, Samson riding on the back of a lion, Solomon
+on his throne, Daniel in the lion's den, the king Ahasuerus holding out
+the golden sceptre to Esther, Judith addressing Holofernes, the Leviathan,
+the mythical bird Bar Yochni, and many other similar subjects. In passing
+I recommend these illustrations and illuminations to the attention of the
+artist as the most worthy examples of Jewish ecclesiastical art,--if there
+is such a thing as a special Jewish art. The artist will find the Museum
+best suited for this purpose, its collection being considered as the
+richest of the kind. Besides this Machzor I must also allude to the
+illuminated Bible (Or. 2226-28) written in Lisbon for R. Judah Alchakin--it
+is said to be one of the finest specimens of such works--and the
+illuminated Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, executed for R. Joseph of the
+famous Yachya family, also thought to be most artistically done. The
+liturgies for the Passover Eve service will also offer to the artist a
+rich harvest, especially Codex, Add. 27,210, which the wealthy Lady Rosa
+Galico presented to her son-in-law on his wedding-day, and Codex, Add.
+14,762, even the binding of which is considered as an artistic curiosity.
+
+Leaving now these marvels to the appreciation of the artist, the greatest
+wonder which suggests itself to us is how the Jews could maintain such a
+cultured taste in such unhappy times, and get the means of satisfying it.
+These reflections about the owners present themselves the more strongly to
+our mind when we meet with one of those old Jewish prayer-books, which in
+many cases formed the whole religious and literary treasure of the family.
+In their fly-leaves, in which the births and deaths of successive
+generations are very often registered, the _spiritus familiaris_ seems to
+be still haunting the pages. When you turn them over and see the service
+for Passover Eve, are you not bound to think of the anxiety with which
+these poor creatures engaged in this ceremony lest they might be attacked
+suddenly by a fanatic mob? must you not ask how they could bear life under
+such circumstances? And when you turn a few more pages and arrive at the
+prayers read for the dead, must you not ask how did they die? Were they
+perhaps burnt alive _ad majorem Dei gloriam_, or torn to pieces by a
+"saintly mob"? Take again the illuminated copies of the Bible and the
+Mishneh Torah, both of which were finished only a few years before the
+great expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal, times when the earth
+already "burnt under their feet, and the heaven was also very unkind to
+them." And nevertheless Jews were still, as these MSS. show us,
+cultivating science and art. Another instance of such a devotion to
+science in spite of the unfavourable times may be seen from a colophon to
+Codex Or. 39. It contains the book _Nissim_, a philosophical treatise on
+the fundamental teachings of Judaism, together with a philosophical
+commentary on the Pentateuch by R. Nissim of Marseilles, a contemporary of
+R. Solomon ben Adereth in the thirteenth century. The Museum copy was
+written by R. Jacob, the son of David, who also added some annotations to
+the book. At the end he says: "I have copied this book _Nissim_ for my own
+use, that I may study in it, I and my children and my grandchildren.... I
+have finished it to-day, Sunday, the 28th of Ab, 5333 (1573), at Venice,
+in the year of the expulsion which befell us on account of our sins." Now,
+only observe this poor R. Jacob, who has to go through all these horrors,
+yet is still occupied in copying MSS. for his own pleasure, and in
+meditating on the most complicated problems of philosophy and religion.
+
+But it is not always stories of this heroic nature that the MSS. tell us.
+They betray also very much of the instability of human affairs and their
+weakness. You find in many copies the words that they must not "be sold or
+given in mortgage." But scarcely a generation has passed away, and they
+are already in the possession of a new owner, who writes the same
+injunction to be broken again by his children in their turn. In Codex
+27,122, we find commendatory letters for a worthy poor man, who is so
+unhappy as to have two grown-up daughters, and not to have the means of
+supplying them with marriage portions. Indeed, he must have been very
+poor, not possessing even a book in his house, or else his troubles could
+not have been so great. For in Codex Harl. 5702, we find the owner saying:
+"To eternal memory that I have acquired this _Third Book of Avicena_ from
+the hands of my father-in-law, R. Jekuthiel, as a part of my dowry."
+
+As a sign of human weakness I give the following two instances. There lies
+before me a cabbalistic Codex (Add. 27,199), which acquired some notoriety
+from the fact of its having been copied by the famous grammarian, R.
+Elijah Levita, for his pupil Cardinal Aegidius. At the end of this MS. we
+read: "I (Levita) have finished (the copying of) this book on Wednesday,
+the day of Hoshana Rabba,(224) 5277 (1516), on which day I have seen my
+head in the shadow of the moon. Praised be God (for it), for now I am sure
+not to die in the following year." These words relate to a well-known
+superstition, according to which, when a man is going to die in the course
+of the next year his shadow disappears from him on the preceding Hoshana
+Rabba. But is it not humiliating to see that the great Levita, who was
+superior to many prejudices of his time, and taught Christians Hebrew, and
+who denied the antiquity of the vowels in the Bible, which was considered
+by the great majority of his contemporaries as a mortal heresy--is it not
+humiliating to see this enlightened man trembling for his life on this
+night, and anxiously observing his shadow? Another Codex lies before me
+(Add. 17,053), containing the Novell� to three tractates of the Talmud.
+Its owner must accordingly have been a learned man. But in the fly-leaf of
+this MS. we read the following words: "Memorandum--Thursday, the 25th of
+Sivan, 5295 (1535), I have taken an oath in the presence of R. David Ibn
+Shushan and R. Moses de Castro, etc., not to play (cards) any more." I
+might perhaps suggest on this occasion that in our days when all sorts of
+Judaisms are circulating, a cooking Judaism, a racing Judaism, a muscular
+Judaism, and so many Judaisms more--it would be interesting to take up also
+the subject of playing Judaism, and to write its history.
+
+In conclusion I shall mention the colophon to Codex Harl. 5713, which may
+have some interest for the English reader. It runs: "I have written it in
+honour of the noble and pious, etc., Humphrey Wanley, the noble Librarian
+of my Lord Treasurer. May his glory be increased. In the year 5474 (1714)
+in the holy community of London, under the reign of the noble and happy
+Queen Anne. May the Lord increase her splendour and glory." The signature
+of the copyist is "Aaron the son of Moses, born in the city of Navaschadok
+in Poland." By the way, we learn from this signature that the immigration
+of Polish Jews into this country had already begun in the time of Queen
+Anne, and perhaps still earlier.
+
+Thus everything in a MS., the arrangement of the matter, the remarks of
+the owners, the signature of the copyist, sets the reader thinking, and
+contributes many a side-light to the history of the Jews.
+
+
+
+
+
+XI. TITLES OF JEWISH BOOKS
+
+
+It is now more than half a century since Isaac Reggio in his edition of
+Elijah Delmedigo's _Examination of Religion_, made the remark that this
+book adds to its other merits that of bearing a title corresponding to its
+contents,--a merit that is very rare in Jewish books. Reggio proceeds to
+give a few specimens confirming his assertion, and concludes his remarks
+with a eulogy on Delmedigo, who in this respect also had the courage to
+differ from his contemporaries. Zunz also once wrote an article on titles
+of books. But this article unfortunately appeared in some German
+periodical which the British Museum does not possess, and I could not even
+succeed in ascertaining whether Zunz treats at all of titles of Hebrew
+books, nor am I aware that the subject has been taken up by any other
+scholar, Isaac D'Israeli's few notes on the subject in his _Curiosities of
+Literature_ being scarcely worth mention. It seems to me, however,
+interesting enough to deserve some illustration, though I can by no means
+hope to be complete.
+
+The titles of the books contained in the Bible need not be discussed here;
+information concerning them is to be found in every critical introduction
+to the Old Testament. The Rabbinical works dating from antiquity also
+offer little opportunity for reflection on their titles. The Talmud, as a
+work, has no title at all; for Talmud simply means "teaching" or "study."
+Sometimes it is termed ShaSS, an abbreviation of _Shisha Sedarim_,(225)
+meaning the Six Orders or divisions contained in the Mishnah. This last
+word means, according to some authors, "Repetition." Other Tannaitic
+collections of laws or expositions of the Scriptures are called "the Book"
+(Siphra), "the Books" (Siphr�), or "Additions" (Tosephta to the Mishnah).
+The word _Baraitha_(226) means the external Mishnah that enjoyed less
+authority than the Mishnah of R. Judah the Patriarch. Some approach to
+titles we find in the names given to the different tractates included in
+the Mishnah, as _Berachoth_, because it treats of Benedictions,
+_Peah_(227) (Corner) which contains the particulars concerning the law in
+Lev. xix. and so forth. Of the few works quoted in the Talmud it will
+suffice to mention the _Seder Olam_, the Order of the World, the name of
+which is very suitable to the chronological contents of the book. In
+general, I may observe that as long as the law which prohibited the
+writing down of the Oral teachings was in force, there hardly existed
+Jewish books. But where there are no books there is also no need for
+titles. The few titles, however, which can be proved to be historical are
+simple and to the point. It is not till about the beginning of the Middle
+Ages, when this prohibitive law had, for reasons not to be explained here,
+been abolished, that we can speak of Hebrew books. But here also the
+Title-confusion begins.
+
+In order that we may have some general view of the thousands of titles
+that are catalogued by the Jewish bibliographers, it will perhaps be well
+to arrange them under the following six classes:--
+
+I. _Simple titles_, that have no other object than that of indicating the
+subject matter of the book. These are, as we have just seen, the only kind
+of titles known to antiquity. The few books which the Gaonim left us bear
+such simple titles as could have served as models to later generations.
+Among them may be mentioned the _Halachoth_ or collection of Laws, _Creeds
+and Opinions_, by R. Saadiah Gaon, the _Book on Buying and Selling_, by R.
+Hai Gaon, containing the laws relating to commercial transactions. It may
+be noticed that this last book is one of the best arranged in Jewish
+literature, and displays more systematising powers than even the Code of
+Maimonides. The greatest part of the literary activity of the Gaonim
+consists in their Responsa, in which they gave decisions on ritual
+questions, or explanations of difficult passages in the Talmud. The titles
+borne by the various collections of those Responsa belong to a period
+later than the author's. The great majority of the books produced by the
+Franco-German school may also be included in this class. They are termed
+"Commentaries," "Additions" or "Glosses," "Novell�," or "Confirming
+Proofs," and similar modest titles which show both their relation to, and
+dependence on, another older authority. The largest collection of
+Midrashim we possess bears the simple title "Bag."(228) Many of the
+Responsa satisfy themselves with the words "Questions to, and Answers by."
+
+II. _Titles taken from the first word with which the book begins_, or from
+the first word of the Scriptural verse occurring first in the book. This
+class is strongly represented by the Midrashim. Thus the Midrash to the
+Song of Songs is also quoted as the Midrash _Chazitha_,(229) "Midrash,
+Seest thou" (the first text with which this Midrash deals being Proverbs
+xxii. 28). The Midrash to the Psalms is called Midrash _Shocher Tob_,(230)
+"Midrash, He that diligently seeketh the good" (Prov. xi. 37). The Midrash
+containing the legendary story of the wars of the sons of Jacob with the
+Canaanites is quoted as Midrash _V'yisseu_,(231) "Midrash, And they
+journeyed," as the story begins with the verse from Gen. xxxv. 5. And this
+is the case with the titles of many other Midrashim. Whether the work
+cited under the strange name of _Meat on Coals_ did not begin with those
+words, containing some law relating to the salting of meat, I do not
+venture to decide. Under this class we may also arrange those books that
+are called after a phrase which is often used in the book, _e.g._, the
+Midrash _Yelamdenu_ (He may teach us), or the _Vehizhir_, "And He
+commanded us," almost every paragraph in these books beginning with the
+phrases mentioned.(232) Probably all the books belonging to this class
+received from the hands of their authors or compilers no titles at all.
+The student who had to quote them gave them names after the phrase or word
+which first caught his eye. In later centuries this class disappears
+almost entirely (see, however, Ben-Jacob's _Treasure_, p. 201, No. 827).
+
+III. _Pompous titles._ The largest contributions to this class were made
+by the mystical writers. Books which profess to know what is going on in
+the heavens above and the earth beneath cannot possibly be satisfied with
+modest titles. Thus we have the "Book of Brightness" (Zohar), "the shining
+book" (Bahir), "the Confidential Shepherd" (Moses).(233) The books which
+the Zohar quotes bear such titles as the Book of Adam, the Book of Enoch.
+The only excuse for the Zohar is that the manufacturing of such books with
+pseudo-epigraphical titles had already begun in antiquity. It is not,
+however, till the Gaonic period that a whole apocryphal literature
+suddenly emerges which perplexes the Gaonim themselves. No one is spared.
+Angels, patriarchs, and martyrs are called upon to lend their names to
+these books. What one resents most is that history came within the range
+of the forger's activity. There is, for instance, the Josippon, which
+professes to be written by Josephus, the well-known Jewish historian of
+the first century. But in spite of all the care taken by the author to
+disguise himself in the garb of antiquity, the Josippon is a forgery of
+the ninth or tenth century. Of a similar kind is the Book of Jasher,
+containing legendary stories relating to Biblical personages. It pretends
+to be identical with the Book of Jasher quoted in Joshua x. 13 and 2 Sam.
+i. 18. Some sixty years ago a certain Mr. Samuel of Liverpool had the
+misfortune to make himself ridiculous by maintaining the pretensions of
+this book; for, indeed, it does not require much knowledge of the Agadic
+literature to see that the Book of Jasher is only a compilation of
+comparatively late Midrashim.
+
+IV. _Titles suggested by other Titles._ As an instance of this we may take
+Maimonides' great Code of Law, which bears the title _Mishneh Torah_. The
+importance of the book made it the object of study for hundreds of
+scholars, who wrote their commentaries and glosses on it. Among the titles
+of the commentaries such Title-genealogies may be discovered as Maggid
+_Mishneh_, _Mishneh_ Lammelech; which last word again suggested such
+titles as Emek ha-_Melech_, Shaar ha-_Melech_, and so on.(234)
+
+The same process may be observed in other standard works, the importance
+of which made them a subject of investigation and interpretation as the
+"Prepared Table," one of the glosses to which is called _Mappah_,
+"Tablecloth," whilst others provided it with the _Shewbread_ and with _New
+Fruit_.
+
+V. _Euphemistic Titles_, as "The Tractate of Joys," treating of funeral
+ceremonies and kindred subjects. It does not seem that this title was
+known to antiquity, but it is certain that already the earlier authorities
+quoted it by this name. "The Book of Life" (the German Jewish title of
+which is _Alle Dinim, von Freuden_), is the name of a very popular book
+containing the prayers to be read in the house of mourning as well as in
+the cemetery, which is also called the House of Life.
+
+VI. _Titles taken from the Bible_, or Fancy Titles. This is the largest
+class of all, though it was utterly unknown in antiquity. It will be,
+perhaps, convenient to arrange this class of titles under the following
+sub-divisions. (_a_) Titles taken from the Bible, but also fulfilling the
+purpose of indicating the name of the author. For instance, "Seed of
+Abraham" (Ps. cv. 6), is the title of nine different books, the name of
+whose authors happened to be Abraham; "And Isaac entreated" (Gen. xxv.
+21), is by Isaac Satanow on the Prayers; "Then Isaac sowed" (_ibid._ xxvi.
+12), edited by R. Isaac Perles, contains an index to the Zohar. "Jacob
+shall take root" (Is. xxvii. 6) is the name of a book on Grammar and
+Massorah by R. Jacob Bassani. R. Joseph of Posen left two collections of
+sermons and commentaries on the Pentateuch, of which the one is called
+"And Joseph nourished" (Gen. xlvii. 12), the other "And Joseph gathered"
+(_ibid._ 14). Authors with the name of Judah are represented among others
+by such titles as "And this of Judah" (Deut. xxxiii.7), a treatise on the
+laws concerning the killing of animals; or "Judah shall go up" (Judges i.
+2), a pamphlet containing a collection of prayers to be said on a journey.
+"Moses began" (Deut. i. 5) forms the title of three different books on
+various subjects, the authors of which had the name Moses. "Moses shall
+rejoice," a phrase occurring in the morning prayer for Sabbaths, is also
+the title of two books, the authors of which were named Moses. The "Rod of
+Aaron" enjoyed, as it seems, a goodly popularity; there are four bearing
+this name, not to speak of a fifth, "The Rod of Aaron brought forth buds"
+(Exod. xvii. 23), which is the name of a collection of Responsa by R.
+Aaron ben Chayim. But other Rods also were fashionable; there are, besides
+the five Rods of Moses, also Rods of Ephraim, Dan, Judah, Joseph,
+Naphtali, and Manasseh. By authors of the name of David we find books with
+the title "And David said," or a "Prayer of David," and other phrases
+occurring in the Psalms relating to David; whilst the "Tower of David"
+became the stronghold of other writers, and the "Shield of David"
+protected as many as nine more. The "Chariot of Solomon" (Cant. iii. 9)
+adorns the title-pages of five books by authors named Solomon. The Caraite
+Solomon Troki was so fond of that title that he called his two polemical
+treatises "He made himself a chariot," while R. Solomon of Mir's
+collection of sermons has the title, "This Bed which is Solomon's" (Cant.
+iii. 7). As to family names, there were not many authors in the enjoyment
+of that luxury (especially among the German Jews), but we find them
+indicating the fact of their being Priests or Levites. Among such books
+are the collection of Responsa, by R. Raphael Cohen, which has the title
+"And the Priest shall come again" (Lev. xiv. 39), and the Cabbalistic
+treatise by R. Abraham Cohen, of Lask, with the title "And the Priest
+shall reckon unto him" (Lev. xxvii. 18). Probably the author deals with
+numbers. R. Hirsch Horwitz, the Levite, called his Novell� to the Talmud
+"The Camp of Levi." The title "The Service of the Levite" (with allusion
+to Exodus xxxviii. 21) is borne by five other books by authors who were
+Levites. And there may be found hundreds of books with titles suggesting
+the Priestly or Levitical descent of their authors. Most anxious is Joseph
+Ibn Kaspi (Joseph the Silvern, so called after his native place
+Argenti�re, in the south of France) to provide most of his numerous books
+with some Biblical titles combined with silver, as a "Bowl of Silver"
+(Numb. vii. 13), or "Points of Silver" (Song of Songs i. 11), or "Figures
+of Silver" (Prov. xxv. 10), and other similar phrases. On the other hand
+Azulai manages to indicate at least one of his three Hebrew names, Chayim
+Joseph David, in most of his works, of which the number exceeds seventy,
+as Chayim Shaal,(235) "He asked Life" (Ps. xxi. 4), or "The knees of
+Joseph" (alluding to Gen. xlviii. 12), and "Truth unto David" (Ps. cxxxii.
+11).
+
+(_b_) The Tabernacle with its furniture was also a great favourite with
+many authors. There are not only six tabernacles (two on Cabbalah, two on
+grammar, and two on Talmudical subjects), but also three "Arks of the
+Testimony," two "Altars of gold," two "Tables of Shewbread," four
+"Candlesticks of the Light," two "Sockets of Silver," and two "Pillars of
+Silver." Others again preferred the vestments of the priests as the "Plate
+of Judgment," the "Robe of the Ephod," the "Mitre of Aaron," the "Plate of
+Gold," the "Bell and Pomegranate," "Wreathen Chains," and the "Arches of
+Gold." Many of these books were written by authors claiming to be priests.
+(_c_) But besides the canonical, other costumes were also fashionable. R.
+Mordecai Yafeh composed ten books, every one of them bearing the name of
+some garment or apparel, as "Apparel of Royalty," "Apparel of Blue,"
+"Apparel of White," and so the whole suit with which Mordecai went out
+from the presence of the king (Esther viii. 15). These ten works range
+from codifications of the law and occasional sermons to philosophy,
+astronomy, and Cabbalah. By other writers we have three "Coats of many
+colours" (Gen. xxxvii. 4), one "Bridal Attire," and the "Thread of
+Scarlet" is not missing. (_d_) The ingredients for incense as well as
+other articles used in the Tabernacle or in the Temple were also fancied
+by some authors, and we have two books with the title of "Principal
+Spices," two "Pure Myrrh," three "Arts of the Apothecary," one "Oil of
+Holy Ointment," five "Meat Offerings mingled or dry," three or four "Flour
+of the Meat Offering," and also one "Two Young Pigeons" (Bene Yonah) by R.
+Jonah Zandsopher. But the appetite of the authors did not stop at these
+holy things. It extended also to such lay articles as "Spiced Wine,"
+"Juice of Pomegranate" (Cant. viii. 2), "Forests of Honey," the "Book of
+the Apple," and "Seven Kinds of Drink."
+
+(_e_) Field and flock also suggested to Hebrew writers as well as to Mr.
+Ruskin such titles as "The Fruit of the Hand," the "Rose of Sharon," the
+"Lily of the Valleys," or "The Shepherds' Tents," and "In the Green
+Pastures" (Ps. xxiii. 2).
+
+The specimens given for every class may with very little trouble be
+doubled and redoubled. But it is not my intention to reproduce here whole
+catalogues. Reggio thinks all such titles, which do not correspond with
+the context of the book, absurd and confusing. He suggests that the Jews
+followed in this respect the Arabic writers. There is no doubt that Reggio
+is not altogether wrong in his complaint. Almost all the titles included
+in class vi., as the reader might have observed, never indicate to the
+student the subject of which the books treat. How can one guess that the
+Responsa, the Dance of Mahanaim (two companies), is of a polemical nature
+against the tendencies of reform? This list may be lengthened by hundreds
+of titles. But even these incomprehensible titles are better than the
+_Chad Gadyah Lo Israel_ (One Kid No Israel),(236) the un-Hebrew title of a
+pamphlet trying to prove the un-Jewish origin of the well-known folk-song
+sung on Passover Eve. But, on the other hand, it must not be overlooked
+that even this class has, though not always, something suggestive and even
+practical about it. The "Choice of Pearls" is undoubtedly more attractive
+than the prosaic "Collection of Proverbs and Sayings," which is what the
+book contains. "Understanding of the Seasons" (1 Chr. xii. 32), sounds
+also better than the simple "Collection of Sermons on different
+occasions." "The Lips of those who Sleep" recommends itself as a very
+suggestive title for a catalogue, especially when one thinks of the Agadic
+explanation given to Cant. vii. 10, according to which the study of the
+book of a departed author makes the lips of the dead man to speak. Such
+titles as "Bunch of Lilies" for a collection of poems are still usual with
+us. Such a title as the "Jealousy Offering," or the "Law of Jealousies,"
+in polemical literature is very appropriate for its subject. R. Jacob
+Emden, who named one of his pamphlets "Rod for the fool's back" (Prov.
+xxvi. 3), will be envied for his choice by many a controversialist even
+to-day. Wittily devised is the pun-title, "City of Sihon" for a
+mathematical book by R. Joseph Tsarphathi, alluding to Numb. xxi. 27, "For
+Hesbon (reckoning) is the City of Sihon."
+
+Other titles were probably intended more as mottoes than titles. "Go forth
+and behold, ye daughters of Zion" (Cant. iii. 11), is put in the title-
+page of R. Jacob's German-Jewish paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which was
+written chiefly for the use of ladies. "Let another man praise thee and
+not thine own mouth, a stranger and not thine own lips" (Prov. xxvii. 2),
+forms the title of a book extending over only one and a half page in
+quarto. It contains letters by seven Rabbis (among them R. Liva of Prague)
+recommending the Ascetic, R. Abraham Wangos, who has a daughter to marry,
+and wants also to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, as deserving the
+support of his brethren.
+
+There is also another objection to these titles. It is that they seem
+sometimes not quite consonant with our notions of modesty. Thus we have
+"Desirable and Sweet" on astronomy, "Sweeter than Honey" or "He shall
+comfort us," and many others of this kind. But it must not be thought that
+we have a right to infer from the title to the author. There is, indeed,
+an anecdote that three authors were rather too little careful about the
+choice of their titles, namely Maimonides in calling his Code _Mishneh
+Torah_ (which is the traditional title of the Book of Deuteronomy), R.
+Moses Alshech in calling his homiletical commentaries _Torah_ of Moses,
+and R. Isaiah Horwitz in calling his book _Shene Luchoth ha-Berith_ (The
+Two Tables of the Covenant). These authors, as the story goes, had for
+their punishment that their works are never quoted by the titles they gave
+to them, the former two being usually cited as Rambam or Alshech, whilst
+the last is more known by its abbreviated title of SHeLa(237) than by its
+full name.
+
+I do not remember where I have read this story, but I am quite sure that
+its pious author would have been more careful about repeating it had he
+known that this accusation against Maimonides was a favourite topic with
+apostates, who thought to hit Judaism in the person of its representative
+Maimonides. But, as R. Solomon Duran in his polemical work remarks,
+Maimonides was too much of a truly great man to find any satisfaction in
+such petty vanity. Nor do I believe that even the character of less-known
+authors can in any way be impugned by the seemingly conceited titles of
+their books; just as on the other hand the humility of the author is not
+proved by calling his book "The Offering of the Poor," or other modest
+titles. The fancy title was in common use, and was therefore a commonplace
+with no significance whatever. The real disadvantage of such titles lies
+in the fact that, as already pointed out, they conceal from the student
+the contents of the book which he might otherwise consult in the course of
+his researches.
+
+Did these authors perhaps foresee that there would come a time in which
+index-knowledge would pass for deep scholarship? and did they thus by
+using these obscure titles try to put a check on the dabblers who speak
+the more of a book the less they have read of its contents? If this be the
+case we can only admire their foresight.
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. THE CHILD IN JEWISH LITERATURE
+
+
+"I saw a Jewish lady only yesterday with a child at her knee, and from
+whose face towards the child there shone a sweetness so angelical that it
+seemed to form a sort of glory round both. I protest I could have knelt
+before her, too, and adored in her the divine beneficence in endowing us
+with the maternal _storg�_ which began with our race and sanctifies the
+history of mankind." These words, which are taken from Thackeray's
+_Pendennis_, may serve as a starting-point for this paper. The fact that
+the great student of man perceived this glory just round the head of a
+Jewish lady rouses in me the hope that the small student of letters may,
+with a little search, be able to discover in the remains of our past many
+similar traces of this divine beneficence and sanctifying sentiment.
+Certainly the glimpses which we shall catch from the faded leaves of
+ancient volumes, dating from bygone times, will not be so bright as those
+which the novelist was so fortunate as to catch from the face of a lady
+whom he saw but the previous day. The mothers and fathers, about whom I am
+going to write in this essay, have gone long ago, and the objects of their
+anxiety and troubles have also long ago vanished. But what the subject
+will lose in brightness, it may perhaps gain in reality and intensity. A
+few moments of enraptured devotion do not make up the saint. It is a whole
+series of feelings and sentiments betrayed on different occasions,
+expressed in different ways, a whole life of sore troubles, of bitter
+disappointments, but also moments of most elevated joys and real
+happiness.
+
+And surely these manifestations of the divine beneficence, which appear in
+their brightest glory in the literature of every nation when dealing with
+the child, shine strongest in the literature of the Jewish nation. In it,
+to possess a child was always considered as the greatest blessing God
+could bestow on man, and to miss it as the greatest curse. The patriarch
+Abraham, with whom Israel enters into history, complains--"Oh Lord, what
+wilt Thou give me, seeing I go childless!"
+
+The Rabbis regarded the childless man as dead, whilst the Cabbalist in the
+Middle Ages thought of him who died without posterity as of one who had
+failed in his mission in this world, so that he would have to appear again
+on our planet to fulfil this duty. To trace out the feelings which
+accompanied the object of their greatest anxiety, to let them pass before
+the reader in some way approaching to a chronological order, to draw
+attention to some points more worthy of being emphasised than others, is
+the aim of this essay.
+
+I said that I propose to treat the subject in chronological order. I meant
+by this that I shall follow the child in the different stages through
+which it has to pass from its birth until it ceases to be a child and
+attains its majority. This latter period is the beginning of the
+thirteenth year in the case of a female, and the beginning of the
+fourteenth year in the case of a male. I shall have occasion later on to
+examine this point more closely.
+
+But there is the embryo-period which forms a kind of preliminary stage in
+the life of the child, and plays a very important part in the region of
+Jewish legends. Human imagination always occupies itself most with the
+things of which we know least. And so it got hold of this semi-existence
+of man, the least accessible to experience and observation, and surrounded
+it by a whole cycle of legends and stories. They are too numerous to be
+related here. But I shall hint at a few points which I regard as the most
+conspicuous features of these legends.
+
+These legends are chiefly based on the notion of the pre-existence of the
+soul on the one hand, but on the other hand they are a vivid illustration
+of the saying of the Fathers, "Thou art born against thy will." Thus the
+soul, when it is brought before the throne of God, and is commanded to
+enter into the body, pleads before Him: "O Lord, till now have I been holy
+and pure; bring me not into contact with what is common and unclean."
+Thereupon the soul is given to understand that it was for this destiny
+alone that it was created. Another remarkable feature is the warning given
+to man before his birth that he will be responsible for his actions. He is
+regularly sworn in. The oath has the double purpose of impressing upon him
+the consciousness of his duty to lead a holy life, and of arming him
+against the danger of allowing a holy life to make him vain. As if to
+render this oath more impressive, the unborn hero is provided with two
+angels who, besides teaching him the whole of the Torah, take him every
+morning through paradise and show him the glory of the just ones who dwell
+there. In the evening he is taken to hell to witness the sufferings of the
+reprobate. But such a lesson would make free will impossible. His future
+conduct would only be dictated by the fear of punishment and hope of
+reward. And the moral value of his actions also depends, according to
+Jewish notions, upon the power to commit sin. Thus another legend records:
+"When God created the world, He produced on the second day the angels with
+their natural inclinations to do good, and the absolute inability to
+commit sin. On the following days again He created the beasts with their
+exclusively animal desires. But He was pleased with neither of these
+extremes. If the angels follow my will, said God, it is only on account of
+their impotence to act in the opposite direction. I shall therefore create
+man, who will be a combination of both angel and beast, so that he will be
+able to follow either the good or evil inclination. His evil deeds will
+place him beneath the level of animals, whilst his noble aspirations will
+enable him to obtain a higher position than angels." Care is therefore
+taken to make the child forget all it has seen and heard in these upper
+regions. Before it enters the world an angel strikes it on the upper lip,
+and all his knowledge and wisdom disappear at once. The pit in the upper
+lip is a result of this stroke, which is also the cause why children cry
+when they are born.
+
+As to the origin of these legends, the main features of which are already
+to be found in the Talmud, I must refer the reader to the researches of
+L�w and others.(238) Here we have only to watch the effect which these
+legends had upon the minds of Jewish parents. The newly born child was in
+consequence looked upon by them as a higher being, which, but a few
+seconds before, had been conversing with angels and saints, and had now
+condescended into our profane world to make two ordinary mortals happy.
+The treatment which the child experienced from its parents, as well as
+from the whole of the community, was therefore a combination of love and
+veneration. One may go even further and say that the belief in these
+legends determines greatly the destination of the child. What other
+destination could a being of such a glorious past have than to be what an
+old German Jewish poem expressed in the following lines:--
+
+
+    Geboren soll es wehren
+    Zu Gottes Ehren.
+
+
+"The child should be born to the honour of God." The mission of the child
+is to glorify the name of God on earth. And the whole bringing up of the
+child in the old Jewish communities was more or less calculated to this
+end. The words of the Bible, "And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of
+priests," were taken literally. Every man felt it his duty to bring up his
+children, or at least one member of his family, for this calling. How they
+carried out this programme we shall see later on.
+
+Now, regarding almost every infant as a predestined priest, and thinking
+of it as having received a certain preparation for this calling before it
+came into this world, we cannot wonder that the child was supposed to show
+signs of piety from the days of its earliest existence, and even earlier.
+Thus we read that even the unborn children joined in with the chorus on
+the Red Sea and sang the Song (of Moses). David, again, composed Psalms
+before perceiving the face of this world. On the Day of Atonement they
+used to communicate to the unborn child, through the medium of its mother,
+that on this great day it had to be satisfied with the good it had
+received the day before. And when a certain child, afterwards named
+Shabbethai, refused to listen to such a request, R. Johanan applied to it
+the verse from the Psalm, "The wicked are estranged from the womb."
+Indeed, Shabbethai turned out a great sinner. It will perhaps be
+interesting to hear what his sin was. It consisted in forestalling the
+corn in the market and afterwards selling it to the poor at a much higher
+price. Of a certain child the legend tells that it was born with the word
+_emeth_ (truth) engraved on its fore-head. Its parents named it
+Amiti,(239) and the child proved to be a great saint.
+
+The priest, however, could not enter into his office without some
+consecration. As the first step in this consecration of the child we may
+consider the Covenant of Abraham. But this was prefaced by a few other
+solemn acts which I must mention. One of the oldest ceremonies connected
+with the birth of a child was that of tree-planting. In the case of a boy
+they planted a cedar, in that of a girl a pine; and on their marriage they
+cut branches from these trees to form the wedding-canopy. Other rites
+followed, but they were more of a medical character, and would be better
+appreciated by the physician. In the Middle Ages superstition played a
+great part. To be sure, I have spoken of saints; but we ought not to
+forget that saints, too, have their foolish moments, especially when they
+are fighting against hosts of demons, the existence of which is only
+guaranteed by their own over-excited brains. Jewish parents were for many
+centuries troubled by the fear of Lilith,(240) the devil's mother, who was
+suspected of stealing children and killing them. The precautions they took
+to prevent this atrocity were as foolish as the object of their fear. I do
+not intend to enumerate here all these various precautions. Every country
+almost has its own usages and charms, one more absurd than the other. It
+will suffice to refer here to the most popular of these charms, in which
+certain angels are invoked to protect the child against its dangerous
+enemy Lilith. But of whatever origin they may be, Judaism could do better
+without them. The only excuse for their existence among us is to my mind
+that they provoked the famous Dr. Erter to the composition of one of the
+finest satires in the Hebrew language.
+
+Of a less revolting character was the so-called ceremony of the "Reading
+of the Shema."(241) It consisted in taking all the little children of the
+community into the house of the newly-born child, where the teacher made
+them read the Shema, sometimes also the ninety-first Psalm. The fact that
+little children were the chief actors in this ceremony reconciles one a
+little to it despite its rather doubtful origin. In some communities these
+readings took place every evening up to the day when the child was brought
+into the covenant of Abraham. In other places they performed the ceremony
+only on the eve of the day of the _Berith Milah_(242) (Ceremony of the
+Circumcision). Indeed, this was the night during which Lilith was supposed
+to play her worst tricks, and the watch over the child was redoubled.
+Hence the name "Wachnacht," or the "Night of Watching." They remained
+awake for the whole night, and spent it in feasting and in studying
+certain portions of the Bible and the Talmud, mostly relating to the event
+which was to take place on the following day. This ceremony was already
+known to Jewish writers of the thirteenth century. Nevertheless, it is
+considered by the best authorities on the subject to be of foreign origin.
+Quite Jewish, as well as entirely free from superstitious taint, was the
+visit which was paid to the infant-boy on the first Sabbath of his
+existence. It was called "Shalom Zachar,"(243) probably meaning "Peace-
+boy," in allusion to a well-known passage in the Talmud to the effect that
+the advent of a boy in the family brings peace to the world.
+
+At last the dawn of the great day of the Berith came. I shall, however,
+only touch here on the social aspects of this rite.
+
+Its popularity began, as it seems, in very early times. The persecutions
+which Israel suffered for it in the times of Antiochus Epiphanes, "when
+the princes and elders mourned, the virgins and the young men were made
+feeble, and the beauty of women was changed, and when certain women were
+put to death for causing their children to be circumcised," are the best
+proof of the attachment of the people to it. The repeated attempts against
+this law, both by heathen and by Christian hands, only served to increase
+its popularity. Indeed R. Simeon ben Eleazar characterised it as the law
+for which Israel brought the sacrifice of martyrdom, and therefore held
+firmly by it. In other words they suffered for it, and it became endeared
+to them. R. Simeon ben Gamaliel declares it to be the only law which
+Israel fulfils with joy and exultation. As a sign of this joy we may
+regard the eagerness and the lively interest which raised this ceremony
+from a strictly family affair to a matter in which the whole of the
+community participated. Thus we find that already in the times of the
+Gaonim the ceremony was transferred from the house of the parents to the
+synagogue. Here it took place after the prayers, in the presence of the
+whole congregation. The synagogue used to be specially illuminated in
+honour of the event. Certain pieces of the daily prayer, of a rather
+doleful nature, such as the confession of sins, were omitted, lest the
+harmony of the festival should be disturbed. As a substitute for these
+prayers, various hymns suitable for the occasion were composed and
+inserted in the liturgy for the day. As the most prominent members among
+those present figured the happy father of the child and the medical man
+who performed the ceremony, usually called the Mohel or Gozer,(244) both
+wearing their festal garments and having certain privileges, such as being
+called up to the Reading of the Law and chanting certain portions of the
+prayers. It is not before the tenth century that a third member suddenly
+emerges to become almost as important as the father of the child. I refer
+to the _Sandek_ or Godfather. In some countries he was also called the
+Baal Berith (Master of the Covenant). In Italy they seemed to have had two
+Sandeks. This word was for a long time supposed to be the Greek word
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. But it is now proved beyond doubt that it is a corruption of the
+word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} used in the Greek church for godfather. In the church he
+was the man who lifted the neophyte from the baptismal waters. Among the
+Jews, the office of the Sandek was to keep the child on his knees during
+the performance of the rite. The Sandek's place was, or is still, near the
+seat of honour, which is called the Throne of Elijah, who is supposed to
+be the angel of the covenant. Other angels, too, were believed to
+officiate at this rite. Thus the angel Gabriel is also said to have
+performed the office of Sandek to a certain child. According to other
+sources the archangel Metatron himself attended. Probably it was on this
+account that later Rabbis admonished the parents to take only a pious and
+good Jew as Sandek for their children. Christian theologians also declared
+that no good Christian must render such a service to a Jew. The famous
+Buxtorf had to pay a fine of 100 florins for having attended the Berith of
+a child, whose father he had employed as reader when editing the well-
+known Basel Bible. The poor reader himself, who was the cause of Buxtorf's
+offence, was fined 400 florins. Of an opposite case in which a Jew served
+as godfather to a Christian child, we find a detailed account in Schudt's
+_Merkw�rdigkeiten der Juden_, a very learned and very foolish book. When
+the father was summoned before the magistrate, and was asked how he dared
+to charge a Jew with such a holy Christian ceremony, he coolly answered,
+because he knew that the Jew would present him with a silver cup. As to
+the present, I have to remark that with the Jews also the godfather was
+expected to bestow a gift on the child. In some communities he had to
+defray the expenses of the festival-dinner, of which I shall speak
+presently. In others, again, he had also to give a present to the mother
+of the child.
+
+Much older than the institution of the Sandek is the festival-dinner just
+alluded to, which was held after the ceremony. Jewish legend supplies many
+particulars of the dinner the patriarch Abraham gave at the Berith of his
+son Isaac. This is a little too legendary, but there is ample historical
+evidence that such meals were already customary in the times of the Second
+Temple. The Talmud of Jerusalem gives us a detailed account of the
+proceedings which took place at the Berith dinner of Elisha ben Abuyah,
+who afterwards obtained a sad celebrity as Acher. Considering that
+Elisha's birth must have fallen within the first decades after the
+destruction of the Temple, and that these sad times were most unsuitable
+for introducing new festivals, we may safely date the custom back to the
+times of the Temple. The way in which the guests entertained themselves is
+also to be gathered from the passage referred to. First came the dinner,
+in which all the guests participated; afterwards the great men of
+Jerusalem occupied one room, indulging there in singing, hand clapping,
+and dancing. The scholars again, who apparently did not belong to the
+great men, were confined to another room, where they employed themselves
+in discussing biblical subjects. In later times special hymns, composed
+for this festival, were inserted in the grace after dinner. After the
+dinner, sermons or speeches used also to be given, the contents of which
+were usually made up of reflections on biblical and Talmudical passages
+relating to the event of the day. Sometimes they consisted of a kind of
+learned puns on the name which the child received on this occasion.
+
+With this meal the first consecration of the child-priest was concluded.
+In some places they used to come to the father's house on the third day
+after the circumcision with the purpose of making inquiries after the
+child's health. In the case when the child was the first-born the ceremony
+of "redeeming the child"(245) in accordance with Exodus xiii. used to take
+place. The details of this ceremony are to be found in almost every
+prayer-book, and there is nothing fresh to add. But perhaps I may be
+allowed to draw attention to another distinction that the first-born
+received in the Middle Ages. I refer to an account given by the author of
+the book, _The Ordinance of the Law_,(246) who flourished in the
+thirteenth century. He says: Our predecessors made the rule to destine
+every first-born to God, and before its birth the father had to say, "I
+take the vow that if my wife presents me with a son, he shall be holy unto
+the Lord, and in His Torah he shall meditate day and night." On the eighth
+day after the Berith Milah they put the child on cushions, and a Bible on
+its head, and the elders of the community, or the principal of the
+college, imparted their blessings to it. These first-born sons formed,
+when grown up, the chief contingent of the Yeshiboth (Talmudical
+Colleges), where they devoted the greatest part of their lives to the
+study of the Torah. In later centuries the vow was dropped, but from the
+abundance of the Yeshiboth in Poland and elsewhere it seems as if almost
+every child was considered as having no other calling but the study of the
+Torah. Indeed, the growing persecutions required a strengthening of the
+religious force.
+
+With these ceremonies the first act of consecration ended in the case
+where the new-born child was a boy. I will now refer to the ceremony of
+the name-giving, which was common to males and females. In the case of the
+former this ceremony was connected with the Berith Milah. The oldest
+formula, which is already to be found in the _Ritual Rab Amram Gaon_, is
+composed in Aramaic. It is, like many prayers in that language, a most
+beautiful composition, and very suitable for the occasion. Our present
+Hebrew prayer is far less beautiful, and dates from a much later age. In
+some countries the ceremony of naming was repeated in the house of the
+parents. It took place on the Sabbath, when the mother returned home from
+her first visit to the synagogue after her recovery. Here the friends and
+relatives of the family assembled, and after arranging themselves round
+the cradle of the child they lifted it three times, shouting the new name
+at every lifting. This name was the so-called "profane" name, whilst the
+name it received in the synagogue was the "sacred" or Hebrew name. The
+ceremony concluded with the usual festival-dinner. By the way, there was
+perhaps a little too much feasting in those days. The contemporary Rabbis
+tried indeed to suppress some of the banquets, and put all sorts of
+restrictions on dinner-hunting people. But considering the fact that, as
+Jews, they were excluded from every public amusement, we cannot grudge
+them the pleasure they drew from these semi-religious celebrations. For
+people of an ascetic disposition it was, perhaps, the only opportunity of
+enjoying a proper meal. In the same way, in our days, the most severe
+father would not deny his lively daughter the pleasure of dancing or
+singing charitably for the benefit of suffering humanity. The ceremony
+described was known to the authors of the Middle Ages by the name of
+_Holle Kreish_. These words are proved by Dr. Perles to be of German
+origin, and based on some Teutonic superstition into the explanation of
+which I cannot enter here.
+
+Of much more importance was the ceremony of name-giving in the case of a
+girl, it being the only attention the female child received from the
+synagogue. The usages varied. In some countries the name was given on the
+first Sabbath after the birth of the child. The father was "called up to
+the Reading of the Law," on which followed the formula, "He who blessed
+our ancestors Abraham," etc., "may He also bless," etc., including the
+blessing and announcement of the child's name. After the prayer the
+congregation assembled in the house of the parents to congratulate them.
+In other countries the ceremony took place on the Sabbath when the mother
+attended the synagogue after the recovery. The ceremony of Holle Kreish
+seems to have been especially observed in the case of a girl.
+
+Though the feasting was now over for the parents, the child still lived in
+a holiday atmosphere for a long time. In the legend of the "Ages of Man"
+the child is described in the first year of its existence as a little
+prince, adored and petted by all. The mother herself nourished and tended
+the child. Although the Bible already speaks of nurses, many passages in
+the later Jewish literature show a strong aversion to these substitutes
+for the mother. In the event of the father of the child dying, the mother
+was forbidden to marry before her suckling infant reached the age of two
+years, lest a new courtship might lead to the neglect of the child.
+
+More difficult is it to say wherein the other signs of loyalty to the
+little prince consisted; as, for instance, whether Jews possessed anything
+like lullabies to soothe the little prince into happy and sweet slumber.
+At least I am not aware of the existence of such songs in the ancient
+Jewish literature, nor are they quoted by medi�val writers. The
+"Schlummerlied," by an unknown Jewish bard, about which German scholars
+wrote so much, contains more heathen than Jewish elements. From the
+protest in _The Book of the Pious_, against using non-Jewish cradle-songs,
+it seems that little Moshechen was lulled to sleep by the same tunes and
+words as little Johnny. The only Jewish lullaby of which I know, is to be
+found in the work of a modern writer who lived in Russia. How far its
+popularity goes in that country I have no means of ascertaining. This
+jingle runs as follows:--
+
+
+    O! hush thee, my darling, sleep soundly my son,
+    Sleep soundly and sweetly till day has begun;
+    For under the bed of good children at night
+    There lies, till the morning, a kid snowy white.
+    We'll send it to market to buy Sechora,(247)
+    While my little lad goes to study Torah.
+    Sleep soundly at night and learn Torah by day,
+    Then thou'lt be a Rabbi when I have grown gray.
+    But I'll give thee to-morrow ripe nuts and a toy,
+    If thou'lt sleep as I bid thee, my own little boy.(248)
+
+
+But naturally the holiday atmosphere I spoke of was very often darkened by
+clouds resulting from the illness of the child. Excepting small-pox, the
+child was subject to most of those diseases which so often prove fatal to
+our children. These diseases were known under the collective name of "the
+difficulties (or the pain) of bringing up children." These difficulties
+seem to have been still greater in Palestine, where one of the old Rabbis
+exclaimed that it was easier to see a whole forest of young olive trees
+grow up than to rear one child.(249) To avoid so mournful a subject, I
+refrain from repeating the touching stories relating to the death of
+children. The pain was the more keenly felt since there was no other way
+of explaining the misfortune which befell the innocent creature than that
+it had suffered for the sins of the parents; and the only comfort the
+latter had was that the child could not have lost much by its being
+removed from this vale of tears at such an early period. A remarkable
+legend describes God Himself as giving lessons so many hours a day to
+these prematurely deceased children.(250) Indeed, to the mind of the old
+Rabbis, the only thing worth living for was the study of the Law.
+Consequently the child that suffered innocently could not have a better
+compensation than to learn Torah from the mouth of the Master of masters.
+
+But even when the child was healthy, and food and climate proved congenial
+to its constitution, there still remained the troubles of its spiritual
+education. And to be sure it was not an easy matter to bring up a
+"priest." The first condition for this calling was learning. But learning
+cannot be acquired without honest and hard industry. It is true that R.
+Akiba numbers wisdom among the virtues which are hereditary from father to
+son. Experience, however, has shown that it is seldom the case, and the
+Rabbis were already troubled with the question how it happens that
+children so little resemble their fathers in respect of learning.
+
+Certainly Jewish legends can boast of a whole series of prodigies. Thus a
+certain Rabbi is said to have been so sharp as to have had a clear
+recollection of the mid-wife who made him a citizen of this world. Ben
+Sira again, instantly after his birth, entertains his terrified mother
+with many a wise and foolish saying, refuses the milk she offers him, and
+asks for solid food. A certain Nachman was born with a prophecy on his
+lips, predicting the fate of all nations on earth, as well as fixing the
+date for the advent of the Messiah. The youngest of seven sons of Hannah,
+who became martyrs under the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, was according
+to one version aged two years, six months, six hours, and thirty minutes.
+But the way in which he defied the threats of the tyrant was really worthy
+of one of seventy. R. Judah de Modena is said to have read the lesson from
+the prophets in the synagogue at the age of two years and a half. A famous
+Cabbalist, Nahum, at the age of three, gave a lecture on the decalogue
+that lasted for three days. The Chassidim pretended of one of their
+Zaddikim that he remembered all that he had been taught by the angels
+before his birth, and thus excused their Zaddik's utter neglect of
+studying anything. Perhaps I may mention in this place a sentence from
+Schudt, which may reconcile one to the harmless exaggerations of the
+Chassidim. It relates to a case where a Jewish girl of six was taken away
+by a Christian with the intention of baptising her, for he maintained that
+this was the wish and pleasure of the child. Probably the little girl
+received her instruction from the Christian servant of the house, as has
+happened many times. Schudt proves that this wish ought to be granted in
+spite of the minority of the child. He argues: As there is a maxim, "What
+is wanting in years may be supplied by wickedness," why could not also the
+reverse be true that "What is wanting in years can be supplied by grace"?
+Of a certain R. Meshullam, again, we know that he preached in the
+synagogue at Brody, at the age of nine, and perplexed the chief Rabbi of
+the place by his deep Talmudical learning. As the Rabbi had a daughter of
+seven, the cleverness exhibited by the boy Rabbi did not end without very
+serious consequences for all his life.
+
+Happily all these prodigies or children of grace are only exceptional. I
+say happily, for the Rabbis themselves disliked such creatures. They were
+more satisfied with those signs of intelligence that indicate future
+greatness. The following story may serve as an instance:--R. Joshua ben
+Hananiah once made a journey to Rome. Here he was told that amongst the
+captives from Jerusalem there was a child with bright eyes, its hair in
+ringlets, and its features strikingly beautiful. The Rabbi made up his
+mind to redeem the boy. He went to the prison and addressed the child with
+a verse from Isaiah, "Who gave Jacob for a spoil and Israel to the
+robbers?" On this the child answered by continuing the second half of the
+same verse, "Did not the Lord, He against whom we have sinned? For they
+would not walk in His ways, neither were they obedient unto His law"
+(Isaiah xlii. 24). The Rabbi was so delighted with this answer, that he
+said: "I am sure he will grow up to be a teacher in Israel. I take an oath
+to redeem him, cost what it may." The child was afterwards known under the
+name of R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Such children were ideals of the Rabbis,
+but they hated the baby scholar, who very often grew impertinent and
+abused his elders. The Rabbis much preferred the majority of those tiny
+creatures, who are characterised by the already mentioned legends on the
+"Ages of Men" as little animals playing, laughing, crying, dancing, and
+committing all sorts of mischief.
+
+But these children must be taught. Now, there is the well-known advice of
+Judah ben Tema, who used to say that the child at five years was to be
+taught Scripture, at ten years Mishnah, at thirteen to fulfil the Law,
+etc. This saying, incorporated in most editions in the fifth Chapter of
+the _Sayings of the Fathers_, is usually considered as the programme of
+Jewish education. But, like so many programmes, this tells us rather how
+things ought to have been than how they were. In the times of the Temple,
+the participation of the youth in religious actions began at the tenderest
+age. As soon as they were able to walk a certain distance with the support
+of their parents, the children had to accompany them on their pilgrimages
+to Jerusalem. In the Sabbatical year they were brought to the Temple, to
+be present at the reading of Deuteronomy by the king.(251) The period at
+which the child's allegiance to the Synagogue began is still more
+distinctly described. Of the many Talmudical passages relating to this
+question, I shall select the following quotation from a later Midrash,
+because it is the most concise. In allusion to Leviticus xix. 23, 24,
+concerning the prohibition of eating the fruits of a tree in the first
+three years, this Midrash goes on to say: "And this is also the case with
+the Jewish child. In the first three years the child is unable to speak,
+and therefore is exempted from every religious duty, but in the fourth
+year all its fruits shall be holy to praise the Lord, and the father is
+obliged to initiate the child in religious works." Accordingly the
+religious life of the child began as soon as it was able to speak
+distinctly, or with the fourth year of its life. As to the character of
+this initiation we learn from the same Midrash and also from other
+Talmudical passages, that it consisted in teaching the child the verses,
+"Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God _is_ One" (Deut. vi. 4), and "Moses
+commanded us a Torah, the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob" (Deut.
+xxxiii. 4). It was also in this year that the boys began to accompany
+their parents to the synagogue, carrying their prayer-books. At what age
+the girls first came out--not for their first party, but with the purpose
+of going to the synagogue--is difficult to decide with any degree of
+certainty. But if we were to trust a rather doubtful reading in Tractate
+_Sopherim_,(252) we might maintain that their first appearance in the
+synagogue was also at a very tender age. I hope that they behaved there
+more respectfully than their brothers, who played and cried instead of
+joining in the responses and singing with the congregation. In some
+communities they proved so great a nuisance that a certain Rabbi declared
+it would be better to leave them at home rather than to have the devotion
+of the whole congregation disturbed by these urchins. Another Rabbi
+recommended the praiseworthy custom of the Sephardim,(253) who confined
+all the boys in the synagogue to one place, and set a special overseer by
+their side, with a whip in his hands, to compel them to keep quiet and to
+worship with due devotion.
+
+A strange custom is known among the Arabian and Palestinian Jews under the
+name of _Chalaka_. It means the first hair-cutting of the boy after his
+fourth birthday. As on this occasion loyalty to the Scripture is shown by
+not touching the "corners" (Lev. xix. 17), the whole action is considered
+a religious ceremony of great importance. In Palestine it usually takes
+place on the second day of the Feast of the Passover when the counting of
+the seven weeks begins. On this day friends and relatives assemble at the
+house of the parents. Thither the boy is brought, dressed in his best
+garments, and every one of the assembly is entrusted with the duty of
+cutting a few hairs, which is considered a great privilege. The ceremony
+is as usual followed by a dinner given to the guests. The Jews in Safed
+and Tiberias perform the ceremony with great pomp in the courtyard
+surrounding the (supposed) grave of R. Simeon ben Yochai, in one of the
+neighbouring villages.
+
+Another custom already mentioned in the Talmud, but which quite
+disappeared in later times, is that of weighing the child. It would be
+worth reviving if performed in the way in which the mother of Doeg ben
+Joseph did it. This tender-hearted mother weighed her only son every day,
+and distributed among the poor, in gold, the amount of the increased
+weight of her child.
+
+I pass now to the second great consecration of the boy,--the rites
+performed on the day when the boy went to school for the first time. This
+day was celebrated by the Jews, especially in the Middle Ages, in such a
+way as to justify the high esteem in which they held the school. The
+school was looked upon as a second Mount Sinai, and the day on which the
+child entered it as the Feast of Revelation. Of the many different
+customs, I shall mention here that according to which this day was fixed
+for the Feast of Weeks. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, the
+child was washed and dressed carefully. In some places they dressed it in
+a "gown with fringes." As soon as day dawned the boy was taken to the
+synagogue, either by his father or by some worthy member of the community.
+Arrived at their destination, the boy was put on the Almemor, or reading-
+dais, before the Scroll of the Law, from which the narrative of the
+Revelation (Exod. xx. 2-26) was read as the portion of the day. From the
+synagogue the boy was taken to the house of the teacher, who took him into
+his arms. Thereupon a slate was brought, containing the alphabet in
+various combinations, the verse, "Moses has commanded," etc. in Deut.
+xxxiii. 4, the first verse of the Book of Leviticus, and the words, "The
+Torah will be my calling." The teacher then read the names of the letters,
+which the boy repeated. After the reading, the slate was besmeared with
+honey, which the boy licked off. This was done in allusion to Ezekiel iii.
+3, where it is said: "And it (the roll) was in my mouth as honey for
+sweetness." The boy was also made to eat a sweet cake, on which were
+written passages from the Bible relating to the importance of the study of
+the Torah. The ceremony was concluded by invoking the names of certain
+angels, asking them to open the heart of the boy, and to strengthen his
+memory. By the way, I am very much afraid that this invocation was
+answerable for the abolition of this ceremony. The year in which this
+ceremony took place is uncertain, probably not before the fifth, nor later
+than the seventh, according to the good or bad health of the child.
+
+The reverence for the child already hinted at was still further increased
+when the boy entered the school. "The children of the house (school) of
+the master" is a regular phrase in Jewish literature. It is on their pure
+breath that the existence of the world depends, and it is their merit that
+justifies us in appealing to the mercy of God. Words of Scripture, uttered
+by them quite innocently, were considered as oracles; and many a Rabbi
+gave up an undertaking on account of a verse pronounced by a schoolboy,
+who hardly understood its import. Take only one instance: R. Johanan was
+longing to see his friend Mar Samuel in Babylon. After many disturbances
+and delays, he at last undertook the journey. On the way he passed a
+school where the boys were reciting the verse from 1 Samuel xxviii. 3,
+"And Samuel died." This was accepted by him as a hint given by Providence
+that all was over with his friend.
+
+Especially famous for their wisdom and sharpness were the children of
+Jerusalem. Of the many illustrative stories given in the Midrash to
+Lamentations, let the following suffice: R. Joshua was one day riding on
+his donkey along the high road. As he passed a well, he saw a little girl
+there, and asked her to give him some water. She accordingly gave water to
+him and to his animal. The Rabbi thanked her with the words: "My daughter,
+you acted like Rebecca." "To be sure," she answered, "I acted like
+Rebecca; but you did not behave like Eleazar." I must add that there are
+passages in Jewish literature from which, with a little ingenuity, it
+might be deduced that Jewish babies are the most beautiful of their kind.
+The assertion made by a monk that Jewish children are inferior to
+Christian children is a dreadful libel. The author of the _Old
+Victory_,(254) in whose presence this assertion was made, was probably
+childless, or he would have simply scratched out the eyes of this
+malicious monk, instead of giving a mystical reason for the superior
+beauty of any other children than his own.
+
+Another point to be emphasised is that the boys were not confined all day
+long to the close air of the schoolroom. They had also their hours of
+recreation. This recreation consisted chiefly, as one can imagine, in
+playing. Their favourite game was the ball, boys as well as girls being
+fond of this form of amusement. They did not deny themselves this pleasure
+even on festivals. They were also fond of the kite and games with nuts, in
+which their mothers also took part. Letter-games and riddles also occupied
+their minds in the recreation hours. The angel Sandalphon,(255) who also
+bears in the Cabbalah the name of "Boy," was considered by the children as
+their special patron, and they invoked him in their plays, addressing to
+him the words: "Sandalphon, Lord of the forest, protect us from pain."
+Speaking generally, there are very few distinctively Jewish games. From
+the researches of Zunz, G�demann, and L�w on this subject, it is clear
+that the Jews always adopted the pastimes of the peoples among whom they
+dwelt.
+
+But it must not be thought that there was too much playing. Altogether,
+Jewish education was far from spoiling the children. And though it was
+recommended--if such recommendation were necessary--to love children more
+than one's own soul, the Rabbis strongly condemned that blind partiality
+towards our own offspring, which ends in burdening our world with so many
+good-for-nothings. The sad experience of certain biblical personages
+served as a warning for posterity. Even from the quite natural behaviour
+of Jacob towards his son Joseph, which had the best possible results in
+the end, they drew the lesson that a man must never show to one of his
+children marks of greater favour than to the others. In later times they
+have been even anxious to conceal this love altogether, and some Rabbis
+went so far as to refrain from kissing their children. The severity of
+Akabya ben Mahalaleel is worth mentioning, if not imitating. When this
+Rabbi, only a few minutes before his death, was asked by his son to
+recommend him to his friends and colleagues, the answer the poor boy
+received was: "Thy conduct will recommend thee to my friends, or will
+estrange thee from them." Another Rabbi declared (with reference to Prov.
+xxviii. 27) that it is life-giving to a youth to teach him temperance in
+his diet, and not to accustom him to meat and wine. R. Judah, the Pious,
+in the Middle Ages, gives the advice to rich parents to withdraw their
+resources from their sons if they lead a disorderly life. The struggle for
+their existence, and the hardship of life, would bring them back to God.
+When the old Rabbi said that poverty is a most becoming ornament for
+Israel, his remark was probably suggested by a similar thought. And many a
+passage in the Rabbinic literature gives expression to the same idea as
+that in Goethe's divine lines:--
+
+
+    Wer nie sein Brot mit Thr�nen ass,
+    Wer nie die kummervollen N�chte
+    Auf seinem Bette weinend sass,
+    Der kennt Euch nicht, Ihr himmlischen M�chte.
+
+
+I have spoken of a kingdom of priests, but there is one great disadvantage
+of such a polity. One or two priests in a community may be sustained by
+the liberality of the congregation. But if a community consisted of only
+priests, how could it then be maintained? Besides, the old Jewish ideal
+expected the teacher to be possessed of a divine goodness, imparting his
+benefits only as an act of grace. Salaries, therefore, either for teaching
+or preaching, or for giving ritual decisions, were strongly forbidden. The
+solution of the question put by the Bible, "And if ye shall say, What
+shall we eat?" is to be found in the law that every father was obliged to
+teach his son a handicraft, enabling him to obtain a living.
+
+I have now to speak of the time when childhood is brought to a conclusion.
+It is, as I stated above, in the case of a girl at the beginning of the
+thirteenth year, and in that of a boy at the beginning of the fourteenth
+year. As a reason for this priority I will reproduce the words of R.
+Chisda, who said that God has endowed woman with a greater portion of
+intelligence than man, and therefore she obtains her maturity at an
+earlier period than man does. A very nice compliment, indeed; but like all
+compliments it is of no practical consequence whatever. It is not always
+the wiser who get the best of it in life. Whilst the day on which the girl
+obtained her majority passed unnoticed either by her or by her family, it
+was marked in the case of the boy as the day on which he became a Son of
+the Law,(256) and was signalised by various rites and ceremonies, and by
+the bestowing on him of beautiful presents. I miss only the wig, which
+used to form the chief ornament of the boy on this happy day.
+
+Less known, however, is the origin of this ceremony, and the reason for
+fixing its date. It cannot claim a very high antiquity. I may remark that
+in many cases centuries elapse before an idea or a notion takes practical
+shape and is crystallised into a custom or usage, and still longer before
+this custom is fossilised into a law or fixed institution. As far as the
+Bible goes, there is not the slightest indication of the existence of such
+a ceremony. From Lev. xxvii. 5, and Num. xiv. 29, it would rather seem
+that it was not before the twentieth year that the man was considered to
+have obtained his majority, and to be responsible for his actions. It was
+only in the times of the Rabbis, when Roman influence became prevalent in
+juristic matters at least, that the date of thirteen, or rather the
+_pubertas_, was fixed as giving the boy his majority. But it would be a
+mistake to think that before having obtained this majority the boy was
+considered as under age in every respect. Certainly the law made every
+possible effort to connect him with the synagogue, and to initiate him in
+his religious duties long before the age of thirteen.
+
+We have seen that the boy's first appearance in the synagogue was at the
+beginning of the fourth year. We have noticed the complaints about his
+troublesome behaviour. But how could we expect the poor child to be
+attentive to things which quite surpassed the intellectual powers of his
+tender age? There was no better reason for this attendance either in the
+Temple or in the synagogue than that the parents might be rewarded by God
+for the trouble of taking their children there. These cares, by the way,
+fell most heavily upon the women. The mother of R. Joshua enjoyed this
+burden so much that she carried her boy, when still in the cradle, to the
+"House of Study of the Law," in order that his ears might be accustomed to
+the sound of the Torah. In later times there was another excuse for taking
+the little children to the synagogue. They were there allowed to sip the
+wine of the Sanctification Cup,(257) which was the exclusive privilege of
+the children; an easy way of worshipping, but, as you can observe, it is a
+method that they enjoy and understand most excellently. They did not less
+enjoy and understand the service with which they were charged on the day
+of "The Rejoicing of the Law."(258) On this feast they were provided with
+flags, which they carried before the bearers of the Torah, who feasted
+them after the service with sweets. Another treat was that of being called
+up on this day to the Torah, a custom that is still extant. In the Middle
+Ages they went in some countries so far as to allow these little fellows
+who did not wear caps "to be called up" to say the blessings over the Law
+bare-headed. A beautiful custom was that every Sabbath, after finishing
+the weekly lesson and dressing the Scroll of the Law, the children used to
+come up to the Almemor and kiss the Torah. Leaving the synagogue they
+kissed the hands of the scholars. At home the initiation began with the
+blessing the child received on every eve of the Sabbath, and with its
+instruction in "Hear O Israel" and other verses as already mentioned.
+Short prayers, consisting of a single sentence, were also chosen for
+children of this age. The function of the child on the eve of the first
+day of Passover is well known. Besides the putting of the four questions
+for the meaning of the strange ceremony (Exod. xiii. 14), the boy had also
+to recite, or rather to sing, the "Praise."(259) But I am afraid that they
+enjoyed better the song of "One Kid," which was composed or rather adapted
+for their special entertainment from an old German poem.
+
+Within three or four years after entering the synagogue, and with the
+growth of intellect and strength, the religious duties of the boy
+increased, and became of a more serious character. He had not only to
+attend the school, which was troublesome enough, but he was also expected
+to attend the services more regularly, and to gain something by it. Yet
+the Rabbis were not so tyrannical as to put unjust demands on the patience
+of the child. The voice of God on Mount Sinai, the Rabbis said, was
+adapted to the intellect and powers of all who witnessed the
+Revelation--adapted, as the Midrash says, to the powers of old and young,
+children and women. It was in accordance with this sentiment that the
+Rabbis suited their language to the needs of the less educated classes.
+Thus we read in the Tractate _Sopherim_ that according to the law the
+portion of the week, after having been recited in Hebrew, must be
+translated into the language of the vernacular for the benefit of the
+unlearned people, the women, and the children. Another consideration
+children experienced from the Rabbis was that at the age of nine or ten
+the boy was initiated into the observance of the Day of Atonement by
+fasting a few hours. Lest, however, this good work might be overdone, and
+thus endanger the child's health, the sage R. Acha used to tell his
+congregation after the Addition-Prayer "My brethren, let every one of you
+who has a child go home and make it eat." In later centuries, when the
+disease of small-pox became so fatal, some Rabbis declared it to be the
+duty of every father to leave the town with his children as soon as the
+plague showed itself. The joy with which the Rabbis hailed Dr. Jenner's
+discovery deserves our recognition. None of them perceived in vaccination
+a defiance of Providence. R. Abraham Nansich, from London, wrote a
+pamphlet to prove its lawfulness. The Cabbalist Buzagli disputed Dr.
+Jenner's priority, but nevertheless approved of vaccination. R. Israel
+Lipsch�tz declared that the Doctor acquired salvation by his new remedy.
+
+With his advancing age, not only the boy's duties but also his rights were
+increased. An enumeration of all these rights would lead me too far, but I
+shall mention the custom which allowed the boy the recital of
+"Magnified"(260) and "Bless ye"(261) in the synagogue. Now this privilege
+is restricted to the orphan boy. It is interesting to hear that girls were
+also admitted to recite the Magnified in the synagogue, in cases where
+their parents left no male issue. I have myself witnessed such a case. In
+some countries the boy had the exclusive privilege of reading the prayers
+on the evenings of the festivals and Sabbaths. R. Samson ben Eleazar, in
+the fifteenth century, received his family name Baruch Sheamar(262) from
+the skill with which he recited this prayer when a boy. He chanted it so
+well that he was called by the members of the community Master Baruch
+Sheamar. As to the question whether the boy, while under age, might
+lawfully be considered as one of the Ten when such a quorum was required,
+or one of the three in the case of grace after meals, I can only say that
+the authorities never agreed in this respect. Whilst the one insisted upon
+his having obtained his majority, the other was satisfied with his showing
+such signs of intelligence as would enable him to participate in the
+ceremony in question. Here is an instance of such a sign. Abaye and Raba,
+the two celebrated heroes of the Babylonian Talmud, were sitting at the
+table of Rabbah. Before saying grace he asked them, "Do you know to whom
+these prayers are addressed?" Thereupon one boy pointed to the roof,
+whilst the other boy went out and pointed to the sky. The examiner was
+satisfied with their answer.
+
+The privilege of putting on the phylacteries forms now in most countries
+the chief distinction of "The Son of the Law"; in olden times, however,
+every boy had claim to it as soon as he showed himself capable of behaving
+respectfully when wearing the holy symbol. It even happened that certain
+honours of the synagogue were bestowed on boys, though under age. We
+possess a copy of a Jewish epitaph dating from about the third century,
+which was written in Rome for a boy of eight years, who is there
+designated as archon. The fact is the more curious, as on the other hand
+the Palestinian R. Abuha, who lived in the same century, maintained that
+no man must be elected as Warden before he has achieved his fiftieth year.
+That boys were admitted to preach in the synagogue I have already
+mentioned.(263)
+
+From all these remarks it will easily be seen that in olden times the boy
+enjoyed almost all the rights of majority long before the day of his being
+"The Son of the Law." The condition of the novice is hardly
+distinguishable from that of the initiated priest. The Talmud, the Gaonim,
+and even R. Isaac Alfasi and Maimonides knew neither the term "The Son of
+the Law" (in our sense of the word) nor any ceremony connected with it.
+There is only one slight reference to such an institution, recorded in the
+Tractate _Sopherim_, with the quotation of which I shall conclude this
+paper. We read there: "In Jerusalem there was the godly custom to initiate
+the children at the _beginning_ of the thirteenth year by fasting the
+whole Day of Atonement. During this year they took the boy to the priests
+and learned men that they might bless him, and pray for him that God might
+think him worthy of a life devoted to the study of the Torah and pious
+works." For, this author says, "they were beautiful, and their lives
+harmonious and their hearts directed to God."
+
+
+
+
+
+XIII. WOMAN IN TEMPLE AND SYNAGOGUE
+
+
+The learned Woman has always been a favourite subject with Jewish
+students; and her intellectual capabilities have been fully vindicated in
+many an essay and even fair-sized book. Less attention, however, has been
+paid to woman's claims as a devotional being whom the Temple, and
+afterwards the Synagogue, more or less recognised. At least it is not
+known to me that any attempt has been made to give, even in outline, the
+history of woman's relation to public worship. It is needless to say that
+the present sketch, which is meant to supply this want in some measure,
+lays no claim to completeness; but I venture to hope that it will help to
+direct the attention of the friends of research to the matter, and that it
+may induce others to deal more fully with the subject and do it the
+justice it deserves.
+
+The earliest allusion to women's participation in _public_ worship, is
+that in Exodus xxxviii. 8, to the women who assembled to minister at the
+door of the "tent of meeting," of whose mirrors the lavers of brass were
+made (cf. 1 Sam. ii. 22). Philo, who is not exactly enamoured of the
+emancipation of women, and seeks to confine them to the "small state," is
+here full of their praise. "For," he says, "though no one enjoined them to
+do so, they of their own spontaneous zeal and earnestness contributed the
+mirrors with which they had been accustomed to deck and set off their
+beauty, as the most becoming first-fruits of their modesty, and of the
+purity of their married life, and, as one may say, of the beauty of their
+souls." In another passage Philo describes the Jewish women as "competing
+with the men themselves in piety, having determined to enter upon a
+glorious contest, and to the utmost extent of their power to exert
+themselves so as not to fall short of their holiness."
+
+It is, however, very difficult to ascertain in what this ministry of women
+consisted. The Hebrew term "Zobeoth"(264) would suggest the thought of a
+species of religious Amazons, who formed a guard of honour round the
+Sanctuary. Some commentators think that the ministry consisted in
+performing religious dances accompanied by various instruments. The
+Septuagint again speaks "of the women who fasted by the doors of the
+Tabernacle." But most of the old Jewish expositors, as well as Onkelos,
+conceive that the women went to the tent of meeting to pray. Ibn Ezra
+offers the interesting remark, "And behold, there were women in Israel
+serving the Lord, who left the vanities of this world, and not being
+desirous of beautifying themselves any longer, made of their mirrors a
+free offering, and came to the tabernacle every day to pray and to listen
+there to the words of the commandments." When we find that in 1 Sam. i.
+12, "Hannah continued to pray before the Lord," she was only doing there
+what many of her sisters did before and after her. We may also judge that
+it was from the number of these noble women, who made religion the aim of
+their lives, that the "twenty-two" heroines and prophetesses sprang who
+form part of the glory of Jewish history. Sometimes it even happened that
+their husbands derived their religious inspiration from them. Thus the
+husband of the prophetess Deborah is said to have been an unlettered man.
+But his wife made him carry to the Sanctuary the candles which she herself
+had prepared, this being the way in which she encouraged him to seek
+communion with the righteous.
+
+The language in which the husband of the "Great Woman" of Shunem addresses
+his wife: "Wherefore wilt thou go to him" (the prophet)? "it is neither
+New Moon nor Sabbath" (2 Kings iv. 23), proves that on Festivals and
+Sabbaths the women used to attend some kind of worship, performed by the
+prophet, though we cannot say in what this worship consisted. The New Moon
+was especially a woman's holiday, and was so observed even in the Middle
+Ages, for the women refrained from doing work on that day. The explanation
+given by the Rabbis is that when the men broke off their golden earrings
+to supply material for the golden calf, the women refused to contribute
+their trinkets, for which good behaviour a special day of repose was
+granted to them. Some Cabbalists even maintain that the original
+worshippers of the golden calf continue to exist on earth, their souls
+having successively migrated into various bodies, while their punishment
+consists in this, that they are ruled over by their wives. Rather
+interesting as well as complimentary to women is the remark which the
+Rabbis made with regard to the "Great Woman." As will be remembered, it is
+_she_ who says, "I perceive that this (Elisha) is a holy man of God" (2
+Kings iv. 19). In allusion to this verse the Talmud says: "From this fact
+we may infer that woman is quicker in recognising the worth of a stranger
+than man."
+
+The great woman, or women, continued to pray and to join in the public
+worship also after the destruction of the first Temple. Thus Esther is
+reported by tradition to have addressed God in a long extempore prayer
+before she presented herself before the throne of Ahasuerus to plead her
+people's cause; and women were always enjoined to attend the reading of
+the Book of Esther. When Ezra read the Law for the first time, he did so
+in the presence of the men and the women (Neh. viii. 3). In the Book of
+the Maccabees we read of "The women girt with sackcloth ... and the
+maidens that ran to the gates.... And all holding their hands towards
+heaven made supplication." In the Judith legend, mention is also made of
+"Every man and woman ... who fell before the Temple, and spread out their
+sackcloth before the face of the Lord ... and cried before the God of
+Israel." In the second Temple, the women, as is well known, possessed a
+court reserved for their exclusive use. There the great illuminations and
+rejoicings on the evening of the Feast of Tabernacles used to be held. On
+this occasion, however, the women were confined to galleries specially
+erected for them. It was also in this Women's Hall that the great public
+reading of certain portions of the Law by the king, once in seven years,
+used to take place, and women had also to attend at the function. On the
+other hand, it is hardly necessary to say that women were excluded from
+performing any important service in the Temple. If we were to trust a
+certain passage in the "Chapters of R. Eliezer," we might perhaps conclude
+that during the first Temple, the wives of the Levites formed a part of
+the choir, but the meaning of the passage is too obscure and doubtful for
+us to be justified in basing on it so important an inference. Nor can the
+three hundred maidens who were employed for the weaving of the curtains in
+the Temple, be looked upon as having stood in closer connection with the
+Temple, or as having formed an order of women-priests or girl-devotees (as
+one might wrongly be induced to think by certain passages in Apocryphal
+writings of the New Testament). But on the other hand, it is not
+improbable that their frequent contact with the Sanctuary of the nation
+produced in them that religious enthusiasm and zeal which may account for
+the heroic death which--according to the legend--they sought and found after
+the destruction of the Temple. It is to be remarked that, according to the
+law, women were even exempted from putting their hands on the head of the
+victim, which formed an important item in the sacrificial worship. It is,
+however, stated by an eye-witness, that the authorities permitted them to
+perform this ceremony if they desired to do so, and that their reason for
+this concession was "to give calmness of the spirit, or satisfaction, to
+women."
+
+Still greater, perhaps, was "the calmness of spirit" given to women in the
+synagogue. We find in ancient epitaphs that such titles of honour were
+conferred upon them as "Mistress of the Synagogue," and "Mother of the
+Synagogue," and, though they held no actual office in the Synagogue, it is
+not improbable that they acquired these titles by meritorious work
+connected with a religious institution, viz.: Charity. There was, indeed,
+a tendency to exclude women from the synagogue at certain seasons, but
+almost all the authorities protest against it, many of them declaring such
+a notion to be quite un-Jewish. Some Jewish scholars even think that the
+ancient synagogues knew of no partition for women. I am rather inclined to
+think that the synagogue took for its model the arrangements in the
+Temple, and thus confined women to a place of their own. But, whether they
+sat side by side with the men or occupied a special portion of the
+edifice, there can be no doubt that the Jewish women were great synagogue-
+goers. To give only one instance. One Rabbi asks another: Given the case
+that the members of the synagogue are all descendants of Aaron, to whom
+then would they impart their blessing? The answer is, to the women who are
+there.
+
+Of the sermon they were even more fond than their husbands. Thus one woman
+was so much interested in the lectures of R. Meir, which he was in the
+habit of giving every Friday evening, that she used to remain there so
+long that the candles in her house burnt themselves out. Her lazy husband,
+who stopped at home, so strongly resented having to wait in the dark, that
+he would not permit her to cross the threshold until she gave some offence
+to the preacher, which would make him sure that she would not venture to
+attend his sermons again.
+
+The prayers they said were the Eighteen Benedictions which were prescribed
+by the Law. But it would seem that occasionally they offered short prayers
+composed by themselves as suggested by their personal feelings and needs.
+Thus, to give one instance, R. Johanan relates that one day he observed a
+young girl fall on her face and pray: "Lord of the world, Thou hast
+created Paradise, Thou hast created hell, Thou hast created the wicked,
+Thou hast created the righteous; may it be Thy will that I may not serve
+as a stumbling-block to them." The fine Hebrew in which the prayer is
+expressed, and the notion of the responsibility of Providence for our
+actions, manifest a high degree of intelligence and reflection. It would
+also seem that some women went so far in their religious sensibility as to
+lead a regular ascetic life, and, according to the suggestion of some
+scholars, even took the vow of celibacy. Of these the Rabbis did not
+approve, and stigmatised them as the "destroyers of the world." Perhaps it
+was just at this period that Judaism could not afford to give free play to
+those morbid feelings, degenerating into religious hysterics, which led
+some to join rival sects, and others to abandon themselves to the gross
+immorality we read of in the history of the Gnostics.
+
+The same circumstances may have been the cause of public opinion being led
+to accept the view of R. Eliezer, who thought it inadvisable--it would seem
+on moral grounds--to permit woman to study the Law. This opinion was
+opposed to that of Ben Azzai, who considered it incumbent upon every
+father to teach his daughter Torah. But justified as the advice of R.
+Eliezer may have been in his own time, it was rather unfortunate that
+later generations continued to take it as the guiding principle for the
+education of their children. Many great women in the course of history
+indeed became law-breakers and studied Torah; but the majority were
+entirely dependent on men, and became in religious matters a sort of
+appendix to their husbands, who by their good actions insured salvation
+also for them, and sometimes the reverse. Thus there is a story about a
+woman which, put into modern language, would be to the effect that she
+married a minister and copied his sermons for him; he died, and she then
+married a cruel usurer, and kept his accounts for him.
+
+The fact that women were exempted from certain affirmative laws, which
+become operative only at special seasons--_e.g._, the taking of the palm
+branch on the Feast of Tabernacles--must also have contributed to weaken
+their position as a religious factor in Judaism. The idea that women
+should vie with men in the fulfilment of every law, became even for the
+Rabbis a notion connected only with the remotest past. This is the
+impression one gains when reading the legend about Michal, the daughter of
+Saul, putting on phylacteries, or the wife of the prophet Jonah making a
+pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the three Festivals. It would indeed seem as if
+women were led to strive for the satisfaction of their religious wants in
+another direction. Yet it was said of Jewish women, "The daughters of
+Israel were stringent and laid certain restrictions on themselves." They
+were also allowed to form a quorum by themselves for the purpose of saying
+the Grace, but they could not be counted along with males for this end. It
+was also against the early notion of the dignity of the congregation that
+women should perform any public service for men.
+
+One privilege was left to women--that of weeping. In Judges xi. 40, we read
+of the daughters of Israel that went yearly to lament the daughter of
+Jephthah; while in 2 Chronicles xxxv. 25, we are told how "all the singing
+men and the singing women spake of Josiah in their lamentations." Of this
+privilege they were not deprived, and if they were not allowed to sing any
+longer, they at least retained the right to weep as much as they pleased.
+Even in later times they held a public office as mourning women at
+funerals. In the Talmud fragments of compositions by women for such
+occasions are to be found. Indeed, woman became in these times the type of
+grief and sorrow. She cannot reason, but she feels much more deeply than
+man. Here is one instance from an old legend: Jeremiah said, "When I went
+up to Jerusalem (after the destruction of the Temple) I lifted my eyes and
+saw there a lonely woman sitting on the top of the mountain, her dress
+black, her hair dishevelled, crying, 'Who will comfort me?' I approached
+her and spake to her, 'If thou art a woman, speak to me. If thou art a
+ghost, begone.' She answered, 'Dost thou not know me?... I am the Mother,
+Zion.' "
+
+In general, however, the principle applied to women was: The king's
+daughter _within the palace_ is all glorious (Psalm xlv. 14), but _not_
+outside of it. In the face of the "Femina in ecclesia taceat," which was
+the ruling maxim with other religions, Jewish women could only feel
+flattered by this polite treatment by the Rabbis, though it meant the same
+thing. We must not think, however, that this prevented them from attending
+the service of the synagogue. According to the Tractate _Sopherim_, even
+"the little daughters of Israel were accustomed to go to the synagogue."
+In the same tractate we find it laid down as "a duty to translate for them
+the portion (of the Law) of the week, and the lesson from the prophets"
+into the language they understand. The "King's daughter" occasionally
+asserted her rights without undue reliance on the opinion of the
+authorities. And thus being ignorant of the Hebrew language women prayed
+in the vernacular, though this was at least against the letter of the law.
+And many famous Rabbis of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries express
+their wonder that the "custom of women praying in other (non-Hebrew)
+languages extended over the whole world." It is noteworthy that they did
+not suppress the practice, but on the contrary, they endeavoured to give
+to the Law such an interpretation as would bring it into accord with the
+general custom. Some even recommended it, as, for example, the author of
+_The Book of the Pious_, who gives advice to women to learn the prayers in
+the language familiar to them.
+
+At about the same period a lengthy controversy was being waged by the
+commentators of the Talmud and the codifiers, about woman's partaking in
+the fulfilment of the laws for special seasons, from which, as already
+remarked, they were exempted. To the action itself there could not be much
+objection, but the difficulty arose when women also insisted on uttering
+the blessing. Now the point at issue was whether they could be permitted
+to say, for instance, "Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, etc., who hast
+sanctified us by Thy Commandments, and _hast commanded us_, concerning the
+taking of the Palm branch," since in reality the women had _not_ been
+commanded to do it. To such logical and systematic minds as Maimonides and
+R. Joseph Caro, the difficulty was insurmountable, and they forbade women
+to use the formula; but with the less consistent majority women carried
+their point. Rather interesting is the answer received by R. Jacob, of
+Corbeil, with regard to this question. This Rabbi is said to have enjoyed
+the mysterious power which enabled him to appeal in cases of doubt to the
+celestial authorities. Before them he put also this women's case for
+decision. Judgment was communicated to him in the verse from the
+Scriptures, "In all that Sarah saith unto Thee, hearken unto her voice"
+(Gen. xxi. 12). Nor was it unknown for a pious Jew to compose a special
+hymn for his wife's use in honour of the Sabbath.
+
+How long this custom of women praying in the vernacular lasted, we have no
+means of ascertaining. Probably was already extinct about the end of the
+fifteenth century. For R. Solomon Portaleone, who lived in the sixteenth
+century, already regrets the abolition of "this beautiful and worthy
+custom." "When they prayed in the vernacular," he says, "they understood
+what they were saying, whilst now they only gabble off their prayers." As
+a sort of compromise we may regard the various "Supplications";(265) they
+form a kind of additional prayers supplementary to the ordinary liturgy,
+and are written in German. Chiefly composed by women, they specially
+answer the needs of the sex on various occasions. These prayers deserve a
+full description by themselves, into which I cannot enter here; I should
+like only to mention that in one of these collections in the British
+Museum, a special supplication is added for servant-maids, and if I am not
+quite mistaken, also one for their mistresses.
+
+It is also worth noticing that the manuals on the "Three Women's
+Commandments" (mostly composed in German, sometimes also in rhymes),
+contained much more than their titles would suggest. They rather served as
+headings to groups of laws, arranged under each commandment. Thus the
+first (about certain laws in Lev. xii. and xv.) becomes the motto for
+purity in body and soul; the second (the consecration of the first cake of
+the dough) includes all matters relating to charity, in which women were
+even reminded to encourage their newly married husbands not to withhold
+from the poor the tithes of the bridal dowry, as well as of their future
+yearly income; whilst the third (the lighting of the Sabbath lamp) becomes
+the symbol for spiritual light and sweetness in every relation of human
+life.
+
+As another compromise may also be considered the institution of
+"Vorsugern" (woman-reader) or the "Woilkennivdicke" (the well-knowing one)
+who reads the prayers and translates them into the vernacular for the
+benefit of her less learned sisters. In Poland and in Russia, even at the
+present time, such a woman-reader is to be found in every synagogue, and
+from what I have heard the institution is by no means unknown in London.
+The various prayer-books containing the Hebrew text as well as the Jewish-
+German translation, which appear in such frequent editions in Russia, are
+mostly intended for the use of these praying women. Not uninteresting is
+the title-page of R. Aaron Ben Samuel's Jewish-German translations and
+collections of prayers which appeared in the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. He addressed the Jewish public in the following terms: "My dear
+brethren, buy this lovely prayer-book or wholesome tonic for body and
+soul, which has never appeared in such German print since the world began;
+and make your wives and children read it often, thus they will refresh
+their bodies and souls, for this light will shine forth into your very
+hearts. As soon as the children read it they will understand their
+prayers, by which they will enjoy both this world and the world to come."
+
+An earlier translator of the prayer-book addresses himself directly to the
+"pious women" whom he invites to buy his book, "in which they will see
+very beautiful things." Recent centuries seem, on the whole, to have been
+distinguished for the number of praying-women they produced. The virtues
+which constituted the claim of women to religious distinction were
+modesty, charity, and daily attendance at the synagogue morning and
+evening. In the memorial books of the time hundreds of such women are
+noticed. Some used also to spin the "Fringes," which they presented to
+their friends; others fasted frequently, whilst "Old Mrs. Hechele" not
+only attended the synagogue every day, and did charity to poor and rich,
+but also understood the art of midwifery, which she practised in the
+community without accepting payment for her services. According to R. Ch.
+J. Bachrach women used also to say the "Magnified" prayer in the synagogue
+when their parents left no male posterity.
+
+In bringing to a close this very incomplete sketch, perhaps I ought to
+notice the confirmation of girls introduced during this century in some
+communities in Germany, which the "Reformed" Rabbis recommended, but of
+which the "Orthodox" Rabbis disapproved. It would be well if in the heat
+of such controversies both sides would remember the words of R. Zedekiah
+b. Abraham, of Rome, who with regard to a certain difference of opinion on
+some ritual question, says: "Every man receives reward from God for what
+he is convinced is the right thing, if this conviction has no other motive
+but the love of God."
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. THE EARLIEST JEWISH COMMUNITY IN EUROPE
+
+
+Roman Judaism has disappeared from our guide-books. Civilisation has
+levelled down the walls of the Ghetto, and its former inhabitants are not
+any longer "a people that dwell alone." But with this well-deserved
+destruction a good deal of the interest was also destroyed which the
+traveller used to attach to "the peculiar people" enclosed in that
+terrible slum of Rome.
+
+Still, if there is anything eternal in the "eternal city," which was
+neither reconstructed by the C�sars, nor improved upon by the Popes, it is
+the little Jewish community at Rome. It has survived the former; it has
+suffered for many centuries under the latter, and, partaking in the
+general revival which has come upon the Italian nation, it may still be
+destined for a great future. Indeed, the history of the relation of Israel
+to Rome is so old that it is not lacking even in legendary elements. On
+the day on which King Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh, the Rabbis
+narrate, there came down the angel Gabriel. He put a reed into the sea,
+which, by means of the slime that adhered to it, formed itself, in the
+course of time, into a large island, on which the city of Rome was
+built--an event with which the troubles of Israel began. These were the
+evil consequences of the first _m�salliance_. Even more unfortunate for
+Israel (and it is not impossible that this is the meaning of the legend)
+were the results of that spiritual mixed marriage between Judaism and
+paganism which took place at a much later period, whereat a blunt soldier,
+who sympathised with neither, and "who dealt in salvation as he dealt in
+provinces," acted as best man. As a fact, the parties concerned never
+understood each other properly. The declaration of love, and the final
+proposal, were made in an Alexandrine jargon, strange to both, the
+obscurities of which only grew with the commentaries each successive
+generation added to them. Under such circumstances, a happy union was not
+to be expected, and the family quarrel which fills the annals of civilised
+Europe soon broke out. Judaism, more particularly Roman Judaism, witnessed
+this struggle from the beginning, and its fortunes were greatly dependent
+on the chance which of these two elements, the Jewish or the pagan, won
+the ascendency.
+
+However, I am theologising too much, whilst I am deviating from the
+subject of these lines. Nor could I think of giving here, even in outline,
+the history of the oldest Jewish community in Europe. This has been
+already admirably done by Dr. A. Berliner, who has made the history of the
+Jews of Rome the subject of his studies for nearly a quarter of a century.
+I intend only to reproduce here, in a stray fashion, some of those
+impressions and reflections which, I am certain, must occur to every
+Jewish traveller in Italy.
+
+Now I do not think for a moment that we Jews should have a point of view
+of our own for looking at things and men in this paradise of Europe. It
+would be as silly to have a Jewish Baedeker as to think of orthodox
+mathematics or an ecclesiastical logic or a racial morality--though
+unfortunately there exist such things. But on the other hand, if we have
+not, like the fox in the fable, left our heart at home, let us not do
+violence to our feelings by passing over everything Jewish, over sights
+which might remind us of our history, with a certain indifference which
+would be affected on our part. We are not all little Goethes, nor even
+little Ruskins, and our artistic enjoyment is hardly so intense as to shut
+our hearts against impressions which force themselves upon us either by
+the way of remembrance of the past, or even as a living contrast in the
+present.
+
+It so happened that my first visit to the Vatican was on a Friday. After
+doing my work in the Vatican Library, which is open till noon, I went into
+the adjoining Church of St. Peter.
+
+One should be, like the angel of death in the legend, full of eyes,
+properly to see all the wonders of art and marvels of architecture at
+which human genius and piety laboured busily through centuries, in
+adorning the grandest of sacred buildings in the world. But there is
+Baedeker or Murray serving at least as a pair of good spectacles to the
+layman, and it was by their aid that I made my round in St. Peter. But lo,
+whilst you are observing the celebrated Piet� by Michael Angelo, and,
+according to the instruction of your guides, admiring both the grief of
+the Mother and the death of the Son, you notice in its vicinity a little
+column, surrounded by rails to which the pilgrims approach with a certain
+awe; for "Tradition affirms it to have been brought from Jerusalem."
+Naturally, one is instantly reminded of the report, given by the famous
+traveller of Tudela, of the curiosities of Rome, which among other things
+records, "That there are also to be seen in St. Giovanni in Porta Latina
+(probably meant for Lateran) the two brazen pillars, constructed by King
+Solomon of blessed memory, whose name, Solomon, the son of David, is
+engraved upon each; of which he was also told that every year about the
+9th of Ab (the anniversary of the destruction of Jerusalem), these pillars
+sweat so much that water runs down from them." So far Benjamin of Tudela
+in the twelfth century. In our days pillars weep no longer, and even of
+men it is considered a special sign of good breeding to behave pillar-
+like; but a sigh is still permissible at the sight of this temple-column,
+which in its captivity symbolises, not less than the Piet�, the grief of a
+whole people. Of course, not possessing on the spot either the _Itinerary_
+or even Urlick, one is unable to establish the connection between these
+two traditions and their claim to authenticity. Perhaps one may even
+comfort oneself on the same ground on which the famous cur� tried to
+appease his flock who were sobbing bitterly at his telling them the
+Passion story. He exclaimed: "My children, do not weep so much; it
+happened long ago, and even perhaps is not quite true."
+
+However, the Vatican is the last place in the world to exercise your
+critical faculties; you are so deeply absorbed in seeing, that you have no
+time to think. So on I went, from aisle to aisle, from niche to niche,
+from chapel to chapel, looking, staring, and admiring, till of a sudden my
+eyes were struck by a large statue, on which the words, "Thou shalt have
+no other God before me," are engraved. There I stood before a question of
+exegesis, where one is permitted to use his right senses without any
+regard to the �sthetic side. Yet not all the manifold expositions of the
+Decalogue, nor all the talk about the subjective-objective, the absolute
+and the real, with which metaphysicians have tried to confuse the notion
+of the Unity of God, will reconcile one to the meaning which Medi�val Art
+has impressed upon the Ten Commandments. The truth has to be sought
+elsewhere, and thus my thoughts were turned to the synagogue, and thither
+I went.
+
+The day was already drawing to its close, and, by a marvellous
+coincidence, I arrived at the synagogue just as the congregation was
+intoning the words: "The Lord is one, and His name is one to His renown
+and glory." Here was sound, simple exegesis, though sadly lacking in the
+illustrative matter in which the Vatican is so rich. But what need was
+there of any real or artificial "aid to the believer," in the presence of
+such a living faith, as enabled this little community to maintain its
+protesting position in the teeth of the mistress of the world! And this
+even at a time, when it only required a hint from the successors of the
+old Roman Emperors to make the whole world renounce its right of thinking
+and judging, and, were we to believe Herr Janssen, even to feel perfectly
+happy in this torpor.
+
+But, by the way, are our own times much better? As I write these lines
+(October 1893) I hear that a Bill has been brought into the German Diet,
+asking that the Talmud should be submitted to a Commission (which _en
+passant_, has been sitting in unbroken session in that country since the
+days of Pfefferkorn in the fifteenth century) with the purpose of
+examining its contents, while in the Vatican the very pupils of Loyola are
+offering every convenience and comfort to the student who should care to
+devote his time to Rabbinic literature. Does not the work of a great
+number of our poets, historians, theologians, and so-called seers in this
+blessed century of ours, in many respects prove but a strained effort to
+destroy the few humanitarian principles which were established a few
+generations ago, as well as to deify every brutal warrior who was
+successful in his day? Again, is the national idea so much sublimer, so
+much grander, than that of a universal religion, that we would willingly
+permit the former to employ the means which have been denied to the latter
+as inhuman and barbarous? Every age has its own idolatry, and the eternal
+wandering Jew will always be the chosen victim of the Moloch in fashion.
+
+Let us, however, return to the synagogue, which withstood many a cruelty,
+both ancient and modern. The place where the synagogue stands is near the
+Ghetto, now called Piazza di Scuola. It is, besides a few other communal
+houses, the only building left there,--all those narrow, dirty, and
+typhoid-breeding streets which formed the old Ghetto having been
+demolished by a sage and humane government, which by this action wiped out
+the last stain from its history. There, on this vast blank is the
+synagogue, a comparatively small, insignificant building, laden with heavy
+age and looking down on her children whom she has been nursing, consoling,
+and protecting for centuries, but who, now grown old, have forsaken her
+and scattered to all the ends of the city. Of all her former acquaintances
+there appears to be left only father Tiber, who would seem to be murmuring
+to her many an old tale of the times before she was called into existence.
+And if he listened to the special prayers recited within her walls by the
+deputies of the Jewish communities, when preparing themselves to go to the
+court of the Pope, the Tiber heard many a sigh and cry, wrung out from the
+heart of a Jewish captive who, preferring death to slavery even under the
+masters of the world, found his last repose in its waters. But
+insignificant as this synagogue appears, she proved the spiritual bulwark
+against all the attacks of the time, and you admire her brave resistance
+all the more when you look at that multitude of churches and cloisters in
+the closest vicinity of the Ghetto, impressing you as so many
+intrenchments, all directing their missiles and weapons against this
+humble, defenceless building, threatening it with death and destruction.
+One of these churches, probably founded by some Jewish convert, who gained
+in it both salvation and a good living, bears on its gates in Hebrew
+letters the inscription: "I have spread out my hands all the day unto a
+rebellious people, which walketh in the way that was not good, after their
+own thoughts. A people that provoketh me to anger continually to my face"
+(Isaiah lxv. 2, 3). Menace is followed by persuasion, the cited verses
+being accompanied by the Latin words: "Indulgentia plenaria quotodiana
+perpetua pro vivis et defunctis." Theologians who like to quarrel most
+about things they can know least, have for ages discussed the question,
+whether prayers for the dead are of any use; here the matter is decided by
+a simple advertisement. It is not to be denied that one would enjoy the
+fortunes accumulated by one's late sinner of an uncle all the better for
+being sure that a few pennyworths of prayer enable the legatee to make
+one's benefactor in Hades comfortable and happy.
+
+The thought is very consoling indeed, and it is not to be wondered at that
+the Roman synagogue could not entirely withstand its temptations, and
+introduced into the offering-blessing after one is called up to the Torah,
+the words: "To the advancing of the soul of the departed." Of course much
+of this tendency may be attributed to the Ford Jabbok,(266) which was and
+is still very popular in that country; but the fact that the author of
+this Jewish "Book of the Dead" was an Italian (from Modena), shows clearly
+that there was some Catholic influence at work, from which even the
+fellow-countrymen of Azariah de Rossi and Judah Messer Leon could not
+entirely emancipate themselves.
+
+I ought to have spoken of Roman synagogues, since the building in the
+Ghetto to which I have been constantly alluding comprises four prayer-
+houses devoted to Spanish and Italian rites. It says much for Roman
+Judaism, that they did not consider ritual differences of such importance
+as to prevent them from forming one community for all charitable and
+congregational purposes. In Verona and in Modena some congregations even
+retained the German rite, which their ancestors who immigrated from the
+Rhine provinces brought with them, whilst they accepted the Spanish
+pronunciation. I wish that the Anglo-Jewish community could see their way
+to imitate their example. Not that I think for a moment that the Spanish
+pronunciation is more correct than the German. Each system has its own
+mistakes and corruptions; and it is more than probable that the prophet
+Isaiah, or even the author of Ecclesiastes, would be as little able to
+follow the prayers in Bevis Marks as in Duke's Place. But since the non-
+Jewish scientific world has, though only by pure accident, accepted the
+Spanish way of reading the Hebrew, I should like to see this trifling
+difference of _Ba_ruch over _Bu_ruch at last disappear, by pronouncing the
+camets-vowel _a_ instead of _o_, and accepting similar little changes,
+which are of no real importance to us.
+
+The inside of these synagogues is even more simple than their outside. I
+was told that the synagogue which was burned down last winter, and which
+also formed a part of this building, could boast of many fine decorations
+and carvings, etc., but I could observe nothing of the kind in the
+synagogues I had occasion to frequent. Nor is there much of natural
+decorum in them, and they reconcile one perfectly to the worst of the
+Small Synagogues elsewhere. I venture to think that in this respect, too,
+we have to recognise Catholic influence. It was, I think, one of the
+leaders in the Oxford Movement who expressed his delight at seeing in
+Italy a woman poorly-dressed coming into the church, who, after putting
+down the basket from her back, kneels before one of the many altars and
+says her prayers. A good deal of this familiarity in the place of worship
+may also be noticed in the Roman synagogues, where I have seen a woman
+come into the partition for men, notwithstanding their having a separate
+gallery, without bonnet or hat on her head, and with an infant in her
+arms, and listen there to the prayers, till she walked home with her
+husband. The other people were also very restless, coming and going often,
+whilst, as soon as the reading of the Law was over, the greater part of
+the worshippers left the synagogue. It was not a very delightful sight. A
+minus of decorum does not always mean a plus of devotion; just as little
+as a maximum of respectability and stiffness are to be taken as signs of
+true piety.
+
+It is not uninteresting to notice that the Roman synagogue, in spite of
+its old traditions, did not entirely shut itself against modern reforms.
+Among them there is that of "calling up the people to the Torah" by the
+simple formula, "Let the Priest" (or "the Levite") "step forth,"(267) and
+so on, not mentioning either names or titles, which I should like to
+recommend most strongly to our congregations. I hope that no man will
+suspect me of such heresy as that of questioning the wisdom of the
+Synagogue Regulations. But I am inclined to think that the business of
+conferring the degrees of _Rabbi_, "Associate" or "Master," does not
+exactly fall within the sphere of activity of the Wardens. The matter
+could only be decided by a proper Board of examination. As the Council is
+not provided with such a Board, nor is every aspirant to this honour
+prepared to undergo the examination required, the wisest course would be
+to give up titles altogether, calling up all people alike in the way
+indicated.
+
+The robes the ministers wear (somewhat similar to those of the Greek
+clergy), are probably also an innovation of modern date,--the old orthodox
+Rabbis looking at any special vestment for the Preacher or Reader with the
+same feeling of disgust which the old Puritans entertained for surplice or
+mitre. But the principle of "The Beauty of Holiness" proved too strong for
+resistance, and it was only a pardonable vanity when the reformers applied
+it to their own persons; "Vanity of vanities," saith the preacher, so
+often, that he gets rather to like it. This vanity is greatly redeemed by
+the fact that the preacher does not grudge his uniform to his humbler
+brother, the beadle, who is in most cases to be distinguished from the
+officiating ministry only by the brass-plate on his breast, on which the
+word "Servant" is engraved. Considering the great confusion arising from
+the meaningless "Reverend" and the universal white neck-tie, such a label,
+indicating the proper office of the bearer, might, perhaps, prove as
+useful among the English Jews as it is among the Jews of Rome.
+
+It was with a pupil of the Rabbinical College, in company with his
+friends, that I took my first walk through ancient Rome. I felt attracted
+to him by his striking face of that peculiar fine Jewish type, which is
+more common among the Jews in the East than among us. And when he was
+reading the lesson from the Prophets in the synagogue, where I made his
+acquaintance, he reminded me of that Jewish boy with bright eyes, black
+curls, and features strikingly beautiful walking as a captive from
+Jerusalem through the streets of Rome some seventeen centuries ago, whose
+proficiency in the words of Isaiah caused his redemption. It would be an
+exaggeration to say that my companion's remarks were very instructive from
+an artistic point of view. Being born and bred in Rome, he passed with
+utter indifference many objects which we are bidden to admire, whilst at
+others he actually shouted out "Image," or made some other prosaic remark.
+But in a country where one is determined to play the heathen for so many
+weeks, to worship superannuated deities, to get into raptures at every
+reminiscence of superseded and vanishing religions, and to be delighted at
+the sights of "greasy saints and martyrs hairy," there can be no great
+harm in being called back to one's true nature.
+
+The feelings crowding upon one, when entering that part of the ancient
+city which probably was in the mind of the Rabbis when they spoke of
+"Guilty Rome," are of a conflicting nature. Every stone and every brick
+there saw the humiliation of Israel, in every theatre and every circus the
+Jew served as a comic figure, and was held up to ridicule, whilst there
+was, perhaps, hardly a single lane or gate through which those who
+resented the yoke of the "anti-Semites of Antiquity" did not pass, in
+order to "be butchered to make a Roman holiday." What concerns a Jew most
+in this perished world of ruins, and at the same time causes him the
+deepest grief, is the triumphal arch of Titus, "commemorating the defeat
+of the Jews, and dedicated to him by his successor, Domitian." Enough has
+been said and written about it both by antiquarians and theologians, the
+former admiring the workmanship of the reliefs, the latter perceiving in
+it a proof of the fulfilment of the well-known passages in the New
+Testament about the destruction of the Temple, which came to pass in spite
+of the efforts made by Titus to save it. Those who have read Bernay's
+essay on the "Chronik des Sulpicius Severus" know that the behaviour of
+"the delight of the human species" on that occasion is rather open to
+doubt, and it is more probable that, instead of trying to rescue it, he
+commanded that it should be set on fire. Josephus, who witnessed the shame
+of his compatriots and co-religionists, has left us a full account of the
+triumphal procession. Only a flunkey like Josephus could maintain that
+calm indifference with which he describes the events of the "bitter day,"
+the perusal of which makes one's blood boil. His description fairly agrees
+with the famous relief on the arch, showing that part of the procession in
+which the table with the shewbread, the candlestick with the seven lamps,
+and the golden trumpets figure as the chief objects. The only thing which
+we miss is the "Law of the Jews," which, according to Josephus, was
+carried in the triumph as "the last of all the spoils." Was it only an
+oversight of the artist, or had he no place for it, or is it Josephus who
+committed the error, mistaking some other object for the Scroll of the
+Law? I dearly hope that this last was the case, and that Heine was under
+the impulse of a true and real and poetic inspiration when he wrote
+(speaking of the Holy Scripture to which he owed his conversion): "The
+Jews, who appreciate the value of precious things, knew right well what
+they did when, at the burning of the second temple they left to their fate
+the golden and silver implements of sacrifice, the candlesticks and lamps,
+even the breastplate of the High Priest adorned with great jewels, but
+saved the Bible. This was the real treasure of the temple, and, thanks be
+to God! it was not left a prey to the flames, nor to the fury of Titus
+Vespasian, the wretch, who, as the Rabbi tells us, met with so dreadful a
+death."
+
+However, there were others who brought the glad tidings of the Old
+Testament to Rome long before there existed a New one. And this is, on the
+other side, what makes Rome a sort of Terra Sancta even to the Jew. It is
+true that we have not to look for the footprints of the prophets, for whom
+even tradition never claimed "the gift of missionary-travelling." But
+might not the ground there have received a sort of consecration by the
+fact that it was traversed by the ambassadors of Judas Maccab�us (about
+161 B.C.) "to make a league of amity and confederacy" with the Roman
+Senate? Of the embassy of Simon the Maccabee (about 140 B.C.) there is
+actual historical evidence that they began to propagate in Rome the Jewish
+religion. Some seventy or eighty years later the Jews had already their
+own quarter in Rome, with their own synagogues, which they were in the
+habit of visiting, "most especially on the sacred Sabbath days, when they
+publicly cultivate their national philosophy." That many of the oldest
+teachers of Israel, the Tannaim, went to Rome as deputies, and that one of
+them (R. Mathia ben Chares) founded a school there early in the second
+century, is also an authenticated fact. One would like to know what they
+taught, and in what way they expounded their _national philosophy_. Most
+of all one would like to know what were the spiritual means they employed
+in their proselytising work, in which they were, according to the
+testimony of history, so successful. Did they preach in the streets? Or
+did they hold public controversies? Or did they even send out Epistles
+which, in form at least, served as a model to apostles of another creed?
+How many a problem would be solved; how many a miracle would disappear;
+how many a book would become superfluous, if we could obtain certainty
+about these points! The Talmud tells us little, almost nothing, about
+these important things, whilst we get from the Roman writers only sneers
+and raillery. To these respectable Romans the Jews were only a mob of
+unlettered atheists. Indeed, to a good orthodox heathen, a religion
+without images and statues, with a God without a pedigree and without a
+theogony, was an impossible thing. Those poor metaphysicians!
+
+However, why dwell so long on a past world? A famous Rabbi once exclaimed:
+"If a man would ask thee, 'Where is thy God?' answer him: 'In the great
+city of Rome.' " The underlying idea was the mystical notion that wherever
+Israel had to migrate, they were accompanied by the Divine presence. And
+Rome was, in the times of the Rabbis, the point to which the streams of
+Jewish migration from the Holy Land chiefly converged. But now, instead of
+to Rome, might we not point to London and New York as centres of Jewish
+migrations?
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+This Index contains the most important names of persons, titles of books,
+technical terms and Hebrew words occurring in the text. In the notes to
+the text, the Hebrew words are for the most part given also in Hebrew
+characters.
+
+Abarbanel, Isaac, 173, 174
+
+Abaye, 311
+
+_Ab Beth Din_, 84
+
+Abba Mari b. Moses, 165, 179
+
+Abba Tachnah, the Chassid, 221
+
+Abraham, Baalshem's father-in-law, 7
+
+Abraham, son of Elijah Wilna, 88
+
+Abraham of Bedres, 262
+
+Abraham Abulaphia, 262
+
+Abraham Ibn Daud, 162
+
+Abraham Ibn Ezra, 50, 52, 64, 71, 210, 314
+
+Abraham b. Shem--Tob Bibago, 172, 173
+
+Abtalyon, 186
+
+Abuha, 311
+
+Acha, 310
+
+_Acher_, 292
+
+_Adam, Primal_, 239
+
+_Agadah_, pl. _Agadoth_, 64, 105, 183, 197
+
+_Agadic_, 110, 156, 157, 193, 262, 279
+
+_Ages of Man_, 295
+
+Akabyah b. Mahalaleel, 305
+
+Akiba, 70, 84, 130, 188, 190, 194, 220, 227, 228, 234
+
+_Almemor_, 302
+
+Ammi, 214, 217, 226, 231
+
+_Amora_, pl. _Amoraim_, 17, 84, 195
+
+Amram Gaon, 293
+
+Anna of Kaidon, wife of Elijah Wilna, 82
+
+Anselm, St., of Canterbury, 79
+
+Antigonos of Socho, 229
+
+Anti-Maimonists, 133
+
+Aristotle, 79, 167
+
+Aryeh Leb, son of Elijah Wilna, 88
+
+_Ascension of Elijah_, 75
+
+Asher b. Jechiel, 210
+
+Assideans, 64
+
+_Ayil Meshulash_, 81
+
+Azariah de Rossi, 66, 71, 105, 333
+
+_Aziluth_, 117
+
+Azulai, 277
+
+_Baalshem_, Israel, 3-12, 14-35, 73
+
+Bachrach, Ch. J., 325
+
+_Bachur_, pl. _Bachurim_, 95, 97
+
+Bachya, 131
+
+_Baraitha_, 271
+
+_Baruch Sheamar_, 311
+
+Bashazi, 161
+
+_Bath-Kol_, 190
+
+Beer of Mizriez, 11, 37
+
+Beer, Peter, 66
+
+Ben Azzai, 130, 216, 319
+
+Benjamin of Tudela, 329
+
+Ben-Jacob, 259
+
+Ben Sira, 297
+
+Ben Zoma, 130
+
+_Bereshith_, 127
+
+_Berith Milah_, 288, 292, 293
+
+Berliner, A., 327
+
+Bernays, Isaak, 337
+
+_Beth Din_, 191-193
+
+_Beth Hammidrash_, 7, 16, 84, 139
+
+_Beth Talmud_, 210
+
+_Biccurim_, 58
+
+Bloch, Samson, 51
+
+Bodek, A., 51
+
+_Book of Brightness_ (_see_ Zohar)
+
+_Book of the Pious_, 295, 322
+
+_Book of Victory_, 167
+
+_Book of Weight_, 133
+
+Boswell, 142, 197
+
+Buckle, 96
+
+_Burbot_, 138
+
+Buzagli, the Cabbalist, 310
+
+Cabbalah, Cabbalists, 99, 128, 129, 133, 210, 283, 315
+
+_Cabod_, 120, 121
+
+Caraites, 48, 160, 161, 207, 208
+
+Casaubon, Isaac, 259
+
+_Chagigah_, 77
+
+_Chakhamim_, 57
+
+_Chambers_, the, 208
+
+Chanina b. Dossa, 217
+
+_Chanukah_, 138
+
+_Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great_, 68, 69, 316
+
+Chasdai Ibn Crescas, 167-173, 180
+
+_Chassidim_, Chassid, Chassidic, Chassidism, 1-4, 11, 12, 14-16, 21, 22,
+            25-27, 30, 33, 35-41, 43-45, 53, 73, 90, 298
+
+Chayim Vital, 99
+
+Chayim Walosin, 85, 87, 94
+
+Chisda, 307
+
+_Chukkim_, 124
+
+_Code of the Law_, by Caro, 75, 92, 206, 211, 257
+
+_Collectanea_, 144
+
+_Commentary on the Pentateuch_, by Nachmanides, 107, 108, 123, 135
+
+_Creeds and Opinions_, by Saadiah Gaon, 162
+
+_Crown_, 239
+
+_Cusari_, 162
+
+_Date of the Redemption_, 105
+
+David Rocca Martino, 230
+
+David Messer Leon, 174
+
+David b. Samuel d'Estella, 165, 166
+
+David b. Yom-Tob Bilia, 166.
+
+_Defence of Adam_, 230
+
+Delmedigo, 71, 131, 175
+
+_Disputation_, by Nachmanides, 103
+
+Dukes, L., 260
+
+_Eighteen Benedictions_, 83
+
+Eleazar, 229
+
+Eleazar b. Jacob, 225
+
+Eliezer, father of Baalshem, 5
+
+Eliezer b. Hyrkanos, 189, 319
+
+Eliezer b. Samuel Hallevi, 145
+
+Eliezer b. Simeon, 223
+
+Elijah Levita, 268
+
+Elijah Wilna, 57, 73-77, 81-92, 96, 97
+
+Elisha b. Abuyah, 33, 130, 292
+
+Emden, Jacob, 10, 259
+
+_Epikurus_, 157
+
+_Erech Millin_, 66
+
+Erter, Isaac, 51, 59, 288
+
+Essenes, 64, 185
+
+_Examination of the World_, 97
+
+Eybesch�tz, J., 10
+
+Ezra, or Azriel, the mystic, 100
+
+_Faithful City_, the, 75
+
+Fichte, 51
+
+Finn, 75
+
+_Ford Jabbok_, 333
+
+Frankists, 10
+
+Frankl, Z., 65, 97
+
+F�rst, J., 66
+
+Gamaliel I., 234
+
+Gamaliel II., 194, 212
+
+_Gaon_, pl. _Gaonim_, 73, 76-78, 97, 98, 206, 208, 209, 289, 312
+
+_Garden of Mystical Contemplation_, 129
+
+_Gate of Reward_, 115, 213
+
+Geiger, A., 66
+
+_Gemara_, 78
+
+Gershon, brother-in-law of Baalshem, 8, 9
+
+Ghetto, 326, 331-333
+
+Gnostics, 64
+
+Goethe, 57, 73, 306, 328
+
+_Gozer_, 290
+
+Graetz, 65, 97, 99, 183
+
+_Great Interpreters_, 186
+
+Green, A. L., 255
+
+_Guide of the Perplexed_, 49, 68, 97, 102, 130, 131, 179
+
+_Guide of the Perplexed of the Time_, 60, 67
+
+Hadasi, Judah, 160, 161
+
+Hai Gaon, 77, 208, 209, 272
+
+_Halachah_, pl. _Halachoth_, 64, 66, 183
+
+_Halachic_, 57, 92, 110, 157, 193, 207
+
+_Halachoth Gedoloth_, 111, 112
+
+Hannaneel of Kairwan, 162
+
+Hegel, 51, 54, 64, 65
+
+Heine, 59, 124, 254
+
+_High Belief_, 162
+
+Hillel the Great, 185, 186, 188, 193, 237
+
+Hillel, R., 177
+
+_History of Jewish Tradition_, 65, 182
+
+_Hithlahabuth_, 32
+
+_Holle Kreisch_, 294, 295
+
+Huna, 221, 225
+
+Isaac Alfasi, 13, 100, 101, 111, 312
+
+Isaac Aramah, 173
+
+Isaac Loria, 76, 133
+
+Isaac b. Ruben, 100
+
+Ishmael, 188, 190, 224
+
+Ishmael b. Elishah, 222, 299
+
+Israel Baalshem (_see_ Baalshem, Israel)
+
+Jacob of Corbeil, 322
+
+Jacob Dubna, 91
+
+Jacob the Levite, or Maharil, 143, 144
+
+Jacob Sasportas, 101, 102
+
+Jacob Tam, 210
+
+Jannai, 226
+
+Jedaiah of Bedres, 97, 131
+
+_Jerusalem_, by Mendelssohn, 147
+
+Johanan, 249, 287, 303, 318
+
+Johanan b. Zaccai, 48, 188
+
+Jonah Gerundi, 100, 101
+
+Jonah, son of Nachmanides, 101
+
+Jos�, 218, 219
+
+Joseph Albashir, 160
+
+Joseph Albo, 171, 172
+
+Joseph Caro, 75, 92, 206, 211, 322
+
+Joseph Jabez, 131, 173, 179
+
+Joshua b. Hananiah, 194, 299, 304, 308
+
+Jost, M., 66
+
+Judah Alcharisi, 262
+
+Judah Hallevi, 13, 34, 152, 162, 208
+
+Judah b. Ilai, 246
+
+Judah Messer Leon, 333
+
+Judah de Modena, 298
+
+Judah the Patriarch, 63, 195
+
+Judah the Pious, 306
+
+Judah b. Tema, 299
+
+Judah b. Yakar, 100
+
+_Karab_, 124
+
+_Kilayim_, 87
+
+Kimchi, D., 145
+
+_Korban_, 124
+
+Krochmal, Nachman, 44, 46, 48-68, 71, 72
+
+Kuenen, 240
+
+_Law of Man_, 113-115
+
+_Laws unto Moses on Mount Sinai_, 64
+
+Lessing, 73
+
+Letteris, M., 56, 57
+
+Levi b. Gershom, 97, 101, 171
+
+_Light of God_, 167
+
+_Lilac of Mysteries_, 133
+
+_Lilith_, 287, 288
+
+Lipman of M�hlhausen, 167, 179
+
+Liva of Prague, 78
+
+Lowell, R., 116
+
+L�w, L., 171, 285, 305
+
+Lucas, Mrs. Henry, 135
+
+Macaulay, 89
+
+_Maggid_, 19
+
+_Magnified_, 310
+
+Maimonides, or Moses b. Maimon, 13, 48, 49, 68, 70, 78, 97, 100, 102, 103,
+            111, 126, 130, 133, 140, 161-168, 170-181, 210, 211, 249, 274,
+            280, 281, 312, 322
+
+Maimonists, Anti-Maimonists, 163-165, 173, 210
+
+Mar Samuel, 84
+
+Mathia b. Chares, 339
+
+_Measure of the Stature_, 208
+
+_Mechilta_, 58, 81, 193
+
+Meheram Schiff, 16
+
+Meir, 130, 194, 226, 318
+
+Meir b. Nathan of Trinquintaines, 100
+
+Meir of Rothenburg, 210
+
+_Memra_, 238
+
+_Men of the Great Synagogue_, 64, 185
+
+_Menachoth_, 86
+
+Mendelssohn, Moses, 48, 58, 73, 147, 151, 176
+
+_Metatron_, 238
+
+_Midrash_, pl. _Midrashim_, 61, 64, 71, 81, 193, 195, 222, 262, 272, 273,
+            304
+
+Milton, 114
+
+_Minhag_, pl. _Minhagim_, 143, 192
+
+_Minim_, 64
+
+Minor Tractates, 81
+
+_Mishnah_, 57, 64, 66, 76, 78, 82, 85, 87, 91, 157, 190, 193, 195, 271
+
+Mistress of the Synagogue, 317
+
+Moses Cordevora, 133
+
+Moses Ibn Ezra, 262
+
+Moses de Leon, 18, 133, 258, 262
+
+Moses of Tachau, 131
+
+_Mother Zion_, 321
+
+Nachman, son of Nachmanides, 101
+
+Nachmanides, or Moses b. Nachman, 99-141, 213
+
+Nahum of Gemzo, 215
+
+_Nasi_, 84
+
+Nathan, 194
+
+_Nephesh Chayah_, 117
+
+Neubauer, Dr. A., 263
+
+_Night of Watching_, 288
+
+Nissim of Gerona, 133
+
+Nissim of Marseilles, 267
+
+_Olam Habba_, 115
+
+_Old Victory_, 304
+
+Oral Law, 10
+
+_Orchard_, the, 133
+
+_Ordinance of the Law_, 293
+
+Pablo Christiano, 103, 105, 106
+
+_Pairs_, the, 185
+
+_Paradise Lost_, 114
+
+_Pardes_, 129
+
+_Pashut_, 138
+
+_Path of Belief_, 172
+
+Perles, J., 99, 123, 294
+
+Pharisees, 64, 185, 237, 241
+
+Philo, 52, 64, 154, 238
+
+_Pilpul Pilpulist_, 13, 78
+
+Plato, 78
+
+_Pugio Fidei_, 107
+
+Raba, 311
+
+_Rabbanan Saburai_, 206
+
+Rabbah, 311
+
+Rabbenu, 13
+
+_Rabbenu Mosheh_, 103
+
+Rabbinowicz, R. N. N., 261
+
+Raimund Martini, 107
+
+Rapoport, Solomon Leb, 50, 53, 56, 66
+
+Reggio, Isaac, 270
+
+_Roots_, the, 171
+
+Ruskin, 328
+
+Saadiah Gaon, 48, 162, 108, 272
+
+_Sacred Letter_, 113
+
+Sadducees, 64, 185, 237
+
+Salman the Good, 145
+
+_Sambatyon_, 95
+
+_Sanctification-cup_, 245
+
+Sandalphon, 305
+
+_Sandek_, 290
+
+Sanhedrin, the, 188, 190, 191
+
+Saul Berlin, 176, 180
+
+_Sayings of the Fathers_, _Aboth_, 262, 299
+
+Schelling, 51
+
+Schiller, 73
+
+_Schlummerlied_, 295
+
+Schorr, O., 193
+
+Schudt, 291, 298
+
+_Sechorah_, 296
+
+_Seder Nezikin_, 58
+
+_Seder Olam_, 81, 92
+
+_Seder Taharoth_, 58
+
+_Segulah_, 122
+
+_Sephardim_, 301
+
+_Sepher_, 13
+
+_Sephiroth_, Ten, 238
+
+_Sermon in the Presence of the King_, by Nachmanides, 165
+
+Shabbethai Tsebi, 134, 239
+
+_Shalom Zachar_, 289
+
+Shammai, 185, 188, 237
+
+_Shechinah_, 120, 121, 228-230
+
+_Shema_, reading of the, 141, 288
+
+Shemaiah, 186
+
+Shemariah of Crete, 166
+
+Sherira Gaon, 263
+
+Shiphluth, 30
+
+_Simchah_, 31
+
+Simeon Duran, 101, 170, 171
+
+Simeon b. Eleazar, 289
+
+Simeon b. Gamaliel, 222
+
+Simeon b. Gamaliel II., 193, 194
+
+Simeon b. Yochai, 18, 223
+
+Simlai, 112
+
+_Siphra_, 58, 81, 91, 193, 262
+
+_Siphr�_, 58, 81, 91, 193, 262
+
+Solomon b. Adereth, 70, 267
+
+Solomon b. Gabirol, 210
+
+Solomon of St. Goar, 143-145
+
+Solomon b. Isaac, Rashi, 13, 210
+
+Solomon b. Isaac b. Zadok, 137
+
+Solomon Ladier, 43
+
+Solomon Portaleone, 323
+
+Solomon, son of Nachmanides, 110
+
+Solomon Syrillo, 262
+
+Solomon Wilna, 75
+
+_Son of the Law_, 307, 312
+
+_Sopherim_, 64
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 97
+
+Steinschneider, M., 99, 172
+
+_Taanith_, 58
+
+_Talmid Chaber_, 52
+
+_Talmid Chakam_, 7
+
+Talmud (of Jerusalem or Babylon), 16, 19, 33, 49, 52, 57-59, 64, 76, 78,
+            81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 96, 101, 104, 105, 111, 129, 131,
+            140, 151, 155, 158, 195, 196, 206, 207, 209, 210, 238, 252,
+            254-256, 261, 262, 271, 272, 277
+
+_Tanna_, pl. _Tannaim_, 17, 84, 187
+
+_Tephillin_, 249
+
+Thackeray, 282
+
+Thirteen Articles of the Creed, 148, 163, 164, 170, 176, 179
+
+_Thirteen Rules_ (of Interpretation), 195
+
+Tobijah, the Priest, 175
+
+_Tosephta_, 81, 82, 92, 262, 271
+
+Toy, Prof., 233-239, 251
+
+_Tractate Berachoth_, 221, 271
+
+_Tractate Evidences_, 192
+
+_Tractate Joys_, 194
+
+_Tractate Sanhedrin_, 156, 157, 159
+
+_Tractate Sopherim_, 301, 312, 321
+
+_Tree of Life_, the, 133
+
+Troki, Solomon, 161
+
+_Variae Lectiones_ (of the Talmud), 261
+
+Viterbo, Abraham Chayim, 175, 176
+
+_Vorsugerin_, 324
+
+_Wars of the Lord_, 101
+
+_Watchman_, the, 59
+
+Weiss, T. H., 65, 97, 99, 182, 183, 185-187, 191-197, 206, 207, 209-212
+
+Wellhausen, 243
+
+_Wisdom of Solomon_, 127, 154
+
+_Woilkennivdicke_, 324
+
+_Yediah_, 119
+
+_Yeshibah_, pl. _Yeshiboth_, 94-96, 293
+
+Yom-Tob Heller, 196
+
+_Zaddik_, pl. _Zaddikim_ (Zaddikism), 36-44, 53, 298
+
+Zadoc, 245
+
+_Zebachim_, 86
+
+Zedner, 254-256
+
+_Zehub_, 137-139
+
+Zerahiah Hallevi of Gerona (or Gerondi), 100, 101, 111
+
+_Zion-Elegy_, 208
+
+_Zobeoth_, 314
+
+_Zohar_, 18, 19, 71, 91, 133, 258
+
+Zunz, Leopold, 44, 52, 56, 60, 65, 73, 97, 183, 279, 305
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 SUBJOINED IS A LIST OF SELECTED AUTHORITIES ON THE SUBJECT OF THE
+      CHASSIDIM.--_Historical and Bibliographical Works_: Graetz (xi.
+      including the polemical literature quoted in the Appendix), Jost,
+      Peter Beer, M. Bodek ({~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, Lemberg, 1865), A. Walden ({~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, Warschau, 1864), Finn ({~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Wilna, 1860), D.
+      Kahana ({~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} in the periodical {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, iv.), Zederbaum ({~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~},
+      Odessa, 1868). _Essays and Satires_: T. Erter ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Wien, 1858), S.
+      Szant� (_Jahrbuch f�r Israeliten_, p. 108-178, 1867), A. Gottlober
+      (in his periodical {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, iii.), L. L�w (Ben Chananjah, ii.),
+      Rudermann ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, vi.), Rapoport ({~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Lemberg, 1873, p. 10),
+      Fr�hlich ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, Warschau, 1876, p. 63 _seq._), S. Maimon
+      (_Autobiographie_, Berlin, 1792). Compare also the Hebrew novels by
+      P. Smolensky, L. Gordon, M. Brandst�tter, A. Gottlober and B.
+      Horowitz (German). _Occasional references_ to the liturgy or the
+      system of the Chassidim in the "Responses" of R. Ezechiel Landau,
+      Moses Sopher, E. Flekeles and T. Steinhart, and in the works of
+      Israel Samostsch, Salomon Chelma and Chayim Walosin. Compare also
+      Zunz (_Gottesdienstliche Vortr�ge_, p. 477) and L. L�w (_Mannheimer
+      Album_, Wien, 1874), Senior Sachs ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, i. 61) and B. L. Zeitlin
+      ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Paris, 1846). The best book on the whole subject is E.
+      Zweifel's work {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} (Zitomyr 1868, three parts), which I
+      strongly recommend to students. The books written by the Chassidim
+      would amount to more than 200. They are catalogued by Bodek and
+      Walden. I shall only draw the attention of the student to the works
+      of Beer, Salomon Ladier, and Mendel Witipsker on one side, who
+      developed the theory of the Immanence, and those of Nachman Braslaw
+      and Melech Liezensker, who, on the other hand, carried the theory of
+      Zaddikism to its utmost consequences. The student will find a fair
+      collection of sayings and sentences arranged according to
+      theological subjects in the books {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} and {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} (Anon.,
+      Lemberg, 1876).
+
+    2 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "pious ones" (Ps. xxxvii. 28, lxx. 2, etc.). The reader is
+      probably acquainted with the term from the Maccabean history (1
+      Macc. ii. 42, vii. 13), in which the strict party, opposed to all
+      Hellenistic influence, are called "Assideans" [R.V. "Hasidaeans"],
+      Gr. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}.
+
+    3 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "The Master of the Name," a term usually applied to
+      exorcists, who cast out devils and performed other miracles through
+      adjuration by the name of God (or angels). The unbelieving Rabbis
+      maintained indeed that in his exorcisms Baalshem employed "impure
+      names" (of devils), whilst the Chassidim, on the other hand,
+      declared that their Master never used "names" at all, his miracles
+      being performed by the divine in Baalshem to which all nature owes
+      obedience. Occasionally the Chassidim call him {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} (The Man
+      of Good Name), in allusion to Eccles. vii. 1, shortened by some into
+      _Besht_.
+
+    4 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}--"House of Research" or of "study" (of the Law), but in
+      which also divine service is held thrice a day.
+
+    5 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}--"Disciple of the Wise," the usual title of a scholar or
+      student.
+
+    6 A Jewish sect, so called after their founder Jacob Leibovicz Frank,
+      who was himself one of the apostles of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai
+      Tsebi of Smyrna in Turkey. Among his other doctrines he taught also
+      a sort of Trinity, consisting of the Holy Ancient One, the Holy King
+      or the Messiah, and a feminine person in the Godhead, in which he,
+      like his master, represented the Second Person. The sect ultimately
+      abolished the Law, and, after many controversies with the Rabbinic
+      Jews, went over to Catholicism, the dominant religion in Poland, by
+      which they were soon absorbed. Eybesch�tz, chief Rabbi of Prague and
+      Hamburg, was suspected by Emden to be a secret adherent of
+      Shabbethai Tsebi, which was tantamount to apostasy from Judaism.
+      Eybesch�tz protested. The litigants excommunicated each other, and
+      the Rabbis divided into two camps, taking sides either with Emden or
+      with his antagonist.
+
+    7 The works of Maimonides or Moses b. Maimon (1135-1204) are too many
+      to be enumerated here. The most important are the _Guide of the
+      Perplexed_ ({~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}) and his _Compendium of the Law_ ({~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}). Judah Hallevi or Abul Hassan flourished in the first half of
+      the twelfth century. He is well known as a poet by his _Divan_ and
+      as a deep religious thinker by his _Cusari_. The former contains
+      also many songs of a secular nature. Isaac Alfasi (died 1103) is
+      best known by his Compendium of the Talmud, which was so greatly
+      admired by his contemporaries that they declared it could never have
+      been composed "without the aid of the Holy Spirit." R. Solomon b.
+      Isaac, also called by his initials Rashi (1040-1105), is well known
+      by his commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud.
+
+    8 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}.
+
+    9 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, _Sepher_.
+
+   10 The Hebrew word is {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, meaning subtle discussion and sharp
+      distinction. The word is closely related to {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} or {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, which
+      means "pepper" or "seasoning."
+
+   11 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL PE~} = R. Meir Shiff, whose _novell�_ on the Talmud are of a
+      very subtle kind, and were very popular with the students of this
+      work.
+
+   12 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}--{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "The Repeaters," and "The Interpreters." The sayings
+      and statements of the former are embodied in the Mishnah, a work
+      compiled by R. Judah the Saint about 220 A.C., and covering a period
+      of about 250 years (30 B.C.-220 A.C.). The latter occupied
+      themselves mainly with the interpretation of the Mishnah, and their
+      discussions and controversies are incorporated in the Talmud of
+      Jerusalem and that of Babylon, and extend over the period from
+      220-500 A.C. The Talmud of Jerusalem is mostly the product of the
+      schools of Palestine. The Talmud of Babylon is a growth of that
+      country. The authorities of this latter Talmud being far away from
+      the place where the first great Rabbis lived and laboured, their
+      traditions are naturally not so historically reliable as those of
+      the Talmud of Jerusalem. The authorities of Palestine were also
+      simpler in their method of interpretation. These again are followed
+      by the Babylonian schools of new interpreters (of the Talmud).
+
+   13 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, an expression that goes back as far as to the _Zohar_.
+
+   14 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, "Brightness." Cf. Dan. xii. 3,--the authors of "The Brightness"
+      pretending to be the _Maskilim_ or "Wise Ones" mentioned in this
+      verse.
+
+   15 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   16 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   17 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   18 {~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}, pl. {~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   19 R. Johanan b. Zaccai was a contemporary of the Apostles, and died
+      about 110 A.D. He belonged to the peace party in opposition to the
+      Zealots, and obtained permission from the Roman government to
+      establish the school of Jamnia, which, after the destruction of the
+      Temple, became the centre of Jewish religious life. See also p. 188.
+
+   20 R. Saadiah Gaon was born in Egypt in 892, and died as the head of
+      the school of Sura in Babylon in 942. He is known by his
+      translations of and commentaries on the Bible, and many other works,
+      especially his philosophical treatise _Creeds and Opinions_. He was
+      also a great controversialist. Most of his polemical writings are
+      directed against the Caraites ({~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}) or "Scripturalists," a Jewish
+      sect founded by Anan in the eighth century. They protested against
+      the Oral Law, and denied Tradition. On the title "Gaon," see note 1
+      to Elijah Wilna.
+
+   21 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, _Moreh Nebuchim_, generally considered to be the
+      greatest philosophical work by any Jewish thinker.
+
+   22 R. Abraham Ibn Ezra, who spent some time in London, died about 1161.
+      He is best known by his commentaries on the Bible. He was the first
+      writer who doubted the unity of the book of Isaiah.
+
+   23 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+   24 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, meaning "sages" and "scribes," but used by
+      later writers in the sense given in the text.
+
+   25 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, dealing with the laws relating to the firstfruits which were
+      brought to the temple (Ex. xxiii. 19). The processions formed by the
+      pilgrims are very vividly described after the said tractate by
+      Delitzsch in his _Iris_, p. 190 _sq._ (English ed.). See also by the
+      same author, _J�disches Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu_, p. 66 _seq._
+
+   26 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Fast," or {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Fasts."
+
+   27 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, "Order of Damages," treating of the civil law of the
+      Jews, the procedure of courts of justice, and kindred subjects. This
+      Order also includes the tractate {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, _Aboth_ or "Sayings of the
+      Fathers," which is very important for the study of Rabbinic doctrine
+      and ethics.
+
+   28 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Order of Purities," dealing with the laws regarding
+      Levitical purity.
+
+   29 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} (or {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}), {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}. These three works form the
+      oldest Rabbinic commentary on Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
+      Deuteronomy. The authorities cited in these commentaries all belong
+      to the period of the Tannaim. See above, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+      Constituting as they do, to a certain extent, one of the sources
+      used by the _Gemara_, they are naturally indispensable for a
+      scientific study of the Talmud.
+
+   30 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "_Hatsophe_," a spirited satire against the orthodox and
+      especially against the then prevailing belief in the transmigration
+      of souls taught by the mystical schools. The book is written in the
+      purest biblical Hebrew.
+
+   31 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+   32 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, pl. {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} (_Midrashim_), "Research," "Researches," a name
+      usually applied to the homiletical part of the Rabbinic literature.
+      The most important collection of this kind is the _Midrash Rabbah_
+      to the Pentateuch. The usual way of quoting it is _Genesis Rabbah_,
+      _Exodus Rabbah_, and so on.
+
+   33 See above, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote
+      on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   34 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Heretics," applied to the first Christians, and more so to
+      certain Gnostic sects.
+
+   35 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, see below, p. 186 and _note_. [Transcriber's Note:
+      The footnote on "laws given to Moses on Sinai."]
+
+   36 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} or {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}--{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "rule," "method,"--"narrative." The former deals
+      with the legal side of the Scriptures, and is thus more of a
+      juristic nature; the latter represents a collection of homilies
+      having mostly as their text the historical and exhortatory parts of
+      the Bible, and is thus more of an edifying character. The
+      theological side of Judaism, as well as its ideal aspirations and
+      Messianic hopes, find their expression in the Agadah. The two words
+      are also used as adjectives, as _Halachic_ (legalistic, juristic,
+      and obligatory) and _Agadic_ (poetic, edifying, and hyperbolic).
+
+   37 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, a sort of encyclop�dia to the Talmud, of which only the
+      first letter appeared.
+
+   38 Menahem Azariah de Rossi, an Italian Jew who flourished in the first
+      half of the sixteenth century. His great work, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, _Meor
+      Enayim_, "Light of the Eyes," is the first attempt made by a Jew to
+      submit the statements of the Talmud to a critical examination, and
+      to question the value of tradition in its historical records.
+
+   39 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+   40 Italian Jews of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The one,
+      Elijah Delmedigo, wrote an Examination of Religion, whilst his
+      grandson, Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, wrote various pamphlets of a
+      deeply sceptical character. See Geiger's Introduction to his _Melo
+      Chofnayim_ (Berlin, 1840).
+
+   41 {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, "The Great One." The authorities of the Babylonian schools
+      after the sixth century were also called the Gaonim ({~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}),
+      "[their] Eminences." The title was also given afterwards to great
+      Rabbis distinguished for their learning.
+
+   42 R. Joseph Caro (1488-1575) lived in Safed. The title of his code is
+      {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}, _Prepared Table_. This is a code of the Oral Law compiled
+      from the Rabbinic literature.
+
+   43 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, containing an account of the Jewish worthies of that
+      city.
+
+   44 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}.
+
+   45 A famous mystic of the sixteenth century, from Safed, who was the
+      more admired the less his pupils understood him.
+
+   46 Hai was the last of the authorities called Gaon. With his death
+      (1038) the schools of Babylon fell into decay and soon disappeared.
+
+   47 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, treating of the voluntary offerings brought by the pilgrims
+      to Jerusalem.
+
+   48 {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Perfection or Supplementary Explanations." By this is
+      understood the interpretation given to the Mishnah by the schools in
+      Palestine and Babylon. See above, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+      [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   49 See Dean Church's _St. Anselm_, from which this story is taken.
+
+   50 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Addition" (to the Mishnah), but also containing only the
+      sayings and discussions of the period of the Tannaim.
+
+   51 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Order of the World," dealing with the Chronology of the
+      Bible, and dating from about the end of the second century.
+
+   52 These "Minor Tractates" include, among others, treatises on
+      proselytes, on the laws concerning funerals, the writing of the Law,
+      and the like. Others are more of an edifying nature, treating of
+      good manners, conduct, etc.
+
+   53 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   54 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Eighteen." They are recited thrice a day, and form the
+      original germ of the prayers, from which a very rich liturgy
+      developed in the course of time.
+
+   55 The titles of the old authorities from 70 B.C. to 500 A.C. See
+      above, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on
+      the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   56 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, "Prince," or "Patriarch," religious head, of the
+      Jews (not political), and "Father (or president) of the Court of
+      Justice."
+
+   57 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Sacrifices," "Offerings." They treat of the laws
+      relating to sacrifices and meal-offerings.
+
+   58 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, the laws relating to diverse seeds and garments of diverse
+      sorts. Cf. Deut. xxii. 9-11.
+
+   59 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}, "Teller," a sort of travelling preacher.
+
+   60 {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}, "palm branch." Cf. Lev. xxiii. 40.
+
+   61 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "High School," or "Academy," in which the Rabbinic literature
+      is studied.
+
+   62 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   63 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, a mythical river which is supposed to stop its course on
+      Sabbath.
+
+   64 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, sing. {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, "Young man," by which term the Jews usually
+      understand the _alumni_ of their Talmudical schools.
+
+   65 Levi b. Gershom (1286-1344) is generally regarded as the greatest
+      successor of Maimonides. Besides his rationalistic commentaries on
+      the Bible, he wrote various treatises on metaphysics, mathematics,
+      astronomy, medicine, etc.
+
+   66 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   67 In Steinschneider's _Catalogue of the Bodleian Library_, under the
+      name of Moses Nachmanides, pp. 1947-1965, all the works which are
+      ascribed to this author are put together, and also discussed as to
+      their authenticity. There are only to be added the new edition of
+      the _Derasha_ by Jellinek (Vienna, 1872), in which the variants from
+      Schorr's MS. ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~}, viii. 162) are already incorporated; a new
+      edition of the {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, and the commentary to Is. lii.-liii. by
+      Steinschneider (Berlin, 1860); a _Sermon_ for the New Year, ed. by
+      H. Berliner (_Libanon_, v. 564); and another Sermon at a wedding
+      (?), ed. by Schorr (_Hechalus_, xii. 3). For the literature on
+      Nachmanides, besides the references given by Steinschneider, in his
+      _Catalogue_, and the Addenda, p. cxviii. (cf. also the pedigree in
+      the _Catalogue_ 2305), see also Graetz, _Geschichte_, vii., pp.
+      112-143, and p. 147 _seq._; Michael, {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, No. 1125, and Weiss,
+      {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}, v. 4 _seq._; Perles' _Monatsschrift_, 1860, p. 175;
+      Zomber, _ibid._ 421; and Z. Frankel, _ibid._ 1868, p. 449, and _The
+      Jewish Quarterly Review_, iv. 245 _seq._ For Nachmanides'
+      disputation we have to add M. Loeb in the _R�vue des �tudes Juives_,
+      xv. 1 _seq._, and xviii. 52 (about Abner), and Dr. Neubauer's Essay
+      on Jewish Controversy in the _Expositor_, vol. vii. (third series),
+      p. 98 _seq._, with the references given there. See also his article
+      on the Bahir and the Zohar in _The Jewish Quarterly Review_, iv.
+      357. With regard to Nachmanides' mystical system see the references
+      to S. Sachs (whose remarks are most suggestive), Krochmal, and
+      Jellinek in Steinschneider, col. 1949 and 1964, Perles'
+      _Monatsschrift_, 1858, p. 83 _seq._, and Steinschneider in the Heb.
+      _Bibliographie_, i. 34. See also Professor Kaufmann's _Die
+      Geschichte der Attributenlehre_, and the references given in the
+      index under this name. The _Novell�_ by his son R. Nachman, alluded
+      to in the text, are in the University Library, Cambridge (Add. 1187,
+      2). The {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} is extant in the British Museum, MS. Add. 26,894,
+      and the passage quoted by De Rossi is to be found on p. 163_b_, but
+      a few words are erased by the censor. As to the poem given at the
+      end of this paper, see Zunz, _Synagogale Poesie_, p. 478; Landshut,
+      _Amude ha-Abodah_ _s.v._, the references in Sachs' _Religi�se Poesie
+      der Juden_, and Luzzatto in the _Ozar Nechmad_, ii. 27. Compare also
+      Professor Cheyne's _The Origin of the Psalter_, p. 421.
+
+   68 New Year's Day, on the first of Tishri. It is in autumn.
+
+   69 A famous Rabbi of the fifteenth century, known by his various
+      casuistical and philosophical works.
+
+   70 Chiefly known through his controversial writings against the
+      adherents of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai Tsebi. He was for some
+      time the Rabbi of the Portuguese congregation in London.
+
+   71 The main objections of the opponents of Maimonides were directed
+      against his rationalistic notions of Revelation, and his
+      allegorising interpretation of the Scriptures, which amounted in
+      some places to a denial of miracles. He was also suspected of having
+      denied bodily resurrection. A history of Jewish rationalism is still
+      a desideratum. I am certain that it would prove at least as
+      interesting as Reuter's _Geschichte der religi�sen Aufkl�rung im
+      Mittelalter_ (Berlin, 1845-60).
+
+   72 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   73 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Homilies." See above, p. 64 and _note_.
+
+   74 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "The end of the Redemption," that is the time when the
+      advent of the Messiah is to be expected.
+
+   75 This patriarch is famous in Jewish legend for his hospitality. See
+      Beer's _Leben Abrahams_, pp. 37 and 56.
+
+   76 This is the quorum necessary to form a congregation ({~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}) for the
+      purpose of holding divine service.
+
+   77 By _Zobah_, or _Aram Zobah_, the Jews of the Middle Ages usually
+      understood Aleppo. See Benjamin of Tudela's _Itinerary_, i. 88, ii.
+      124 (London and Berlin, 1840-41).
+
+   78 See below, p. 141, where a full translation of the letter is given.
+
+   79 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, a compendium of the Law, dating from the ninth
+      century, by R. Simon Caro.
+
+   80 R. Simlai flourished in Palestine in the third century. He is best
+      known as an Agadic teacher and a great controversialist. According
+      to him, 613 commandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai, of
+      which 365 are prohibitive laws, whilst the remaining 248 are
+      positive injunctions.
+
+   81 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, "Treatise on Reward (and Punishment)."
+
+   82 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}.
+
+   83 Ps. cix. 4; {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   84 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   85 {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}.
+
+   86 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Knowledge," "Foreknowledge," "Omniscience."
+
+   87 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}, {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   88 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}. See Exod. xix. 5.
+
+   89 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   90 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}, {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+   91 According to a Jewish tradition (the date of which is uncertain) the
+      advent of the Messiah, the Son of David, will be preceded by that of
+      the Messiah, the Son of Joseph. The latter will perish in the battle
+      against Gog and Magog (the Antichrist of Jewish literature), but
+      will soon be brought back to life on the appearance of the former.
+      Cf. G. H. Dalman's _Der leidende und der sterbende Messias der
+      Synagoge_ (Berlin, 1881).
+
+   92 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "In the beginning," Gen. i. 1.
+
+   93 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}; Job xxvii. 12.
+
+   94 _Chagigah_ 14_b_. The activity of these four Rabbis falls chiefly in
+      the second century. R. Akiba died as a martyr in the Hadrianic
+      persecution (about 130). Elisha b. Abuyah, the apostate, was usually
+      called {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, _Acher_, "the other one."
+
+   95 The former lived in the twelfth, the latter in the sixteenth,
+      century. They are both known for their hostility to philosophy.
+
+   96 Bachya wrote in the eleventh century a famous book called {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, _The Duties of the Heart_. For the others see above, p. 13
+      and _note_, p. 49 and _note_, p. 102 and _note_, p. 97 and _note_,
+      p. 71 and _note_. They all belong to the rationalistic school.
+
+   97 A younger contemporary of Maimonides, who translated the _Guide_
+      from Arabic into Hebrew.
+
+   98 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}. See above, p. 18. R. Moses Cordovora, the author of the
+      {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, lived in Safed in the sixteenth century. For R. Isaac Loria,
+      the author of the {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, see above, note 5 to Elijah Wilna.
+
+   99 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  100 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, a forgery by a Proven�al Jew of the thirteenth century,
+      who attributed it to a Rabbi of the first century.
+
+  101 This hymn is now incorporated in her excellent little book, _Songs
+      of Zion_, pp. 13-15.
+
+  102 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}, a gold piece. The country and the date of the writer not being
+      certain, it is impossible to determine the value of this coin.
+
+  103 The lawfulness of eating this fish (= sturgeon?) was contested for
+      many centuries, and the controversy still continues.
+
+  104 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}, a smaller coin than the Zehub.
+
+  105 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}, "Hear," the verses from Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, and Num. xv.
+      37-41, recited twice a day by the Jews.
+
+  106 _Sabbath_, 30_b_.
+
+  107 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}, pl. {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} (_Minhagim_), applied usually to those ritual
+      customs and ceremonies for which there is no distinct authority in
+      the Scriptures or even in the Talmud.
+
+  108 _Jerusalem_, in Mendelssohn's _S�mmtliche Werke_ (Vienna, 1838),
+      especially from p. 264 onwards, and a letter by him published in
+      Frankel-Graetz's _Monatsschrift_, 1859, p. 173. For Mendelssohn's
+      position, see Graetz's _Geschichte_, xi. 86 _seq._, especially p. 88
+      and note 1; Kayserling, _Leben und Werke_ of M., 2d ed., p. 394;
+      Steinheim, _Moses Mendelssohn_ (Hamburg, 1840), p. 30 _seq._;
+      Holdheim, _Moses Mendelssohn_ (Berlin, 1859), p. 18 _seq._; Leopold
+      L�w's pamphlet, _J�dische Dogmen_ (Pesth, 1871).
+
+  109 See the Commentaries on Maimonides' {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, especially R. Simeon
+      Duran's {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}; cf. also ancient and modern commentaries on
+      Exod. xx. 2.
+
+  110 See _Siphra_ (ed. Weiss), pp. 86_b_, 93_b_.
+
+  111 _Baba Bathra_, 14_b_; cf. F�rst's _Kanon_, p. 15.
+
+  112 See _Sanhedrin_, 38_b_, and _Pseudo-Jonathan_ to Gen. iv. 8.
+
+  113 _Mechilta_, 33_b_.
+
+  114 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}, Lat. Epicurus.
+
+  115 See _Mishnah_, _Sanhedrin_, x. e, � 1, and Talmud, _ibid._ 90_a_ and
+      _b_, and Rabbinowicz's _Variae Lectiones_, ix. p. 247 notes. Besides
+      the ordinary commentaries on the Talmud, account must also be taken
+      of the remarks of Crescas, Duran, Albo, and Abarbanel on the
+      subject. Cf. also K�mpf in the _Monatsschrift_ (1863), p. 144
+      _seq._; Oppenheim, _ibid._ (1864), p. 144; Friedmann in the _Beth
+      Talmud_, i. p. 210 _seq._ See also Talmudical Dictionaries, _s.v._
+      {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}. The explanation I have adopted agrees partly with
+      Friedmann's and partly with Oppenheim's views.
+
+  116 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iii. � 9, and iv. � 22.
+
+  117 See {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~} (Jovslow, 1835), p. 48. In my exposition of the
+      dogmas of the Caraites I have mainly followed the late Dr. Frankl's
+      article "Karaiten" in Ersch u. Gruber's _Encyclop�die_ (sec. ii.
+      vol. xxxvi. pp. 12-18). See also his _Ein mutazilitischer Kalam_ and
+      his _Beitr�ge zur Literaturgeschichte der Kar�er_ (Berlin, 1887) on
+      Bashazi. Cf. also Jost's _Geschichte_, ii. c. 13.
+
+  118 Kairowan was one of the greatest centres of Jewish learning in North
+      Africa during that period.
+
+  119 See, however, Professor D. Kaufmann's note in the _Jewish Quarterly
+      Review_, i. p. 441. From this it would seem that the creed of R.
+      Judah Hallevi may be formulated in the following articles:--The
+      conviction of the existence of God, of His eternity, of His guidance
+      of our fathers, of the Divine Origin of the Law, and of the proof of
+      all this, the pledge or token of its truth, the exodus from Egypt.
+
+  120 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, _Emunah Ramah_, pp. 44 and 69; cf. Gulmann,
+      _Monatsschrift_, 1878, p. 304.
+
+  121 For the various translations of the Thirteen Articles which were
+      originally composed in Arabic, see Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col.
+      1887. Cf. Rosin, _Ethik des Maimonides_, p. 30; Weiss, _Beth
+      Talmud_, i. p. 330, and _Ben Chananjah_, 1863, p. 942, and 1864, pp.
+      648 and 697, and Landshut, {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, p. 231.
+
+  122 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}. See pp. 1-16.
+
+  123 See _Hammaskir_, viii. pp. 63 and 103.
+
+  124 See Steinschneider, _Cat. M�nchen_, No. 210.
+
+  125 See the Collection {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}, by Ashkenazi, pp. 56_b_ _seq._
+
+  126 See Albo, c. iii. Probably identical with the author mentioned by
+      Duran, 13_b_.
+
+  127 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, "Sepher Nizzachon."
+
+  128 See {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~} (ed. Johannisburg), preface, and pp. 20_a_, 44_b_, 59_b_,
+      and elsewhere. The style of this author is very obscure. Cf. Joel's
+      pamphlet on this author (Breslau, 1874).
+
+  129 See the first pages of the {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} (Leghorn, 1758), and his {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, pp. 13
+      _seq._
+
+  130 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, _Ikkarim_, "Fundamentals."
+
+  131 See _Ikkarim_, i. c. 23, and Maimonides' _Commentary on the Mishnah_
+      (end of tractate Maccoth). On Albo compare Schlesinger's
+      Introduction and notes to the _Ikkarim_, Joel's pamphlet, p. 82;
+      Paulus, _Monatsschrift_, 1874, p. 463, and Br�ll's _Jahrb._ iv. p.
+      52.
+
+  132 I know his work from a MS. in the British Museum, Orient. 39.
+
+  133 {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, _Derech Emunah_. Cf. Steinschneider, _Monatsschrift_,
+      1883, p. 79 _seq._
+
+  134 See {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}, gate 55.
+
+  135 See his {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} and {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  136 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  137 See {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, ed. Reggio, p. 28.
+
+  138 See {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} (Venice, 1707), 16_a_ and 23_a_. His language is very
+      vague.
+
+  139 See the Collection by Ashkenazi (as above, note 18), p. 29_b_.
+
+  140 See his {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, p. 331.
+
+  141 See Weiss's admirable monograph on Maimonides, published in the
+      _Beth Talmud_, i.
+
+  142 The Hebrew title of the work is {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}.
+
+  143 That is, vows of an ascetic nature (not vows or oaths enforced by a
+      court of justice), which the tribunal could annul when there was
+      sufficient reason for it.
+
+  144 The ten Rabbis who are named as the bearers of tradition during the
+      period between 170 and 30 B.C. The "pair" in each case is supposed
+      to have consisted of the president and the vice-president of the
+      Sanhedrin for the time being. See, however, Kuenen, _Gesammelte
+      Schriften_, p. 49 _seq._
+
+  145 {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+  146 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}. They amount, in the whole of Rabbinic literature,
+      to about forty, of which more than ten concern the preparation of
+      the phylacteries, whilst others relate to the libations of water at
+      the Feast of Tabernacles and similar subjects.
+
+  147 This is the time when the school of R. Johanan b. Zaccai began its
+      activity. Others place the Tannaitic age in Hillel's time (30 B.C.).
+
+  148 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  149 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, lit. "Court of Justice," as above, note 16 to Elijah Wilna,
+      but it means also a sort of permanent Synod, in which of course
+      justice was also administered as a part of religion.
+
+  150 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Evidences given by Witnesses." The tractate consists mostly
+      of a number of laws attested by various Rabbis as having come down
+      to them as old traditions.
+
+  151 The family of Hillel, which was supposed to be descended from the
+      house of David, supplied the Jews with patriarchs for many
+      generations. Gamaliel II. flourished about 120 A.C., whilst Simon b.
+      Gamaliel's activity as Patriarch falls about 160 A.C.
+
+  152 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, _Semachoth_. It is a euphemistic title, the tractate dealing
+      with the laws relating to funeral ceremonies and mourning.
+
+  153 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, "Elucidators" or "Explainers." The heads of the schools in
+      Babylon during the fifth and sixth centuries were so designated.
+
+  154 The Rabbinic Jews of the dispersion add one day to each festival,
+      and thus celebrate the Passover eight days, the Feast of Weeks two
+      days, etc. The custom arose out of the uncertainty about the first
+      day of the month, the prerogative of fixing the New Moon resting
+      with the great _Beth Din_ in Palestine, which had not always the
+      means of communicating in time the evidence given before them that
+      the New Moon had been seen by qualified witnesses. The prerogative
+      was abolished in the fourth century, and the calendar fixed for all
+      future time, but the additional day is still kept by the Rabbinic
+      Jews as the "Custom of their Fathers."
+
+  155 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Chambers (of Heaven)" and the "Measure of the
+      Stature," mystical works in which occasionally gross
+      anthropomorphisms are to be found. Their authorship is unknown.
+
+  156 _Sabbath_, 55_a_.
+
+  157 _Sayings of the Fathers_ (ed. C. Taylor), v. 12-15. See also
+      _Sabbath_, 32 _seq._, and _Mechilta_ (ed. Friedman), 95_b_.
+      _Arachin_, 16_a_.
+
+  158 See _Mechilta_, 25_a_, 32_b_. _Gen. Rabbah_, ch. 48, and _Tossephta
+      Sotah_, iv. 7, and parallels.
+
+  159 _Taanith_, 21_a_.
+
+  160 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iv. 5.
+
+  161 _Baba Bathra_, 9_b_.
+
+  162 _Yoma_, 39_a_.
+
+  163 _Berachoth_, 33_a_.
+
+  164 _Sabbath_, 13_b_.
+
+  165 _Berachoth_, 7_a_.
+
+  166 See _Mechilta_, 68_b_, and parallels. _Siphra_, 112_b_. _Pessikta_
+      of R. Kahana, 167_b_. Cp. _Sanhedrin_, 44_a_.
+
+  167 _Aboth_ de R. Nathan, 40_a_, 59_b_, and 62_b_.
+
+  168 _Baba Bathra_, 10_a_.
+
+  169 _Eccles. Rabbah_, ix. 7.
+
+  170 5_a_.
+
+  171 7_b_.
+
+  172 See _Mechilta_, 95_b_, and parallels.
+
+  173 See _Kiddushin_, 40_b_. _Mechilta_, 63_b_. _Lev. Rabbah_, iv.
+
+  174 See _Sabbath_, 54_a_.
+
+  175 _Exodus Rabbah_, c. 35, and parallels.
+
+  176 See _Negaim_, ii. 1.
+
+  177 _Exod. Rabbah_, c. 46.
+
+  178 _Taanith_, 11_a_.
+
+  179 See _Berachoth_, 5_a_.
+
+  180 _Tanchuma_, {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, � 2. Cp. _Mechilta_, 72_b_.
+
+  181 _Siphr�_, 73_b_, and parallels.
+
+  182 _Taanith_, 8_a_.
+
+  183 _Arachin_, 16_b_.
+
+  184 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iv. 15.
+
+  185 See _Chagigah_, 5_a_.
+
+  186 _Sabbath_, 55_a_.
+
+  187 _Menachoth_, 29_b_.
+
+  188 _Taanith_, 25_a_.
+
+  189 _Gen. Rabbah_, xxvii.; _Pessikta_, 136_b_; _Sanhedrin_, vi. 5;
+      _Berachoth_, 7_a_.
+
+  190 _Sayings of the Fathers_, i. 3, p. 27, ed. Taylor. See also note 8.
+
+  191 _Abodah Zarah_, 19_a_; _Siphr�_, 79_b_.
+
+  192 _Berachoth_, 58_b_.
+
+  193 See _Exod. R._, 30, and parallels.
+
+  194 See {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, i. 9.
+
+  195 See {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, 33_b_.
+
+  196 See _Sabbath_, 55_b_, and _Siphra_, 27_a_.
+
+  197 _Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of the Progress of Thought from
+      Old Testament to New Testament_, by C. H. Toy, Professor in Harvard
+      University. London, 1890.
+
+  198 See _Pessikta_ of R. Kahana, 61_b_, and parallels, and _Erubin_,
+      13_b_.
+
+  199 Tal. Jer., _Sabbath_, 5_b_.
+
+  200 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, the name of an angel, already found in the Talmud, but
+      playing a more important part in the _Book of Chambers_, where he is
+      identified with Enoch. The etymology of the word is doubtful, some
+      authors considering it to be of Persian origin (_Mithra_); others
+      again deriving it from the Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+  201 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  202 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, "The Word," sometimes substituted for God. See J. Levy's
+      _Chald�isches W�rterbuch_, _s.v._
+
+  203 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  204 _Mechilta_, 104_a_.
+
+  205 See Tal. Jer., _Yoma_, 45_b_. Cf. Maimonides, _Mishneh Torah_, {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}.
+
+  206 _Tosephta Berackoth_, iii. 7.
+
+  207 _Sabbath_, 10_b_. The name of the Rabbi is not given, but the fact
+      that R. Simeon b. Gamaliel (160 A.C.) already refers to this
+      interpretation makes it clear that its anonymous author must have
+      lived at least a generation before.
+
+  208 {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}.
+
+  209 See _Midrash_ to the Psalms xcii. and _Deut. Rabbah_ iii. The Rabbis
+      perceived in the words {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~} (Isa. lviii. 13), a command to
+      make the Sabbath a day of pleasure, whilst the word {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL PE~} was
+      understood by them to mean "needs," "wants," or "business" (_not_
+      "pleasure"). Cf. _Sabbath_, 113_a_ and _b_.
+
+  210 See _Gen. Rabbah_, xi. (and parallels), and _Sabbath_, 119_a_.
+
+  211 See _Maaseh Torah_ (ed. Sch�nblum) and _Deut. Rabbah_, i.
+
+  212 _Sabbath_, 25_b_ and 119_a_.
+
+  213 _Betsah_, 16_a_. Cf. Baer's notes in his _Prayer-Book_, p. 203
+      _seq._
+
+  214 See _Sabbath_, 119_b_, and _Gen. Rabbah_, xi.
+
+  215 See _Sabbath_, 10_b_, and _Gen. Rabbah_, _ibid._
+
+  216 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  217 _Nazir_, 23_b_.
+
+  218 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} by R. Isaac b. Moses of Vienna (thirteenth century), mostly
+      on legal subjects.
+
+  219 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, Yuchasin.
+
+  220 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, Miklal.
+
+  221 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}, the former treating of the agricultural laws of the
+      Bible, the latter of those relating to the Sabbath, Passover, and
+      other festivals.
+
+  222 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, "Cycle," containing the liturgy for the festivals.
+
+  223 Since then edited by the Mekize Nirdamim.
+
+  224 Eve of the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles.
+
+  225 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~} {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}. {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+  226 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  227 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  228 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, Yalkut.
+
+  229 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  230 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}.
+
+  231 {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  232 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+  233 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}.
+
+  234 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}.
+
+  235 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  236 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  237 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}. {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  238 The main authorities on the subjects of this essay are _Die
+      Lebensalter_, by Dr. Leopold L�w; _The Jewish Rite of Circumcision_,
+      by Dr. Asher; an article by Dr. Perles in the Graetz _Jubelschrift_,
+      p. 23 _seq._; _Merkw�rdigkeiten der Juden_, by Schudt; the {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} and other works on ritual customs; G�demann's _Geschichte
+      des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden_; and _Das Kind in
+      Brauch und Sitte der V�lker_, by Dr. Ploss.
+
+  239 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  240 {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, Is. xxxiv. 14.
+
+  241 See above, note 39 to Nachmanides. [Transcriber's Note: The footnote
+      on _Shema_.]
+
+  242 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Covenant of Circumcision." This is the usual expression
+      in Hebrew literature for the rite of circumcision.
+
+  243 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+  244 {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  245 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  246 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, on educational matters.
+
+  247 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "business," or "wares."
+
+  248 I am indebted for the English adaptation to Mrs. Henry Lucas.
+
+  249 _Bereshith Rabbah_, chapter xx. For another reading see {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}
+      (ed. Cracow), p. 374.
+
+  250 _Abodah Zarah_, 3_b_.
+
+  251 This is the way in which Deut. xxxi. 10-12 was explained.
+
+  252 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Scribes"; treating of the regulations concerning the
+      writing of the Law, but containing also much liturgical matter.
+
+  253 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, by which name the Jews of the Spanish rite are designated.
+
+  254 {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, a controversial work published by Wagenseil. See above,
+      p. 203, for another victory.
+
+  255 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, who is probably known to the English reader from
+      Longfellow's poem.
+
+  256 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  257 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, "Sanctification"--"benediction"--on the eve of Sabbath, which
+      is pronounced over a cup of wine.
+
+  258 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, or on the 23rd of Tishri, when the last portion from the
+      Pentateuch is read.
+
+  259 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, "Praise," _i.e._ Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.
+
+  260 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW POINT HIRIQ~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, the name of a prayer commencing {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, "Magnified and
+      sanctified be," etc.
+
+  261 Prayer beginning {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}, "Bless ye," etc.
+
+  262 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, beginning of a prayer, "Blessed be He," etc.
+
+  263 See Sch�rer's _Die Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom_, p. 24. Cf.
+      _Hebr�ische Bibliographie_, xix. p. 79.
+
+  264 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  265 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  266 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}.
+
+  267 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}. In olden times the weekly lesson from the Law used to be read
+      by seven members of the congregation who were "called up" for this
+      purpose; the Priest and the Levite took precedence of laymen for
+      this honour. At the present day, the members of the congregation are
+      still called up, but the actual reading is performed by an official.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+
+
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+CREDITS
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+***FINIS***
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+        "margin-top: 4.00em; margin-bottom: 4.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
+            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em">The Project
+            Gutenberg EBook of Studies in Judaism, First Series by Solomon
+            Schechter</p>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+          "margin-top: 3.00em; margin-bottom: 3.00em">
+            <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This ebook is
+            for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+            other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+            restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use
+            it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href=
+            "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or
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+            not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws
+            of the country where you are located before using this ebook.</p>
+          </div>
+          <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
+Title: Studies in Judaism, First Series
+
+Author: Solomon Schechter
+
+Release Date: May 6, 2015 [Ebook #48890]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+</pre>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style=
+        "font-size: 173%">Studies in Judaism</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.20em; text-align: center"><span style=
+        "font-size: 120%">First Series</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.20em; text-align: center"><span style=
+        "font-size: 120%">by</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style=
+        "font-size: 144%">Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; text-align: center">Philadelphia</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; text-align: center">The Jewish Publication
+        Society of America</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1911</p>
+      </div>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1>
+
+        <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc">
+          <li><a href="#toc1">Preface</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc3">Introduction</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc5">I. The Chassidim</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc7">II. Nachman Krochmal and the “Perplexities Of
+          The Time”</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc9">III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna, Gaon</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc11">IV. Nachmanides</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc13">V. A Jewish Boswell</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc15">VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc17">VII. The History of Jewish Tradition</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc19">VIII. The Doctrine of Divine Retribution in
+          Rabbinical Literature</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc21">IX. The Law And Recent Criticism</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc23">X. The Hebrew Collection of the British
+          Museum</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc25">XI. Titles of Jewish Books</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc27">XII. The Child in Jewish Literature</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc29">XIII. Woman in Temple and Synagogue</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc31">XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in
+          Europe</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc33">Index</a></li>
+
+          <li><a href="#toc35">Footnotes</a></li>
+        </ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="tei tei-body" style=
+    "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; text-align: center"></p>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; width: 30%">
+          <a href="images/cover.jpg"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt=
+          "Cover Art" /></a>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">[Transcriber's
+        Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at
+        Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public
+        domain.]</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv"
+      id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">TO</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THE EVER-CHERISHED
+        MEMORY</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">OF</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THE LATE DR. P. F.
+        FRANKL, RABBI IN BERLIN</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THESE STUDIES ARE
+        REVERENTLY</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">DEDICATED</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name=
+      "Pgvi" id="Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These studies
+        appeared originally in their first form in <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jewish
+        Quarterly</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">The Jewish Chronicle</span></span>. To the
+        Editors of these periodicals my best thanks are due for their
+        readiness in placing the articles at my disposal for the purposes of
+        the present volume. The Introductory Essay is new. I desire to
+        express my sincere gratitude to Mr. J. G. Frazer, Fellow of Trinity
+        College, Cambridge, and Dr. J. Sutherland Black, of London, for their
+        great kindness in revising the proofs, and for many a valuable
+        suggestion. To Mr. Claude G. Montefiore I am indebted for the English
+        version of the Essay on <span class="tei tei-q">“Chassidim”</span>—my
+        first literary effort in this country, written at his own
+        suggestion.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the
+        transliteration of Hebrew names, I have given the familiar English
+        forms of the authorised version. As regards post-Biblical names, I
+        have with few exceptions followed Zedner's <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catalogue of the Hebrew
+        Books in the Library of the British Museum</span></span>. A Hebrew
+        word will be found here and there in the text; I have purposely
+        avoided bewildering devices for representing the actual sound of the
+        word, contenting myself with the ordinary Roman alphabet, in spite of
+        its shortcomings.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageviii">[pg
+        viii]</span><a name="Pgviii" id="Pgviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The authorities
+        used for the various Essays will be found indicated in the Notes at
+        the end of the volume, where the reader will also find short
+        biographical and bibliographical notices, together with brief
+        explanations of technical terms for which no exact equivalent exists
+        in English. The index will, it is hoped, facilitate reference.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">S. S.</span></span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">Cambridge</span></span>, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">February
+        1896</span></span>.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexi">[pg xi]</span><a name="Pgxi"
+      id="Pgxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">Introduction</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The essays
+        published in this volume under the title of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies in
+        Judaism</span></span> have been written on various occasions and at
+        long intervals. There is thus no necessary connection between them.
+        If some sort of unity may be detected in the book, it can only be
+        between the first three essays—on the Chassidim, Krochmal, and the
+        Gaon—in which there is a certain unity of purpose. The purpose in
+        view was, as may easily be gathered from the essays themselves, to
+        bring under the notice of the English public a type of men produced
+        by the Synagogue of the Eastern Jews. That Synagogue is widely
+        different from ours. Its places of worship have no claims to
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“beauty of holiness,”</span> being in their
+        outward appearance rather bare and bald, if not repulsive; whilst
+        those who frequent them are a noisy, excitable people, who actually
+        dance on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Season of Rejoicing”</span> and
+        cry bitterly on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Days of
+        Mourning.”</span> But among all these vagaries—or perhaps because of
+        them—this Synagogue has had its moments of grace, when enthusiasm
+        wedded to inspiration gave birth to such beautiful souls as Baalshem,
+        such fine sceptics as Krochmal, and such saintly scholars as Elijah
+        Wilna. The Synagogue of the West is certainly of a more presentable
+        character, and free from excesses; though it is not devoid of an
+        enthusiasm of its own which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexii">[pg
+        xii]</span><a name="Pgxii" id="Pgxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        finds its outlet in an ardent and self-sacrificing philanthropic
+        activity. But owing to its practical tendency there is too little
+        room in it for that play of intellectual forces which finds its
+        extravagant expression in the saint on the one hand, and the learned
+        heretic on the other.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Eight of these
+        essays are more or less of a theological nature. But in reading the
+        proofs I have been struck by the fact that there is assumed in them a
+        certain conception of the Synagogue which, familiar though it be to
+        the Jewish student, may appear obscure and even strange to the
+        general English reader. For brevity's sake I will call it the High
+        Synagogue, though it does not correspond in all details to what one
+        is accustomed to understand under the term of High Church. The High
+        Synagogue has a history which is not altogether without its points of
+        interest.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some years ago
+        when the waves of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament reached
+        the shores of this country, and such questions as the heterogeneous
+        composition of the Pentateuch, the comparatively late date of the
+        Levitical Legislation, and the post-exilic origin of certain
+        Prophecies as well as of the Psalms began to be freely discussed by
+        the press and even in the pulpit, the invidious remark was often
+        made: What will now become of Judaism when its last stronghold, the
+        Law, is being shaken to its very foundations?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a remark
+        shows a very superficial acquaintance with the nature of an old
+        historical religion like Judaism, and the richness of the resources
+        it has to fall back upon in cases of emergency.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a fact, the
+        emergency did not quite surprise Judaism. The alarm signal was given
+        some 150 years ago by an <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiii">[pg
+        xiii]</span><a name="Pgxiii" id="Pgxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Italian Rabbi, Abiad Sar Shalom Bazilai, in his pamphlet <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Faith of the
+        Sages</span></span>. The pamphlet is, as the title indicates, of a
+        polemical character, reviewing the work of the Jewish rationalistic
+        schools; and after warming up in his attacks against their heterodox
+        views, Bazilai exclaims: <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature and simple
+        meaning, they are our misfortune.”</span> By <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“nature and simple meaning”</span> Bazilai, who wrote in
+        Hebrew, understood what we would call Natural Science and Philology.
+        With the right instinct of faith, Bazilai hit on the real sore
+        points. For though he mostly argues against the philosophical systems
+        of Aristotle and his commentators, he felt that it is not speculation
+        that will ever seriously endanger religion. There is hardly any
+        metaphysical system, old or new, which has not in course of time been
+        adapted by able dialecticians to the creed which they happened to
+        hold. In our own time we have seen the glorious, though not entirely
+        novel spectacle, of Agnosticism itself becoming the rightful handmaid
+        of Queen Theology. The real danger lies in <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“nature”</span> (or Natural Science) with its stern
+        demand of law and regularity in all phenomena, and in the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“simple meaning”</span> (or Philology) with
+        its inconsiderate insistence on truth. Of the two, the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“simple meaning”</span> is the more objectionable. Not
+        only is it very often at variance with Tradition, which has its own
+        code of interpretation, but it is constantly increasing the
+        difficulties raised by science. For if words could only have more
+        than one meaning, there would be no objection to reading the first
+        words of Genesis, <span class="tei tei-q">“In <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em>
+        beginning God <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">evolved</span></em>.”</span> The difficulties of
+        science would then be disposed of easily enough. Maimonides, who was
+        as bold an interpreter as he was a deep metaphysician, hinted plainly
+        enough that were he as convinced <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "pagexiv">[pg xiv]</span><a name="Pgxiv" id="Pgxiv" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the eternity of matter as he was satisfied
+        of the impossibility of any corporeal quality in the deity, he would
+        feel as little compunction in explaining (figuratively) the contents
+        of the first chapter of Genesis as he did in allegorising the
+        anthropomorphic passages of the Bible. Thus in the end all the
+        difficulties resolve themselves into the one great difficulty of the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“simple meaning.”</span> The best way to meet
+        this difficulty was found to be to shift the centre of gravity in
+        Judaism and to place it in the secondary meaning, thus making
+        religion independent of philology and all its dangerous
+        consequences.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This shifting work
+        was chiefly done, perhaps not quite consciously, by the historical
+        school which followed upon that of Mendelssohn and his first
+        successors. The historical school, which is still in the ascendant,
+        comprises many of the best Jewish writers who either by their
+        learning or by their ecclesiastical profession as Rabbis and
+        preachers in great communities have acquired some important position
+        among their brethren. The men who have inaugurated this movement were
+        Krochmal (1785-1841), Rapoport (1790-1867), and Zunz (1794-1886).</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not a mere
+        coincidence that the first representatives of the historical school
+        were also the first Jewish scholars who proved themselves more or
+        less ready to join the modern school of Bible Criticism, and even to
+        contribute their share to it. The first two, Krochmal and Rapoport,
+        early in the second quarter of this century accepted and defended the
+        modern view about a second Isaiah, the post-exilic origin of many
+        Psalms, and the late date of Ecclesiastes; whilst Zunz, who began (in
+        1832) with denying the authenticity of Ezekiel, concluded his
+        literary career (1873) with a study on the Bible (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesammelte</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexv">[pg xv]</span><a name="Pgxv" id=
+        "Pgxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Schriften</span></span>, i. pp. 217-290), in
+        which he expressed his view <span class="tei tei-q">“that the Book of
+        Leviticus dates from a later period than the Book of Deuteronomy,
+        later even than Ezekiel, having been composed during the age of the
+        Second Temple, when there already existed a well-established
+        priesthood which superintended the sacrificial worship.”</span> But
+        when Revelation or the Written Word is reduced to the level of
+        history, there is no difficulty in elevating history in its aspect of
+        Tradition to the rank of Scripture, for both have then the same human
+        or divine origin (according to the student's predilection for the one
+        or the other adjective), and emanate from the same authority.
+        Tradition becomes thus the means whereby the modern divine seeks to
+        compensate himself for the loss of the Bible, and the theological
+        balance is to the satisfaction of all parties happily readjusted.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jewish Tradition,
+        or, as it is commonly called, the Oral Law, or, as we may term it (in
+        consideration of its claims to represent an interpretation of the
+        Bible), the Secondary Meaning of the Scriptures, is mainly embodied
+        in the works of the Rabbis and their subsequent followers during the
+        Middle Ages. Hence the zeal and energy with which the historical
+        school applied itself to the Jewish post-biblical literature, not
+        only elucidating its texts by means of new critical editions,
+        dictionaries, and commentaries, but also trying to trace its origins
+        and to pursue its history through its gradual development. To the
+        work of Krochmal in this direction a special essay is devoted in this
+        volume. The labours of Rapoport are more of a biographical and
+        bibliographical nature, being occupied mostly with the minor details
+        in the lives and writings of various famous Jewish Rabbis in the
+        Middle Ages; thus <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvi">[pg
+        xvi]</span><a name="Pgxvi" id="Pgxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        they offer but little opportunity for general theological comment. Of
+        more importance in this respect are the hints thrown out in his
+        various works by Zunz, who was just as emphatic in asserting the
+        claims of Tradition as he was advanced in his views on Bible
+        criticism. Zunz's greatest work is <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Gottesdienstlichen
+        Vorträge</span></span>—an awkward title, which in fact means
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The History of the Interpretation of the
+        Scriptures as forming a part of the divine service.”</span> Now if a
+        work displaying such wide learning and critical acumen, and written
+        in such an impartial spirit can be said to have a bias, it was
+        towards bridging over the seemingly wide gap between the Written Word
+        (the Scriptures) and the Spoken Word (the Oral Law or Tradition),
+        which was the more deeply felt, as most of Zunz's older
+        contemporaries were men, grown up in the habits of thought of the
+        eighteenth century—a century distinguished both for its ignorance of,
+        and its power of ignoring, the teachings of history. Indeed it would
+        seem that ages employed in making history have no time for studying
+        it.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Zunz accomplished
+        the task he set himself, by showing, as already indicated, the late
+        date of certain portions of the Bible, which by setting the early
+        history of Israel in an ideal light betray the moralising tendency of
+        their authors, and are, in fact, little more than a traditional
+        interpretation of older portions of Scripture, adapted to the
+        religious needs of the time. Placing thus the origin of Tradition in
+        the Bible itself, it was a comparatively easy matter for Zunz to
+        prove its further continuity. Prophecy and Interpretation are with
+        him the natural expressions of the religious life of the nation; and
+        though by the loss of Israel's political independence the voice of
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvii">[pg xvii]</span><a name=
+        "Pgxvii" id="Pgxvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the prophets
+        gradually died away, the voice of God was still heard. Israel
+        continues to consult God through the medium of the Scriptures, and He
+        answers His people by the mouth of the Scribes, the Sages, the
+        Interpreters of the Law; whilst the liturgy of the Synagogue,
+        springing up at the time when Psalms were still being composed,
+        expands in its later stages through the work of the Poets of the
+        Synagogue into such a rich luxuriance <span class="tei tei-q">“that
+        it forms in itself a treasure of history, poetry, philosophy; and
+        prophecy and psalms are again revived in the hymnology of the Middle
+        Ages.”</span> This is in brief the lesson to be learned from Zunz's
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Gottesdienstliche Vorträge</span></span> as far
+        as it deals with the significance of Tradition; and it is in the
+        introduction to this work that Zunz expresses himself to the
+        following effect: Indispensable is the free Spoken Word. Mankind has
+        acquired all its ideal treasures only by Word of Mouth; an education
+        continuing through all stages of life. In Israel, too, the Word of
+        Instruction transmitted from mouth to mouth was never silenced.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The historical
+        school has never, to my knowledge, offered to the world a theological
+        programme of its own. By the nature of its task, its labours are
+        mostly conducted in the field of philology and archæology, and it
+        pays but little attention to purely dogmatic questions. On the whole,
+        its attitude towards religion may be defined as an enlightened
+        Scepticism combined with a staunch conservatism which is not even
+        wholly devoid of a certain mystical touch. As far as we may gather
+        from vague remarks and hints thrown out now and then, its theological
+        position may perhaps be thus defined:—It is not the mere revealed
+        Bible that is of first importance to the Jew, but the Bible as it
+        repeats itself in history, in other words, as it is <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexviii">[pg xviii]</span><a name="Pgxviii" id=
+        "Pgxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> interpreted by Tradition. The
+        Talmud, that wonderful mine of religious ideas from which it would be
+        just as easy to draw up a manual for the most orthodox as to extract
+        a vade-mecum for the most sceptical, lends some countenance to this
+        view by certain controversial passages—not to be taken seriously—in
+        which <span class="tei tei-q">“the words of the scribes”</span> are
+        placed almost above the words of the Torah. Since then the
+        interpretation of Scripture or the Secondary Meaning is mainly a
+        product of changing historical influences, it follows that the centre
+        of authority is actually removed from the Bible and placed in some
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">living
+        body</span></em>, which, by reason of its being in touch with the
+        ideal aspirations and the religious needs of the age, is best able to
+        determine the nature of the Secondary Meaning. This living body,
+        however, is not represented by any section of the nation, or any
+        corporate priesthood, or Rabbihood, but by the collective conscience
+        of Catholic Israel as embodied in the Universal Synagogue. The
+        Synagogue <span class="tei tei-q">“with its long, continuous cry
+        after God for more than twenty-three centuries,”</span> with its
+        unremittent activity in teaching and developing the word of God, with
+        its uninterrupted succession of prophets, Psalmists, Scribes,
+        Assideans, Rabbis, Patriarchs, Interpreters, Elucidators, Eminences,
+        and Teachers, with its glorious record of Saints, martyrs, sages,
+        philosophers, scholars, and mystics; this Synagogue, the only true
+        witness to the past, and forming in all ages the sublimest expression
+        of Israel's religious life, must also retain its authority as the
+        sole true guide for the present and the future. And being in
+        communion with this Synagogue, we may also look hopefully for a safe
+        and rational solution of our present theological troubles. For was it
+        not the Synagogue which even in <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "pagexix">[pg xix]</span><a name="Pgxix" id="Pgxix" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> antiquity determined the fate of Scripture? On
+        the one hand, for example, books like Ezekiel, the Song of Songs, and
+        Ecclesiastes, were only declared to be Holy Writ in virtue of the
+        interpretation put upon them by the Rabbis: and, on the other hand,
+        it was the veto of the Rabbis which excluded from the canon the works
+        that now pass under the name of Apocrypha. We may, therefore, safely
+        trust that the Synagogue will again assert its divine right in
+        passing judgment upon the Bible when it feels called upon to exercise
+        that holy office. It is <span class="tei tei-q">“God who has chosen
+        the Torah, and Moses His servant, and Israel His people.”</span> But
+        indeed God's choice invariably coincides with the wishes of Israel;
+        He <span class="tei tei-q">“performeth all things”</span> upon which
+        the councils of Israel, meeting under promise of the Divine presence
+        and communion, have previously agreed. As the Talmud somewhere
+        expresses itself with regard to the Book of Esther, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“They have confirmed above what Israel has accepted
+        below.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another
+        consequence of this conception of Tradition is that it is neither
+        Scripture nor primitive Judaism, but general custom which forms the
+        real rule of practice. Holy Writ as well as history, Zunz tells us,
+        teaches that the law of Moses was never fully and absolutely put in
+        practice. Liberty was always given to the great teachers of every
+        generation to make modifications and innovations in harmony with the
+        spirit of existing institutions. Hence a return to Mosaism would be
+        illegal, pernicious, and indeed impossible. The norm as well as the
+        sanction of Judaism is the practice actually in vogue. Its
+        consecration is the consecration of general use,—or, in other words,
+        of Catholic Israel. It was probably with a view to this communion
+        that the later mystics introduced a short prayer to <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexx">[pg xx]</span><a name="Pgxx" id="Pgxx"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be said before the performance of any
+        religious ceremony, in which, among other things, the speaker
+        professes his readiness to act <span class="tei tei-q">“in the name
+        of all Israel.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be out of
+        place in an introductory essay to pursue any further this interesting
+        subject with its far-reaching consequences upon Jewish life and
+        Jewish thought. But the foregoing remarks may suffice to show that
+        Judaism did not remain quite inactive at the approach of the great
+        religious crisis which our generation has witnessed. Like so many
+        other religious communities, it reviewed its forces, entrenched
+        itself on the field of history, and what it lost of its old devotion
+        to the Bible, it has sought to make up by a renewed reverence for
+        institutions.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this
+        connection, a mere mention may suffice of the ultra-Orthodox party,
+        led by the late Dr. S. R. Hirsch of Frankfort (1808-1889) whose
+        defiance of reason and criticism even a Ward might have envied, and
+        whose saintliness and sublimity even a Keble might have admired. And,
+        to take an example from the opposite school, we must at least record
+        the name of that devout Jew, Osias Schorr (1816-1895), in whom we
+        have profound learning combined with an uncompromising disposition of
+        mind productive of a typical champion of Radicalism in things
+        religious. These men are, however, representative of two extremes,
+        and their followers constitute mere minorities; the majority is with
+        the historical school.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How long the
+        position of this school will prove tenable is another question. Being
+        brought up in the old Low Synagogue, where, with all attachment to
+        tradition, the Bible was looked upon as the crown and the climax of
+        Judaism, the old Adam still asserts itself in me, and in <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexxi">[pg xxi]</span><a name="Pgxxi" id="Pgxxi"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> unguarded moments makes me rebel against
+        this new rival of revelation in the shape of history. At times this
+        now fashionable exaltation of Tradition at the expense of Scripture
+        even impresses me as a sort of religious bimetallism in which bold
+        speculators in theology try to keep up the market value of an
+        inferior currency by denouncing loudly the bright shining gold which,
+        they would have us believe, is less fitted to circulate in the vulgar
+        use of daily life than the small cash of historical interpretation.
+        Nor can I quite reconcile myself to this alliance of religion with
+        history, which seems to me both unworthy and unnatural. The Jew, some
+        writer aptly remarked, was the first and the fiercest Nonconformist
+        of the East, and so Judaism was always a protesting religion. To
+        break the idols, whether of the past or of the present, has always
+        been a sacred mission of Judaism, and has indeed been esteemed by it
+        as a necessary preliminary to the advent of the kingdom of God on
+        earth. One of its daily prayers was and still is: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“We therefore hope in Thee, O Lord our God, that we may
+        speedily behold the glory of Thy might, when ... the idols will be
+        cut off, when the world will be perfected under the kingdom of the
+        Almighty.”</span> It bowed before truth, but it had never made a
+        covenant with facts only because they were facts. History had to be
+        re-made and to sanctify itself before it found its way into its
+        sacred annals. Nor did Judaism make a virtue of swallowing down
+        institutions. Such institutions as crept into it in course of time
+        had, when the Synagogue was conscious of their claims to form part of
+        religion, to submit to the laborious process of a thorough adaptation
+        to prophetic notions before they were formally sanctioned. But when
+        this process was deemed impossible or impracticable, <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexxii">[pg xxii]</span><a name="Pgxxii" id=
+        "Pgxxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Judaism boldly denounced the
+        past in such fierce language as the prophets used and as still finds
+        its echo in such passages of the liturgy as <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“First our ancestors were worshippers of idols and now
+        God has brought us near to His service”</span>; or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“But of a truth, we and our ancestors have
+        sinned.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, it would
+        be unfair to argue any further against a theological system which, as
+        already said, was never avowed distinctly by the historical school—a
+        school, moreover, with which speculation is a matter of minor
+        importance. The main strength of this school lies in its scientific
+        work, for which Judaism will always be under a sense of deep
+        gratitude. And living as we do in an age in which history reigns
+        supreme in all departments of human thought, we may hope that even
+        its theology, as far as it goes, will <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“do”</span> for us, though I neither hope nor believe
+        that it will do for those who come after us. I may, however, humbly
+        confess that the sixth essay in this volume was written in a spirit
+        of rebellion against this all-absorbing Catholic Israel, with its
+        decently veiled scepticism on the one hand, and its unfortunate
+        tendency with many people to degenerate into a soulless conformity on
+        the other hand. There is, I am afraid, not much to be said in favour
+        of this essay. It is deficient both in matter and in style. It proved
+        to be a futile attempt to bring within the compass of an essay what a
+        whole book could hardly do justice to. The Hebrew documents bearing
+        upon the question of dogma which I have collected from various
+        manuscripts and rare printed books, would alone make a fair-sized
+        volume. I only venture to offer it to the public in the absence of
+        anything better; since, so far as I know, no other attempt has ever
+        been made to treat <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxiii">[pg
+        xxiii]</span><a name="Pgxxxiii" id="Pgxxxiii" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the subject even in its meagrest outlines. I
+        even venture to hope that, with all its shortcomings, it will
+        contribute something towards destroying the illusion, in which so
+        many theologians indulge, that Judaism is a religion without dogmas.
+        To declare that a religion has no dogmas is tantamount to saying that
+        it was wise enough not to commit itself to any vital principles. But
+        prudence, useful as it may be in worldly affairs, is quite unworthy
+        of a great spiritual power.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jewish mysticism
+        in the Middle Ages and in modern times is represented in this volume
+        by two essays (<span class="tei tei-q">“The Chassidim”</span> and
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Nachmanides”</span>). But in order to avoid
+        mistakes which might be implied by my silence, I think it desirable
+        to state that there are also to be found many mystical elements in
+        the old Rabbinic literature. Mysticism, not as a theosophic system or
+        as an occult science, but as a manifestation of the spiritual and as
+        an expression of man's agonies in his struggle after communion with
+        God, as well as of his ineffable joy when he receives the assurance
+        that he has found it, is not, as some maintain, foreign to the spirit
+        of old Rabbinic Judaism. There was no need for the mediæval Rabbi to
+        borrow the elements of such a mysticism from non-Jewish sources. The
+        perusal of the old Homilies on the Song of Songs, and on the Lessons
+        from the Prophets, or even a fair acquaintance with the Jewish
+        liturgy would, in itself, suffice to refute such baseless assertions.
+        Those who are at all familiar with old Rabbinic literature hardly
+        need to be told that <span class="tei tei-q">“the sea of the
+        Talmud”</span> has also its gulf stream of mysticism which, taking
+        its origin in the moralising portions of the Bible, runs through the
+        wide ocean of Jewish thought, constantly commingling with the icy
+        waters of legalism, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxiv">[pg
+        xxiv]</span><a name="Pgxxiv" id="Pgxxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        unceasingly washing the desolate shores of an apparently meaningless
+        ceremonialism, communicating to it life, warmth, and spirituality. To
+        draw attention to this fact a humble attempt has been made in the
+        ninth essay, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Law and Recent
+        Criticism,”</span> a subject which I have essayed to expound in a
+        series of essays on <span class="tei tei-q">“Some Aspects of Rabbinic
+        Theology,”</span> now appearing in <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jewish Quarterly
+        Review</span></span>.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last five
+        essays touch rather on certain social and familiar aspects of
+        Judaism, and need no further comment. They are mere <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">causeries</span></em>
+        and hardly deserve the name of studies. Perhaps it may be useful for
+        those who judge of the heaviness of a work by its bulk to know that
+        there is also a lighter side of Rabbinic literature.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But I shall be
+        better pleased if the more serious side of this volume—Jewish
+        mysticism and Rabbinic theology—should attract the attention of
+        students, and so draw some fellow-workers into a field which is
+        utterly neglected. Notwithstanding the numerous Manuals and
+        Introductions which all more or less touch on the subject of Rabbinic
+        theology, there is, after nearly 250 years, not a single work among
+        them which, either in knowledge of facts or in their interpretation,
+        is a single step in advance of the Cambridge Platonist, John Smith,
+        in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Select Discourses</span></span>. But those who
+        try so hard to determine the miraculous distance of Christianity by
+        the eclipses in Rabbinism, should, if they wish to be just or prove
+        themselves worthy scholars, also endeavour to make themselves
+        acquainted with the numberless bright stars that move in the wide
+        universe of Jewish thought. We are often told that no creed or
+        theological system which has come down to us from antiquity can
+        afford to be judged by any other standard <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="pagexxv">[pg xxv]</span><a name="Pgxxv" id="Pgxxv" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> than by its spiritual and poetic <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">possibilities</span></em>: this indulgence
+        Judaism is as justly entitled to claim as any other religion. The
+        great and saintly Franz Delitzsch who, born with an intellect of
+        admirable temper, was also endowed by Heaven with a soul—and a
+        beautiful soul it was—was one of the few theologians who, partly at
+        least, admitted this claim, and sought earnestly and diligently after
+        these spiritual and poetic possibilities, and was amply rewarded for
+        his labours.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name=
+      "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">I. The Chassidim</span><a id=
+        "noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Throughout the
+        whole of that interesting field of Theological Literature which deals
+        with the genesis and course of religious movements, there is probably
+        none whose history, even whose name, is so little known to English
+        students, as that of the Chassidim. And yet it would be difficult to
+        point, in comparatively recent times, to a Dissenting movement more
+        strikingly complete in its development, more suggestive of analogy,
+        more full of interest in its original purpose, more pregnant of
+        warning in its decay.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hebrew word
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Chassidim”</span><a id="noteref_2" name=
+        "noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> merely
+        means <span class="tei tei-q">“the Pious,”</span> and appears to have
+        been complacently adopted by the early apostles of the sect. But the
+        thing—Chassidism—was, in its inception at all events, a revolt among
+        the Jews of Eastern Europe against the excessive casuistry of the
+        contemporary Rabbis. It was in fact one more manifestation of the
+        yearning of the human heart towards the Divine idea, and of its
+        ceaseless craving for direct communion with God. It was the protest
+        of an emotional but uneducated people against a one-sided expression
+        of Judaism, presented to them in cold and over-subtle disquisitions
+        which not only did they not understand, but which shut out the play
+        of the feelings <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg
+        002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and
+        the affections, so that religion was made almost impossible to
+        them.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some account of
+        the sect is the more necessary because, although the Chassidim have
+        not been wholly ignored by historians or novelists, the references to
+        them have generally, for perfectly intelligible reasons, been either
+        biassed or inaccurate. The historians who have treated of them have
+        been almost exclusively men saturated with Western culture and
+        rationalism. To them the rude and uncouth manifestations of an
+        undisciplined religious spirit could not be other than repellent; to
+        them Chassidism was a movement to be dismissed as unæsthetic and
+        irrational.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the purposes of
+        fiction the romantic side of Chassidism lends itself readily, but the
+        novelists who have used this material have confined themselves to its
+        externals. Indeed, to have done more would have involved a tedious
+        and unremunerative study of difficult Hebrew texts, an undertaking
+        not to be expected from the most conscientious writers of this class.
+        Thus Franzos in his references to the Jews of Barnow describes
+        faithfully the outer signs of the man, his long coat and tangled
+        curls, but the inner life, the world in which the Chassid moved and
+        had his being, was unknown to him and is therefore unrecorded.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to my treatment
+        of the subject, I confess that there was a time when I loved the
+        Chassidim as there was a time when I hated them. And even now I am
+        not able to suppress these feelings. I have rather tried to guide my
+        feelings in such a way as to love in Chassidism what is ideal and
+        noble, and to hate in it what turned out bad and pernicious for
+        Judaism. How far I have been successful is another question. At least
+        I have endeavoured to write this paper in such a spirit. But of one
+        thing I <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name=
+        "Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> must warn the
+        reader—the desire to give some clear notion of the leading ideas of
+        Chassidism has compelled me to quote some passages in which the
+        Chassidim have spoken in very offensive terms of their opponents. In
+        justice to these I must remark that unfortunately religious struggles
+        are usually conducted on the most irreligious principles. Thus the
+        Chassidim imputed to their antagonists, the contemporary Rabbis, many
+        vices from which they were free. Certainly, there was, as one can
+        read in every history of Jewish religion, something wrong in the
+        state of Judaism. But I know people who maintain that there is
+        something very wrong in the present state of Judaism, and who despair
+        of a regeneration. But surely this is a silly exaggeration. The
+        Chassidim also exaggerated. It would be better to take but little
+        notice of their accusations and dwell more on that which was spoken
+        in a kind and loving spirit.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the
+        literature of the subject, I can only say here that I have made use
+        of every book I could consult, both in English and in foreign
+        libraries. But I cannot pledge myself to be what early Jewish writers
+        called <span class="tei tei-q">“a donkey which carries books.”</span>
+        I exercise my own choice and my own judgment on many points.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As an active force
+        for good, Chassidism was short-lived. For, as I propose to show,
+        there lurked among its central tenets the germs of the degeneracy
+        which so speedily came upon it. But its early purposes were high, its
+        doctrines fairly pure, its aspirations ideal and sublime.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The founder of the
+        sect was one Israel Baalshem,<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href=
+        "#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> and the
+        story of his parentage, birth, and childhood, and the current
+        anecdotes of his subsequent career play a considerable part in
+        Chassidic literature. But the authentic <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> materials for his biography are everywhere
+        interwoven with much that is pure legend and with much more that is
+        miraculous. This was, perhaps, inevitable, and is certainly not an
+        unfamiliar feature in the personal histories of religious reformers
+        as presented by their followers and devotees.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sayings and
+        doings of Baalshem are an essential—perhaps the most
+        essential—portion of any account of the sect. For Baalshem is the
+        centre of the Chassidic world, and Chassidism is so intimately bound
+        up with the personality of its founder that any separation between
+        them is well nigh impossible. To the Chassidim Baalshem is not a man
+        who established a theory or set forth a system; he himself was the
+        incarnation of a theory and his whole life the revelation of a
+        system.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even those
+        portions of his history which are plainly legendary have their uses
+        in indicating the ideals and in illustrating the aspirations of the
+        early Chassidim; while their circulation and the ready credence they
+        received are valuable evidence of the real power and influence of
+        Baalshem's personality.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the tale as
+        told by the sect little is omitted of those biographical accessories
+        which are proper to an Avatar. There is all the conventional
+        heralding of a pre-ordained advent; all the usual signs and portents
+        of a new dispensation may be recognised in the almost preternatural
+        virtues of Baalshem's parents, in the miraculous annunciation and
+        exceptional circumstances of his nativity, and in the early
+        indication of a strong and fearless individuality. Everywhere it
+        seems to be suggested that Baalshem from his infancy was conscious of
+        a lofty mission. It is already in tender years that he is made
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005"
+        id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to give evidence of an
+        indifference to conventional restraints and accepted ideals.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Rabbi Eliezer and
+        his wife, the parents of Baalshem, dwelt, as the story goes, in
+        Moldavia. They are described as a pious and God-fearing couple, who,
+        when they had already reached old age, were still childless. They are
+        accredited with a spotless rectitude, which was unimpaired by a long
+        series of strange vicissitudes and misfortunes.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ultimately, an
+        angel of God appeared to Eliezer and announced that, as he had
+        successfully withstood all the temptations and sufferings by which he
+        had been tried, God was about to reward him with a son, who was
+        destined to enlighten the eyes of all Israel. Therefore his name
+        should be Israel, for in him the words of Scripture were to be
+        fulfilled, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou art my servant, Israel, in
+        whom I will be glorified.”</span> In due course the promise was
+        fulfilled, and to the aged couple a son was born, who was named
+        Israel according to the angel's word. The date of Baalshem's birth is
+        about 1700; his birthplace, in Bukowina, in a hitherto unidentified
+        village which the authorities call Ukop, then still belonging to
+        Roumania. The child's mother died soon after he was weaned, and his
+        father did not long survive her. But before Eliezer died he took his
+        child in his arms, and blessing him, bade him fear naught, for God
+        would always be with him.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As Eliezer had
+        been greatly honoured in the community in which he lived, his orphan
+        son was carefully tended and educated. He was early supplied with an
+        instructor in the Holy Law. But though he learned with rare facility,
+        he rejected the customary methods of instruction. One day, while
+        still quite young, his teacher missed him, <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> and on seeking found him sitting alone in the
+        forest that skirted his native village, in happy and fearless
+        solitude. He repeated this escapade so often that it was thought best
+        to leave him to follow his own bent. A little later we find him
+        engaged as assistant to a schoolmaster. His duty was not to teach,
+        but to take the children from their homes to the synagogue and thence
+        on to the school. It was his wont while accompanying the children to
+        the synagogue to teach them solemn hymns which he sang with them. In
+        the synagogue he encouraged them to sing the responses, so that the
+        voices of the children penetrated through the heavens and moved the
+        Divine father to compassion. Satan, fearing lest his power on earth
+        should thereby be diminished, assumed the shape of a werewolf, and,
+        appearing before the procession of children on their way to the
+        synagogue, put them to flight. In consequence of this alarming
+        incident the children's services were suspended. But Israel,
+        recollecting his father's counsel to fear naught, besought the
+        parents to be allowed to lead the children once more in the old way.
+        His request was granted, and when the werewolf appeared a second time
+        Israel attacked him with a club and routed him.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his fourteenth
+        year Israel became a beadle at the Beth Hammidrash.<a id="noteref_4"
+        name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> Here he
+        assiduously but secretly pursued the study of the Law. Yet, being
+        anxious that none should know his design, he read and worked only at
+        night, when the schoolroom was empty and the usual scholars had
+        retired. During the daytime he slept, so that he was popularly
+        believed to be both ignorant and lazy. Despite these precautions,
+        however, his true character was revealed to one person. A certain
+        holy <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name=
+        "Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> man, the father of a
+        young student at the college, had discovered some old manuscripts
+        which contained the deepest secrets. Before his death he bade his son
+        repair to Ukop, Israel's birthplace, telling him that he would find
+        one Israel, son of Eliezer, to whom the precious documents were to be
+        entrusted. They possessed, so the old man declared, a certain mystic
+        and heavenly affinity with Israel's soul. The student carried out his
+        father's instructions, and at last discovered the object of his
+        search in the beadle of the Beth Hammidrash. Israel admitted him to
+        his friendship and confidence on the condition of secrecy as to his
+        real character. The student, however, paid dearly for this
+        acquaintance with Israel. Contrary to Baalshem's advice, he entered
+        upon a dangerous incantation in the course of which he made a mistake
+        so serious that it cost him his life.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Upon the death of
+        his friend, Baalshem left his native village and settled as a teacher
+        in a small town near Brody. Here, although his true mission and
+        character were still unknown, he became much respected for his rigid
+        probity, and was frequently chosen as umpire in disputes among Jews.
+        On one of these occasions he arbitrated with so much learning and
+        impartiality that not only did he satisfy both parties, but one of
+        them, a learned man of Brody, named Abraham, offered him his own
+        daughter in marriage. Israel, to whom it had been revealed that
+        Abraham's daughter was his predestined wife, immediately accepted the
+        offer and the act of betrothal was drawn up. But wishing his true
+        character to remain unknown he stipulated that Abraham, although a
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Talmid Chacham”</span> (student)<a id=
+        "noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> himself
+        and therefore presumably desirous that his daughter should marry a
+        scholar, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg
+        008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        should omit from the betrothal-deed all the titles of honour usually
+        appended to the name of a learned bridegroom. While returning to
+        Brody, Abraham died, and Gershon his son, a scholar still greater and
+        more celebrated than his father, was surprised and shocked to find a
+        deed of betrothal among his father's papers, from which it appeared
+        that his sister was to wed a man with apparently no claim to
+        scholarship or learning. He protested to his sister, but she declined
+        to entertain any objections to a marriage which her father had
+        arranged. When the time for the wedding was at hand, Israel gave up
+        his post as teacher, and repaired to Brody. Disguised as a peasant he
+        presented himself before his future brother-in-law, who was then
+        fulfilling some high judicial function. Gershon taking him for a
+        beggar offered him alms, but Israel, refusing the money, asked for a
+        private interview, stating that he had an important secret to reveal.
+        He then, to Gershon's surprise and disgust, explained who he was and
+        that he had come to claim his bride. As the girl was determined to
+        obey her father's will the affair was settled and the day fixed. On
+        the morning of the wedding Israel revealed to his bride his real
+        character and mission, at the same time enjoining secrecy. Evil
+        fortunes would befall them, he said, but a better time would
+        eventually follow.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the wedding,
+        Gershon, having in vain attempted to instruct his seemingly ignorant
+        brother-in-law, decided to rid himself of his presence. He gave his
+        sister the choice of being separated from her husband, or of leaving
+        the town in his company. She chose the latter, and thereupon the two
+        left Brody and began a life of hardship and suffering. Israel chose
+        for his new home a spot on one of the spurs of the Carpathian
+        Mountains. No Jews lived <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg
+        009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        there, and Israel and his wife were thus separated from the society
+        of their fellows in a life of complete and unchanging solitude.
+        Israel dug lime in the ravines among the mountains, and his wife
+        conveyed it for sale to the nearest town. Their life at this period
+        seems to have been one of great privation, but the harder Israel's
+        outward lot, the more he increased in spiritual greatness. In his
+        solitude he gave himself up entirely to devotion and religious
+        contemplation. His habit was to climb to the summit of the mountains
+        and wander about rapt in spiritual ecstasies. He fasted, prayed, made
+        continual ablutions, and observed all the customary outward and
+        inward exercises of piety and devotion.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After seven years,
+        Gershon, who was well aware of the bitter poverty which his sister
+        endured, relented and brought her and her husband back to Brody. At
+        first he employed Baalshem as his coachman, but as he proved wholly
+        unfit for this work Gershon rented a small inn in a remote village,
+        and there established his sister and her husband. The business of the
+        inn was managed by the wife, while Baalshem passed most of his time
+        in a hut in a neighbouring forest. Here he once more gave himself up
+        to meditation and preparation for his future work, and here, a little
+        later, when nearly forty-two years of age, to a few chosen spirits,
+        afterwards his most fervent disciples, he first revealed his true
+        character and mission.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this point
+        unfortunately the materials for a continuous biography are wanting;
+        we next hear of Baalshem discharging the functions of an ordinary
+        Rabbi at Miedziboz in Podolia, but for the remainder of his personal
+        history we have to be content with detached anecdotes <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and fragmentary passages in his life, the
+        sum total of which goes to show that he resided in Podolia and
+        Wallachia, teaching his doctrines to his disciples and <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“working Wonders.”</span> He does not seem to have
+        figured as a public preacher, nor has he left behind him any written
+        work. He appears rather to have used the method, familiar to students
+        of Greek philosophy, of teaching by conversations with his friends
+        and disciples. These conversations, and the parables with which they
+        were largely interspersed, were remembered and stored up by his
+        hearers. By his neighbours the country folk, Baalshem was regarded
+        simply as <span class="tei tei-q">“a man of God.”</span> He was
+        allowed to pursue his course undisturbed by persecution of the
+        serious character which his more aggressive successors provoked. Such
+        of the Rabbis as were aware of his existence despised him and his
+        ways, but the Rabbinical world was at that time too much occupied in
+        the controversy between Eybeschütz and Emden to concern itself with
+        the vagaries of an obscure and apparently <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“unlearned”</span> eccentric. Baalshem also took part in
+        the disputes which were held in Lemberg, the capital of Galicia
+        (1757?), between the Rabbis and the Frankists,<a id="noteref_6" name=
+        "noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> who
+        denounced the Talmud to the Polish Government and wanted to have all
+        the Rabbinical books destroyed. Baalshem suffered from this
+        excitement in a most terrible way. The abrogation of the Oral Law
+        meant for him the ruin of Judaism.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baalshem, in
+        forming the little band of devoted followers who were destined to
+        spread a knowledge of his creed, travelled considerably about
+        Wallachia. He at one time decided to make a pilgrimage to Palestine,
+        but when he reached Constantinople he felt himself inspired
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011"
+        id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to return and continue his
+        work at home. He died at Miedziboz on the eve of Pentecost, 1761.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After his death
+        his disciples, of whom one Beer of Mizriez was the most prominent,
+        undertook the proselytising mission for which Baalshem had prepared
+        them, but from which he himself appears to have abstained. They
+        preached and taught in all the provinces of Russia where Jews may
+        reside, and in Roumania, and Galicia. The number of the sect at the
+        present day is probably about half a million.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Returning now to
+        Baalshem the founder, it may be noted that his appearance as a
+        teacher and reformer was accompanied and justified by a customary and
+        adequate number of miracles. To one disciple he revealed secrets
+        which could have become known to him only by divine revelation; to
+        another he appeared with a nimbus round his head. On the evidence of
+        the Chassidim we learn that Baalshem performed all the recognised
+        signs and marvels which have ever been the customary minor
+        characteristics of men of similar type in similar environment. When
+        Baalshem desired to cross a stream, he spread forth his mantle upon
+        the waters, and standing thereupon passed safely to the other side.
+        Ghosts evacuated haunted houses at the mere mention of his name. Was
+        he alone in the forest on a wintry night, he had but to touch a tree
+        with his finger tips and flames burst forth. When his spirit wandered
+        through the angelic spheres, as was frequently the case, he obtained
+        access to Paradise for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited
+        without through long thousands of mournful years. These and other
+        miracles need not be examined. Here, as in the case of other such
+        blissful seasons of grace, they were the <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> ephemeral though important accessories in
+        establishing the inspired character of his utterances and the
+        authority of his injunctions. It is not as a worker of miracles, but
+        as a religious teacher and reformer, that Baalshem is
+        interesting.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Properly to
+        understand the nature and special direction of his teaching, it is
+        necessary in some measure to realise the character of the field in
+        which he worked; to consider, in other words, the moral and religious
+        condition of the Jews in those districts where Chassidism first took
+        root.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a Hebrew Hymn,
+        written about 1000 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>, and still recited in
+        the synagogue on the Day of Atonement, the poet expresses the strange
+        and bitter fortunes of his race in touching words of mingled sorrow
+        and exultation.</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Destroyed lies Zion and
+              profaned,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Of splendour and renown
+              bereft,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Her ancient glories wholly
+              waned,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">One deathless treasure only
+              left;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Still ours, O Lord,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thy Holy Word.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this Divine
+        Word it was, which a persecuted religion has sought to preserve
+        intact through so many centuries of persecution, and for the sake of
+        which no labour seemed too severe, no sacrifice too large.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bethink Thee, O God,”</span> exclaimed one
+        of our Jewish sages who flourished about the same period,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“bethink Thee of Thy faithful children who,
+        amid their poverty and want, are busy in the study of Thy Law.
+        Bethink Thee of the poor in Israel who are willing to suffer hunger
+        and destitution if only they can secure for their children the
+        knowledge of Thy Law.”</span> And so indeed it was. Old and
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013"
+        id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> young, weak and strong, rich
+        and poor, all pursued that single study, the Torah. The product of
+        this prolonged study is that gigantic literature which, as a long
+        unbroken chain of spiritual activity, connects together the various
+        periods of the Jews' chequered and eventful history. All ages and all
+        lands have contributed to the development of this supreme study. For
+        under the word Torah was comprised not only the Law, but also the
+        contributions of later times expressing either the thoughts or the
+        emotions of holy and sincere men; and even their honest scepticism
+        was not entirely excluded. As in the canon of the Bible, Ecclesiastes
+        and the Song of Solomon found place in the same volume that contains
+        the Law and the Prophets, so at a later time people did not object to
+        put the philosophical works of Maimonides and the songs of Judah
+        Hallevi on the same level with the Code of the Law compiled by R.
+        Isaac Alfasi, and the commentaries on the Bible by R. Solomon b.
+        Isaac.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> None of
+        them was declared infallible, but also to none of them, as soon as
+        people were convinced of the author's sincerity, was denied the
+        homage due to seekers after truth. Almost every author was called
+        Rabbi (<span class="tei tei-q">“my master”</span>) or Rabbenu
+        (<span class="tei tei-q">“our master”</span>),<a id="noteref_8" name=
+        "noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> and
+        nearly every book was regarded more or less as a contribution to the
+        great bulk of the Torah. It was called Writ,<a id="noteref_9" name=
+        "noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> and was
+        treated with a certain kind of piety. But, by a series of accidents
+        too long to be related here, sincerity ceased and sport took its
+        place. I refer to the casuistic schools commonly known by the name of
+        Pilpulists<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href=
+        "#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> (the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“seasoned”</span> or the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“sharp”</span> ones), who flourished in the last two
+        centuries preceding ours. To the authors of this unhappy period, a
+        few glorious exceptions always allowed, the preceding <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Jewish literature did not mean a
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“fountain of living waters,”</span> supplying
+        men with truth and religious inspiration, but rather a kind of
+        armoury providing them with juristic cases over which to fight, and
+        to out-do each other in sophistry and subtlety. As a consequence they
+        cared little or nothing for that part of the Jewish literature that
+        appeals less to the intellect than to the feelings of men. In short,
+        religion consisted only of complicated cases and innumerable
+        ordinances, in which the wit of these men found delight. But the
+        emotional part of it, whose root is the Faith and Love of men, was
+        almost entirely neglected.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was
+        precisely these higher religious emotions that were Baalshem's
+        peculiar province, and it was to them that he assigned in his
+        religious system a place befitting their importance and their
+        dignity. And the locality where his ministration lay was curiously
+        adapted for such propaganda. To that universal study of the Law of
+        which I have just spoken there was one exception. That exception was
+        amongst the Jews in the territories which bordered on the Carpathian
+        Mountains, and comprise the principalities of Moldavia, and
+        Wallachia, Bukowina, and the Ukraine.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is historically
+        certain that the first arrival of the Jews in Roumania was at a very
+        early date, but there is no trace of any intellectual productivity
+        among the immigrants until recent times, and it is admitted that the
+        study of the Law was almost entirely neglected. It was in these
+        districts of mental, and perhaps we might add of even spiritual,
+        darkness that Chassidism took its rise and achieved its first
+        success. <span class="tei tei-q">“The sect of the Chassidim,”</span>
+        says one of the bitterest but most trustworthy of their opponents,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“first gained ground in the most uncivilised
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015"
+        id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> provinces; in the wild ravines
+        of Wallachia and the dreary steppes of the Ukraine.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Apart from the
+        genius of its founder, Chassidism owed its rapid growth to the
+        intellectual barrenness of these districts as compared with the
+        intellectual fertility of the other regions where Jews most thickly
+        congregated. The Roumanian Jews were to some extent under the
+        jurisdiction of the Rabbis of Poland. Now the Poles were celebrated
+        even in Germany for the elaboration of their casuistry. These
+        over-subtle Rabbis, delighting in the quibbles of their sophistry,
+        and reducing religion to an unending number of juristic calculations
+        and all sorts of possibilities and impossibilities, were but too apt
+        to forget the claims of feeling in their eager desire to question and
+        to settle everything. They may have been satisfactory guides in
+        matters spiritual to the men of their own stamp, but they were of no
+        avail to their Roumanian brethren who failed to recognise religion in
+        the garb of casuistry. It was, therefore, not surprising that a
+        revolt against the excess of intellectualism should have sprung up
+        and flourished in those districts where the inhabitants were
+        constitutionally incapable of appreciating the delights of argument.
+        The field was ready, and in the fulness of time came the sower in the
+        person of Baalshem.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the above
+        estimate of the Polish Rabbis there undoubtedly lurks a touch of
+        exaggeration. But it represents the view which the Chassidim took of
+        their opponents. The whole life of Baalshem is a protest against the
+        typical Rabbi thus conceived. The essential difference in the ideals
+        of the two parties is perhaps best illustrated in those portions of
+        their biographical literature where legend treads most closely upon
+        the heels of fact.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg
+        016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hero of Polish
+        Rabbinic biography at five years of age can recite by heart the most
+        difficult tractates of the Talmud; at eight he is the disciple of the
+        most celebrated teacher of the time, and perplexes him by the
+        penetrative subtlety of his questions; while at thirteen he appears
+        before the world as a full-fledged Doctor of the Law.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hero of the
+        Chassidim has a totally different education, and his distinctive
+        glory is of another kind. The legendary stories about Baalshem's
+        youth tell us little of his proficiency in Talmudic studies; instead
+        of sitting in the Beth Hammidrash with the folios of some casuistic
+        treatise spread out before him, Baalshem passes his time singing
+        hymns out of doors, or under the green trees of the forest with the
+        children. Satan, however, says the Chassid, is more afraid of these
+        innocent exercises than of all the controversies in the Meheram
+        Shiff.<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href=
+        "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> It was
+        through external nature, the woods of his childhood, the hills and
+        wild ravines of the Carpathians where he passed many of his maturer
+        years, that Baalshem, according to his disciples, reached his
+        spiritual confirmation. The Chassidic hero had no celebrated Rabbi
+        for his master. He was his own teacher. If not self-taught, it was
+        from angelic lips, or even the Divine voice itself, that he learned
+        the higher knowledge. From the source whence the Torah flowed
+        Baalshem received heavenly lore. His method of self-education, his
+        ways of life, his choice of associates were all instances of revolt;
+        not only did he teach a wholly different theory and practice, but he
+        and his disciples seem to have missed no opportunity of denouncing
+        the old teachers as misleading and ungodly. Among the many anecdotes
+        illustrating this feature, it is told how once, on the evening before
+        the great Day of Atonement, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg
+        017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Baalshem was noticed by his disciples to be, contrary to his usual
+        custom, depressed and ill at ease. The whole subsequent day he passed
+        in violent weeping and lamentations. At its close he once more
+        resumed his wonted cheerfulness of manner. When asked for the
+        explanation of his behaviour, he replied that the Holy Spirit had
+        revealed to him that heavy accusations were being made against the
+        Jewish people, and a heavy punishment had been ordained upon them.
+        The anger of heaven was caused by the Rabbis, whose sole occupation
+        was to invent lying premisses and to draw from them false
+        conclusions. All the truly wise Rabbis of the olden time (such as the
+        Tannaim, the Amoraim<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href=
+        "#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> and
+        their followers, whom Baalshem regarded as so many saints and
+        prophets) had now stood forth as the accusers of their modern
+        successors by whom their words were so grossly perverted from their
+        original meaning. On this account Baalshem's tears had been shed, and
+        his prayers as usual had been successful. The impending judgment was
+        annulled. On another occasion, when he overheard the sounds of eager,
+        loud discussion issuing from a Rabbinical college, Baalshem, closing
+        his ears with his hands, declared that it was such disputants who
+        delayed the redemption of Israel from captivity. Satan, he said,
+        incites the Rabbis to study those portions of Jewish literature only
+        on which they can whet the sharpness of their intellects, but from
+        all writings of which the reading would promote piety and the fear of
+        God he keeps them away. <span class="tei tei-q">“Where there is much
+        study,”</span> says a disciple of Baalshem, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“there is little piety.”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Jewish Devils”</span><a id="noteref_13" name=
+        "noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> is one
+        of the numerous polite epithets applied to the Rabbis by the friends
+        of Baalshem. <span class="tei tei-q">“Even the worst sinners are
+        better than they; so blind are they in <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the arrogance of their self-conceit that their
+        very devotion to the Law becomes a vehicle for their sin.”</span> It
+        will be found when we deal with the most positive side of Baalshem's
+        teaching that this antagonism to the attitude and methods of the
+        contemporary Rabbis is further emphasised, and it will readily be
+        seen that his whole scheme of religion and of conduct in relation to
+        God and man rendered this acknowledged hostility inevitable. In
+        approaching this part of our subject it should be remembered that, as
+        stated above, Baalshem himself wrote nothing. For a knowledge of his
+        sayings we are therefore dependent on the reports of his friends and
+        disciples. And it is not unfrequently necessary to supplement these
+        by the teaching of his followers, whom we may suppose in large
+        measure to have caught the spirit of their master. Unfortunately the
+        original authorities are in a difficult Hebrew patois which often
+        obscures the precise meaning of whole passages.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The originality of
+        Baalshem's teaching has been frequently impugned, chiefly by the
+        suggestion that he drew largely from the Zohar (Book of
+        Brightness).<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href=
+        "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> This
+        mystical book, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Bible of the
+        Cabbalists,”</span> whether we regard its subject-matter or its
+        history and influence, is unique in literature. Its pretended author
+        is Simeon ben Yochai, a great Rabbi of the second century, but the
+        real writer is probably one Moses de Leon, a Spanish Jew, who lived
+        eleven centuries later. The book is one of the most interesting
+        literary forgeries, and is a marvellous mixture of good and evil. A
+        passage of delicate religious fancy is succeeded by another of gross
+        obscenity in illustration and suggestion; true piety and wild
+        blasphemy are strangely mingled together. Baalshem undoubtedly had
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019"
+        id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> studied the Zohar, and he even
+        is reported to have said that the reading of the Zohar had enabled
+        him to see into the whole universe of things. But, for all that,
+        Baalshem was no copyist; and the Zohar, although it may have
+        suggested a hint to him here and there, was not the source whence his
+        inspiration was drawn.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its attraction for
+        Baalshem is sufficiently explained by the fantastic, imaginative, and
+        emotional nature of its contents. It lent itself more easily than the
+        older Rabbinical literature to new explanations unthought of by its
+        author. But even the Talmud and its early commentaries became
+        apocalyptic to the heroes of Chassidism. Nay, the driest and most
+        legal disquisitions about <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">meum</span></span> and <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">tuum</span></span>
+        could be translated into parables and allegories and symbols full of
+        the most exalted meanings. Baalshem, like every other religious
+        reformer, was partially the product of his age. The influences of the
+        past, the history and literature of his own people, helped to make
+        him what he was. But they do not rob him of his originality. He was a
+        religious revivalist in the best sense; full of burning faith in his
+        God and his cause; convinced utterly of the value of his work and the
+        truth of his teaching.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Although there can
+        be no real doubt of Baalshem's claim to originality, it should be
+        borne in mind that his teaching is not only distinctively Jewish, but
+        that for every part of it parallels and analogies could be found in
+        the older Hebrew literature. Indeed it is not wonderful that in a
+        literature, extending over 2000 years, of a people whose chief
+        thoughts have been religion, and who have come in contact with so
+        many external religious and philosophic influences, the germs can be
+        discovered <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg
+        020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
+        almost every conceivable system, and the outline of almost every
+        imaginable doctrine.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The keynote of all
+        Baalshem's teachings is the Omnipresence, or more strictly the
+        Immanence, of God. This is the source from which flows naturally
+        every article of his creed; the universality of the Divinity is the
+        foundation of the entire Chassidic fabric. The idea of the constant
+        living presence of God in all existence permeates the whole of
+        Baalshem's scheme; it is insisted on in every relation; from it is
+        deduced every important proposition and every rule in conduct of his
+        school.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All created things
+        and every product of human intelligence owe their being to God. All
+        generation and all existence spring from the thought and will of God.
+        It is incumbent upon man to believe that all things are pervaded by
+        the divine life, and when he speaks he should remember that it is
+        this divine life which is speaking through him. There is nothing
+        which is void of God. If we imagine for a moment such a thing to be,
+        it would instantly fall into nothingness. In every human thought God
+        is present. If the thought be gross or evil, we should seek to raise
+        and ennoble it by carrying it back to its origin. So, if a man be
+        suddenly overwhelmed by the aspect of a beautiful woman, he should
+        remember that this splendour of beauty is owing to the all-pervading
+        emanation from the divine. When he remembers that the source of
+        corporeal beauty is God, he will not be content to let his thought
+        abide with the body when he can rise to the inward contemplation of
+        the infinite soul of beauty, which is God. A disciple of Baalshem has
+        said: Even as in the jewels <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg
+        021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
+        his beloved the lover sees only the beauty of her he loves, so does
+        the true lover of God see in all the appearances of this world, the
+        vitalising and generative power of his divine master. If you do not
+        see the world in the light of God you separate the creation from its
+        Creator. He who does not fully believe in this universality of God's
+        presence has never properly acknowledged God's Sovereignty, for he
+        excludes God from an existing portion of the actual world. The word
+        of God (to Baalshem, a synonym for God himself), which <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“is settled in heaven”</span> and <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“established on earth,”</span> is still and always
+        speaking, acting, and generating throughout heaven and earth in
+        endless gradations and varieties. If the vitalising word were to
+        cease, chaos would come again. The belief in a single creation after
+        which the Master withdrew from his completed work, is erroneous and
+        heretical. The vivifying power is never withdrawn from the world
+        which it animates. Creation is continuous; an unending manifestation
+        of the goodness of God. All things are an affluence from the two
+        divine attributes of Power and Love, which express themselves in
+        various images and reflections.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the
+        doctrine of universality in Chassidism. God, the father of Israel,
+        God the Merciful, God the All-powerful, the God of Love, not only
+        created everything but is embodied in everything. The necessity of
+        believing this doctrine is the cardinal Dogma. But as creation is
+        continuous so also is revelation. This revelation is only to be
+        grasped by faith. Faith, therefore, is more efficacious than
+        learning. Thus it is that in times of persecution, the wise and the
+        foolish, the sinner and the saint, are wont alike to give up their
+        life for their faith. They who could <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> render no answer to the questions of the
+        casuist are yet willing to die the most cruel of deaths rather than
+        deny their faith in the One and Supreme God. Their strength to face
+        danger and death is owing to that divine illumination of the soul
+        which is more exalted than knowledge.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We should thus
+        regard all things in the light of so many manifestations of the
+        Divinity. God is present in all things; therefore there is good,
+        actual or potential, in all things. It is our duty everywhere to seek
+        out and to honour the good, and not to arrogate to ourselves the
+        right to judge that which may seem to be evil. In thinking therefore
+        of a fellow-man, we should above all things realise in him the
+        presence of the spirit of good. Whence we have the Doctrine that each
+        of us, while thinking humbly of himself, should always be ready to
+        think well, and always slow to think evil, of another. This explains
+        the Chassidic attitude towards erring humanity. Baalshem viewed human
+        sin and infirmity in a very different light from that of the ordinary
+        Rabbi. Ever conscious of the Divine side of Humanity, he vigorously
+        combated the gratuitous assumption of sinfulness in man which was a
+        fertile subject with contemporary preachers. They, among the
+        Roumanian Jews as in other communities, delighted chiefly to dwell on
+        the dark side of things, and found their favourite theme in elaborate
+        descriptions of the infernal punishments that were awaiting the
+        sinner after death. It is related how on one occasion Baalshem
+        rebuked one of these. The preacher had been denouncing woe to an
+        audience of whom he knew nothing whether for evil or for good.
+        Baalshem, indignant at this indiscriminative abuse and conceited
+        arrogation of the divine office of judgment, turned on him in the
+        following words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Woe <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> upon thee who darest to speak evil of
+        Israel! Dost not know that every Jew, when he utters ever so short a
+        prayer at the close of day, is performing a great work before which
+        the angels in heaven bow down?”</span> Great, as it would seem, was
+        the value set by Baalshem upon the smallest evidence of the higher
+        nature in man, and few there were, as he believed, who, if their
+        spirit was not darkened by pride, did not now and again give proof of
+        the divine stamp in which God had created them. No sin so separates
+        us from God that we need despair of return. From every rung of the
+        moral ladder, no matter how low, let man seek God. If he but fully
+        believe that nothing is void of God, and that God is concealed in the
+        midst of apparent ruin and degradation, he will not fear lest God be
+        far from him. God is regained in a moment of repentance, for
+        repentance <span class="tei tei-q">“transcends the limits of space
+        and time.”</span> And he who leads the sinner to repentance causes a
+        divine joy; it is as though a king's son had been in captivity and
+        were now brought back to his father's gaze.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baalshem refused
+        to regard any one as wholly irredeemable. His was an optimistic
+        faith. God was to be praised in gladness by the dwellers in this
+        glorious world. The true believer, recognising the reflection of God
+        in every man, should hopefully strive, when that reflection was
+        obscured by sin, to restore the likeness of God in man. The peculiar
+        detestability of sin lies in this, that man rejects the earthly
+        manifestations of the Divinity and pollutes them. One of Baalshem's
+        disciples delighted in the saying that the most hardened sinners were
+        not to be despaired of, but prayed for. None knows the heart of man,
+        and none should judge his neighbour. Let him who burns with zeal for
+        God's sake, exercise his zeal on himself, <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> not others. Baalshem said, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Let no one think himself better than his neighbour, for
+        all serve God; each according to the measure of understanding which
+        God has given him.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this position
+        it is a natural step to Baalshem's view of prayer. He is reputed to
+        have said that all the greatness he had achieved was the issue not of
+        study but of prayer. But true prayer <span class="tei tei-q">“must
+        move,”</span> as Baalshem phrased it, <span class="tei tei-q">“in the
+        realms above,”</span> and not be concerned with affairs sublunary.
+        Your prayer should not be taken up with your wishes and needs, but
+        should be the means to bring you nigh to God. In prayer man must lay
+        aside his own individuality, and not even be conscious of his
+        existence; for if, when he prays, Self is not absolutely quiescent,
+        the object of prayer is unattainable. Indeed it is only through God's
+        grace that after true prayer man is yet alive; to such a point has
+        the annihilation of self proceeded.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be
+        necessary to caution the reader against ascribing to Baalshem any
+        modern rationalistic notions on the subject of prayer. The power of
+        prayer, in the old-fashioned sense, to produce an answer from God was
+        never doubted by Baalshem for a moment. Baalshem's deity is not
+        restricted towards any side by any philosophic considerations. All
+        Baalshem meant was that any reference or regard to earthly
+        requirements was unworthy and destructive of this communion of man
+        with God. The wise man, says Baalshem, does not trouble the king with
+        innumerable petitions about trifles. His desire is merely to gain
+        admission into the king's presence and to speak with him without a
+        go-between. To be with the king whom he loves so dearly is for him
+        the highest good. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg
+        025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> But
+        his love for the king has its reward; for the king loves him.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has already
+        been implied that, with regard to our duty towards our fellow-man, we
+        must not only honour him for the good, and abstain from judging the
+        evil that may be in him, but must pray for him. Furthermore we must
+        work for his spiritual and moral reclamation. In giving practical
+        effect in his own life to this doctrine, Baalshem's conduct was in
+        striking contrast to that of his contemporaries. He habitually
+        consorted with outcasts and sinners, with the poor and uneducated of
+        both sexes, whom the other teachers ignored. He thus won for his
+        doctrines a way to the heart of the people by adapting his life and
+        language to their understanding and sympathies. In illustration of
+        this, as well as of his hatred of vanity and display, it is told how,
+        on the occasion of his being accorded a public reception by the Jews
+        on his arrival at Brody, instead of addressing to them in the
+        conventional fashion some subtle discourse upon a Talmudical
+        difficulty, he contented himself with conversing upon trivial topics
+        in the local dialect with some of the less important persons in the
+        crowd.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This incident is
+        perhaps the more noteworthy because it occurred in Brody, which was
+        at that time a seat of learning and Rabbinic culture,—a place where,
+        for that very reason, Chassidism was never able to gain a foothold.
+        It is probable enough that Baalshem in his visits to this town kept
+        aloof from the learned and the wise, and sought to gather round him
+        the neglected and humbler elements of Jewish society. It is well
+        known that Baalshem consorted a good deal with the innkeepers of the
+        district, who were held in very low repute among their brethren. The
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026"
+        id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> following remark by one of his
+        followers is very suggestive in this respect. Just as only
+        superficial minds attach a certain holiness to special places, whilst
+        with the deeper ones all places are alike holy, so that to them it
+        makes no difference whether prayers be said in the synagogue or in
+        the forest; so the latter believe that not only prophecies and
+        visions come from heaven, but that every utterance of man, if
+        properly understood, contains a message of God. Those who are
+        absorbed in God will easily find the divine element in everything
+        which they hear, even though the speaker himself be quite ignorant of
+        it.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This line of
+        conduct gave a fair opening for attack to his opponents, an
+        opportunity of which they were not slow to avail themselves. Baalshem
+        was pointed at as the associate of the lowest classes. They avenged
+        themselves for his neglect of and hostility to the learned by
+        imputing the worst motives to his indifference to appearances. He was
+        accused of idling about the streets with disreputable characters, and
+        one polemical treatise draws the vilest inferences from his apparent
+        familiarity with women. To this charge Baalshem's conduct, innocent
+        in itself, gave some colour; for his views and habits in relation to
+        women marked a strong divergence from current customs. The position
+        of women in contemporary circles was neither debased nor inevitably
+        unhappy, but it was distinctly subordinate. Their education was
+        almost entirely neglected, and their very existence was practically
+        ignored. According to the Chassidic doctrine of Universality, woman
+        was necessarily to be honoured. <span class="tei tei-q">“All
+        Jews,”</span> says one Chassid, <span class="tei tei-q">“even the
+        uneducated and the women, believe in God.”</span> Baalshem frequently
+        associated <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg
+        027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        with women, assigning to them not only social equality, but a high
+        degree of religious importance.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His own wife he
+        reverenced as a saint; when she died he abandoned the hope of rising
+        to heaven while yet alive, like Elijah of old, saying mournfully that
+        undivided such translation might have happened, but for him alone it
+        was impossible. Then again in a form of religion utilising so largely
+        the emotions of Faith and Love there was a strong appeal to the
+        female mind. The effect of this was soon evident, and Baalshem did
+        not neglect to profit by it. Among the most devoted of his early
+        adherents were women. One of them was the heroine of a favourite
+        anecdote concerning Baalshem's work of Love and Rescue. It is related
+        that in a certain village there dwelt a woman whose life was so
+        disgraceful that her brothers at last determined to kill her. With
+        this object they enticed her into a neighbouring wood, but guided by
+        the Holy Spirit Baalshem intervened at the critical moment, and
+        dissuading the men from their purpose rescued the sinner. The woman
+        afterwards became a sort of Magdalen in the new community.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Above I have
+        endeavoured to throw together in some order of sequence the doctrines
+        and practical rules of conduct which Baalshem and his early disciples
+        seem to have deduced from their central idea of the omnipresence of
+        God. This was necessary in order to give a connected idea of their
+        creed, but it is right to say that nowhere in Chassidic literature
+        have these deductions been logically co-ordinated. Perhaps their
+        solitary attempt to formulate and condense their distinctive views is
+        confined to a statement of their idea of piety or service of God, and
+        an examination of three cardinal virtues, Humility, Cheerfulness,
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028"
+        id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and Enthusiasm. What the
+        Chassidim held as to true service brings into relief Baalshem's
+        characteristic manner of regarding the Law.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the service of
+        God was generally understood a life which fulfilled the precepts of
+        the written and oral law. Baalshem understood by it a certain
+        attitude towards life as a whole. For, as God is realised in life,
+        each activity of life when rightly conceived and executed is at once
+        a manifestation and a service of the Divine. All things have been
+        created for the glory and service of God. The smallest worm serves
+        Him with all its power. Thus, while eating, drinking, sleeping, and
+        the other ordinary functions of the body are regarded by the old
+        Jewish moralists as mere means to an end, to Baalshem they are
+        already a service of God in themselves. All pleasures are
+        manifestations of God's attribute of love; and, so regarded, they are
+        at once spiritualised and ennobled. Man should seek to reach a higher
+        level of purity and holiness before partaking of food and drink, than
+        even before the study of the Law. For when the Torah had once been
+        given by God the whole world became instinct with its grace. He who
+        speaks of worldly matters and religious matters as if they were
+        separate and distinct, is a heretic.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Upon the continual
+        and uninterrupted study of the Law, Baalshem lays but little stress.
+        He accepted the ordinary belief that the Law (under which term are
+        included not only the Pentateuch, but the whole Old Testament and the
+        major portion of the old Rabbinic literature) was a revelation of
+        God. But, as the world itself is equally a divine revelation, the
+        Torah becomes little more than a part of a larger whole. To
+        understand it aright one needs to penetrate to the inward reality—to
+        the infinite <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg
+        029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        light which is revealed in it. We should study the Law not as we
+        study a science for the sake of acquiring knowledge (he who studies
+        it so has in truth been concerning himself with its mere outward
+        form), but we should learn from it the true service of God. Thus the
+        study of the law is no end in itself. It is studied because, as the
+        word of God, God is more easily discerned and absorbed in this
+        revelation of Him than in any other. The Torah is eternal, but its
+        explanation is to be made by the spiritual leaders of Judaism. It is
+        to be interpreted by them in accordance with the Attribute of the
+        age. For he regarded the world as governed in every age by a
+        different Attribute of God—one age by the Attribute of Love, another
+        by that of Power, a third again, by Beauty, and so on—and the
+        explanation of the Torah must be brought into agreement with it. The
+        object of the whole Torah is that man should become a Torah himself.
+        Every man being a Torah in himself, said a disciple of Baalshem, has
+        got not only his Abraham and Moses, but also his Balaam and Haman: he
+        should try to expel the Balaam and develop the Abraham within him.
+        Every action of man should be a pure manifestation of God.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reason why we
+        should do what the Law commands is not to gain grace thereby in the
+        eyes of God, but to learn how to love God and to be united to Him.
+        The important thing is not how many separate injunctions are obeyed,
+        but how and in what spirit we obey them. The object of fulfilling
+        these various ordinances is to put oneself, as it were, on the same
+        plane with God, and thus, in the ordinary phrase of the religious
+        mystic, to become one with Him, or to be absorbed in Him. People
+        should get to know, says Baalshem, what the unity of God really
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030"
+        id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> means. To attain a part of
+        this indivisible unity is to attain the whole. The Torah and all its
+        ordinances are from God. If I therefore fulfil but one commandment in
+        and through the love of God, it is as though I have fulfilled them
+        all.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have now briefly
+        to refer to the three virtues to which the Chassidim assigned the
+        highest place of honour. Of these the first is called in Hebrew
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Shiphluth,”</span><a id="noteref_15" name=
+        "noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> and is
+        best rendered by our word <span class="tei tei-q">“Humility,”</span>
+        but in Chassidic usage it includes the ideas of modesty,
+        considerateness, and sympathy. The prominence given to these
+        qualities is in sharp contrast to the faults of conceit, vanity, and
+        self-satisfaction, against which Baalshem was never weary of
+        protesting. He regarded these as the most seductive of all forms of
+        sin. But a few minutes before his death he was heard to murmur,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“O vanity, vanity! even in this hour of death
+        thou darest to approach me with thy temptations: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘Bethink thee, Israel, what a grand funeral procession
+        will be thine because thou hast been so wise and good.’</span> O
+        vanity, vanity! beshrew thee.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“It
+        should be indifferent to man,”</span> says the master, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“whether he be praised or blamed, loved or hated, reputed
+        to be the wisest of mankind or the greatest of fools. The test of the
+        real service of God is that it leaves behind it the feeling of
+        humility. If a man after prayer be conscious of the least pride or
+        self-satisfaction, if he think, for instance, that he has earned a
+        reward by the ardour of his spiritual exercises, then let him know
+        that he has prayed not to God but to himself. And what is this but
+        disguised idolatry? Before you can find God you must lose
+        yourself.”</span> The Chassidim treated Shiphluth from two sides: a
+        negative side in thinking humbly of oneself, a positive in thinking
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031"
+        id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> highly of one's neighbour, in
+        other words the love for our fellow-man.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He who loves the
+        father will also love his children. The true lover of God is also a
+        lover of man. It is ignorance of one's own errors that makes one
+        ready to see the errors of others. <span class="tei tei-q">“There is
+        no sphere in heaven where the soul remains a shorter time than in the
+        sphere of merit, there is none where it abides longer than in the
+        sphere of Love.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second
+        Cardinal Virtue is <span class="tei tei-q">“Cheerfulness,”</span> in
+        Hebrew <span class="tei tei-q">“Simchah.”</span><a id="noteref_16"
+        name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> Baalshem
+        insisted on cheerfulness of heart as a necessary attitude for the due
+        service of God. Once believe that you are really the servant and the
+        child of God and how can you fall again into a gloomy condition of
+        mind? Nor should the inevitable sins which we all must commit disturb
+        our glad serenity of soul. For is not repentance ready at hand by
+        which we may climb back to God? Every penitent thought is a voice of
+        God. Man should detect that voice in all the evidence of his senses,
+        in every sight and sound of external nature. It is through his want
+        of faith in the universality of God's presence that he is deaf to
+        these subtle influences and can read only the lessons which are
+        inscribed in books.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader will be
+        prepared to learn that Baalshem, taking this cheerful view of things,
+        was opposed to every kind of asceticism. Judaism, or rather
+        Israelitism, it is true, was not originally much of an ascetic
+        religion. But there can be little doubt that in the course of history
+        there came in many ascetic doctrines and practices, quite enough at
+        least to encourage such tender souls the bent of whose minds lay in
+        this direction. To one of these, a former disciple, Baalshem wrote:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“I hear that you think yourself <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> compelled from religious motives to enter
+        upon a course of fasts and penances. My soul is outraged at your
+        determination. By the counsel of God I order you to abandon such
+        dangerous practices, which are but the outcome of a disordered brain.
+        Is it not written <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt not hide
+        thyself from thine own flesh?’</span> Fast then no more than is
+        prescribed. Follow my command and God shall be with you.”</span> On
+        another occasion Baalshem was heard to observe that it is a
+        machination of Satan to drive us into a condition of gloom and
+        despondency in which the smallest error is regarded as a deadly sin.
+        Satan's object is to keep us away from the true service of God, and
+        God can only be truly served from a happy and confident disposition.
+        Anxious scrupulosity in details is therefore to be avoided. It is the
+        counsel of the Devil to persuade us that we never have done and shall
+        never do our duty fully, and that moral progress is impossible. Such
+        ideas beget melancholy and despair, which are of evil.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third virtue
+        is called in the Hebrew Chassidic literature <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Hithlahabuth,”</span><a id="noteref_17" name=
+        "noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> and is
+        derived from a verb meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“to
+        kindle”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“set on fire.”</span> The
+        substantive <span class="tei tei-q">“Hithlahabuth,”</span> so far as
+        I am aware, was first coined by Baalshem's followers. It is best
+        rendered by our word <span class="tei tei-q">“Enthusiasm.”</span>
+        Every religious action, to be of any avail, must be done with
+        enthusiasm. A mere mechanical and lifeless performance of an
+        ordinance is valueless. A man is no step nearer the goal if he
+        thinks, forsooth, that he has done his duty when he has gone through
+        the whole round of laws in every section of the code. This essential
+        enthusiasm is only begotten of Love. The service of fear, if not
+        wholly useless, is yet necessarily accompanied by a certain repulsion
+        and heaviness, which effectually <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> prevent the rush and ardour of enthusiasm. The
+        inspiration of true service is its own end. There is no thought of
+        this world, and there is none of the world to come. In the Talmud
+        there is frequent reference to one Rabbi Elisha ben Abuyah, an
+        apostate from Judaism, who, when urged to repent, replied that
+        repentance was useless, and that for this mournful belief he had
+        direct divine authority. For he had been told by a voice from heaven
+        that even though he repented he would be excluded from sharing the
+        happiness of the world to come. Of him it was said by one of the
+        Chassidim, <span class="tei tei-q">“This man indeed missed a golden
+        opportunity. How purely could he have served God, knowing that for
+        his service there could never be a reward!”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the
+        conception of Enthusiasm springs the quality of mobility, suggesting
+        spiritual progress, and commonly opposed by Baalshem and his
+        followers to the dull religious stagnation of self-satisfied
+        contemporaries. Man should not imagine himself to have attained the
+        level of the righteous; let him rather regard himself as a penitent
+        who should make progress every day. Always to remain on the same
+        religious plane, merely repeating to-day the religious routine of
+        yesterday, is not true service. There must be a daily advance in the
+        knowledge and love of the Divine Master. Mere freedom from active sin
+        is not sufficient; such negative virtue may be but another word for
+        the chance absence of temptation. What boots it never to have
+        committed a sin if sin lies concealed in the heart? It is only the
+        uninterrupted communion with God which will raise and ennoble your
+        thoughts and designs, and cause the roots of sin to die. The
+        patriarch Abraham, without any command from God, fulfilled the whole
+        Torah, because he perceived that the Law was the <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> life of all created things. In the
+        Messianic age the law will no longer seem to man as something
+        ordained for him from without; but the law will be within the hearts
+        of men; it will seem natural and self-evident to them, because they
+        will realise that God and life are manifested through the law.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baalshem, who
+        dealt largely in parable, has left the following, which we may fitly
+        add to our somewhat inadequate presentation of his doctrine.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was once a
+        king who built himself a glorious palace. By means of magical
+        illusion it seemed as if the palace were full of devious corridors
+        and mazes, preventing the approach to the royal presence. But as
+        there was much gold and silver heaped up in the entrance halls, most
+        people were content to go no further, but take their fill of
+        treasure. The king himself they did not notice. At last the king's
+        intimate had compassion upon them and exclaimed to them, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“All these walls and mazes which you see before you do
+        not in truth exist at all. They are mere illusions. Push forward
+        bravely, and you shall find no obstacle.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must not
+        interpret the parable to mean that Baalshem denied the reality or
+        even the importance of the actual phenomenal world. The very contrary
+        is the truth. The world is for him full of God, penetrated through
+        and through by the divine, and therefore as real as God himself. It
+        was quite in Baalshem's manner when one of his disciples declared
+        that only fools could speak of the world as vanity or emptiness.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“It is in truth a glorious world. We must
+        only learn how rightly to make use of it. Call nothing common or
+        profane: by God's presence all things are
+        holy.”</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg
+        035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Above we have
+        reviewed the essential doctrines of Baalshem and his immediate
+        followers; we have now to see how they fared at the hands of the sect
+        which he founded. This is a sad part of our task, for the subsequent
+        history of Chassidism is almost entirely a record of decay. As
+        formulated by its founder the new creed amounted to a genuine
+        Reformation, pure and lofty in ideal. After his death unhappily it
+        was rapidly corrupted and perverted. This was due almost exclusively
+        to the dangerous and exaggerated development of a single point in his
+        teaching. That point, the honour due to the divine in man, was
+        relatively a minor article in the original creed. But the later
+        Chassidism has given it a distorted and almost exclusive importance
+        wholly out of proportion to the grander and more essential features
+        of Baalshem's teaching, until the distinctive feature of the
+        Chassidism of to-day is an almost idolatrous service of their living
+        leaders. What little there is to say of the history of the sect after
+        Baalshem's death would be unintelligible without some explanation of
+        the origin and growth of this unfortunate perversion.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been
+        explained that Baalshem laid but little stress upon the study of the
+        Law or the observance of its precepts in themselves, but regarded
+        them only as means to an end. The end is union with God. Man has to
+        discover the presence of God in the Divine word and will. Now this
+        mystical service of God, although perhaps sufficing to sensitive and
+        enthusiastic natures, is scarcely plain or definite enough for
+        ordinary men. Few can realise abstractions: and yet fewer can delight
+        in them and find in their contemplation sufficient nurture for their
+        religious needs. What then had Chassidism to offer to the ordinary
+        majority <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg
+        036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> who
+        could not recognise God in all the plenitude of His disguise? The
+        want of something tangible whereon to fix the minds of the people,
+        which has confronted the teachers of so many creeds, was also
+        encountered by the Chassidim, and they unfortunately found their way
+        out of the difficulty by relying on and developing their doctrine of
+        man's position in the Universe. Man's ideal is to be a law himself;
+        himself a clear and full manifestation of God. Now, not only is he
+        God's servant and child, but in highest development he becomes
+        himself a part of God, albeit in human shape, so that he may become
+        wholly one with his divine Father. But if man may reach this highest
+        level of holiness, he is virtually a kind of God-man, whom his
+        fellow-men of lower levels perceive by reason of his manhood, but his
+        essential office consists in raising them up to God by reason of his
+        Divinity.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The few chosen
+        spirits who through the successful persistency with which they have
+        sought God in all things have become, though yet on earth, absorbed
+        in Him, are known in Chassidic literature by the name of the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Zaddikim.”</span> The Hebrew word
+        Zaddik<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href=
+        "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> means
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“just”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“righteous,”</span> and the term was probably chosen in
+        conscious opposition to the title of Rabbinic heroes, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“disciples of the wise.”</span> For the Zaddik is not so
+        much the product of learning as of intuition: his final consummation
+        is reached by a sudden and direct illumination from God. The Zaddik
+        not only resembles Moses, but, in virtue of his long communion with
+        the Divine, he is also the true child of God. He is, moreover, a
+        vivifying power in creation, for he is the connecting bond between
+        God and his creatures. He is the source of blessing and the fount of
+        grace. Man must therefore learn to love the Zaddik, <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> so that through the Zaddik he may win
+        God's grace. He who does not believe in the Zaddik is an apostate
+        from God. Here then we have the fatal exaggeration to which I have
+        alluded, and here its logical consequence. The step to man-worship is
+        short.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This peculiar
+        doctrine of the Intermediary soon became the distinguishing feature
+        of Chassidism. By a Chassid was understood not a man who held such
+        and such opinions in theology and religion, but a believer in the
+        Zaddik, and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship of
+        the Zaddik. Every other doctrine of Chassidism was rapidly pushed
+        into the background and overlooked. Even the grand and fundamental
+        doctrine of Omnipresence in the Creation was veiled by the special
+        presence in the Zaddik. Chassidism became mere Zaddikism, and its
+        subsequent history is identical with the downward development of that
+        cult.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether Baalshem
+        named his successor is doubtful. But the lead after his death was
+        assumed by his disciple Beer of Mizriez. This man's conversion to
+        Chassidism was an important event for the new community; his piety
+        and learning were beyond dispute, and, whereas during Baalshem's life
+        Chassidism had found its chief adherents among the lower classes of
+        society, Beer managed to gather round him many of the most learned
+        among his contemporaries. It was to these new and ardent disciples of
+        Beer that the expansion of Chassidism was chiefly due. They came
+        together from many quarters, and after Beer's death separated and
+        preached the new doctrine far and wide. Many even went forth during
+        the lifetime of their master, and at his command, to found fresh
+        branches of the new sect. Like Beer himself, they directed their
+        efforts <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name=
+        "Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> mainly to winning over
+        the educated sections of the Jews. The elder men paid little heed to
+        their word, but the youths, just fresh from their casuistic studies,
+        which had sharpened their wits and starved their souls, lent a ready
+        ear and an eager heart to the new doctrine. The uneducated were by no
+        means excluded; to them Chassidism held out a deeper consolation and
+        a grander hope than the current Rabbinism of the age; they therefore
+        joined the young community in large numbers without any special
+        effort being necessary to gain them over.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their methods
+        of Prayer the Chassidim most conspicuously differed from the older
+        communities. Laying as they did supreme stress on the importance and
+        efficacy of prayer, they soon found it necessary to secede from the
+        existing synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves. The
+        usual salaried Reader <span class="tei tei-q">“with the beautiful
+        voice and empty head,”</span> who naturally regarded his function as
+        a matter of business, was done away with and his place taken either
+        by the Zaddik himself or by some other distinguished person in the
+        community. The Chassidim also effected many changes in the liturgy.
+        Instead of the German they adopted the Spanish ritual. They excised
+        many prayers which, lacking the authority of antiquity, were cumbrous
+        in form or objectionable in matter. They inserted new prayers and
+        hymns of their own. They paid little regard to the prescribed hours
+        at which public worship should be held. Prayer began when they had
+        got themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind. Frequent
+        ablutions, perusal of mystical writings, introspective meditation
+        were the means by which they sought to gain the befitting mood. The
+        prayers themselves were <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg
+        039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement. Some in
+        the zeal of their devotion began to dance; others were rapt in a
+        motionless ecstasy; some prayed aloud; others in solemn silence. They
+        justified their abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that
+        you cannot order a child when to speak with its father: such
+        restraint were fit only for slaves.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a rule the
+        larger number of the younger Chassidim were able to devote their
+        whole time to religious exercises. It was the custom among the Jews
+        in Eastern Europe for the young men to live at the expense of their
+        own or their wives' parents, in order that they might give themselves
+        up entirely to religious study. According to the old notions, this
+        meant the study of the Talmud and its Commentaries; the Chassidim who
+        cared little for the legal side of Jewish literature betook
+        themselves to the literature of edification and mysticism. No small
+        part of their time was taken up with endless conversations about the
+        Zaddik, his piety, goodness, and self-sacrifice and the wonderful
+        miracles which he had wrought. If a Zaddik was living in his own
+        town, the youthful Chassid spent as many hours as he could in the
+        Zaddik's company, in order to observe and study this embodied Torah
+        as constantly as possible. Where no Zaddik was at hand, periodical
+        pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived, and endless were
+        the tales which were afterwards repeated, to those who were obliged
+        to stay at home, of the Zaddik's marvellous wisdom and extraordinary
+        deeds. The last hours of the Sabbath day were looked upon as a
+        special season of grace, and the Chassidim were therefore in the
+        habit of collecting together in the waning of the Sabbath and
+        celebrating the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“Supper of the Holy
+        Queen.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg
+        040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The
+        meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as well as by hymns
+        and prayers.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Chassidim were
+        second to no other sect in their loyalty and affection for each
+        other. No sacrifice for a brother Chassid was too great. They knew no
+        difference of rich and poor, old and young, wise and ignorant; for
+        they all, with one accord, worshipped one common ideal, the Zaddik,
+        who in his exalted position was equally raised above them all. Before
+        him all minor differences of rank disappeared. When a Chassid
+        travelled, he had no scruple in asking for lodging or entertainment
+        in the house of any Chassid who could afford to give them. If he was
+        in money difficulties the purse of his host was at his disposal. If
+        that was not sufficient, it was supplemented by a grant from the fund
+        of the community. These gifts were not looked upon in the light of
+        charity either by giver or receiver; they were made to the Zaddik, to
+        whom all Chassidim alike were debtors. It sometimes even happened
+        that a Zaddik said that the son of some rich merchant was to marry
+        the daughter of a poor schoolmaster, and both parties were equally
+        delighted to fulfil the wish of their beloved chief.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may easily be
+        imagined that the innovations of the Chassidim provoked the wrath of
+        the orthodox communities. But in their detestation of the Rabbis the
+        Chassidim returned in full measure all the hatred they received. The
+        Zaddik is the Moses of his age: the Rabbis its Korah and Abiram.
+        Where the Chassidic party in any community gained the upper hand, the
+        Rabbi was deposed and a Zaddik, if that was possible, elected in his
+        place. The issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the
+        Jewish race was a rigorous persecution. In many places <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Chassidim were excommunicated, in
+        others their leaders were publicly scourged and put into the stocks.
+        Their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly closed. But
+        persecution produced only the usual result of increasing the
+        popularity and the numbers of the sect. The devotion of the Chassidim
+        to each other and to their common cause was increased a hundred-fold
+        by suffering. In one case a distinguished Zaddik was accused of
+        treason, before the Russian authorities, and was thrown into prison.
+        In Russia, however, the power of money is considerable, and on
+        payment of a large ransom not only was the beloved Zaddik released
+        but as an obvious consequence his reputation greatly profited: the
+        day of his release was celebrated as a yearly festival, while his
+        sufferings were regarded by his followers as a sin-offering that
+        atoned for the iniquities of his age. From this time the government
+        maintained a purely neutral attitude towards the new sect, and ere
+        long the persecution by the orthodox ceased.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cessation of
+        persecution may possibly be accounted for by the fact that Chassidism
+        as a secession soon ceased to be formidable. There were early
+        divisions within the sect. Even Beer's disciples began to quarrel
+        over theological differences and to found separate communities. When
+        once the course of corruption and spiritual decay had begun, it was
+        the interest of the false Zaddikim to accentuate these differences.
+        Each Zaddik sought to have a whole little sect to himself, from which
+        to draw an undivided revenue. And each deluded little sect as it
+        arose boasted of the exclusive possession of the true Zaddik.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must not be
+        supposed that these strictures apply to the whole class of Zaddikim.
+        The greater number of Baalshem's leading disciples as well as Beer's
+        were beyond <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg
+        042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        question men of pure, unalloyed piety, who would have rejected with
+        scorn any idea of making a trade of their sacred profession. Their
+        motives and their zeal were alike ideal. Many gave up highly paid
+        posts as Rabbis when they joined the new sect. Some emigrated to
+        Palestine to lead a holy life on holy ground, others sought to become
+        religious specialists, following out practically, although with some
+        exaggeration, a favourite doctrine of the Founder, that he who
+        observes but one commandment devotedly and lovingly, may reach the
+        goal desired: the union with God. Thus one Zaddik made it his
+        business never to tell the smallest falsehood, whatever the cost or
+        the inconvenience of truth might be. It is related that the Russian
+        Government, suspecting the Jews of his town of smuggling, consented
+        to withdraw the charge if he declared his brethren innocent. Having
+        no alternative but either to bring misfortune on his brethren or to
+        tell an untruth, he prayed to God to save him from this dilemma by
+        sending death upon him. And lo! when the officials came to fetch him
+        before the law court they found him dead. Another, thinking that the
+        commandment in Exodus xxiii. 3, relating to the help that should be
+        given to a neighbour or enemy when <span class="tei tei-q">“his ass
+        is lying under its burden,”</span> was practically unobserved,
+        devoted himself to its fulfilment. He was continually to be seen in
+        the streets, helping one man to load his waggon, and another to drag
+        his cart out of the mire. A third made the service of the oppressed
+        his religious specialty. It is said that one day his wife, having had
+        a quarrel with her maid, was setting out to the magistrate of the
+        town to obtain satisfaction. Noticing that her husband was about to
+        accompany her, she asked him whither he was bound. He replied,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“to the magistrate.”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> His wife declared that it was below his
+        dignity to take any part in a quarrel with a servant. She could deal
+        with the matter herself. The Zaddik replied, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“That may be, but I intend to represent your maid, who
+        when accused by my wife will find no one willing to take her
+        part.”</span> And then, bursting into a passion of tears, he quoted
+        Job xxxi. 13: <span class="tei tei-q">“If I did despise the cause of
+        my man-servant or of my maid-servant, when they contended with me,
+        what shall I do when God riseth up?”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Several Zaddikim
+        were learned men and thinkers of no ordinary kind. The works of
+        Solomon Ladier or of Mendel Witipsker, read with attention and
+        without Western preconceptions, certainly give the impression of both
+        originality and depth of thought. But most characteristic of all is
+        the passionate yearning of authors such as these towards the Divine.
+        The reader is astonished and moved by the intense sincerity and
+        ardour of their longing after God. But, despite the adherence of
+        these worthy men, the fate of Chassidism, as a regenerative force,
+        was sealed from the day when Zaddikism replaced the original
+        doctrines of the sect.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For, apart from
+        the obvious theological considerations already suggested, there are
+        two points of inherent weakness in the cult of the Zaddik which
+        naturally doomed it to perversion and failure. The necessary
+        qualifications for <span class="tei tei-q">“Zaddikship”</span> are
+        wholly undefined. We hear a great deal about what a Zaddik actually
+        is, but we hear very little about what he should be. The Zaddik has
+        many virtues, but we are nowhere told what are his indispensable
+        qualifications. Moreover, the Zaddik is a being who can be
+        comprehended by the understanding as little as an angel, or as God
+        Himself. He is realised by faith, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> not conceived by thought. Hence there is no
+        human test of a true Zaddik except the test of miracles; and every
+        student of religious history knows the deceitful character of that
+        test.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second source
+        of danger arose from the Chassidim holding it to be their sacred duty
+        to provide for the Zaddik a life of comfort and ease. The Zaddik must
+        pursue his divine avocations undisturbed by grosser cares. But what
+        were the consequences? The Chassidim believed they could win the
+        grace and blessing of the Zaddik by the richness and variety of their
+        gifts. A Zaddik's career became a very profitable concern. The result
+        of both defects was that not only was the opportunity given for every
+        scheming charlatan to become a Zaddik, but inducements were offered
+        to make the deception lucrative. Hence the anxiety of the false
+        Zaddikim, already noticed, to found separate communities.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the
+        Chassidim of to-day there is not one in ten thousand who has the
+        faintest conception of those sublime ideas which inspired Baalshem
+        and his immediate disciples. It is still the interest of the wretched
+        ringleaders of a widely spread delusion to crush and keep down every
+        trace of reflection and thought so that they may play at will with
+        the conscience and purses of their adherents. The new scientific
+        movement, inaugurated by such men as Krochmal, Zunz, and others who
+        came under the influence of the German critical spirit, found in them
+        its hottest and most fanatical opponents. That the cult of the
+        Zaddikim has not led to still more disastrous consequences is solely
+        due to the fact that the Chassidim in general have remained faithful
+        to the Law. It is the Law, against the excessive study of which the
+        original <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg
+        045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Chassidim protested, that has put limits to the license of its modern
+        false prophets.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amid much that is
+        bad, the Chassidim have preserved through the whole movement a warm
+        heart, and an ardent, sincere faith. There is a certain openness of
+        character and a ready friendliness about even the modern Chassidim
+        which are very attractive. Religion is still to them a matter of life
+        and death. Their faith is still real enough to satisfy the demands of
+        a Luther, but it is diverted and wasted upon unworthy objects. If
+        Chassidism is to be reformed, its worship must no longer be of man;
+        it must be brought back again to the source of all Beauty, all
+        Wisdom, and all Goodness; it must be restored to God.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name=
+      "Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">II. Nachman Krochmal and the</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+        "font-size: 173%">“</span><span style="font-size: 173%">Perplexities
+        Of The Time</span><span style="font-size: 173%">”</span></span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In her
+        good-natured panegyric of mediocrity which is known under the title
+        of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scenes
+        of Clerical Life</span></span>, George Eliot remarked: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Let us hope that there is a saving
+        ignorance.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strange as this
+        demand may sound, the wish of the great novelist to see her favoured
+        mediocrities <span class="tei tei-q">“saved,”</span> has been shared
+        by the great majority of mankind. I know that I, at least, echo that
+        desire with all my heart. And I am afraid that I am prompted by some
+        rather selfish reasons. It would be somewhat hard, when one is born
+        with small abilities, but a great desire for being saved, to be
+        deprived of the hope held out by the author of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adam
+        Bede</span></span>.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there are
+        some, I am afraid, who are not satisfied with this dictum of George
+        Eliot. They show a strong tendency to make salvation a monopoly of
+        ignorance. This is a little too selfish. With all due respect to
+        every form of ignorance, sacred as well as profane, we ought, I
+        think, to believe that there is also such a thing as a saving
+        knowledge. Nay, we might go even farther. There may be certain epochs
+        in history when there is hardly any <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> other path to salvation than knowledge, and the
+        deep search after truth.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We all know the
+        words of the Psalmist, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord preserveth
+        the simple.”</span> But as there are periods in the life of the
+        individual when naïveté has to give way to sagacity and reflection,
+        so there are times in history at which Providence does not choose to
+        leave men in simplicity. At such times doubts arise, as though of
+        themselves; questions suddenly become open when they had been
+        supposed solved for centuries; and the human mind is stirred by a
+        sceptical breeze of which no man can tell whence it came. One may
+        under those circumstances be indifferent, but one can be simple no
+        more.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in such
+        cases, however, man has no cause to despair. When our dearest beliefs
+        are shaken by all kinds of doubts, Providence sends us also great
+        thinkers, earnest lovers of truth, who devote their lives to
+        enlightening our puzzled minds. Not that these men try to answer all
+        the questions by which we feel perplexed. They endeavour to satisfy
+        us, partly by showing that many of our difficulties are not
+        difficulties at all, but merely arise from superficiality, and partly
+        by proving that the great cause about which we feel so much anxiety
+        does not exactly depend on the solution of the questions that are
+        troubling us. They give to the things which are dearer to us than our
+        life a fresh aspect, which enables us to remain attached to them with
+        the same devotion and love as before. To speak again in the words of
+        the Psalmist: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit,
+        and they are created, and Thou renewest the face of the
+        earth.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This spirit that
+        renews the face of things is what I understand by <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“saving knowledge.”</span> As men of that <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> saving knowledge we may regard Rabban
+        Johanan ben Zaccai<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href=
+        "#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> and his
+        disciples, who made it possible for Judaism to survive the
+        destruction of the Temple, which some believed to involve the end of
+        the religion. As such men we may look upon R. Saadiah Gaon and his
+        followers, who worked at a time when Judaism was menaced in its inner
+        life, namely in the tradition, by the attempts of the narrow-minded
+        Caraites to convert it into a bookish religion.<a id="noteref_20"
+        name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> Such men
+        were Maimonides and his successors, who came to the aid of religion
+        when it had got into dogmatic troubles by reason of its coming into
+        contact with various philosophical systems. And in order to approach
+        the subject of the present essay, I venture to say that a man of such
+        saving knowledge was also Nachman Krochmal, who lived and laboured in
+        the first half of the present century, when Judaism had been terribly
+        shaken by the scepticism of Voltaire, and the platitudes of the
+        so-called Mendelssohnian school.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachman Krochmal
+        was born on the 17th of February in the year 1785. His father,
+        Solomon Krochmal, was a merchant of Brody, a commercial frontier town
+        in the north-east of Galicia in Austria. In his early years Solomon
+        often used to visit Berlin for business purposes. He is said to have
+        seen Mendelssohn there on one occasion, and to have learned greatly
+        to revere the Jewish sage. And it is not unlikely that Nachman's
+        subsequent admiration for Mendelssohn was partly due to his father's
+        influence.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Solomon was a man
+        of considerable wealth, and he, therefore, endeavoured to give his
+        son the best possible education. But as a respectable member of a
+        Polish community a hundred years ago, Solomon had to follow the
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049"
+        id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fashion adopted by his
+        neighbours, and the best possible education consisted in affording
+        the child an opportunity to study the Talmud and other Rabbinical
+        works. All other languages and their literatures were sealed books to
+        the child—a very absurd and regrettable fashion indeed. But let us
+        not be too hard on Polish Jews. I have been told that there are
+        countries on our globe where people have been driven by the force of
+        fashion into the opposite extreme; where, with few exceptions, they
+        think that the Talmud, as well as the whole Hebrew literature, must
+        needs be excluded from the programme of a gentleman's education.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Happily, or the
+        reverse, Krochmal's childhood did not last long, for in the year 1798
+        we find that Nachman, a boy of fourteen, was already married to a
+        Miss Haberman in Zolkiew. As a result of this foolish custom of
+        marrying at so very early an age, Nachman was hardly ever a boy; we
+        have at once to deal with him as a man.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was then
+        customary in Poland, and perhaps is so still, for the father of the
+        bride to provide for the support of the young couple for some years
+        after their marriage. In order to reduce the expense of this
+        arrangement, the bridegroom had to reside in the same house as his
+        father-in-law. Thus we see Krochmal removing from Brody to Zolkiew,
+        the native town of his wife. Here Krochmal lived in the house of her
+        father for many years, entirely devoted to his studies; and he
+        certainly needed all his time for them. For he now began to expand
+        the sphere of his education, to embrace subjects quite new to him. By
+        his marriage Nachman seems to have gained a certain amount of
+        independence, and the first use he made of it was to study the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of
+        the Perplexed</span></span><a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href=
+        "#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> of
+        Maimonides, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg
+        050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Commentaries</span></span> of Ibn Ezra on the
+        Bible,<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href=
+        "#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> and
+        other more or less philosophical works written in the Hebrew
+        language. His next step was to learn German; but, as his biographers
+        inform us, he was not able to follow this course without undergoing
+        many struggles, and overcoming many obstacles.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would lead us
+        too far to give a full account of the difficulties which the young
+        scholar had to conquer while pursuing his new studies. They will be
+        sufficiently characterised by the following extract from a Hebrew
+        letter of his disciple, Solomon Leb Rapoport, who, writing in 1841
+        concerning his master and friend, remarks: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Consider this, ye inhabitants of Germany”</span>—and, I
+        may add, ye inhabitants of England—<span class="tei tei-q">“and you
+        will be astounded. It is easy for you to avoid being one-sided, and
+        to study different sciences, for you possess many schools and
+        teachers from every branch of learning. It is not so in Poland and
+        Russia even at present, much less was it so forty years ago. There is
+        no teacher, no guide, no supporter, for the Jew who desires any sort
+        of improvement. The Jew who wishes to enter on a new path of learning
+        has to prepare the road for himself. And when he has entered on it,
+        his friend will come to him and ask, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Is it
+        true that you have got scientific books in your house? Mind you do
+        not mention it to any one. There are enough bigots in the town to
+        persecute you and all your family if they get scent of
+        it.’</span> ”</span> It was under these conditions that Krochmal
+        pursued his studies, which were by no means few or easy, for he was
+        not content with a knowledge of only the lighter portions of German
+        literature. He soon began to read the works of Lessing, Mendelssohn,
+        and more especially of Kant, who always <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> remained his favourite philosopher. In his
+        later years he also became acquainted with the writings of Fichte,
+        Schelling, and Hegel. But to the last he could not console himself
+        for having missed the advantages of a systematic university
+        education.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After having
+        learned German, Krochmal proceeded to acquire a knowledge of Latin
+        and French, and to read the best books written in those languages. To
+        deepen his knowledge of Hebrew, he studied Arabic and Syraic, but we
+        are unable to say how far he succeeded in mastering these languages.
+        With these studies, which appear to have occupied our philosopher for
+        an interval of ten years after his marriage, the first period of his
+        life seems also to end. But the hard work of ten years did not pass
+        over the delicate youth without undermining his health for ever. At
+        the age of twenty-four, Krochmal fell sick of an illness which
+        compelled him to interrupt his work. He was forced to go to Lemberg
+        to consult the doctors of that town, and he had to remain there for a
+        long time. And now began Krochmal's career as a teacher. For during
+        his stay at Lemberg there gathered round him a band of young scholars
+        whom Krochmal's fame had already reached. It is useless to enumerate
+        the names of all these students. Among them figured Isaac Erter,
+        Samson Bloch, A. Bodek, and many others. The most gifted of them was
+        undoubtedly Rapoport, who afterwards became even more famous than his
+        master Krochmal. It is not easy to define accurately the relation
+        that subsisted between these two men. Graetz, in his history, calls
+        Rapoport a disciple of Krochmal. Rapoport himself, in his memoir of
+        Krochmal, describes the latter as a dear friend with whom he was wont
+        to discuss literary topics. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg
+        052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Zunz does not mention Rapoport at all in his account of our author.
+        It seems to me that this relation may be most aptly defined by the
+        Talmudic term <span class="tei tei-q">“Talmid-Chaber,”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“disciple-colleague.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Indeed, Krochmal's
+        whole method of teaching was rather that of a companion than of a
+        professor. He gave no set lectures on particular subjects, but
+        conveyed his instruction rather by means of suggestive conversations
+        with his younger friends. His usual habit was to walk with his pupils
+        in the neighbourhood of the town, and to try to influence their minds
+        each in accordance with its bent. If any of his disciples showed an
+        inclination for poetry, Krochmal sought to refine his taste by
+        directing his attention to the best works in Hebrew and German
+        literature. To another, whose fancy strayed into mysticism, he
+        recommended the writings of Philo and Ibn Ezra, at the same time
+        suggesting how the works of the latter should be interpreted. A third
+        who, like Rapoport, was interested in historical researches, Krochmal
+        instructed in the methods of critical inquiry.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There must have
+        been some fascinating charm in Nachman's personality, which made him
+        irresistible to all who came into contact with him. Rapoport has
+        described his first interview with Krochmal. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“It is more than thirty years since I first made his
+        acquaintance, and beheld the glory of his presence. Though he was in
+        weak health, still his soul was strong; and as soon as I conversed
+        with him there came over me a spirit of judgment and knowledge. I
+        felt almost transformed into another man.”</span> Elsewhere the same
+        writer says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Oh, how sweet to me were these
+        walks with Krochmal—sweeter than all the pleasures of this world. I
+        could never have enough <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg
+        053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
+        his wisdom; with his every word he conveyed a new lesson.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After a lengthy
+        stay at Lemberg, Krochmal partially, though not entirely, recovered
+        from his severe illness; he remained weak and pale for the rest of
+        his days. His antagonists, the Chassidim, believed him to be
+        possessed by a demon who could find no better dwelling-place than in
+        the person of this arch-heretic. Had it been in their power they
+        would probably have dragged him to some exorcist for the purpose of
+        driving out his German, French, Latin, and other symptoms of
+        demoniacal heresy. Happily the orthodox were powerless to do this, so
+        Krochmal was left unmolested, and was allowed to resume his walks and
+        studies. It may be here remarked that Krochmal in general avoided
+        giving the Chassidim any cause for reasonable complaint. Rapoport
+        asserts that his master was <span class="tei tei-q">“deeply religious
+        and a strict observer of the law. He was zealously anxious to perform
+        every ordinance, Biblical or Rabbinical.”</span> The only liberty
+        that Krochmal claimed for himself and his disciples was the right to
+        study what they thought best and in the way they thought best. When
+        this liberty was attacked, he showed a firmness and resolution which
+        would hardly have been expected from this quiet and gentle man. To
+        one of his pupils, who made concessions to the Chassidim and their
+        Zaddikim worship, Krochmal wrote: <span class="tei tei-q">“Be firm in
+        this matter unless you wish to earn the contempt of every honest man.
+        One who is afraid of these people, and debases himself before them
+        bears a mean soul that was born to slavery. The man that wishes to
+        rise above the mob, with its confused notions and corrupt morality,
+        must be courageous as a lion in conquering the obstacles that beset
+        his path. Consideration <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg
+        054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
+        what people will say, what bigots will whisper, what crafty enemies
+        will scheme—questions such as these can have but one effect,—to
+        darken the intellect and confuse the faculty of judgment.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So Krochmal
+        continued his studies without interruption till 1814, when the death
+        of his wife's mother brought his period of ease and comfort to an
+        end. His father-in-law seems to have died some time before, and
+        Krochmal was forced to seek his own living. He became a merchant, but
+        it is to be regretted that he did not prove as successful a man of
+        business as he was a man of letters. He found it a hard struggle to
+        earn a living. But the severest trial which he had to undergo was the
+        death of his wife in 1826. In a letter, dating from about this time,
+        to a friend who had asked him for assistance in his philosophical
+        inquiries, Krochmal wrote—<span class="tei tei-q">“How can I help you
+        now? I am already an old man; my head is gray, and my health is
+        broken. In the last three years I have met with many misfortunes. My
+        beloved wife died after a long illness. My daughter will soon leave
+        me to get married, my elder son will depart to seek his livelihood,
+        and I shall be left alone with only a child of ten years, the son of
+        my old age. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills: From whence
+        shall my help come?”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachman was
+        evidently in very low spirits at this time, but he was in too true a
+        sense a philosopher to despair. He turned for comfort to his studies,
+        and at this dark epoch of his life he first became acquainted with
+        the Philosophy of Hegel, whose system he was wont to call the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Philosophy of Philosophies.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the next ten
+        years the works of Hegel and inquiries into Jewish history appear to
+        have absorbed all the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg
+        055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        leisure that his mercantile occupation left him. We shall presently
+        see what the result of these studies was. No fresh subjects were
+        undertaken by Krochmal in the last years of his life; he had already
+        acquired a fund of knowledge vast enough to engage all his thoughts.
+        There are, however, some remaining points in his private
+        circumstances which it may not be uninteresting to mention.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Krochmal, as has
+        been already related, was not prosperous in his business. Things went
+        from bad to worse, and he was compelled in 1836 to seek a situation.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“There ought to be literary men poor,”</span>
+        some writer has maintained, <span class="tei tei-q">“to show whether
+        they are genuine or not.”</span> This test Krochmal successfully
+        passed through. Even as a young man Nachman's strength of character
+        was admired by his contemporaries not less than his rare learning. In
+        his subsequent distress, he gave evidence of the truth of this
+        judgment. Despite his poverty, his friends could not prevail upon him
+        to accept the post of Rabbi in any Jewish community. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“I am unwilling,”</span> he wrote to a friend,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“to be the cause of dissensions in any Jewish
+        congregation. I should prefer to die of hunger rather than become a
+        Rabbi under present circumstances.”</span> He expressed his views on
+        this subject even more decidedly on a later occasion when the Berlin
+        congregation offered him the post of Chief Rabbi in that town. In a
+        letter, conveying his refusal of this honourable office, he says:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“I never thought of becoming the
+        Conscience-counsellor (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
+        xml:lang="de"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Gewissensrath</span></span>) of men. My line of
+        studies was not directed to that end, nor would it accord with my
+        disposition and sentiments. The only post that I should care to
+        accept would be that of teacher in the Jewish Theological Seminary,
+        which, as I was informed, you were thinking of establishing in
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056"
+        id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Berlin.”</span> The plan to
+        found such an institution was not realised till forty years later,
+        and in the interval Nachman had to look for his living in other
+        regions than Jewish theology. Being in poor circumstances, and as his
+        children and friends had left him, he felt very lonely at Zolkiew.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Nobody cares for me here,”</span> he writes,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“and I am equally indifferent.”</span> His
+        one desire was to obtain a situation at Brody, possibly as
+        book-keeper with a salary of some thirty pounds a year, on condition
+        that he would be expected to devote only half the day to his business
+        duties, thus securing for himself leisure for philosophical
+        studies.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His terms were
+        accepted, and he obtained the humble post he sought. He remained in
+        Brody for the next two years, 1836-8, but at the end of 1838 he fell
+        so dangerously ill that he could no longer resist the pressing
+        request of his daughter to live with her at Tarnopol. She had urged
+        him to take this step even previous to his removal to Brody, but he
+        had declined on the plea that he preferred to live by the labour of
+        his hands. Now, however, he yielded to her wish, and betook himself
+        to Tarnopol, where for two years longer he lived affectionately
+        tended by his children and respected by all who knew him. In May
+        1840, Krochmal's illness began to develop fatal symptoms, and he died
+        in the arms of his daughter on the 31st of July (the first of Ab), at
+        the age of fifty-five. As Zunz happily remarked: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“This great man was born on the 7th of Adar, the birthday
+        of Moses (according to Jewish tradition), and died on the first of
+        Ab, the anniversary of the death of Aaron, the High
+        Priest.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have tried in
+        the foregoing remarks to give a short sketch of our Rabbi's life
+        according to the accounts of Zunz, Rapoport, and Letteris. There is
+        one other point <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg
+        057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
+        which I must allude, as it involves a consideration on which Letteris
+        seems to lay much stress. This biographer appears to think that
+        Krochmal was in his youth greatly influenced by the society in which
+        he moved, consisting as it did of many learned and enlightened men.
+        There is, too, the oft-quoted saying of Goethe:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Wer den Dichter will
+              verstehen</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Muss in Dichters Lande
+              gehen.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And I am probably
+        expected to give some account of the state of society in which
+        Nachman grew up. I regret that I must ask to be excused from doing
+        so. I cannot consent to take the reader to Krochmal's land. And if I
+        might venture to give him my humble advice, I should only say,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“By all means stop at home.”</span> Goethe
+        may be right about the poet, but his remark does not apply to the
+        case of the scholar. It may be true, as some think, that every great
+        man is the product of his time, but it certainly does not follow that
+        he is the product of his country. Nor could I name any other country
+        of which Krochmal was the product. Many a city no doubt boasted
+        itself a town full of <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Chakhamim</span></span> and <span lang="he"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>”</span><a id="noteref_24"
+        name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> as the
+        Hebrew phrase is, or, as we would express it, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“a seat of learning,”</span> full of scholars of the
+        ancient and modern schools. But neither these ancient scholars nor
+        the modern were of a kind to produce a real scholar and an
+        enlightened thinker like Krochmal. There were many men who knew by
+        heart the whole of the Halachic works of Maimonides, the Mishnah, and
+        even the whole of the Babylonian Talmud. This is very imposing. But
+        if you look a little closer, you will find that with a few
+        exceptions—such as the school of R. Elijah Wilna—these men, generally
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058"
+        id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> speaking, hardly deserve the
+        name of scholars at all. They were rather a sort of studying engines.
+        The steam-engine passes over a continent, here through romantic
+        scenery, there in the midst of arid deserts, by stream and mountain
+        and valley, always with the same monotonous hum and shriek. So these
+        scholars went through the Talmud with never changing feelings. They
+        did not rejoice at the description which is given in tractate
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Biccurim</span></span><a id="noteref_25" name=
+        "noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> of the
+        procession formed when the first-fruits were brought into the Holy
+        Temple. They were not much saddened when reading in tractate
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span><a id="noteref_26" name=
+        "noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> of the
+        unhappy days so recurrent in Jewish history. They were not delighted
+        by the wisdom of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Seder Nezikin</span></span>,<a id="noteref_27"
+        name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> which
+        deals with civil law; nor were they vexed of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seder
+        Taharoth</span></span>,<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href=
+        "#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> which
+        treats of the laws of cleanliness and uncleanliness, that by their
+        exaggeration gave cause to much dissension in the time of the Temple.
+        The pre-Talmudic literature, such as the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>,
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, and <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span><a id="noteref_29" name=
+        "noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a>—the only
+        existing means of obtaining an insight into the Talmud—were
+        altogether neglected. All that these readers cared for was to push on
+        to the end, and the prayer recited at the close was of more
+        importance to them than the treatise they had perused.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not less
+        melancholy was the spectacle presented by the so-called men of
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Enlightenment”</span> (<span lang="de"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Aufklärung</span></span>). They belonged chiefly
+        to the rationalistic school of Mendelssohn, but they equalled their
+        master neither in knowledge nor in moral character. It was an
+        enlightenment without foundation in real scholarship, and did not
+        lead to an ideal life, though again I must add that there were
+        exceptions. These men were rather what Germans would term <span lang=
+        "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Schöngeister</span></span>, a set of dilettanti
+        who cared to study as little as <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> possible, and to write as much as possible.
+        They wrote bad grammars, superficial commentaries on the Bible, and
+        terribly dull poems. Of this literature, with the exception of
+        Erter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Watchman</span></span>,<a id="noteref_30" name=
+        "noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> there is
+        scarcely a work that one would care to read twice. Most of them
+        despised Rabbinism, but without understanding its noblest forms as
+        they are to be traced in the Talmud and later Hebrew literature. They
+        did not dislike Judaism, but the only Judaism they affected was one
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“which does not oppose itself to anything in
+        particular”</span>; or, as Heine would have described it,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Eine reinliche Religion.”</span> In one
+        respect these little men were great: in mutual admiration, which
+        reached such a pitch that such titles as <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Great Luminary,”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“World-famed Sage,”</span> were considered altogether too
+        insignificant and commonplace.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I will now pass to
+        the writings of Krochmal. It must be premised that Krochmal was not a
+        voluminous author. All his writings, including a few letters which
+        were published in various Hebrew periodicals, would scarcely occupy
+        four hundred pages. Krochmal used to call himself <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“der ewige Student”</span> (the perpetual pupil). He did
+        not read books, nor study philosophical systems, with the object of
+        writing books of his own on them. He read and studied in order that
+        he might become a better and a wiser man. Besides, he did not think
+        himself competent to judge on grave subjects, nor did he consider his
+        judgment, even if he formed one, worthy of publication. He counselled
+        his friends to be equally slow in publishing their views to the
+        world. <span class="tei tei-q">“Be not,”</span> he wrote to a
+        correspondent,—<span class="tei tei-q">“be not hasty in forming your
+        opinions before you have studied the literature of the subject with
+        care and devotion. This is no easy matter, for no man can
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060"
+        id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> obtain any real knowledge of
+        the Torah and philosophy unless he is prepared to give himself up in
+        single-hearted devotion to his studies.”</span> Severe though he was
+        to his friends, he was still more severe to himself. Though he had
+        been collecting materials on subjects of Jewish history and
+        philosophy from his early youth, it was not until he had endured much
+        persuasion and pressure from his friends that he began to write down
+        his thoughts in a connected form. We thus possess only one work from
+        the pen of this author; but that work is the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed
+        of the Time</span></span>,<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href=
+        "#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> a
+        posthumous book published in 1851, eleven years after Krochmal's
+        death. His work had been much interrupted by illness during the last
+        years of his life, and as a necessary consequence many parts of his
+        treatise finally remained in an unfinished state. Krochmal
+        commissioned his children to hand over his papers to Zunz, who was to
+        arrange and edit them as best he might. Zunz, who in his reverence
+        for Krochmal went so far as to call him the man of God, gladly
+        accepted the task, in which he was aided by Steinschneider.
+        Unfortunately, the work was published in Lemberg, a place famous for
+        spoiling books. Even the skill of these two great masters did not
+        suffice to save Krochmal's work from the fate to which all the books
+        printed in Lemberg seem inevitably doomed. Thus Krochmal's work is
+        printed on bad paper, and with faint ink; it is full of misprints and
+        the text is sometimes confused with the notes. A second edition
+        appeared in Lemberg in 1863; but, it is scarcely necessary to add,
+        the reprint is even worse than the original issue.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The work occupies
+        some 350 pages, and is divided into seventeen chapters. The opening
+        six treat of Religion in general. The author first indicates the
+        opposite dangers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg
+        061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
+        which men are liable. On the one hand, men are exposed to extravagant
+        phantasy (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Schwärmerei</span></span>),
+        superstition and ceremonialism (<span lang="de" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Werkheiligkeit</span></span>). Some, on the
+        other hand, in their endeavour to avoid this danger, fall into the
+        opposite extreme, materialism, unbelief, and moral degeneracy as a
+        consequence of their neglect of all law. He proceeds to say: Even in
+        the ritual part of religion, such as the regulations of the Sabbath,
+        the dietary laws and so forth, we find abstract definitions
+        necessary, and differences of opinions prevalent. In the dogmatic
+        aspects of religion, dealing as they do with the grave subjects of
+        metaphysics, the mystery of life and death, the destiny of man, his
+        relation to God, reward and punishment, the inner meaning of the
+        laws,—in these spiritual matters, the difficulty of accurate
+        definition must be far greater and the opportunities for difference
+        of opinion more frequent and important. What guide are we to follow,
+        seeing that every error involves the most dangerous consequences?
+        Shall we abandon altogether the effort of thinking on these grave
+        subjects? Such a course is impossible. Do not believe, says Krochmal,
+        that there ever was a time when the religious man was entirely
+        satisfied by deeds of righteousness, as some people maintain. On the
+        contrary, every man, whether an independent thinker or a simple
+        believer, always feels the weight of these questions upon him. Every
+        man desires to have some ideal basis for his actions which must
+        constitute his real life in its noblest moments. Krochmal here quotes
+        a famous passage from the Midrash.<a id="noteref_32" name=
+        "noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> The
+        Torah, according to one of our ancient sages, may be compared to two
+        paths, the one burning with fire, the other covered with snow. If a
+        man enters on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg
+        062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        former path he will die by the heat; if he walks by the latter path
+        he will be frozen by the snow. What, then, must he do? He must walk
+        in the middle, or, as we should say, he must choose the golden mean.
+        But, as Krochmal suggests, the middle way in historical and
+        philosophical doubts does not consist, as some idle heads suppose, in
+        a kind of compromise between two opposing views. If one of two
+        contending parties declares that twice two make six, while his
+        opponent asserts that twice two make eight, a sort of compromise
+        might be arrived at by conceding that twice two make seven. But such
+        a compromise would be as false as either extreme; and the seeker
+        after the truth must revert to that mean which is the heart of all
+        things, independently of all factions, placing himself above
+        them.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having dealt with
+        the arguments relating to the existence of God as elaborated in the
+        philosophical systems of his time, Krochmal leads up to his treatment
+        of the History of Israel by a chapter on the ideal gifts bestowed
+        upon the various ancient nations, which, possessed by them through
+        many centuries, were lost when their nationality ceased. We next
+        come, in Chapter VII., to the ideal gifts of Israel. These are the
+        religious gift and the faculty and desire for seeking the ideal of
+        all ideals, namely, God. But Israel, whose mission it was to
+        propagate this ideal, was, even as other nations, subject to natural
+        laws; and its history presents progress and reaction, rise and
+        decline. Krochmal devotes his next three chapters to showing how, in
+        the history of Israel, as in other histories, may be detected a
+        triple process. These three stages are the budding, the period of
+        maturity, and the decay. As the history of Israel is <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> more a history of religion than of
+        politics and battles, its rise and decline correspond more or less
+        with Israel's attachment to God, and its falling away from Him. The
+        decay would be associated with the adoption of either of the
+        extremes, the dangerous effects of which have been already mentioned.
+        But <span class="tei tei-q">“through progress and backsliding, amid
+        infectious contact with idolatry, amid survival of old growths of
+        superstition, of the crude practices of the past; amid the
+        solicitation of new aspects of life; in material prosperity and in
+        material ruin,”</span> Israel was never wholly detached from God. In
+        the worst times it had its judges or its prophets, its heroes or its
+        sages, its Rabbis or its philosophers, who strove to bring Israel
+        back to its mission, and who succeeded in their efforts to do so.
+        Even in its decay traces of the Divine spirit made themselves felt,
+        and revived the nation, which entered again on a triple course and
+        repeated its three phases. The first of these three-fold epochs
+        began, according to Krochmal's eighth chapter, with the times of the
+        Patriarchs, and ended with the death of Gedaliah after the
+        destruction of the first Temple. Next, in the following two chapters,
+        Krochmal finds the second triple movement in the interval between the
+        prophets of the exile in Babylon and the death of Bar-Cochba about
+        135 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span> The author also hints
+        at the existence of a third such epoch beginning with R. Judah the
+        Patriarch, the compiler of the Mishnah (220 <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>),<a id="noteref_33"
+        name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> and
+        ending with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492). This idea is
+        not further developed by Krochmal; but it would be interesting to
+        ask, by the way, in which phase of the three-fold process—rise,
+        maturity, or decay—are we at the present time?</p><span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next five
+        chapters may be regarded as an excursus on the preceding two.
+        Krochmal discusses the Biblical books which belong to the period of
+        the Exile and of the Second Temple, such as the Second Isaiah,
+        certain Exilic and Maccabean psalms, Ecclesiastes, certain Apocryphal
+        books, and the work of the Men of the Great Synagogue. They contain,
+        again, researches on the various sects, such as the Assideans,
+        Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, the Gnostics, the Cabbalists and their
+        relation to the latter, and the Minim,<a id="noteref_34" name=
+        "noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> who are
+        mentioned in the Talmud. In another part of this excursus Krochmal
+        describes the systems of the Alexandrian Jewish philosophers, such as
+        Philo and Aristobulus, and discusses their relation to certain
+        theosophic ideas in various Midrash-collections. The author also
+        attempts to prove the necessity of Tradition; he shows its first
+        traces in the Bible, and explains the term Sopherim (scribes); and he
+        points out the meaning of the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“A law
+        unto Moses from Mount Sinai,”</span><a id="noteref_35" name=
+        "noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> and
+        similar expressions. He gives a summary of the development of the
+        Halachah in its different stages, the criteria by which the older
+        Halachahs may be discriminated; he seeks to arrive at the origin of
+        the Mishnah, and deals with various cognate topics. In another
+        discourse Krochmal endeavours to explain the term Agadah,<a id=
+        "noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> its
+        origin and development; the different kinds of Agadah and their
+        relative value. Chapter XVI. contains the Prolegomena to a philosophy
+        of the Jewish religion in accordance with the principles laid down by
+        Hegel. In the seventeenth and last chapter the author gives a general
+        introduction to the Philosophy of Ibn Ezra, and quotes illustrative
+        extracts.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The space of an
+        essay does not permit me to give <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> further details of Krochmal's book. I am
+        conscious that the preceding outline is deficient in quality as well
+        as in quantity. Yet, even from this meagre abstract, the reader will
+        gather that Krochmal reviews many of the great problems which concern
+        religion in general and Judaism in particular. Zunz somewhere remarks
+        that Krochmal was inspired in his work by the study of Hegel, just as
+        Maimonides had been by the study of Aristotle. I give this statement
+        solely on the authority of Zunz, as I myself have never made a study
+        of the works of the German philosopher, and am therefore unable to
+        express an opinion on the question.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now there is no
+        doubt that Krochmal's book is not without defects. The materials are
+        not always well arranged, there is at times a want of proportion in
+        the length at which the various points are treated, and the author
+        occasionally seems to wander from the subject in hand. But we shall
+        be better able to account for these and similar technical faults, as
+        well as to appreciate the real value of the author's work, if we
+        consider the following fact. Nachman Krochmal's object was to
+        elaborate a philosophy of Jewish history, to trace the leading ideas
+        that ran through it, and the ultimate causes that led to its various
+        phases. But, unfortunately, at the time when Krochmal began to write,
+        there did not exist a Jewish history at all. The labours of Zunz were
+        conducted in an altogether different field. Not to mention the names
+        of the younger scholars then unborn, Graetz, the author of the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
+        the Jews</span></span>, and Weiss, who wrote a history of the
+        Tradition, were still studying at college. Frankel's masterly essays
+        on the Essenes and the Septuagint, his well-known work, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to
+        the</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg
+        066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Mishnah</span></span>, and the results of
+        Geiger's most interesting and suggestive researches on the older and
+        later Halachah, and on the Pharisees and Sadducees, had yet to be
+        written. Rapoport's great treatise, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Erech
+        Millin</span></span>,<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href=
+        "#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> had not
+        been published at that time, and Steinschneider was not yet working
+        at his historical sketch of Jewish literature. It was not till six
+        years after Krochmal's death (viz. in 1846) that Landauer's memorable
+        studies on the Jewish mystics were given to the world. Even the bad
+        books of Julius Fürst, such as his <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the
+        Canon</span></span>, and his still worse <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Jewish
+        Literature in Babylon</span></span>, were then unwritten. Neither the
+        most charlatanic <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">History of the Opinions and Teachings of All the
+        Jewish Sects</span></span>, by Peter Beer, the universal provider,
+        nor Jost's most honest but narrow-minded and superficial <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the
+        Jews</span></span>, was of much use to Krochmal. Jost's more
+        scholarly works were not published till long afterwards. Krochmal was
+        thus without the guidance of those authorities to which we are now
+        accustomed to turn for information. Excepting the aid that he derived
+        from the writings of Azariah de Rossi,<a id="noteref_38" name=
+        "noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> Krochmal
+        was therefore compelled to prosecute all the necessary research for
+        himself; he had to establish the facts of Jewish history as well as
+        to philosophise upon them. Hence, in the very midst of his
+        philosophical analysis, the author was bound to introduce digressions
+        on historical subjects, in order to justify as well as to form the
+        basis of that analysis. He had to survey the ground and to collect
+        the materials, besides constructing the plan of the edifice and
+        working at its erection. Nevertheless, it is precisely for these
+        historical excursuses that Krochmal has deserved the gratitude of
+        posterity. He it was who taught Jewish scholars how to <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> submit the ancient Rabbinic records to
+        the test of criticism and the way in which they might be utilised for
+        the purpose of historical studies; he it was who enabled them to
+        trace the genesis of the tradition, and to watch the inner
+        germination of that vast organism. He even indicated to them how they
+        might continue to connect their own lives with it, how they might
+        derive nourishment from it, and in their turn further its growth. I
+        may assert with the utmost confidence that there is scarcely a single
+        page in Krochmal's book that did not afterwards give birth to some
+        essay or monograph or even elaborate treatise, though their authors
+        were not always very careful about mentioning the source of their
+        inspiration. Thus Krochmal justly deserves the honourable title
+        assigned to him by one of our greatest historians, who terms him the
+        Father of Jewish Science.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far, I have
+        been speaking of the importance of Krochmal's treatise and of its
+        significance in the region of Jewish Science. It is necessary, I
+        think, to add a few words with regard to the general tendency of his
+        whole work. I have already alluded to the characteristic modesty of
+        Krochmal; I have pointed out how little he cared for publicity, how
+        dearly he loved retirement. The question accordingly presents
+        itself—What can have been the real and sufficient causes that
+        prevailed upon him to yield to the solicitations of his friends and
+        to write upon what the Talmud would term <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“matters standing on the heights of the
+        world”</span>?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The answer to this
+        question may, I think, be found in the title of Krochmal's book, the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of
+        the Perplexed of the Time</span></span>. It is indeed a rather
+        unusual coincidence for the title of a Hebrew book to have any
+        connection <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg
+        068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        with its subject matter. The same merit is possessed by the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of
+        the Perplexed</span></span> of Maimonides, the title of which
+        undoubtedly suggested that of Krochmal's treatise. There is, however,
+        one little addition in Krochmal's title that contains a most
+        important lesson for us. I mean the words <span class="tei tei-q">“of
+        the Time.”</span> By these words Krochmal reminds us that, great as
+        are the merits of the immortal work of Maimonides—and it would be
+        difficult to exaggerate its value and importance—still it will no
+        longer suffice for us. For, as Krochmal himself remarks, every time
+        has its own perplexities, and therefore needs its own guide. In order
+        to show that these words are no idle phrase, I shall endeavour to
+        illustrate them by one example at least. In the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of the
+        Perplexed</span></span> of Maimonides, Part II., Chapter XXVI.,
+        occurs a passage which runs thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the
+        famous chapters known as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Chapters of R.
+        Eliezer the Great,’</span><a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href=
+        "#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> I find
+        R. Eliezer the Great saying something more extraordinary than I have
+        ever seen in the utterances of any believer in the Law of Moses. I
+        refer to the following passage: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Whence were
+        the heavens created? He (God) took part of the light of His garment,
+        He stretched it like a cloth, and thus the heavens were extending
+        continually, as it is said (Ps. civ. 2): He covereth Himself with
+        light as with a garment, He stretcheth the heavens like a curtain.
+        Whence was the earth created? He took of the snow under the throne of
+        glory, and threw it; according to the words (in Job xxxvii. 6), He
+        said to the snow be thou earth.’</span> These are the words given
+        there (in the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Chapters of R. Eliezer the
+        Great’</span>), and I, in my surprise, ask, What was the belief of
+        this sage? Did he think it impossible <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> that something be produced from nothing?... If
+        the terms <span class="tei tei-q">‘the light of His garment’</span>
+        and the <span class="tei tei-q">‘snow of glory’</span> mean something
+        eternal (as matter) they <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">must</span></em> be rejected.... In short, it is
+        a passage that greatly confuses the notions of all intelligent and
+        religious persons. I am unable to explain it
+        sufficiently.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far Maimonides;
+        and we are quite able to conceive his perplexity in dealing with this
+        passage. On one side, Maimonides himself believed that Judaism is a
+        dogmatic religion, and that one of its dogmas is the principle of
+        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>. On the other
+        side, he found R. Eliezer—one of the greatest authorities of the
+        early part of the second century—apparently denying this dogma. The
+        perplexity was indeed a serious one for Maimonides, but we find no
+        difficulty whatever in extricating ourselves from it. In the first
+        place, there are many who cling to the theory which holds that there
+        are no dogmas in Judaism at all, and to them Maimonides' difficulty
+        would have no relevance. Secondly, those who believe that there are
+        dogmas in Judaism may regard such expressions as those quoted above
+        from the <span class="tei tei-q">“Chapters of R. Eliezer”</span> in
+        the light of mere poetical metaphors, or may call them fairy tales or
+        legends, or include them in some other section of literature, known
+        under the name of folklore, which is an excuse for every absurdity,
+        the fortunate authors of which are responsible neither to philosophy
+        nor to religion, and sometimes not even to common sense. But there is
+        a third consideration that affords the best solution of the
+        difficulty. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Chapters of R.
+        Eliezer,”</span> despite their pompous title, are not the work of R.
+        Eliezer at all. Criticism has taught us to attach no importance to
+        the heading of a chapter or the title-page of a book. We are
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070"
+        id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> now in a position to judge
+        from the tone, style, and contents of the work, that the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Chapters of R. Eliezer”</span> is a later compilation of
+        the eighth century, and that its author could not have been R.
+        Eliezer, the teacher of R. Akiba, in the second century. In this way,
+        these particular difficulties of Maimonides solve themselves for us
+        in a sufficiently easy way. But it is just these solutions that open
+        up new difficulties and perplexities which did not exist for the
+        generation of the great Spanish philosopher. Suppose that we accept
+        the view that Judaism is not a dogmatic religion. But how are we to
+        conceive a religion without dogmas, or, if you prefer the expression,
+        without principles or bases of belief? Or is Judaism, as some
+        platitudinarians think, a mere national institute with some useful
+        dietary and sanitary laws, but with nothing that makes for the
+        sanctification of man, with no guidance to offer us in the great
+        problems of our life, and in the greatest anxieties of the human
+        soul? On the other hand, granted that we may consider certain things
+        as mere legend, how are we to discriminate between these and the
+        things that must be taken seriously? Does it depend on the nature of
+        the subject, or on the position of the book in the canon of Hebrew
+        literature? In the thirteenth century symbolical meanings were given
+        to certain difficult passages in the Talmud; but the process was
+        carried further, and the Biblical narratives were subjected by
+        philosophers to a like treatment. R. Solomon ben Adereth and his
+        colleagues (in the thirteenth century) settled the question by
+        indiscriminately excommunicating all young men who should study
+        philosophy; but this method is scarcely one to be commended for
+        present use.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third, or the
+        philological solution of difficulties, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> leads to fresh troubles. A hundred years ago
+        men were in that happy state of mind in which they knew everything.
+        They knew the exact author and date of every Psalm; they knew the
+        author of each and every ancient Midrash; they knew the originator of
+        every law and ordinance; they even knew the writer of the Zohar, and
+        of other mystical books. There were certainly a few who did not know
+        all these things, among them Ibn Ezra, Azariah de Rossi, and the two
+        Delmedigos.<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href=
+        "#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> But they
+        were merely a miserable historical blunder, men who had no right to
+        be born when they were. But the philological method has swept away
+        all this knowingness as by a deluge from heaven, and men find that
+        they know nothing. True, there linger on a few who still know all
+        these things, but it is they who are now the anachronism. These, and
+        such as these, are the perplexities of our time, to the resolution of
+        which the labours of Krochmal and of a noble band of scholars have
+        been directed in this century.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Have these
+        perplexities, we must ask, and these puzzles been solved by Krochmal
+        and his coadjutors? We may with all certainty answer: They have only
+        pointed out the way, it is for ourselves to proceed by it. It would
+        be unreasonable to expect that difficulties which have been
+        accumulating during the course of thousands of years should be solved
+        by the men of one or two generations. Again, we live in a century in
+        which excavations and discoveries in other fields have added at once
+        to our knowledge and to our uncertainty. Each country, we might
+        almost say, over and above the perplexities that trouble mankind in
+        general, has its own special difficulties which are entirely unknown
+        to those who dwell outside its frontiers. I am not disposed to
+        discuss these difficulties <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg
+        072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
+        this place. Nor have I the ability to do so. But of two things I am
+        perfectly certain: the first is, that for a solution of these
+        difficulties which, in the language of Maimonides, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“confuse the notions of all intelligent and religious
+        persons,”</span> the only hope is in true knowledge and not in
+        ignorance; and secondly, this knowledge can only be obtained by a
+        combination of the utmost reverence for religion and the deepest
+        devotion to truth. The poor old Rabbis who have been so foully
+        decried by their calumniators as hedonists, and so foolishly praised
+        by sorry apologists as materialistic optimists, strongly insisted
+        that when a man woos the truth, his suit can only prosper if he is
+        influenced by the purest and most single-hearted affection.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“A man,”</span> says the Siphré, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“must not say: <span class="tei tei-q">‘I will study the
+        Torah in order that I may attain the title of Rabbi or savant, or
+        that I may become rich by it, or that I may be rewarded for it in the
+        world to come.’</span> He must study for love's sake.”</span> Such a
+        knowledge, which is free from all taint of worldliness and of
+        other-worldliness, a knowledge sought simply and solely for pure love
+        of God, who is Truth,—such a knowledge is in the highest sense a
+        saving knowledge, and Nachman Krochmal was in possession of it.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name=
+      "Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna,
+        Gaon</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The three great
+        stars of German literature are usually characterised by German
+        scholars in the following way: Goethe they say represents the
+        beautiful, Schiller the ideal, while Lessing represents truth. I
+        think that we may apply the same characteristics to the three great
+        luminaries, with which the Jewish middle ages ceased—for as Zunz
+        somewhere remarked, the Jewish middle ages lasted till the beginning
+        of the eighteenth century—and the modern age of Judaism opened. I am
+        thinking of Mendelssohn in Germany, Israel Baalshem, the founder of
+        the sect of the Chassidim in Podolia, and Elijah Wilna, or as he is
+        more frequently called, the Gaon,<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41"
+        href="#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> the
+        Great One, in Lithuania.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to Mendelssohn,
+        enough, and perhaps more than enough, has already been written and
+        spoken about his merits in awakening the sense for the beautiful and
+        the harmonious which was almost entirely dormant among the Jews of
+        his age. In regard to the second, namely, Israel Baalshem, I have
+        only to refer the reader to the first essay in this volume. The
+        subject of the present essay will be R. Elijah Wilna, who, among the
+        Jews, as Lessing among the Germans, represented truth, both by his
+        life and by his literary activity.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I say that the
+        Gaon represented truth, but these words must be taken <span lang="la"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">cum grano salis</span></span>. For I do not mean
+        at all to say that he was in possession of the whole truth, still
+        less in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">exclusive</span></em> possession of it. It is
+        true as we shall learn in the course of this essay, that the Gaon was
+        a genius of the first order. But there are matters of truth, the
+        obtaining of which cannot be accomplished by genius alone. R. Elijah
+        Wilna did not know any other language than Hebrew. Truths, therefore,
+        which are only to be reached through the medium of other languages,
+        remained a secret to him. Again, records of ancient times which are
+        buried in the shelves of remote libraries or under the ruins of past
+        civilisations are not always a matter of intuition. Even the most
+        gifted of men have to wait patiently till these are brought to light
+        by the aid of spade and shovel, or the pen of some obscure copyist.
+        But R. Elijah lived at a time when excavation had as yet done very
+        little for Semitic studies, and when a Jew scarcely got admittance
+        into the great libraries of Europe. Thus much truth which we get now
+        in a very easy way was beyond this seer's eye.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even if all
+        the libraries on earth had been at his disposal, even if he had read
+        all the cuneiform writings which ornament the British Museum, and had
+        deciphered all the Hieroglyphics which the Louvre possesses, even in
+        that case we should not be justified in terming him a representative
+        of the truth, without qualifying our words.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Truth,”</span> said the old Rabbis, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“is the Seal of the Holy One, praised be He.”</span> But
+        Heaven has no Lord Chancellor. Neither men nor angels are trusted
+        with the great Seal. They are only allowed to catch a glimpse of it,
+        or rather to long after this glimpse. However, even the <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> longing and effort for this glimpse will
+        bring man into communion with God, and make his life divine. And the
+        life of the Gaon was, as we shall see, one long effort and unceasing
+        longing after the truth.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, if I say
+        that the Gaon represented truth, you must not think that he lacked
+        the two other qualities. A life entirely devoted to such a great
+        cause as that of seeking the truth is, <span lang="la" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ipso
+        facto</span></span>, ideal and harmonious. It is only in his
+        influence on Judaism—more particularly on the Jews in the North of
+        Europe—that this feature in his life becomes more prominent than his
+        other admirable qualities.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In what this truth
+        consisted, how the Gaon arrived at it, and by what means he conveyed
+        it to others, we shall see in the course of this essay.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">R. Elijah was born
+        at Wilna in the year 1720. His father, Solomon Wilna, is called by
+        his biographers the great Rabbi Solomon, and is said to have been the
+        descendant of R. Moses Rivkas, the author of a learned work,
+        containing notes to the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro.<a id=
+        "noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having quoted the
+        biographers, I must point out that there are only two biographies of
+        the Gaon: the one by Finn, in his book <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Faithful
+        City</span></span>,<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href=
+        "#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> on the
+        celebrities of Wilna, the other by Nachman of Horodna, in his book
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ascension
+        of Elijah</span></span>.<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href=
+        "#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> The
+        former is a very honest account of the Gaon's life, but a little too
+        short. The latter is too long, or rather too much intermixed with
+        that sort of absurd legend, the authors of which are incapable of
+        marking the line which separates the monster from the hero.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in the region
+        of imagination we must not for a moment forget the good advice given
+        to us by one of our <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg
+        076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        greatest scholars who had to deal with a kindred subject:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“He,”</span> says this scholar, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“who banishes the thought of higher and lower from his
+        study, degrades it into a mere means of gratifying his curiosity, and
+        disqualifies it for the lofty task which it is called upon to perform
+        for modern society.”</span> We shall thus cling to the higher and
+        stop at the hero.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our hero was the
+        first-born of five brothers. They were all famous men in their little
+        world. According to the tradition in Wilna, Elijah was a lovely
+        child, with beautiful eyes, and goodly to look at, or as it is
+        expressed in another place, <span class="tei tei-q">“as beautiful as
+        an angel!”</span> The tradition, or rather the legend, relates that
+        as a child of six years he was already the pupil of R. Moses
+        Margalith, the famous author of a commentary on the Talmud of
+        Jerusalem. At the age of seven years he is said to have already
+        perplexed the Chief Rabbi of his native town by his controversial
+        skill in Talmudical subjects. At the early age of nine he was
+        acquainted with the contents of the Bible, the Mishnah, the Talmud
+        and its ancient commentaries; and even the Cabbalistic works of R.
+        Isaac Loria were no secret to the youthful scholar.<a id="noteref_45"
+        name="noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> At the
+        age of twelve years he is said to have acquired the seven liberal
+        arts, and to have puzzled the scholars of Wilna by his astronomical
+        knowledge. At thirteen, when according to Jewish law he attained his
+        majority, he was already the accomplished or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the great one”</span> (Gaon); so far tradition. I am
+        afraid that tradition is here, against all experience, too exact in
+        its dates. But we may learn from it that the child Elijah showed many
+        signs of the future Gaon, and was therefore considered as the prodigy
+        of his age. Again it is likewise pretty certain that no man could
+        boast of having been the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg
+        077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        master of Elijah. He was not the product of any school, nor was he
+        biassed by the many prejudices of his time. He was allowed to walk
+        his own way in his struggle after truth.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is rather an
+        unfortunate thing that history is so much made up of parallels and
+        contrasts that the historian or even the biographer cannot possibly
+        point out the greatness of some men without touching, however
+        slightly, on the smallness of others. It is only natural that every
+        strong shining object should push the minor lights of its
+        surroundings into the background and darken them. Thus, when we are
+        speaking of the superiority of the Gaon, we cannot escape hinting at
+        least at the shortcomings of his contemporaries, as well as of his
+        predecessors.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To indicate
+        briefly in what this superiority consisted, I will premise here a few
+        words from a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Responsum</span></span> by one of his great
+        predecessors, the Gaon Rabbi Hai.<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46"
+        href="#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a>
+        Consulted by a student as to the meaning of certain mystical passages
+        in the tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span>,<a id="noteref_47" name=
+        "noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> Rabbi
+        Hai, in warning his correspondent not to expect from him a long
+        philosophical dissertation, writes as follows: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Know that it never was our business to palliate matters
+        and explain them in a way of which the author never could have
+        thought. This is fashionable with other people, but our method is to
+        explain the words of this or that authority in accordance with his
+        own meaning. We do not pledge ourselves that this meaning is
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘right rule’</span> in itself, for there
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">do</span></em> exist statements made by the old
+        authorities that cannot be accepted as norm.”</span> Thus far the
+        words of the Gaon of the tenth century, which speak volumes. The Gaon
+        of the eighteenth century followed the same course. All his
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078"
+        id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> efforts were directed to this
+        point; namely, to find out the true meaning of the Mishnah, the true
+        meaning of the Gemara,<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href=
+        "#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> the true
+        meaning of the Gaonim, the true meaning of the great codifiers, and
+        the true meaning of the commentators on the ancient Rabbinical
+        literature. Whether this meaning would be acceptable to us mattered
+        very little to him. His only object was to understand the words of
+        his predecessors, and this he obtained, as we shall soon see, by the
+        best critical means. This was the method of the Gaon; that of other
+        scholars (at least of the great majority) was dictated by entirely
+        different considerations. They would not suffer the idea that the
+        great man could be wrong at times. To them, all that he said was
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“right rule.”</span> Now suppose a great
+        author like Maimonides had overlooked an important passage in the
+        Talmud or any other statement by a great authority, the alternative
+        remaining to them was either to explain away the passage of the
+        Talmud or to give the words of Maimonides a strange meaning. This led
+        originally to the famous method of the <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Pilpul</span></span> (casuistry), a kind of
+        spiritual gymnastic, which R. Liva of Prague in the sixteenth
+        century, and many others condemned as most pernicious to Judaism and
+        leading to the decay of the study of the Torah.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now it is beyond
+        doubt that the method of the two Gaonim is the only right one. But,
+        in justice to the casuistic school, which includes many a great name,
+        it is only right to remember that this impartiality towards
+        acknowledged authorities as maintained by our hero is not at all such
+        an easy matter as we imagine. We quote often with great satisfaction
+        the famous saying, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates,
+        sed magis amica veritas</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Plato
+        is our <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name=
+        "Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> friend, so is
+        Socrates, but Truth is, or rather ought to be, our greatest
+        friend.”</span> This sounds very nicely, but let us only realise what
+        difficulties it involves. To be a friend of Socrates or Plato means
+        to know them, or in other words to have a thorough knowledge of the
+        writings of the one and the recorded utterances of the other. But
+        such a knowledge can with most men only be obtained by devoting one's
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">whole</span></em> life to the study of their
+        works, so that there is not left much time for new friendships. And
+        the few who are able to save a few years after long wanderings with
+        these Greek philosophers, seldom see the necessity of new
+        friendships. For what else did those long courtships of Plato or
+        Aristotle mean except that those who conducted them thought that
+        thereby they would wed Truth?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This impartiality
+        is the more difficult when these friends are invested with a kind of
+        religious authority where humility and submission are most important
+        factors. The history of Lanfranc, the predecessor of Anselm of
+        Canterbury, gives a striking example of what this submission meant in
+        the Middle Ages. One day, we are told, when he was still an ordinary
+        monk, he was reading at the table and pronounced a word as it ought
+        to be pronounced, but not as seemed right to the person presiding,
+        who bade him say it differently; <span class="tei tei-q">“as if he
+        had said <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">docēre</span></span>, with the
+        middle syllable long, as is right, and the other had corrected it
+        into <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">docĕre</span></span>, with the
+        middle short, which is wrong; for that Prior was not a scholar. But
+        the wise man, knowing that he owed obedience rather to Christ than to
+        Donatus, the grammarian, gave up his pronunciation, and said what he
+        was wrongly told to say; for to make a short syllable long, or a long
+        one short, he knew <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg
+        080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
+        be no deadly sin, but not to obey one set over him in God's behalf
+        was no light transgression.”</span><a id="noteref_49" name=
+        "noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this
+        admiration—and here we turn again to the Gaon—must not prevent us
+        from believing that Providence is not confined to such ungrammatical
+        Priors, and that the men who are really working on behalf of God are
+        those who teach us to pronounce rightly, and to think rightly, and to
+        take matters as they are, not as we desire them to be on account of
+        our friends.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As for the
+        critical means to which I have alluded, the Gaon himself said
+        somewhere that simplicity is the best criterion of truth, and this is
+        the most characteristic feature of all his literary career. The Gaon
+        studied Hebrew grammar in order to obtain a clear notion of the
+        language in which the Scriptures are written. He tried to attain to
+        the knowledge of the Bible by reading the Bible itself; and was not
+        satisfied to become acquainted with its contents from the numerous
+        quotations which are made from it in Rabbinical literature. Again, he
+        studied mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy, as far as they could
+        be found in Hebrew books. Certainly the Gaon did not study these
+        subjects for their own sake, and they were considered by him only as
+        a means to the end, or as the phrase goes, as the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“hand-maidens”</span> of Theology, the queen of all
+        sciences. But it may be looked upon as a mark of great progress in an
+        age when Queen Theology had become rather sulky, continually finding
+        fault with her hand-maidens, and stigmatising every attention paid to
+        them as conducive to disloyalty. To these accusations the Gaon
+        answered that Queen Theology does not study her own interests.
+        Knowledge of all arts and sciences, the Gaon maintained, is necessary
+        for the real <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg
+        081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        understanding of the Torah which embraces the whole of them. From his
+        own writings it is evident that he himself was familiar with Euclid,
+        and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Ayil Meshulash</span></span> contains several
+        original developments of Euclid. It was at his suggestion that a
+        certain Baruch of Sclow translated Euclid into the Hebrew
+        language.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another way which
+        led the Gaon to the discovery of many truths was his study of the
+        pre-Talmudic literature, and of the Jerusalem Talmud. By some
+        accident or other it came to pass that only the Babylonian Talmud was
+        recognised as a guide <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">in the practices of religious life</span></em>.
+        As the great teachers and their pupils cared more for satisfying the
+        religious wants of their flocks than for theoretic researches, the
+        consequence was that a most important part of the ancient Rabbinic
+        literature was almost entirely neglected by them for many centuries.
+        And it was certainly no exaggeration, when R. Elijah said that even
+        the Gaonim and Maimonides, occupied as they were with the practical
+        part of the law, did not pay sufficient attention to the Talmud of
+        Jerusalem and the Tosephta.<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href=
+        "#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> The Gaon
+        was no official head of any Jewish community, and was but little
+        troubled by decisions of questions which concern daily life. He was
+        thus in a position to leave for a little while the Babylonian Talmud
+        and to become acquainted with the guides of the guide. I refer to
+        Siphra, Siphré, Mechilta, Tosephta, the Seder Olam,<a id="noteref_51"
+        name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> the
+        Minor Tractates,<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href=
+        "#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> and
+        above all the Talmud of Jerusalem, which, regarded from an historical
+        and critical point of view, is even of more importance than its
+        Babylonian twin-brother. But by this means there came a new light
+        upon the whole of ancient Rabbinic literature. The words of the
+        Torah, the Midrash <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg
+        082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        says, are poor in one place, but we shall find them rich in another
+        place. The Gaon by his acquaintance with the <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">whole</span></em> of
+        the Torah had no difficulty whatever in discovering the rich places.
+        If there was a difficult passage in this or that Tractate, he showed,
+        by giving a reference to some other place, that it was wanting in
+        some words or lines. Obscure passages in the Mishnah he tried to
+        elucidate by parallel passages in the Tosephta. The too complicated
+        controversies of the Babylonian Talmud he tried to explain by
+        comparing them with the more ancient and more simple Talmud of
+        Jerusalem.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is little to
+        be told of the Gaon's private affairs. Even the date of his marriage
+        with a certain Miss Anna of Kaidon is not mentioned by his
+        biographers. But it may be taken for granted that, in accordance with
+        the custom in Poland, he married at a very early age, say about
+        eighteen years. It was also when a young man that he travelled for
+        some years through Poland and Germany. It is rather difficult to say
+        what his object may have been in making these travels—for the Gaon
+        was not the man to travel for pleasure's sake. Perhaps it was to
+        become acquainted with the great Rabbis of these countries. It is
+        also possible, as others maintain, that the Gaon considered the many
+        privations which a traveller had to endure a hundred and fifty years
+        ago, as an atonement for his imaginary sins. Indeed we find in many
+        ascetic books that travelling, or as they term it <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“receiving upon oneself to be banished into the
+        exile,”</span><a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href=
+        "#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> is
+        recommended as a very successful substitute for penance. At least it
+        seems that the coachmen whom the Gaon employed on his journeys looked
+        at it from this point of view. One of them went so far in adding to
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083"
+        id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the privations of the Gaon as
+        to run away with his carriage when the Rabbi alighted from it in
+        order to read his prayers. But the reading of the Eighteen
+        Benedictions<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href=
+        "#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> must not
+        be interrupted excepting in the case of danger; and the Gaon did not
+        consider it very dangerous to be left without money and without
+        luggage.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These travels
+        ended in the year 1745. The Gaon left Wilna again at a later date
+        with the purpose of going to Palestine and settling there. But he
+        found so many obstacles on his way that he was soon compelled to give
+        up his favourite plan and to return to his native town. It is not
+        known whether he left Wilna again.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The position which
+        the Gaon occupied in Wilna was, as already hinted, that of a private
+        man. He could never be prevailed upon to accept the post of Rabbi or
+        any other office in a Jewish community. I am unable to give the
+        reason for his declining all the offers made to him in this
+        direction. But it may be suggested here that it was in the time of
+        the Gaon that there arose a bitter struggle between the Rabbi and the
+        Jewish wardens of his native town, which ended in the abolition of
+        the office of Rabbi. The history of the struggle is the more
+        irritating, as it arose from the pettiest reasons imaginable. People
+        actually discovered that there was no light in the house of the Rabbi
+        after the middle of the night, which fact might lead to the
+        conclusion that he did not study later than 12 o'clock <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">p.m.</span></span> What an idle man! And
+        this idleness was the less pardonable in the eyes of the community,
+        as the Rabbi's wife was so unfortunate as not to have been polite
+        enough to some Mrs. Warden. Under such circumstances we must not
+        wonder if the Gaon did not find it very desirable to meddle with
+        congregational affairs in an <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> official capacity. The relation of the Gaon to
+        his contemporaries resembles rather the position in the olden times
+        of a Tanna or Amora,<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href=
+        "#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> who
+        neither enjoyed the title of Nasin or that of Ab Beth Din.<a id=
+        "noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> Like R.
+        Akiba, or Mar Samuel, the Gaon became influential among his
+        contemporaries only by his teaching and his exemplary life.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must be said in
+        praise of the Jews of Wilna that, notwithstanding their petty
+        behaviour towards their ecclesiastical chief, they willingly
+        submitted to the authority of the Gaon (who was devoid of all
+        official authority). They revered him as a saint. To converse with
+        the Gaon was considered as a happy event in the life of a Jew in
+        Wilna, to be of any use to him as the greatest distinction a man
+        could attain on earth. But what is remarkable is the readiness with
+        which even scholars acknowledged the authority of the Gaon. Scholars
+        are usually more slow in recognising greatness than simple mortals.
+        Every new luminary does not only outshine their minor lights and thus
+        hurt their personal vanity, but it threatens also sometimes to
+        obscure certain traditions which they wish to keep prominently in
+        view. But the literary genius of the Gaon was too great to be opposed
+        with success, and his piety and devotion to religion far above
+        suspicion. Thus the Gaon was very soon recognised by his
+        contemporaries as their master and guide; not only in literary
+        questions, but also in matters of belief and conduct.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would lead me
+        too far to name here all the Gaon's disciples. It seems as if all the
+        great scholars in his country considered themselves to be more or
+        less his pupils. The Gaon used to give in the Beth Hammidrash, which
+        he founded, public lectures on various subjects, and the students who
+        attended these lectures also claimed the honour <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of being called his pupils. I shall
+        mention here only his greatest disciple, R. Chayim Walosin, who,
+        after the Gaon, influenced his countrymen more than any other scholar
+        of that time. This R. Chayim also did not occupy any official post
+        among his brethren. He was a cloth manufacturer by profession, and
+        was very prosperous in his business. But it did not prevent him from
+        being devoted to Hebrew literature, and he enjoyed a wide-spread fame
+        as a great scholar. But as soon as the fame of the Gaon reached him,
+        he left cloth manufactory and scholarship behind, and went to Wilna
+        to <span class="tei tei-q">“learn Torah”</span> from the mouth of the
+        great master. It must be noticed that even the giving up of his claim
+        to scholarship was no little sacrifice. All our learning, said some
+        scholar in Wilna, disappeared as soon as we crossed the threshold of
+        the Gaon's house. He made every disciple who came into close contact
+        with him begin at the beginning. He taught them Hebrew grammar,
+        Bible, Mishnah, and many other subjects, which were, as already
+        mentioned, very often neglected by the Talmudists of that time. R.
+        Chayim had also to go through all this course. Some would have
+        considered such treatment a degradation. R. Chayim, however, became
+        the more attached to his master for it.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In such a way the
+        life of the Gaon was spent, studying by himself or teaching his
+        pupils. It must be understood that to learn Torah meant for the Gaon
+        more than mere brain work for the purpose of gaining knowledge. To
+        him it was a kind of service to God. Contemporaries who watched him
+        when he was studying the Torah observed that the effect wrought on
+        the personality of the Gaon was the same as when he was praying. With
+        every word his countenance flushed with joy; with every line he was
+        gaining <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name=
+        "Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> strength for
+        proceeding further. Only by looking at matters from this point of
+        view shall we be able to understand the devotion and the love of the
+        Gaon for study.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There has been, no
+        doubt, among the Russian Jews a strong tendency to exaggerate the
+        intellectual qualities of the Gaon. But one can readily excuse such a
+        tendency. He was gifted by nature with such a wonderful memory that,
+        having read a book once, he was able to recite it by heart for the
+        rest of his life. Not less admirable was his sure grasp. The most
+        complicated controversies in the Talmud, into which other scholars
+        would require whole days and weeks to find their way, the Gaon was
+        able to read by a glance at the pages. Already as a boy he is said to
+        have gone through in a single night the tractates <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zebachim</span></span>
+        and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Menachoth</span></span>,<a id="noteref_57" name=
+        "noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a>
+        containing not less than two hundred and thirty pages, the contents
+        of which are sometimes so difficult as to make even an aged scholar
+        despair of understanding them. Again, he possessed so much
+        common-sense that all the intellectual tricks of the casuistic
+        schools did not exist for him. And nevertheless his biographers tell
+        us that he was so much occupied by his studies, that he could not
+        spare more than one hour and a half for sleep out of twenty-four
+        hours. This is, no doubt, an exaggeration. But let us say five hours
+        a day. He had not time to take his meals regularly. He used also,
+        according to tradition, to repeat every chapter in the Bible, every
+        passage in the Talmud, hundreds of times, even if they presented no
+        difficulty at all. But it was, as already said, a matter of love for
+        the Gaon; of love, not of passing affection.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nothing on earth
+        could be more despicable to the Gaon than amateurs who dabble with
+        ancient literature. To <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg
+        087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        understand a thing clearly made him happy. He is said to have spent
+        more than six months on a single Mishnah in the tractate <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Kilayim</span></span>,<a id="noteref_58" name=
+        "noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> and felt
+        himself the happiest man when he succeeded in grasping its real
+        meaning. Not to be able to go into the depth of a subject, to miss
+        the truth embedded in a single passage, caused him the most bitter
+        grief. A story told by his pupil, R. Chayim, may illustrate this
+        fact. One Friday, narrates R. Chayim, the servant of the Gaon came to
+        him with the message that his master wanted to see him as soon as
+        possible. R. Chayim went instantly. When he came into the house, he
+        found the Gaon lying in bed with a bandage on his head and looking
+        very ill. The wife of the Gaon also reported to him that it was more
+        than three days since her husband had taken any food, and that he had
+        hardly enjoyed any sleep all this time. All this misery was caused by
+        reason of not having been able to understand some difficult passages
+        in the Talmud of Jerusalem. The Gaon now asked his disciples to
+        resume with him their researches. Heaven, he said, might have mercy
+        upon them and open their eyes, for it is written, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Two are better than one”</span>: and lo! Heaven did have
+        mercy on them; they succeeded in getting the true meaning of the
+        passage. The Gaon recovered instantly, and master and disciple had a
+        very joyful Sabbath.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He is also
+        reported to have said on one occasion, he would not like to have an
+        angel for his teacher who would reveal to him all the mysteries of
+        the Torah. Such a condition is only befitting the world to come, but
+        in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">this</span></em> world only things which are
+        acquired by hard labour and great struggle are of any value. The
+        German representative of truth expressed the same thought in other
+        words, which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg
+        088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> are
+        well worth repeating here: <span class="tei tei-q">“Did the
+        Almighty,”</span> says Lessing, <span class="tei tei-q">“holding in
+        His right hand Truth and in His left Search after Truth, deign to
+        tender me the one I might prefer, in all humility and without
+        hesitation I should select Search after Truth.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This absorption of
+        all his being in the study of the Torah may also, I think, account
+        for the fact that his biographers have so little to say about the
+        family of the Gaon. Of his wife, we know only that she died in the
+        year 1783. Not much fuller is our knowledge about his children. The
+        biographers speak of them as of the family <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“which the Lord has blessed,”</span> referring to his two
+        sons, Rabbi Aryeh Leb and Rabbi Abraham, who were known as great
+        scholars and very pious men. The latter one is best known by his
+        edition of a collection of smaller Midrashim. Mention is also made of
+        the Gaon's sons-in-law, especially one Rabbi Moses of Pinsk. But this
+        is all, and we are told nothing either about their lives or their
+        callings. From his famous letter which he sent to his family when on
+        his way to Palestine, we see that he was rather what one may call a
+        severe father. He bids his wife punish his children most severely for
+        swearing, scolding, and speaking untruth. He also advises her to live
+        as retired a life as possible. Retirement he considers as a condition
+        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">sine qua non</span></span> for a religious life.
+        He even advises his daughter to read her prayers at home, for in the
+        synagogue she may get envious of the finer dresses of her friends,
+        which is a most terrible sin. The only tender feature in this letter
+        is perhaps where he implores his wife to be kind to his mother on
+        account of her being a widow, and it were a great sin to cause her
+        the least annoyance. From other passages we may gather that his
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089"
+        id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> family had at times to suffer
+        hunger and cold by the excessive occupation of their father with the
+        study of the Torah and other religious works. In short, the Gaon was
+        a one-sided, severe ascetic, and would never have deserved the title
+        of a good father, a good husband, an amiable man or any other
+        appellation derived from those ordinary <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“household decencies”</span> which, as Macaulay informs
+        us, half of the tombstones claim for those who lie behind them. But I
+        am very much afraid that many a great man who has made his mark in
+        history could never claim these household virtues as his own. I do
+        not want to enter here into the question whether Judaism be an
+        ascetic religion or not. But even those who think Judaism identical
+        with what is called <span class="tei tei-q">“making the best of this
+        life,”</span> will not dispute the fact that Jewish literature
+        contains within it enough ascetic elements to justify the conduct of
+        our greatest men whose lives were one long-continued self-denial and
+        privation. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Torah,”</span> says the
+        Talmud, <span class="tei tei-q">“cannot be obtained unless a man is
+        prepared to give his life for it,”</span> or as the Talmud puts it,
+        in another place, <span class="tei tei-q">“if it be thy desire not to
+        die, cease to live before thou diest.”</span> This was the principle
+        by which the Gaon's life was actuated. And as he did not spare
+        himself, he could not spare others. We could not expect him to act
+        differently. The Scriptures tell us: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou
+        shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.”</span> But how is it with the
+        man who never loved himself, who never gave a thought to himself, who
+        never lived for himself, but only for what he considered to be his
+        duty and his mission from God on earth? Such a man we cannot expect
+        to spend his time on coaxing and caressing us. As to the charge of
+        one-sidedness at which I have hinted, if the giving up of everything
+        else for the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg
+        090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        purpose of devoting oneself to a scholarly and saintly life is
+        one-sidedness, the Gaon must certainly bear this charge; but in a
+        world where there are so many on the other side, we ought, I think,
+        to be only too grateful to Providence for sending us from time to
+        time great and strong one-sided men, who, by their counterbalancing
+        influence, bring God's spoilt world to a certain equilibrium again.
+        To appease my more tender readers, I should like only to say that
+        there is no occasion at all for pitying Mrs. Gaon. It would be a
+        miserable world indeed if a good digestion and stupidity were, as a
+        certain author maintained, the only conditions of happiness. Saints
+        are happy in their sufferings, and noble souls find their happiness
+        in sacrificing themselves for these sufferers.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another severe
+        feature in the life of the Gaon showed itself in his dispute with the
+        Chassidim. I regret not to be able to enter here even into a brief
+        account of the history of this struggle. I shall only take leave to
+        say that I am afraid each party was right, the Gaon as well as the
+        Chassidim; the latter, in attacking the Rabbis of their time, who
+        mostly belonged to the casuistic schools, and in their intellectual
+        pursuits almost entirely neglected the emotional side of religion;
+        but none the less was the Gaon right in opposing a system which, as I
+        have shown above, involved the danger of leading to a worship of
+        men.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Excepting this
+        incident, the Gaon never meddled with public affairs. He lived in
+        retirement, always occupied with his own education and that of his
+        disciples and friends. It is most remarkable that, in spite of his
+        hard work and the many privations he had to endure, he enjoyed good
+        health almost all his life. He never consulted <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a doctor. It was not until the year 1791,
+        in the seventieth year of his life, that he began to feel the decline
+        of his health. But he was not much interrupted by the failure of his
+        powers. As a means of recovery, he esteemed very highly the
+        conversation of the preacher Jacob of Dubna, better known as the
+        Dubna Maggid,<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href=
+        "#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> whose
+        parables and sallies of wit the Gaon used to enjoy very much. On the
+        eve of the Day of Atonement in the year 1797, he fell very ill and
+        gave his blessing to his children. He died on the third day of the
+        Feast of Tabernacles, with the branch of the Lulab<a id="noteref_60"
+        name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> in his
+        hands. The Feast of Joy, relates a contemporary, was turned into days
+        of mourning. In all the streets of Wilna were heard only lamenting
+        and crying voices. The funeral orations delivered on this occasion in
+        Wilna, as well as in other Jewish communities, would form a small
+        library. His disciples wept for their master, the people of Wilna for
+        the ornament of their native town, and the feeling of the Jews in
+        general was that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Ark of God was taken
+        away.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the
+        foregoing sketch, the reader will hardly expect me to give an account
+        of the Gaon's literary productions. The results of so long a life and
+        such powers of mind devoted to one cause with such zeal and fervour,
+        would furnish by themselves the subject of a whole series of essays.
+        The tombstone set on his grave by his pious admirers bears the
+        inscription, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Gaon gave heed and sought
+        and set in order”</span>—that is to say, he wrote commentaries or
+        notes on—<span class="tei tei-q">“the Bible, the Mishnah, both
+        Talmuds, the Siphré, Siphra, the Zohar, and many other works.”</span>
+        Inscriptions on tombstones are proverbial for exaggeration, and we
+        all know the saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“as mendacious as an
+        epitaph.”</span> But a glance at the catalogue of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> British Museum under the heading of
+        Elijah Wilna, will show that this inscription makes a praiseworthy
+        exception. We will find that this list might be lengthened by many
+        other works of great importance for Jewish life and thought. His
+        commentary to the Code of R. Joseph Caro, in which one will find that
+        in many cases he knew the sources of the religious customs and
+        usages, put together in this work, better than its compiler himself,
+        would have been sufficient to place him at the head of Halachic
+        scholarship, whilst his notes and textual emendations to the Tosephta
+        and Seder Olam, to the restoration of which he contributed so much,
+        would have sufficed to establish his fame as a critic of the first
+        order. And this is the more astonishing when we consider that all
+        this was done without manuscripts or any other aid, and by mere
+        intuition. We cannot wonder that scholars who had the opportunity of
+        visiting great libraries and saw how the emendations of the Gaon
+        agreed sometimes with the readings given in the best manuscripts
+        exclaimed very often: <span class="tei tei-q">“Only by inspiration
+        could he have found out these secrets.”</span> We have no need to go
+        so far; we shall simply say with the Talmud, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The powers of the real sage surpass those of the
+        prophet.”</span> Nay, even had we possessed only his <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Gleanings</span></span>, which form a kind of
+        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">obiter dicta</span></span> on various topics of
+        Jewish literature, the Gaon would have remained a model of clear
+        thinking and real ingenuity for all future generations.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, a real
+        appreciation of the Gaon's greatness as a scholar would only be
+        possible either by a thorough study of his works, to which I have
+        alluded, or by giving many specimens of them. The short space I am
+        limited to makes such an undertaking impossible. I shall therefore
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093"
+        id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> use what remains to me to say
+        a few words on the salutary influence the Gaon had on his countrymen,
+        the Russian Jews.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Russian Jew is
+        still a riddle to us. We know this strange being only from the
+        Reports of the Board of Guardians or from bombastic phrases in public
+        speeches; for he has always been the victim of platform orators,</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">So over violent or over
+              civil,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">That every man with them is God or
+              Devil.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From all, however,
+        that I can gather from the best Jewish writers in Russia, I can only
+        judge that the Russian Jew, when transplanted to a foreign soil,
+        where he is cut off from the past and uncertain of his future, is for
+        the time at least in a position in which his true character cannot be
+        truly estimated. His real life is to be sought in his own country.
+        There, amidst his friends and kinsmen who are all animated by the
+        same ideals, attached to the same traditions, and proud of the same
+        religious and charitable institutions, everything is full of life and
+        meaning to him. Thus, a certain Russian writer addresses his younger
+        colleagues who find so much fault with the bygone world: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Go and see how rich we always were in excellent men. In
+        every town and every village you would find scholars, saints, and
+        philanthropists. Their merits could sustain worlds, and each of them
+        was an ornament of Israel.”</span> And he proceeds to give dozens of
+        names of such excellent men, who are not all indeed known to us, but
+        with whom the Russian Jew connects many noble and pious reminiscences
+        of real greatness and heroic self-denial, and of whom he is justly
+        proud.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg
+        094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The focus,
+        however, of all this spiritual life is the Yeshibah (Talmudical
+        College)<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href=
+        "#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> in
+        Walosin. I hope that a glance at its history and constitution will
+        not be found uninteresting. The intellectual originator of this
+        institution which bears the name <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeshibah Ets
+        Chayim</span></span> (Tree of Life College),<a id="noteref_62" name=
+        "noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> was the
+        Gaon himself. Being convinced that the study of the Torah is the very
+        life of Judaism, but that this study must be conducted in a
+        scientific, not in a scholastic way, he bade his chief disciple, the
+        R. Chayim already mentioned, to found a college in which Rabbinical
+        literature should be taught according to his own true method. It
+        would seem that, as long as the Gaon was alive, R. Chayim preferred
+        to be a pupil rather than a teacher. When, however, the Gaon died, R.
+        Chayim did not rest till he had carried out the command of his
+        master, and in the year 1803 the College was opened in Walosin. The
+        cloth manufacturer and disciple now became Rabbi and master. He began
+        on a small scale, teaching at first only a few pupils. But even for
+        the sustenance of a small number he had not sufficient means, and his
+        pious wife sold her jewellery to help him in accomplishing his
+        favourite plan. This is the best refutation of the French proverb
+        <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Avare comme une Rabbine</span></span>. The
+        number, however, increased daily, and before he died (1828), he was
+        fortunate enough to lecture to a hundred students. The number of
+        students in the year 1888 amounted to 400, and the Russian Jews are
+        thus right in asserting that they have the greatest Talmudical
+        College in the world. It is evident that no private charity by a
+        single man, however great, could suffice to maintain such large
+        numbers. Thus R. Chayim was already compelled to appeal to the
+        liberality of his Russian brethren. The name of R. Chayim, and
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095"
+        id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the still greater name of his
+        master, were recommendation enough, and besides private offerings,
+        many communities promised large sums towards supporting the students
+        in Walosin. From time to time also messengers are sent out by the
+        committee to promote the interests of the Yeshibah. The writers to
+        whom I owe these data tell us that these messengers travel to all
+        parts of the world to collect offerings for Walosin: so that it is a
+        standing joke with the students that the existence of the mythical
+        river Sambatyon<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href=
+        "#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> may be
+        questioned after all, otherwise it must long have been discovered by
+        these messengers who explore the whole world in their journeys. But
+        it would seem that this world is only a very small one. For the whole
+        income of the Yeshibah has never exceeded the sum of about £1800. Of
+        this a certain part is spent in providing the salaries of the
+        teaching staff and proctors, and on the repairs of the building;
+        whilst the rest is distributed amongst the students. Considering that
+        no scholarship exceeds £13—it is only the forty immortals of Walosin
+        who receive such high stipends—considering again that the great
+        majority of the students belong to the poorer classes and thus
+        receive no remittance from their parents, we may be sure that the
+        words of the Talmud: <span class="tei tei-q">“This is the way to
+        study the Torah; eat bread and salt, drink water by measure, sleep on
+        the earth, and live a life of care,”</span> are carried out by them
+        literally. But it would seem that the less they eat and the less they
+        sleep, the more they work. Indeed the industry and the enthusiasm of
+        these Bachurim (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">alumni</span></span>)<a id=
+        "noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> in the
+        study of the Torah is almost unsurpassable. The official hours alone
+        extend from nine in the morning until ten in the evening, while many
+        of the students volunteer to continue their <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> studies till the middle of the night, or to
+        begin the day at three in the morning.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the subject
+        of these studies, it is confined, as may be imagined, to the
+        exploration of the old Rabbinic literature in all its branches. But
+        it would be a mistake to think that the modern spirit has left
+        Walosin quite untouched. It would be impossible that among 400
+        thinking heads there should not be a few who are interested in
+        mathematics, others again in philosophy or history, while yet others
+        would conjugate the irregular verbs of some classical language when
+        moving to and fro over their Talmud folios and pretending to
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">learn</span></em>.”</span> Indeed, almost all
+        the writers who demand that these subjects should be introduced as
+        obligatory into the programme of Walosin, belonged themselves to this
+        Yeshibah. And it is these writers who betray the secret how secular
+        knowledge is now invading the precincts of Walosin, as well as of
+        other Talmudical Colleges in spite of all obstacles and prohibitions.
+        In conquering these difficulties seem to consist the pleasures of
+        life of many Bachurim at Walosin. Look only at that undergraduate,
+        how, after a heavy day's work he is standing there in the street
+        reading Buckle's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">History of Civilisation</span></span> in the
+        moonlight! Poor man, he is not so romantic as to prefer the moonlight
+        to a cheerful, warm room, with the more prosaic light of a candle,
+        but he has got tired of knocking at the door, for his landlady, to
+        whom he has neglected to pay rent for the last three terms, made up
+        her mind to let him freeze to-night. But still more cruel to him is
+        his fellow-sufferer, who is also wandering in the streets with an
+        overloaded brain and empty stomach; he roughly shakes him out of his
+        dreams by telling him that Buckle is long ago antiquated, and that he
+        had better <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg
+        097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        study the works of Herbert Spencer, who has spoken the last word on
+        every vital subject in the world. Still these two starving and
+        freezing representatives of English thought in Walosin form only an
+        exception. The general favourites are the representatives of Jewish
+        thought. That such books as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span>, by
+        Maimonides, the Metaphysical Researches of Levi b. Gershom,<a id=
+        "noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> and
+        other philosophical works of the Spanish school are read by the
+        Walosin students it is needless to say. These books now form a part
+        of the Rabbinic literature, and it would be almost unorthodox to
+        suspect their readers. But is worth noticing that even the
+        productions of the modern historico-critical school, such as the
+        works of Zunz, Frankel, Graetz, Weiss, are very popular with the
+        Bachurim, being much read and discussed by them.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus Walosin
+        deserves rightly to be considered as the centre of Jewish thought in
+        Russia, in which the spirit of the Gaon is still working.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have very often,
+        however, heard doubts expressed as to the continuance of this spirit
+        when, as it is to be hoped, better times come for the Jews in Russia.
+        Is it not to be feared that liberty and emancipation will render
+        untenable ideas and notions which arose under entirely different
+        circumstances? There is no need of entertaining such fears. Rabbi
+        Jedaiah of Bedres<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href=
+        "#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a>
+        concludes his philosophical work <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Examination of the
+        World</span></span>, with the following words: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The conclusion of the whole matter is, go either to the
+        right, my heart, or go to the left, but believe all that R. Moses ben
+        Maimon (Maimonides) has believed, the last of the Gaonim by time, but
+        the first in rank.”</span> About five hundred years have passed away
+        since these lines were written. Time, as we have seen, has brought
+        another <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name=
+        "Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Gaon, and probably
+        Time will favour us in future with still another. But times have also
+        altered. The rebellious hearts of a liberal age are not likely to
+        obey always the command, <span class="tei tei-q">“believe all that
+        the Gaon said.”</span> But the heart of man will in all ages retain
+        idealism enough to love and revere the greatest of men and to follow
+        what was best in them.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name=
+      "Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">IV. Nachmanides</span><a id=
+        "noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">R. Chayim Vital,
+        in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book
+        of the Transmigrations of Souls</span></span>, gives the following
+        bold characteristic of the two great teachers of Judaism, Maimonides
+        and Nachmanides. Their souls both sprang forth from the head of
+        Adam—it is a favourite idea of the Cabbalists to evolve the whole of
+        ideal humanity from the archetype Adam—but the former, Maimonides,
+        had his genius placed on the left curl of Adam, which is all judgment
+        and severity, whilst that of the latter, Nachmanides, had its place
+        on the right curl, which represents rather mercy and tenderness.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I start from these
+        words in order to avoid disappointment. For Nachmanides was a great
+        Talmudist, a great Bible student, a great philosopher, a great
+        controversialist, and, perhaps, also a great physician; in one word,
+        great in every respect, possessed of all the culture of his age. But,
+        as I have already indicated by the passage quoted by way of
+        introduction, it is not of Nachmanides in any of these excellent
+        qualities that I wish to write here. For these aspects of his life
+        and mind I must refer the reader to the works of Graetz, Weiss,
+        Steinschneider, Perles, and others. I shall mostly confine myself to
+        those features and peculiarities in his career and works which will
+        illustrate Nachmanides the tender and compassionate, the <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Nachmanides who represented Judaism from
+        the side of emotion and feeling, as Maimonides did from the side of
+        reason and logic.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">R. Moses ben
+        Nachman, or Bonastruc de Portas, as he was called by his
+        fellow-countrymen, or Nachmanides, as he is commonly called now, was
+        born in Gerona about the year 1195. Gerona is a little town in the
+        province of Catalonia in Spain. But though in Spain, Gerona was not
+        distinguished for its philosophers or poets like Granada, Barcelona,
+        or Toledo. Situated as it was in the North of Spain, Gerona was under
+        the influence of Franco-Jewish sympathies, and thus its boast lay in
+        the great Talmudists that it produced. I shall only mention the name
+        of R. Zerahiah Hallevi Gerundi—so-called after his native place—whose
+        strictures on the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi, which he began as a youth
+        of nineteen years, will always remain a marvel of critical insight
+        and independent research. Nachmanides is supposed by some authors to
+        have been a descendant of R. Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona, whose
+        hymns are still to be found in certain rituals. The evidence for this
+        is insufficient, but we know that he was a cousin of R. Jonah
+        Gerundi, not less famous for his Talmudic learning than for his
+        saintliness and piety. Nachmanides thus belonged to the best Jewish
+        families of Gerona. Various great men are mentioned as his teachers,
+        but we have certainty only about two, namely R. Judah ben Yakar, the
+        commentator of the prayers, and R. Meir ben Nathan of Trinquintaines.
+        The mystic, R. Ezra (or Azriel), is indeed alleged to have been his
+        instructor in the Cabbalah, and this is not impossible, as he also
+        was an inhabitant of Gerona; but it is more probable that Nachmanides
+        was initiated into the Cabbalah by <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the R. Judah just mentioned, who also belonged
+        to the mystical school.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whoever his
+        masters were, they must have been well satisfied with their promising
+        pupil, for he undertook, at the age of fifteen, to write supplements
+        to the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi. Nor was it at a much later date that
+        he began to compose his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">The Wars of the Lord</span></span>, in which he
+        defends this great codifier against the strictures of R. Zerahiah, to
+        which we have referred above. I shall in the course of this essay
+        have further occasion to speak of this latter work; for the present
+        we will follow the career of its author.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Concerning the
+        private life of Nachmanides very little has come down to us. We only
+        know that he had a family of sons and daughters. He was not spared
+        the greatest grief that can befall a father, for he lost a son; it
+        was on the day of the New Year.<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68"
+        href="#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> On the
+        other hand, it must have been a great source of joy to him when he
+        married his son Solomon to the daughter of R. Jonah, whom he revered
+        as a saint and a man of God. As a token of the admiration in which he
+        held his friend, the following incident may be mentioned. It seems
+        that it was the custom in Spain to name the first child in a family
+        after his paternal grandfather; but Nachmanides ceded his right in
+        behalf of his friend, and thus his daughter-in-law's first son was
+        named Jonah. Another son of Nachmanides whom we know of was Nachman,
+        to whom his father addressed his letters from Palestine, and who also
+        wrote Novellæ to the Talmud, still extant in MS. But the later
+        posterity of Nachmanides is better known to fame. R. Levi ben Gershom
+        was one of his descendants; so was also R. Simeon Duran;<a id=
+        "noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> whilst
+        R. Jacob <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg
+        102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Sasportas, in the eighteenth century,<a id="noteref_70" name=
+        "noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> derived
+        his pedigree from Nachmanides in the eleventh generation.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to his calling,
+        he was occupied as Rabbi and teacher, first in Gerona and afterwards
+        in Barcelona. But this meant as much as if we should say of a man
+        that he is a philanthropist by profession, with the only difference
+        that the treasures of which Nachmanides disposed were more of a
+        spiritual kind. For his livelihood he probably depended upon his
+        medical practice.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I need hardly say
+        that the life of Nachmanides, <span class="tei tei-q">“whose words
+        were held in Catalonia in almost as high authority as the
+        Scriptures,”</span> was not without its great public events. At least
+        we know of two.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The one was about
+        the year 1232, on the occasion of the great struggle about
+        Maimonides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span>, and the
+        first book of his great Compendium of the Law. The Maimonists looked
+        upon these works almost as a new revelation, whilst the
+        Anti-Maimonists condemned both as heretical, or at least conducive to
+        heresy.<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href=
+        "#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> It would
+        be profitless to reproduce the details of this sad affair. The
+        motives may have been pure and good, but the actions were decidedly
+        bad. People denounced each other, excommunicated each other, and did
+        not (from either side) spare even the dead from the most bitter
+        calumnies. Nachmanides stood between two fires. The French Rabbis,
+        from whom most of the Anti-Maimonists were recruited, he held in very
+        high esteem and considered himself as their pupil. Some of the
+        leaders of this party were also his relatives. He, too, had, as we
+        shall see later on, a theory of his own about God and the world
+        little in agreement with that of Maimonides. It is worth noting that
+        Nachmanides objected <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg
+        103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
+        calling Maimonides <span class="tei tei-q">“our teacher Moses”</span>
+        (Rabbenu Mosheh),<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href=
+        "#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> thinking
+        it improper to confer upon him the title by which the Rabbis honoured
+        the Master of the Prophets. The very fact, however, that he had some
+        theory of the Universe shows that he had a problem to solve, whilst
+        the real French Rabbis were hardly troubled by difficulties of a
+        metaphysical character. Indeed, Nachmanides pays them the rather
+        doubtful compliment that Maimonides' work was not intended for them,
+        who were barricaded by their faith and happy in their belief, wanting
+        no protection against the works of Aristotle and Galen, by whose
+        philosophy others might be led astray. In other words, their strength
+        lay in an ignorance of Greek philosophy, to which the cultivated Jews
+        of Spain would not aspire. Nachmanides was also a great admirer of
+        Maimonides, whose virtues and great merits in the service of Judaism
+        he describes in his letter to the French Rabbis. Thus, the only way
+        left open to him was to play the part of the conciliator. The course
+        of this struggle is fully described in every Jewish history. It is
+        sufficient to say that, in spite of his great authority, Nachmanides
+        was not successful in his effort to moderate the violence of either
+        party, and that the controversy was at last settled through the harsh
+        interference of outsiders who well-nigh crushed Maimonists and
+        Anti-Maimonists alike.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second public
+        event in the life of Nachmanides was his Disputation, held in
+        Barcelona, at the Court and in the presence of King Jayme I., of
+        Aragon, in the year 1263. It was the usual story. A convert to
+        Christianity, named Pablo Christiani, who burned with zealous anxiety
+        to see his former co-religionists saved, after many vain attempts in
+        this direction, applied to the King of Aragon <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to order Nachmanides to take part in a
+        public disputation. Pablo maintained that he could prove the justice
+        of the Messianic claims of Jesus from the Talmud and other Rabbinic
+        writings. If he could only succeed in convincing the great Rabbi of
+        Spain of the truth of his argument, the bulk of the Jews was sure to
+        follow. By the way, it was the same Talmud which some twenty years
+        previously was, at the instance of another Jewish convert, burned in
+        Paris, for containing passages against Christianity. Nachmanides had
+        to conform with the command of the king, and, on the 21st of July,
+        1263, was begun the controversy, which lasted for four or five
+        days.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I do not think
+        that there is in the whole domain of literature less profitable
+        reading than that of the controversies between Jews and Christians.
+        These public disputations occasionally forced the Jews themselves to
+        review their position towards their own literature, and led them to
+        draw clearer distinctions between what they regarded as religion and
+        what as folklore. But beyond this, the polemics between Jews and
+        Christians were barren of good results. If you have read one you have
+        read enough for all time. The same casuistry and the same disregard
+        of history turn up again and again. Nervousness and humility are
+        always on the side of the Jews, who know that, whatever the result
+        may be, the end will be persecution; arrogance is always on the side
+        of their antagonists, who are supported by a band of Knights of the
+        Holy Cross, prepared to prove the soundness of their cause at the
+        point of their daggers.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides, was there
+        enough common ground between Judaism and thirteenth century
+        Christianity to have justified the hope of a mutual understanding?
+        The Old <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name=
+        "Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Testament was almost
+        forgotten in the Church. The First Person in the Trinity was leading
+        a sort of shadowy existence in art, which could only be the more
+        repulsive to a Jew on that account. The largest part of Church
+        worship was monopolised by devotion to the Virgin Mother, prayers to
+        the saints, and kneeling before their relics. And a Jew may well be
+        pardoned if he did not entertain higher views of this form of worship
+        than Luther and Knox did at a later period. It will thus not be worth
+        our while to dwell much on the matter of this controversy, in which
+        the essence of the real dispute is scarcely touched. There are only
+        two points in it which are worth noticing. The first is that
+        Nachmanides declared the Agadoth<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73"
+        href="#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> in the
+        Talmud to be only a series of sermons (he uses this very word),
+        expressing the individual opinions of the preacher, and thus
+        possessing no authoritative weight. The convert Pablo is quite aghast
+        at this statement, and accuses Nachmanides of heterodoxy.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Secondly,—and here
+        I take leave to complete the rather obscure passage in the
+        controversy by a parallel in his book, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Date of
+        Redemption</span></span>,<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href=
+        "#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> quoted
+        by Azariah de Rossi—that the question of the Messiah is not of that
+        dogmatic importance to the Jews that Christians imagine. For even if
+        Jews supposed their sins to be so great that they forfeited all the
+        promises made to them in the Scriptures, or that, on some hidden
+        ground, it would please the Almighty never to restore their national
+        independence, this would in no way alter the obligations of Jews
+        towards the Torah. Nor is the coming of the Messiah desired by Jews
+        as an end in itself. For it is not the goal of their hopes that they
+        shall be able again to eat of the fruit of <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Palestine, or enjoy other pleasures there; not
+        even the chance of the restoration of sacrifices and the worship of
+        the Temple is the greatest of Jewish expectations (connected with the
+        appearance of the Messiah). What makes them long for his coming is
+        the hope that they will then witness, in the company of the prophets
+        and priests, a greater spread of purity and holiness than is now
+        possible. In other words, the possibility for them to live a holy
+        life after the will of God will be greater than now. But, on the
+        other hand, considering that such a godly life under a Christian
+        government requires greater sacrifices than it would under a Jewish
+        king; and, considering again that the merits and rewards of a good
+        act increase with the obstacles that are in the way of executing
+        it—considering this, a Jew might even prefer to live under the King
+        of Aragon than under the Messiah, where he would perforce act in
+        accordance with the precepts of the Torah.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now there is in
+        this statement much that has only to be looked upon as a compliment
+        to the government of Spain. I am inclined to think that if the
+        alternative laid before Nachmanides had been a really practical one,
+        he would have decided in favour of the clement rule of the Messiah in
+        preference to that of the most cruel king on earth. But the fact that
+        he repeats this statement in another place, where there was no
+        occasion to be over polite to the Government, tends to show, as we
+        have said, that the belief in the Messiah was not the basis on which
+        Nachmanides' religion was built up.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of the
+        controversy is contested by the different parties; the Christian
+        writers claim the victory for Pablo, whilst the Jewish documents
+        maintain that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg
+        107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
+        issue was with Nachmanides. In any case, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Jude wird
+        verbrannt</span></span>.”</span> For in the next year (1264) all the
+        books of the Jews in Aragon were confiscated and submitted to the
+        censorship of a commission, of which the well-known author of the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pugio
+        Fidei</span></span>, Raymund Martini, was, perhaps, the most
+        important member. The books were not burned this time, but had to
+        suffer a severe mutilation; the anti-Christian passages, or such as
+        were supposed to be so, were struck out or obliterated. Nachmanides'
+        account of the controversy, which he probably published from a sense
+        of duty towards those whom he represented, was declared to contain
+        blasphemies against the dominant religion. The pamphlet was condemned
+        to be burned publicly, whilst the author was, as it seems, punished
+        with expulsion from his country. It is not reported where Nachmanides
+        found a home during the next three years; probably he had to accept
+        the hospitality of his friends, either in Castile or in the south of
+        France; but we know that in the year 1267 he left Europe and
+        emigrated to Palestine.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachmanides was,
+        at this juncture of his life, already a man of about seventy. But it
+        would seem as if the seven decades which he had spent in the Spanish
+        Peninsula were only meant as a preparation for the three years which
+        he was destined to live in the Holy Land, for it was during this
+        stage of his life that the greatest part of his <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary on the
+        Pentateuch</span></span> was written. In this work, as is agreed on
+        all sides, his finest thoughts and noblest sentiments were put
+        down.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before proceeding
+        to speak of his works, let us first cast a glance at his letters from
+        Palestine, forming as they do a certain link between his former life
+        and that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg
+        108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        which was to occupy him exclusively for the rest of his days. We have
+        three letters, the first of which I shall translate here <span lang=
+        "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">in extenso</span></span>.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The letter was
+        written soon after his arrival at Jerusalem in the year 1267. It was
+        addressed to his son Nachman, and runs as follows:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">The Lord shall bless thee, my son Nachman, and thou
+        shalt see the good of Jerusalem. Yea, thou shalt see thy children's
+        children (Ps. cxxviii.), and thy table shall be like that of our
+        father Abraham!</span><a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href=
+        "#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a>
+        <span style="font-size: 90%">In Jerusalem, the Holy City, I write
+        this letter. For, thanks and praise unto the rock of my salvation, I
+        was thought worthy by God to arrive here safely on the 9th of the
+        month of Elul, and I remained there till the day after the Day of
+        Atonement. Now I intend going to Hebron, to the sepulchre of our
+        ancestors, to prostrate myself, and there to dig my grave. But what
+        am I to say to you with regard to the country? Great is the solitude
+        and great the wastes, and, to characterise it in short, the more
+        sacred the places, the greater their desolation! Jerusalem is more
+        desolate than the rest of the country: Judæa more than Galilee. But
+        even in this destruction it is a blessed land. It has about 2000
+        inhabitants, about 300 Christians live there who escaped the sword of
+        the Sultan. There are no Jews. For since the arrival of the Tartars,
+        some fled, others died by the sword. There are only two brothers,
+        dyers by trade, who have to buy their ingredients from the
+        government. There the Ten Men</span><a id="noteref_76" name=
+        "noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a>
+        <span style="font-size: 90%">meet, and on Sabbaths they hold service
+        at their house. But we encouraged them, and we succeeded in finding a
+        vacant house, built on pillars of marble with a beautiful arch. That
+        we took for a synagogue. For the town is without a master, and
+        whoever will take possession of the ruins can do so. We gave our
+        offerings towards the repairs of the house. We have sent already to
+        Shechem to fetch some scrolls of the Law from there which had been
+        brought thither from Jerusalem at the invasion of the Tartars. Thus
+        they will organise a synagogue and worship there. For continually
+        people crowd to Jerusalem, men and women, from Damascus, Zobah</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109"
+          id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">(Aleppo),</span><a id="noteref_77" name=
+          "noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class=
+          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">and from all parts of the country to
+          see the Sanctuary and to mourn over it. He who thought us worthy to
+          let us see Jerusalem in her desertion, he shall bless us to behold
+          her again, built and restored, when the glory of the Lord will
+          return unto her. But you, my son, and your brothers and the whole
+          of our family, you all shall live to see the salvation of Jerusalem
+          and the comfort of Zion. These are the words of your father who is
+          yearning and forgetting, who is seeing and enjoying, Moses ben
+          Nachman. Give also my peace to my pupil Moses, the son of Solomon,
+          the nephew of your mother. I wish to tell him ... that there,
+          facing the holy temple, I have read his verses, weeping bitterly
+          over them. May he who caused his name to rest in the Holy Temple
+          increase your peace together with the peace of the whole
+          community.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This letter may be
+        illustrated by a few parallels taken from the appendix to
+        Nachmanides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Commentary to the Pentateuch</span></span>,
+        which contains some rather incoherent notes which the author seems to
+        have jotted down when he arrived in Jerusalem. After a lengthy
+        account of the material as well as the spiritual glories of the holy
+        city in the past, he proceeds to say:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">A mournful sight I have perceived in thee
+        (Jerusalem); only one Jew is here, a dyer, persecuted, oppressed and
+        despised. At his house gather great and small when they can get the
+        Ten Men. They are wretched folk, without occupation and trade,
+        consisting of a few pilgrims and beggars, though the fruit of the
+        land is still magnificent and the harvests rich. Indeed, it is still
+        a blessed country, flowing with milk and honey.... Oh! I am the man
+        who saw affliction. I am banished from my table, far removed from
+        friend and kinsman, and too long is the distance to meet again.... I
+        left my family, I forsook my house. There with my sons and daughters,
+        and with the sweet and dear children whom I have brought up on my
+        knees, I left also my soul. My heart and my eyes will dwell with them
+        for ever.... But the loss of all this and of every other glory my
+        eyes saw is compensated by having</span> <span class="tei tei-pb"
+          id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class=
+          "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">now the joy of
+          being a day in thy courts (O Jerusalem), visiting the ruins of the
+          Temple and crying over the ruined Sanctuary; where I am permitted
+          to caress thy stones, to fondle thy dust, and to weep over thy
+          ruins. I wept bitterly, but I found joy in my tears. I tore my
+          garments, but I felt relieved by it.</span><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of some later date
+        is his letter from Acra, which may be considered as a sort of ethical
+        will, and which has been justly characterised as a eulogy of
+        humility. Here is an extract from it:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">Accustom yourself to speak gently to all men at all
+        times, and thus you will avoid anger, which leads to so much sin....
+        Humility is the first of virtues; for if you think how lowly is man,
+        how great is God, you will fear Him and avoid sinfulness. On the
+        humble man rests the divine glory; the man that is haughty to others
+        denies God. Look not boldly at one whom you address.... Regard every
+        one as greater than thyself.... Remember always that you stand before
+        God, both when you pray and when you converse with others.... Think
+        before you speak.... Act as I have bidden you, and your words, and
+        deeds, and thoughts, will be honest, and your prayers pure and
+        acceptable before God.</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third letter
+        is addressed to his son (R. Solomon?) who was staying (in the service
+        of the king) in Castile. It is in its chief content a eulogy of
+        chastity.<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href=
+        "#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> Probably
+        Nachmanides had some dread of the dangerous allurements of the court,
+        and he begs his son never to do anything of which he knows that his
+        father would not approve, and to keep his father's image always
+        before his eyes.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to his works,
+        we may divide them into two classes. The one would contain those of a
+        strictly legalistic (Halachic), whilst the other those of a more
+        homiletic-exegetical and devotional character (Agadic). As already
+        indicated in the preliminary lines of this paper, I cannot dwell long
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111"
+        id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on the former class of our
+        author's writings. It consists either of Glosses or Novellæ to the
+        Talmud, in the style and manner of the French Rabbis, or of Compendia
+        of certain parts of the Law after the model set by R. Isaac Alfasi or
+        Maimonides, or in defences of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Earlier
+        Authorities”</span> against the strictures made on them by a later
+        generation. A few words must be said with regard to these defences;
+        for they reveal that deep respect for authority which forms a special
+        feature of Nachmanides' writings. His <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wars of the
+        Lord</span></span>, in which he defends Alfasi against R. Zerahiah of
+        Gerona, was undertaken when he was very young, whilst his defence of
+        the author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Halachoth Gedoloth</span></span><a id=
+        "noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> against
+        the attacks of Maimonides, which he began at a much more mature age,
+        shows the same deference <span class="tei tei-q">“to the great ones
+        of the past.”</span> Indeed, he says in one place, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“We bow before them (the earlier authorities), and though
+        their words are not quite evident to us we submit to them”</span>;
+        or, as he expresses himself elsewhere, <span class="tei tei-q">“Only
+        he who dips (deeply enough) in the wisdom of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘ancient ones’</span> will drink the pure (old)
+        wine.”</span> But it would be unjust to the genius of Nachmanides to
+        represent him as a blind worshipper of authority. Humble and generous
+        in disposition, he certainly would bow before every recognised
+        authority, and he would also think it his duty to take up the cudgels
+        for him as long as there was even the least chance of making an
+        honourable defence. But when this chance had gone, when Nachmanides
+        was fully convinced that his hero was in the wrong, he followed no
+        guide but truth. <span class="tei tei-q">“Notwithstanding,”</span> he
+        says in his introduction to the defences of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth
+        Gedoloth</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“my desire and
+        delight to be the disciple of the Earlier Authorities, to maintain
+        their views and to assert them, I <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> do not consider myself a <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘donkey carrying books.’</span> I will explain their way
+        and appreciate their value, but when their views are inconceivable to
+        my thoughts, I will plead in all modesty, but shall judge according
+        to the sight of my eyes. And when the meaning is clear I shall
+        flatter none, for the Lord gives wisdom in all times and
+        ages.”</span> But, on the other hand, there seems to have been a
+        certain sort of literary agnosticism about Nachmanides which made it
+        very difficult for him to find the <span class="tei tei-q">“clear
+        meaning.”</span> The passage in the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wars of the
+        Lord</span></span> to the effect <span class="tei tei-q">“that there
+        is in the art (of commenting) no such certain demonstration as in
+        mathematics or astronomy,”</span> is well known and has often been
+        quoted; but still more characteristic of this literary agnosticism is
+        the first paragraph of the above-mentioned defences of the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth
+        Gedoloth</span></span>. Whilst all his predecessors accepted, on the
+        authority of R. Simlai,<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href=
+        "#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> the
+        number (613) of the commandments as an uncontested fact, and based
+        their compositions on it, Nachmanides questions the whole matter, and
+        shows that the passages relating to this enumeration of laws are only
+        of a homiletical nature, and thus of little consequence. Nay, he goes
+        so far as to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“Indeed the system how to
+        number the commandments is a matter in which I suspect all of us (are
+        mistaken) and the truth must be left to him who will solve all
+        doubts.”</span> We should thus be inclined to think that this
+        adherence to the words of the earlier Authorities was at least as
+        much due to this critical scepticism as to his conservative
+        tendencies.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The space left to
+        me I shall devote to the second class of his writings, in which
+        Nachmanides worked less after given types. These reveal to us more of
+        his inner being, and offer us some insight into his theological
+        system. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name=
+        "Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The great problem
+        which seems to have presented itself to Nachmanides' mind was less
+        how to reconcile religion with reason than how to reconcile man with
+        religion. What is man? The usual answer is not flattering. He is an
+        animal that owes its existence to the same instinct that produces
+        even the lower creatures, and he is condemned, like them, to go to a
+        place of worm and maggot. But, may not one ask, why should a creature
+        so lowly born, and doomed to so hapless a future, be burdened with
+        the awful responsibility of knowing that he is destined <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“to give reckoning and judgment before the King of kings,
+        the Holy One, blessed be He”</span>? It is true that man is also
+        endowed with a heavenly soul, but this only brings us back again to
+        the antithesis of flesh and spirit which was the stumbling-block of
+        many a theological system. Nor does it help us much towards the
+        solution of the indicated difficulty; for what relation can there be
+        between this <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">materia impura</span></span> of
+        body and the pure intellect of soul? And again, must not the
+        unfavourable condition in which the latter is placed through this
+        uncongenial society heavily clog and suppress all aspiration for
+        perfection? It is <span class="tei tei-q">“a house divided against
+        itself,”</span> doomed to an everlasting contest, without hope for
+        co-operation or even of harmony.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The works
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Sacred
+        Letter</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">The Law of Man</span></span> may be considered
+        as an attempt by Nachmanides, if not to remove, at least to relieve
+        the harshness of this antithesis. The former, in which he blames
+        Maimonides for following Aristotle in denouncing certain desires
+        implanted in us by nature as ignominious and unworthy of man, may,
+        perhaps, be characterised as a vindication of the flesh from a
+        religious point of view. The contempt in <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> which <span class="tei tei-q">“that
+        Greek,”</span> as Nachmanides terms Aristotle, held the flesh is
+        inconsistent with the theory of the religious man, who believes that
+        everything (including the body, with all its functions) is created by
+        God, whose work is perfect and good, without impure or inharmonious
+        parts. It is only sin and neglect that disfigure God's creations. I
+        cannot enter into any further details of this work, but I may be
+        permitted to remark that there is a very strong similarity between
+        the tendency of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Sacred Letter</span></span> and certain leading
+        ideas of Milton. Indeed, if the first two chapters of the former were
+        a little condensed and put into English, they could not be better
+        summarised than by the famous lines in the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paradise
+        Lost</span></span>:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Whatever hypocrites austerely
+              talk</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Of purity, and place, and
+              innocence,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Defaming as impure what God
+              declares</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Pure, and commands to some, leaves
+              free to all,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Our Maker bids increase; who bids
+              abstain</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">But our destroyer, foe to God and
+              man?</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Hail, wedded love, mysterious
+              law!...</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Far be it that I should write thee
+              sin or blame</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Or think thee unbefitting holiest
+              place,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Perpetual fountain of domestic
+              sweets.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second of
+        these two works, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Law of Man</span></span>, may be regarded as a
+        sanctification of grief, and particularly of the grief of griefs,
+        death. The bulk of the book is legalistic, treating of mourning
+        rites, burial customs, and similar topics; but there is much in the
+        preface which bears on our subject. For here again Nachmanides takes
+        the opportunity of combating a chilling philosophy, which tries to
+        arm us against suffering by stifling our emotions. <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“My son,”</span>
+        he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“be not persuaded by certain
+        propositions of the great philosophers who endeavour to harden our
+        hearts and to deaden our sensations by their idle comfort, which
+        consists in denying the past and despairing of the future. One of
+        them has even declared that there is nothing in the world over the
+        loss of which it is worth crying, and the possession of which would
+        justify joy. This is an heretical view. Our perfect Torah bids us to
+        be joyful in the day of prosperity and to shed tears in the day of
+        misfortune. It in no way forbids crying or demands of us to suppress
+        our grief. On the contrary, the Torah suggests to us that to mourn
+        over heavy losses is equivalent to a service of God, leading us, as
+        it does, to reflect on our end and ponder over our
+        destiny.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This destiny, as
+        well as Reward and Punishment in general, is treated in the
+        concluding chapter of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Law of Man</span></span>, which is known under
+        the title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">The Gate of Reward</span></span>.<a id=
+        "noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a>
+        Nachmanides does not conceal from himself the difficulties besetting
+        inquiries of this description. He knows well enough that in the last
+        instance we must appeal to that implicit faith in the inscrutable
+        justice of God with which the believer begins. Nevertheless he thinks
+        that only the <span class="tei tei-q">“despisers of wisdom”</span>
+        would fail to bring to this faith as full a conviction as possible,
+        which latter is only to be gained by speculation. I shall have by and
+        by occasion to refer to the results of this speculation. Here we must
+        only notice the fact of Nachmanides insisting on the <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bodily</span></em>
+        resurrection which will take place after the coming of the Messiah,
+        and will be followed by the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
+        xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Olam
+        Habba</span></span><a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href=
+        "#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> (the
+        life in the world to come) of which the Rabbis spoke.</p><span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Irrational as this
+        belief may look, it is only a consequence of his theory, which, as we
+        have seen, assigns even to the flesh an almost spiritual importance.
+        Indeed, he thinks that the soul may have such an influence on the
+        body as to transform the latter into so pure an essence that it will
+        become safe for eternity. For, as he hints in another place, by the
+        continual practising of a thing the whole man, the body included,
+        becomes so identified with the thing that we call him after it, just
+        as the Holy Singer said: I am prayer,<a id="noteref_83" name=
+        "noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> so
+        that—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 5.40em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Oft converse with heavenly
+              habitants</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Begins to cast a beam on the
+              outward shape,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">The unpolluted temple of the
+              mind,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">And turns it by degrees to the
+              soul's essence,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Till all be made immortal.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if even the
+        body holds such a high position as to make all its instincts and
+        functions, if properly regulated, a service of God, and to destine it
+        for a glorious future of eternal bliss and rejoicing in God, we can
+        easily imagine what a high place the soul must occupy in the system
+        of Nachmanides. To be sure it is a much higher one than that to which
+        philosophy would fain admit her. A beautiful parable of the Persian
+        poet Yellaladeen (quoted by the late Mr. Lowell) narrates that
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“One knocked at the beloved's door, and a
+        voice asked from within, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who is
+        there?’</span> and he answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘It is
+        I.’</span> Then the voice said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘This house
+        will not hold me and thee,’</span> and the door was not opened. Then
+        went the lover into the desert and fasted and prayed in solitude, and
+        after a year he returned and knocked again at the door, and again the
+        voice asked <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who is there?’</span> and he
+        said <span class="tei tei-q">‘It is thyself’</span>; and the door
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117"
+        id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was opened to him.”</span>
+        This is also the difference between the two schools—the mystical and
+        the philosophical—with regard to the soul. With the rationalist the
+        soul is indeed a superior abstract intelligence created by God, but,
+        like all His creations, has an existence of its own, and is thus
+        separated from God. With the mystic, however, the soul is God, or a
+        direct emanation from God. <span class="tei tei-q">“For he who
+        breathes into another thing (Gen. ii. 7) gives unto it something of
+        his own breath (or soul),”</span> and as it is said in Job xxxii. 8,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“And the soul of the Almighty giveth them
+        understanding.”</span> This emanation, or rather immanence—for
+        Nachmanides insists in another place that the Hebrew term employed
+        for it, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Aziluth</span></span>,<a id=
+        "noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> means a
+        permanent dwelling with the thing emanating—which became manifest
+        with the creation of man, must not be confounded with the moving soul
+        (or the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Nephesh
+        Chayah</span></span>),<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href=
+        "#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> which is
+        common to man with all creatures.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be remarked
+        here that Nachmanides endows all animals with a soul which is derived
+        from the <span class="tei tei-q">“Superior Powers,”</span> and its
+        presence is proved by certain marks of intelligence which they show.
+        By this fact he tries to account for the law prohibiting cruelty to
+        animals, <span class="tei tei-q">“all souls belonging to God.”</span>
+        Their original disposition was, it would seem, according to
+        Nachmanides, peaceful and harmless.</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 14.40em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">About them frisking played</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">All beasts of earth, since wild,
+              and of all chase</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">In wood or wilderness, forest or
+              den.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was only after
+        man had sinned that war entered into creation, but with the coming of
+        the Messiah, when sin will disappear, all the living beings will
+        regain their <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg
+        118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        primæval gentleness, and be reinstituted in their first rights.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The special soul
+        of man, however, or rather the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“over-soul,”</span> was pre-existent to the creation of
+        the world, treasured up as a wave in the sea or fountain of
+        souls—dwelling in the eternal light and holiness of God. There, in
+        God, the soul abides in its ideal existence before it enters into its
+        material life through the medium of man; though it must be noted
+        that, according to Nachmanides' belief in the Transmigration of
+        souls, it is not necessary to perceive in the soul of every new-born
+        child, <span class="tei tei-q">“a fresh message from heaven”</span>
+        coming directly from the fountain-head. Nachmanides finds this belief
+        indicated in the commandment of levirate marriage, where the child
+        born of the deceased brother's wife inherits not only the name of the
+        brother of his actual father, but also his soul, and thus perpetuates
+        his existence on earth. The fourth verse of Ecclesiastes ii.
+        Nachmanides seems to interpret to mean that the very generation which
+        passes away comes up again, by which he tries to explain the
+        difficulty of God's visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their
+        children; the latter being the very fathers who committed the sins.
+        However, whatever trials and changes the soul may have to pass
+        through during its bodily existence, its origin is in God and thither
+        it will return in the end, <span class="tei tei-q">“just as the
+        waters rise always to the same high level from which their source
+        sprang forth.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is for this
+        man, with a body so superior, and a soul so sublime—more sublime than
+        the angels—that the world was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">created</span></em>. I emphasise the last word,
+        for the belief in the creation of the world by God from nothing
+        forms, according to Nachmanides, the first of the three fundamental
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119"
+        id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> dogmas of Judaism. The other
+        two also refer to God's relation to the world and man. They are the
+        belief in God's Providence and his <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Yediah</span></span>.<a id="noteref_86" name=
+        "noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> Creation
+        from nothing is for Nachmanides the keynote to his whole religion,
+        since it is only by this fact, as he points out in many places, that
+        God gains real dominion over nature. For, as he says, as soon as we
+        admit the eternity of matter, we must (logically) deny God even
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“the power of enlarging the wing of a fly, or
+        shortening the leg of an ant.”</span> But the whole Torah is nothing
+        if not a record of God's mastery in and over the world, and of His
+        miraculous deeds. One of the first proclamations of Abraham to his
+        generation was that God is the Lord (or Master) of the world (Gen.
+        xviii. 33). The injunction given to Abraham, and repeated afterwards
+        to the whole of Israel (Gen. xvii. 2, and Deut. xviii. 13), to be
+        perfect with God, Nachmanides numbers as one of the 613 commandments,
+        and explains it to mean that man must have a whole belief in God
+        without blemish or reservation, and acknowledge Him possessed of
+        power over nature and the world, man and beast, devil and angel,
+        power being attributable to Him alone. Indeed, when the angel said to
+        Jacob, <span class="tei tei-q">“Why dost thou ask after my
+        name”</span> (Gen. xxxii. 29), he meant to indicate by his question
+        the impotence of the heavenly host, so that there is no use in
+        knowing their name, the power and might belonging only to God.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may venture
+        even a step further, and maintain that in Nachmanides' system there
+        is hardly room left for such a thing as nature or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the order of the world.”</span> There are only two
+        categories of miracles by which the world is governed, or in which
+        God's Providence is seen. The one is the category of the manifest
+        miracles, as the ten <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg
+        120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        plagues in Egypt, or the crossing of the Red Sea; the other is that
+        of the hidden miracles, which we do not perceive as such, because of
+        their frequency and continuity. <span class="tei tei-q">“No
+        man,”</span> he declares, <span class="tei tei-q">“can share in the
+        Torah of our Teacher, Moses (that is, can be considered a follower of
+        the Jewish religion), unless he believes that all our affairs and
+        events, whether they concern the masses or the individual, are all
+        miracles (worked by the direct will of God), attributing nothing to
+        nature or to the order of the world.”</span> Under this second order
+        he classes all the promises the Torah makes to the righteous, and the
+        punishments with which evil-doers are threatened. For, as he points
+        out in many places, there is nothing in the nature of the
+        commandments themselves that would make their fulfilment necessarily
+        prolong the life of man, and cause the skies to pour down rain, or,
+        on the other hand, would associate disobedience to them with famine
+        and death. All these results can, therefore, only be accomplished in
+        a supernatural way by the direct workings of God.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus miracles are
+        raised to a place in the regular scheme of things, and the difficulty
+        regarding the possibility of God's interferences with nature
+        disappears by their very multiplication. But a still more important
+        point is, that, by this unbroken chain of miracles, which
+        unconditionally implies God's presence to perform them, Nachmanides
+        arrives at a theory establishing a closer contact between the Deity
+        and the world than that set forth by other thinkers. Thus, he insists
+        that the term <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Shechinah</span></span>, or
+        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Cabod</span></span><a id="noteref_87" name=
+        "noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> (Glory
+        of God), must not be understood, with some Jewish philosophers, as
+        something separate from God, or as <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">glory
+        created</span></em> by God. <span class="tei tei-q">“Were this the
+        case,”</span> he proceeds to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“we could
+        not possibly <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg
+        121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        say, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Blessed be the glory of the Lord from
+        his place,’</span> since every mark of worship to anything <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">created</span></em>
+        involves the sin of idolatry.”</span> Such terms as <span lang="he"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Shechinah</span></span>, or <span lang="he"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Cabod</span></span>, can therefore only mean the
+        immediate divine presence. This proves, as may be noted in passing,
+        how unphilosophical the idea of those writers is who maintain that
+        the rigid monotheism of the Jews makes God so transcendental that He
+        is banished from the world. As we see, it is just this assertion of
+        His absolute Unity which not only suffers no substitute for God, but
+        also removes every separation between Him and the world. Hence also
+        Nachmanides insists that the prophecy even of the successors of Moses
+        was a direct communion of God with the prophet, and not, as others
+        maintained, furnished through the medium of an angel.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third
+        fundamental dogma, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yediah</span></span>, includes,
+        according to Nachmanides, not only the omniscience of God—as the term
+        is usually translated—but also His recognition of mankind and His
+        special concern in them. Thus, he explains the words in the Bible
+        with regard to Abraham, <span class="tei tei-q">“For I know
+        him”</span> (Gen. xviii. 19), to indicate the special attachment of
+        God's Providence to the patriarch, which, on account of his
+        righteousness, was to be uninterrupted for ever; whilst in other
+        places we have to understand, under God's knowledge of a thing, his
+        determination to deal with it compassionately, as, for instance, when
+        Scripture says that God knew (Exod. ii. 25), it means that His
+        relation to Israel emanated from His attribute of mercy and love. But
+        just as God knows (which means loves) the world, He requires also to
+        be recognised and known by it. <span class="tei tei-q">“For this was
+        the purpose of the whole creation, that man should recognise and know
+        Him and give praise to His name,”</span> as <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Everything
+        that is called by my name (meaning, chosen to promulgate God's name),
+        for my glory have I created it.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is this fact
+        which gives Israel their high prerogative, for by receiving the Torah
+        they were the first to know God's name, to which they remained true
+        in spite of all adversities; and thus accomplished God's intention in
+        creating the world. It is, again, by this Torah that the whole of
+        Israel not only succeeded in being real prophets (at the moment of
+        the Revelation), but also became <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Segulah</span></span>,<a id="noteref_88" name=
+        "noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> which
+        indicates the inseparable attachment between God and His people,
+        whilst the righteous who never disobey His will become the seat of
+        His throne.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The position of
+        the rest of humanity is also determined by their relation to the
+        Torah. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is,”</span> Nachmanides tells us,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“a main principle to know that all that man
+        contrives to possess of knowledge and wisdom is only the fruits of
+        the Torah or the fruits of its fruits. But for this knowledge there
+        would be no difference between man and the lower animated species.
+        The existence of the civilised nations of the world does not disprove
+        this rule both Christians and Mahometans being also the heirs of the
+        Torah. For when the Romans gained strength over Israel they made them
+        translate the Torah which they studied, and they even accommodated
+        some of their laws and institutions to those of the Bible.”</span>
+        Those nations, however, who live far away from the centre of the
+        world (the Holy Land) and never come into contact with Israel are
+        outside the pale of civilisation, and can hardly be ranked together
+        with the human species. <span class="tei tei-q">“They are the isles
+        afar off, that have not heard my fame, neither have seen my
+        glory.”</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg
+        123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What Nachmanides
+        meant by maintaining that all knowledge and wisdom were <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the fruits of the Torah, or the fruits of these
+        fruits,”</span> will be best seen from his <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary on the
+        Pentateuch</span></span>. I have already made use of this Commentary
+        in the preceding quotations, but, being the greatest of the works of
+        Nachmanides, it calls for some special attention by itself. Its
+        general purpose is edification, or as he says, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“to appease the mind of the students (labouring under
+        persecution and troubles) when they read the portion on Sabbaths and
+        festivals, and to attract their heart by simple explanations and
+        sweet words.”</span> The explanations occupy a considerable space. As
+        Dr. Perles has shown in his able essay on this work of Nachmanides,
+        our author neglected no resource of philology or archæology
+        accessible in his age which could contribute to establish the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“simple explanations”</span> on a sound
+        scientific basis. The prominent feature of this Commentary, however,
+        is the <span class="tei tei-q">“sweet words.”</span> Indeed, how
+        sweet and soothing to his contemporaries must have been such words as
+        we read at the end of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Song of
+        Moses”</span> (Deut. xxxii.): <span class="tei tei-q">“And behold
+        there is nothing conditional in this Song. It is a charter testifying
+        that we shall have to suffer heavily for our sins, but that,
+        nevertheless, God will not destroy us, being reconciled to us (though
+        we shall have no merits), and forgiving our sins for his name's sake
+        alone.... And so our Rabbis said, Great is this song, embracing as it
+        does both the past (of Israel) and the future, this world and the
+        world to come.... And if this song were the composition of a mere
+        astrologer we should be constrained to believe in it, considering
+        that all its words were fulfilled. How much more have we to hope with
+        all our hearts and to trust to the word of God, through the mouth
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124"
+        id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his prophet Moses, the
+        faithful in all his house, like unto whom there was none, whether
+        before him or after him.”</span> A part of these sweet words may also
+        be seen in the numerous passages in which he attempts to account for
+        various laws, and to detect their underlying principles.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For though
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“the Torah is the expression of God's simple
+        and absolute will, which man has to follow without any consideration
+        of reward,”</span> still this will is not arbitrary, and even that
+        class of laws which are called <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">chukkim</span></span><a id="noteref_89" name=
+        "noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> (which
+        means, according to some Jewish commentators, motiveless decrees)
+        have their good reasons, notwithstanding that they are unfathomable
+        to us. <span class="tei tei-q">“They are all meant for the good of
+        man, either to keep aloof from us something hurtful, or to educate us
+        in goodness, or to remove from us an evil belief and to make us know
+        his name. This is what they (the Rabbis) meant by saying that
+        commandments have a purifying purpose, namely, that man being
+        purified and tried by them becomes as one without alloy of bad
+        thoughts and unworthy qualities.”</span> Indeed, the soul of man is
+        so sensitive to every impurity that it suffers a sort of infection
+        even by an unintentional sin. Hence the injunction to bring a
+        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Korban</span></span> (sacrifice) even in this
+        case; the effect of the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
+        xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Korban</span></span>,
+        as its etymology (<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Karab</span></span>)<a id=
+        "noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a>
+        indicates, is to bring man back to God, or rather to facilitate this
+        approach. All this again is, as Nachmanides points out, only an
+        affluence from God's mercy and love to mankind. God derives no
+        benefit from it. <span class="tei tei-q">“If he be righteous what can
+        he give thee?”</span> And even those laws and institutions which are
+        intended to commemorate God's wonders and the creation of the world
+        (for instance, the Passover festival and the Sabbath) are not meant
+        for His glorification, or, as Heine maliciously expressed
+        it:—</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name=
+        "Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Der Weltkapellenmeister hier
+              oben</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Er selbst sogar hört gerne
+              loben</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Gleichfalls seine Werke....</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“For all the honour (we give to Him), and the praising of
+        His work are counted by Him less than nothing and as vanity to
+        Him.”</span> What He desires is that we may know the truth, and be
+        confirmed in it, for this makes us worthy of finding in Him
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“our Protector and King.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The lessons which
+        Nachmanides draws from the various Biblical narratives also belong to
+        these <span class="tei tei-q">“sweet words.”</span> They are mostly
+        of a typical character. For, true as all the stories in the
+        Scriptures are, <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole Torah is,”</span>
+        as he tells us (with allusion to Gen. v. 1.), <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the book of the generations of Adam,”</span> or, as we
+        should say, a history of humanity written in advance. Thus the
+        account of the six days of the creation is turned into a prophecy of
+        the most important events which would occur during the succeeding six
+        thousand years, whilst the Sabbath is a forecast of the millennium in
+        the seventh thousand, which will be the day of the Lord. Jacob and
+        Esau are, as in the old Rabbinic homilies generally, the prototypes
+        of Israel and Rome; and so is the battle of Moses and Joshua with
+        Amalek indicative of the war which Elijah and the Messiah the son of
+        Joseph will wage against Edom (the prototype of Rome), before the
+        Redeemer from the house of David will appear.<a id="noteref_91" name=
+        "noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a>
+        Sometimes these stories convey both a moral and a pre-justification
+        of what was destined to happen to Israel. So Nachmanides' remarks
+        with reference to Sarah's treatment of Hagar (Gen. xvi. 6):
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Our mother Sarah sinned greatly by
+        inflicting this pain on Hagar, as did also Abraham, who allowed such
+        a thing to pass; but God saw her affliction and rewarded her by a
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126"
+        id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> son (the ancestor of a wild
+        race), who would inflict on the seed of Abraham and Sarah every sort
+        of oppression.”</span> In this he alluded to the Islamic empires. Nor
+        does he approve of Abraham's conduct on the occasion of his coming to
+        Egypt, when he asked Sarah to pass as his sister (Gen. xii.).
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Unintentionally,”</span> Nachmanides says,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Abraham, under the fear of being murdered,
+        committed a great sin when he exposed his virtuous wife to such a
+        temptation. For he ought to have trusted that God would save both him
+        and his wife.... It is on account of this deed that his children had
+        to suffer exile under the rule of Pharaoh. There, where the sin was
+        committed, also the judgment took place.”</span> It is also worth
+        noticing that, in opposition to Maimonides, he allows no apology for
+        the attack of Simeon and Levi on the population of Shechem (Gen.
+        xxxiv. 25). It is true that they were idolaters, immoral, and steeped
+        in every abomination; but Jacob and his sons were not commissioned
+        with executing justice on them. The people of Shechem trusted their
+        word, therefore they ought to have spared them. Hence Jacob's
+        protest, and his curse against their wrath, which would have been
+        quite unjustified had he looked on the action of his sons as a good
+        work.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides these
+        typical meanings, the matters of the Torah have also their symbolical
+        importance, which places them almost above the sphere of human
+        conception; they are neither exactly what they seem to be nor
+        entirely what their name implies, but a reflex from things unseen,
+        which makes any human interference both preposterous and dangerous.
+        Of <span class="tei tei-q">“the things <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">called</span></em>
+        Tree of Life and Tree of Knowledge,”</span> Nachmanides tells us that
+        their mystery is very great, reaching into higher worlds. Otherwise,
+        why <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name=
+        "Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> should God, who is
+        good and the dispenser of good, have prevented Adam from eating the
+        fruit (of the latter), whilst in another place he says: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“And if thou wilt be worthy, and understand the mystery
+        of the word <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Bereshith</span></span><a id=
+        "noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> (with
+        which the Torah begins), thou wilt see that in truth the Scripture,
+        though apparently speaking of matters here below (on earth), is
+        always pointing to things above (heaven);”</span> for <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“every glory and every wonder, and every deep mystery,
+        and all beautiful wisdom are hidden in the Torah, sealed up in her
+        treasures.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is very
+        characteristic of the bent of Nachmanides' mind, that he is perhaps
+        the first Jewish writer who mentions the apocryphal book <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Wisdom of
+        Solomon</span></span>, which he knew from a Syriac version, and which
+        he believed to be genuine. And when we read there (vii. 7-25),
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Wherefore I prayed and understanding was
+        given to me. I called upon God and the spirit of wisdom came upon
+        me.... For God has given me unmistakable knowledge to know how the
+        world was made, and the operations of the planets. The beginning,
+        ending, and midst of the times, the alterations and the turnings of
+        the sun, the changes of the seasons, the natures of the living
+        creatures and the furies of the wild beasts, the force of the spirits
+        and the reasonings of men, the diversities of plants and the virtues
+        of the roots. All such things that are either secret or manifest,
+        them I knew”</span>—the wise king was, according to Nachmanides (who
+        quotes the passages which I have just cited), speaking of the Torah,
+        which is identical with this wisdom, a wisdom which existed before
+        the creation, and by which God planned the world. Hence it bears the
+        impression of all the universe, whilst on the other hand when it is
+        said, <span class="tei tei-q">“The king brought me into his
+        chambers,”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg
+        128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        those secret recesses of the Torah are meant in which all the great
+        mysteries relating to Creation and to the Chariot (Ezekiel i.) are
+        hidden.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must content
+        ourselves with these few sparks struck from the glowing fires of
+        these inner compartments, which, imperfectly luminous as my treatment
+        has left them, may yet shed some light on the personality of
+        Nachmanides, which is the main object of this essay. But I do not
+        propose to accompany the mystic into the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“chambers of the king,”</span> lest we may soon get into
+        a labyrinth of obscure terms and strange ways of thinking for which
+        the Ariadne thread is still wanting. We might also be confronted by
+        the Fifty Gates of Understanding, the Thirty-Two Paths of Wisdom, and
+        the Two Hundred and Thirty-One Permutations or Ciphers of the
+        Alphabet, the key to which I do not hold. It is also questionable
+        whether it would always be worth while to seek for it. When one, for
+        instance, sees such a heaping on of nouns (with some Cabbalists) as
+        the Land of Life, the Land of Promise, the Lord of the World, the
+        Foundation Stone, Zion, Mother, Daughter, Sister, the Congregation of
+        Israel, the Twin Roes, the Bride, Blue, End, Oral Law, Sea, Wisdom,
+        etc., meant to represent the same thing or attribute, and to pass one
+        into another, one cannot possibly help feeling some suspicion that
+        one stands before a conglomerate of words run riot, over which the
+        writer had lost all control.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Indeed Nachmanides
+        himself, in the preface to the above-mentioned Commentary, gives us
+        the kind advice not to meditate, or rather brood, over the mystical
+        hints which are scattered over this work, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“speculation being (in such matters) folly, and reasoning
+        over them fraught <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg
+        129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        with danger.”</span> Indeed, the danger is obvious. I have, to give
+        one or two instances, already alluded to the theory which accepts the
+        Torah or the Wisdom as an agent in the creation of the world. But the
+        mystic pushes further, and asks for the Primal Being to which this
+        Wisdom owes its origin. The answer given is from the great Nothing,
+        as it is written, And the Wisdom shall be found from Nothing.<a id=
+        "noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> What is
+        intended by this, if it means anything, is probably to divest the
+        first cause of every possible quality which by its very qualifying
+        nature must be limiting and exclusive. Hence, God becomes the
+        Unknowable. But suppose a metaphysical Hamlet, who, handling words
+        indelicately, should impetuously exclaim, To be or not to be, that is
+        the question?—into what abyss of utter negations would he drag all
+        those who despair, by his terrible Nothing.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other hand,
+        into what gross anthropomorphisms may we be drawn by roughly handling
+        certain metaphors which some Cabbalists have employed in their
+        struggling after an adequate expression of God's manifestations in
+        His attribute of love, if we forget for a single moment that they are
+        only figures of speech, but liable to get defiled by the slightest
+        touch of an unchaste thought.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the greater
+        the dangers that beset the path of mysticism, the deeper the interest
+        which we feel in the mystic. In connection with the above-mentioned
+        warning, Nachmanides cites the words from the Scriptures,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“But let not the priests and the people break
+        through to come up unto the Lord, lest he break forth upon
+        them”</span> (Exod. xix. 24). Nevertheless, when we read in the
+        Talmud the famous story of the four Rabbis<a id="noteref_94" name=
+        "noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> who went
+        up into the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Pardes</span></span>, or Garden
+        of Mystical Contemplation, we do not <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> withhold our sympathy, either from Ben Azzai,
+        who shot a glance and died, or from Ben Zoma, who shot a glance and
+        was struck (in his mind). Nay, we feel the greatest admiration for
+        these daring spirits, who, in their passionate attempt to
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“break through”</span> the veil before the
+        Infinite, hazarded their lives, and even that which is dearer than
+        life, their minds, for a single glance. And did R. Meir deny his
+        sympathies even to Other One or Elisha ben Abuyah, who <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“cut down the plants”</span>? He is said to have heard a
+        voice from heaven, <span class="tei tei-q">“Return, oh backsliding
+        children, except Other One,”</span> which prevented his repentance.
+        Poor fallen Acher, he mistook hell for heaven. But do not the
+        struggle and despair which led to this unfortunate confusion rather
+        plead for our commiseration?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachmanides,
+        however, in his gentle way, did not mean to storm heaven. Like R.
+        Akiba, <span class="tei tei-q">“he entered in peace, and departed in
+        peace.”</span> And it was by this peacefulness of his nature that he
+        gained an influence over posterity which is equalled only by that of
+        Maimonides. <span class="tei tei-q">“If he was not a profound
+        thinker,”</span> like the author of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of the
+        Perplexed</span></span>, he had that which is next best—<span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“he felt profoundly.”</span> Some writers of a rather
+        reactionary character even went so far as to assign to him a higher
+        place than to Maimonides. This is unjust. What a blank would there
+        have been in Jewish thought but for Maimonides' great work, on which
+        the noblest thinkers of Israel fed for centuries! As long as Job and
+        Ecclesiastes hold their proper place in the Bible, and the Talmud
+        contains hundreds of passages suggesting difficulties relating to
+        such problems as the creation of the world, God's exact relation to
+        it, the origin of evil, free will and predestination, <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> none will persuade me that philosophy
+        does not form an integral part of Jewish tradition, which, in its
+        historical developments, took the shape which Maimonides and his
+        successors gave to it. If Maimonides' <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide</span></span>,
+        which he considered as an interpretation of the Bible and of many
+        strange sayings in the old Rabbinic homilies in the Talmud, is
+        Aristotelian in its tone, so is tradition too; even the Talmud in
+        many places betrays all sorts of foreign influences, and none would
+        think of declaring it un-Jewish on this ground. I may also remark in
+        passing that the certainty with which some writers deprecate the aids
+        which religion may receive from philosophy is a little too hasty. For
+        the question will always remain, What religion? The religion of R.
+        Moses of Tachau or R. Joseph Jabez<a id="noteref_95" name=
+        "noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> would
+        certainly have been greatly endangered by the slightest touch of
+        speculation, while that of Bachya,<a id="noteref_96" name=
+        "noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a>
+        Maimonides, Jedaiah of Bedres, and Delmedigo undoubtedly received
+        from philosophy its noblest support, and became intensified by the
+        union.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But apart from
+        that consideration, the sphere of the activity of these two leaders
+        seems to have been so widely different that it is hardly just to
+        consider them as antagonists, or at least to emphasise the antagonism
+        too much. Maimonides wrote his chief work, the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide</span></span>,
+        for the few elect, who, like Ibn Tibbon<a id="noteref_97" name=
+        "noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> for
+        instance, would traverse whole continents if a single syllogism went
+        wrong. And if he could be of use to one wise man of this stamp,
+        Maimonides would do so at the risk of <span class="tei tei-q">“saying
+        things unsuitable for ten thousand fools.”</span> But with
+        Nachmanides, it would seem, it was these ten thousand who formed the
+        main object of his tender care. They are, as we have seen, cultivated
+        men, indeed <span class="tei tei-q">“students,”</span> having
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132"
+        id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> enjoyed a proper education;
+        but the happy times of abstract thinking have gone, and being under a
+        perpetual strain of persecutions and cares, they long for the Sabbath
+        and Festivals, which would bring them both bodily and spiritual
+        recreation. They find no fault with religion, a false syllogism does
+        not jar on their ears; what they are afraid of is that, being engaged
+        as they are, all the six days of work, in their domestic affairs,
+        religion may be too good a thing for them. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“To appease their minds,”</span> to edify them, to make
+        life more sweet and death less terrible to them, and to show them
+        that even their weaknesses, as far as they are conditioned by nature,
+        are not irreconcilable with a holy life, was what Nachmanides strove
+        after. Now and then he permits them a glance into the mystical world
+        in which he himself loved to move, but he does not care to stifle
+        their senses into an idle contemplation, and passes quickly to some
+        more practical application. To be sure, the tabernacle is nothing but
+        a complete map of the superlunar world; but nevertheless its rather
+        minute description is meant to teach us <span class="tei tei-q">“that
+        God desires us to work.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This tendency
+        toward being useful to the great majority of mankind may account for
+        the want of consistency of which Nachmanides was so often accused. It
+        is only the logician who can afford to be thoroughgoing in his
+        theory, and even he would become most absurd and even dangerous but
+        for the redeeming fact <span class="tei tei-q">“that men are better
+        than their principles.”</span> But with Nachmanides these
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“principles”</span> would have proved even
+        more fatal. Could he, for instance, have upset authority in the face
+        of the ten thousand? They need to be guided rather than to guide. But
+        he does not want them to follow either the Gaon or <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> anybody else slavishly, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the gates of wisdom never having been shut,”</span>
+        whilst on the other hand he hints to them that there is something
+        divine in every man, which places him at least on the same high level
+        with any authority. Take another instance—his wavering attitude
+        between the Maimonists and the Anti-Maimonists, for which he was
+        often censured. Apart from other reasons, to which I have pointed
+        above, might he not have felt that, in spite of his personal
+        admiration for Maimonides' genius, he had no right to put himself
+        entirely on the side where there was little room for the ten thousand
+        who were entrusted to his guidance, whilst the French Rabbis, with
+        all their prejudices and intolerance, would never deny their
+        sympathies to simple emotional folk?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This tender and
+        absorbing care for the people in general may also account for the
+        fact that we do not know of a single treatise by Nachmanides of a
+        purely Cabbalistic character in the style of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
+        Weight</span></span>, by Moses de Leon, or the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orchard</span></span>,
+        by R. Moses Cordovora, or the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Tree of Life</span></span> by R. Isaac
+        Loria.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href=
+        "#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> The
+        story that attributes to him the discovery of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zohar</span></span> in
+        a cave in Palestine, from whence he sent it to Catalonia, needs as
+        little refutation as the other story connected with his conversion to
+        the Cabbalah, which is even more silly and of such a nature as not to
+        bear repetition. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Lilac of Mysteries</span></span><a id=
+        "noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> and
+        other mystical works passed also for a long time under his name, but
+        their claim to this honour has been entirely disproved by the
+        bibliographers, and they rank now among the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">pseudepigraphica</span></span>. It is true that
+        R. Nissim, of Gerona, said of Nachmanides that he was too much
+        addicted to the belief in the Cabbalah, and as a fellow-countryman he
+        may have had some personal <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg
+        134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        knowledge about the matter. But as far as his writings go, this
+        belief finds expression only in incidental remarks and occasional
+        citations from the Bahir,<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href=
+        "#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> which
+        he never thrusts upon the reader. It was chiefly when philosophy
+        called in question his deep sympathies with even lower humanity, and
+        threatened to withdraw them from those ennobling influences under
+        which he wanted to keep them, that he asserted his mystical
+        theories.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachmanides'
+        inconsistency has also proved beneficial in another respect. For
+        mysticism has, by its over-emphasising of the divine in man, shown a
+        strong tendency to remove God altogether and replace Him by the
+        creature of His hands. Witness only the theological bubble of
+        Shabbethai Tsebi—happily it burst quickly enough—which resulted in
+        mere idolatry (in more polite language, Hero Worship) on the one
+        side, and in the grossest antinomianism on the other. Nachmanides,
+        however, with a happy inconsistency, combined with the belief of
+        man's origin in God, a not less strong conviction of man's liability
+        to sin, of the fact that he <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">does</span></em> sin—even the patriarchs were
+        not free from it, as we have seen above—and that this sin <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">does</span></em>
+        alienate man from God. This healthy control over man's extravagant
+        idea of his own species was with Nachmanides also a fruit of the
+        Torah, within the limits of which everything must move, the mystic
+        and his aspirations included, whilst its fair admixture of 365
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Do
+        not's</span></em> with 248 <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Do's</span></em> preserved him from that
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“holy doing nothing”</span> which so many
+        mystics indulged in, and made his a most active life.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much of this
+        activity was displayed in Palestine, <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+        land to which the providence of God is especially attached,”</span>
+        and which was, as with R. Judah Hallevi, always <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“his ideal
+        home.”</span> There he not only completed his <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary on the
+        Pentateuch</span></span>, but also erected synagogues, and engaged in
+        organising communities, whose tone he tried to elevate both by his
+        lectures and by his sermons. His career in Palestine was not a long
+        one, for he lived there only about three years, and in 1270 he must
+        already have been dead. A pretty legend narrates that when he
+        emigrated to Palestine his pupils asked him to give them a sign
+        enabling them to ascertain the day of his death. He answered them
+        that on that day a rift in the shape of a lamp would be seen in the
+        tombstone of his mother. After three years a pupil suddenly noticed
+        this rift, when the mourning over the Rabbi began. Thus, stone, or
+        anything else earthly, breaks finally, and the life of the master
+        passes into light.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What life meant to
+        him, how deeply he was convinced that there is no other life but that
+        originating in God, how deeply stirred his soul was by the
+        consciousness of sin, what agonies the thought of the alienation from
+        God caused him, how he felt that there is nothing left to him but to
+        throw himself upon the mercy of God, and how he rejoiced in the hope
+        of a final reunion with Him—of all these sentiments we find the best
+        expression in the following religious poem, with which this paper may
+        conclude. Nachmanides composed it in Hebrew, and it is still
+        preserved in some rituals as a hymn, recited on the Day of Atonement.
+        It is here given in the English translation of Mrs. Henry
+        Lucas.<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href=
+        "#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Ere time began, ere age to age had
+              thrilled,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">I waited in his storehouse, as he
+              willed;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">He gave me being, but, my years
+              fulfilled,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">I shall be summoned back before
+              the King.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name=
+          "Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">He called the hidden to the light
+              of day,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">To right and left, each side the
+              fountain lay,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">From out the stream and down the
+              steps, the way</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">That led me to the garden of the
+              King.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thou gavest me a light my path to
+              guide,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">To prove my heart's recesses still
+              untried;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">And as I went, thy voice in
+              warning cried:</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">"Child! fear thou him who is thy
+              God and King!"</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">True weight and measure learned my
+              heart from thee;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">If blessings follow, then what joy
+              for me!</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">If nought but sin, all mine the
+              shame must be,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">For that was not determined by the
+              King.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">I hasten, trembling, to confess
+              the whole</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Of my transgressions, ere I reach
+              the goal</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Where mine own words must witness
+              'gainst my soul,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">And who dares doubt the writing of
+              the King?</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Erring, I wandered in the
+              wilderness,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">In passion's grave nigh sinking
+              powerless;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Now deeply I repent, in sore
+              distress,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">That I kept not the statutes of
+              the King!</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">With worldly longings was my bosom
+              fraught,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Earth's idle toys and follies all
+              I sought;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Ah! when he judges joys so dearly
+              bought,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">How greatly shall I fear my Lord
+              and King!</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Now conscience-stricken, humbled
+              to the dust,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Doubting himself, in thee alone
+              his trust,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">He shrinks in terror back, for God
+              is just—</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">How can a sinner hope to reach the
+              King?</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Oh, be thy mercy in the balance
+              laid,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">To hold thy servant's sins more
+              lightly weighed,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">When, his confession penitently
+              made,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">He answers for his guilt before
+              the King.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name=
+          "Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thine is the love, O God, and
+              thine the grace,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">That folds the sinner in its mild
+              embrace;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thine the forgiveness, bridging
+              o'er the space</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">'Twixt man's works and the task
+              set by the King.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Unheeding all my sins, I cling to
+              thee;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">I know that mercy shall thy
+              footstool be:</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Before I call, oh, do thou answer
+              me,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">For nothing dare I claim of thee,
+              my King!</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">O thou, who makest guilt to
+              disappear,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">My help, my hope, my rock, I will
+              not fear;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Though thou the body hold in
+              dungeon drear,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">The soul has found the palace of
+              the King!</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">Postscript</span></span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third letter
+        of Nachmanides to which I have alluded above, is embodied in the
+        following will by R. Solomon, son of the martyr Isaac. Neither the
+        date nor the country of the testator is known, but style and language
+        make it probable that he was a Spanish Jew, and lived in the
+        fourteenth century. I give here a translation from the whole document
+        as it is to be found in the Manuscripts.</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">These are the regulations which I, Solomon, the son
+        of the martyr, Rabbi Isaac, the son of R. Zadok, of blessed memory,
+        draw up for myself. That as long as I am in good health, and free
+        from accident, and think of it, I shall not eat before I have studied
+        one page of the Talmud or of its commentaries. Should I transgress
+        this rule intentionally, I must not drink wine on that day, or I
+        shall pay half a</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><a id=
+        "noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a>
+        <span style="font-size: 90%">to charity. Again, that I shall every
+        week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and once in the
+        Aramaic version. Should I intentionally omit completing the Lesson as
+        above, then I must pay two</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">to charity. Again, that I shall every
+          Sabbath take three meals, consisting of bread or fruit. Should I
+          omit to do so, I must give in charity half a</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span>
+          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name=
+          "Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">Again, in order to subdue my appetites, and not to
+          enjoy in this world more than is necessary for the maintenance of
+          my body, I must not eat at one meal more than one course of meat,
+          and not more than two courses altogether; nor must I drink more
+          than two cups of wine at one meal, apart from the blessing-cup
+          (over which grace is said), except on Sabbath, Festivals, Chanukah
+          (the Maccabean Dedication Feast), New Moon, and at other religious
+          meals (for instance, wedding-dinners and similar festive
+          occasions). Again, I must not have any regular meal on the day
+          preceding Sabbath or Festivals. I must not have during the day more
+          than one course, so that I shall enter upon the holy day with a
+          good appetite. Should I transgress this resolve intentionally I
+          shall have to fast a day, or to pay two</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
+          Again, that I shall not eat the fish called</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">burbot</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span><a id="noteref_103"
+          name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class=
+          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">if I think of it. Again, even on the
+          above-mentioned days, I must not eat more than three courses at a
+          meal, nor drink more than three cups of wine, exclusive of the
+          blessing-cup. Again, ... I must not swear by God, nor mention the
+          name of Heaven without a purpose, nor curse any man in the name of
+          God. Should I, God forbid, transgress it, I must not drink more
+          than one cup of wine on that day exclusive of the blessing-cup.
+          Should I, however, transgress this after dinner, I must abstain
+          from wine the following day. Should I transgress it, I have to pay
+          half a</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
+          Again, that I shall get up every night to praise God, to supplicate
+          for His mercy, and to confess. On those nights when confession is
+          not to be said (Sabbaths and Festivals), I shall say hymns and
+          psalms. This I shall do when I am in my house, and in good health,
+          free from any accident. Should I transgress it, I shall drink not
+          more than one cup of wine the following day, except the
+          blessing-cup. I again take upon myself to give in charity the
+          following proportion of my expenditure—from each dress which I
+          shall have made for myself or for one member of my family, costing
+          more than ten</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
+          I must pay one</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashut</span></span><a id=
+          "noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class=
+          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">for each ten</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
+          Again, if I should buy an animal, or a slave, or a female slave, or
+          ground, that I shall also pay at the same rate. And if I shall buy
+          clothes for sale, called</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">fashas</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
+          I shall pay two</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashuts</span></span>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">for each garment. As often as I have
+          occasion to say the benediction of thanksgivings</span>
+          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name=
+          "Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">for having escaped danger I shall pay a</span>
+          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
+          except when I am travelling [also involving danger in those
+          times!], in which case I shall have to pay a</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">on my arrival, and two</span>
+          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashuts</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">daily
+          during the journey. Again, from every kind of fish bought for me,
+          costing more than a</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
+          I shall pay a</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashut</span></span>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">for each</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
+          And also, if I shall be deemed worthy by God to marry my children,
+          and to be present at their wedding, to cause them to give to the
+          poor from the dowry brought to them by their wives, whether in
+          money or in kind, at the rate of one per cent. If God will find me
+          worthy of having sons, I must give in charity according to my means
+          at the time.</span></p>
+
+          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">I shall also, between New Year and the Day of
+          Atonement in each year, calculate my profits during the past year
+          and (after deducting expenses) give a tithe thereof to the poor.
+          Should I be unable to make an accurate calculation, then I shall
+          give approximately. This tithe I shall put aside, together with the
+          other money for religious (charitable) purpose, to dispose of it as
+          I shall deem best. I also propose to have the liberty of employing
+          the money in any profitable speculation with a view to augmenting
+          it. But in respect of all I have written above I shall not hold
+          myself guilty if I transgress, if such transgression be the result
+          of forgetfulness; but in order to guard against it, I shall read
+          this through weekly.</span></p>
+
+          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">I also command my children to take upon themselves
+          as many of the above regulations as may be in their power to
+          observe, and also to bind them (</span><span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">the regulations), from generation to
+          generation, upon their children. And he who carries them out, and
+          even adds to them, at pain of discomfort to himself, shall merit a
+          special blessing. And this is the text of the will which I, the
+          above-mentioned Solomon, draw up for my children, may God preserve
+          them. That they shall pray thrice daily, and endeavour always to
+          utter their prayers with devotion. Again, that this prayer shall be
+          said in the</span> <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
+          xml:lang="he"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Beth
+          Hammidrash</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, or in the
+          synagogue together with the congregation. Again, that they shall
+          apply all their powers to maintain the synagogues and the houses of
+          study, which our ancestors have built, as well as to continue the
+          endowments established by my ancestors and myself. They must always
+          endeavour</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg
+          140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class=
+          "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">to imitate them,
+          so that goodness shall never cease from among them. Again, that
+          they shall always have a chair on which a volume of the Talmud, or
+          some other Talmudical work, shall lie; so that they shall always
+          open a book when they come home. At least, they shall read in any
+          book they like four lines before taking their meal. Again, that
+          they shall every week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and
+          once in the Aramaic version. Again, to take three meals on the
+          Sabbath....</span></p>
+
+          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">Again, that they shall be always modest, merciful,
+          and charitable, for these are the qualities by which the children
+          of Israel are known. Let also all their thoughts and meditations be
+          always directed to the service of the Lord, and be as charitable
+          and benevolent as possible, for this is all that remains to man of
+          his labour. They shall also endeavour to regulate their diet
+          according to the rules laid down by Rabbi Moses (b. Maimon, or
+          Maimonides), so as to fulfil the words of Scripture:</span>
+          <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The righteous
+          eateth to the satisfying of his soul.</span><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">And
+          let them always be careful not to take the name of God in vain, to
+          be honest in all business transactions, and let their yea be always
+          yea. They shall always be under the obligation to train their
+          children to the Study of the Torah, but one shall devote his life
+          exclusively to the study thereof. And it shall be incumbent upon
+          his brothers to support this one, and to invest his moneys, and to
+          provide for him that he and his family may live respectably, so
+          that he be not distracted by worldly cares from his studies. Let
+          also the elder love the younger brothers as their own children, and
+          the younger respect the elder as a parent. Thus they may always
+          bear in mind that they are of a God-fearing family. Let them love
+          and honour scholars, thus to merit the honour of having scholars
+          for their sons and sons-in-law. This will they shall themselves
+          read weekly, and shall also make it incumbent upon their children,
+          from generation to generation, to read weekly, in order to fulfil
+          what is written (Gen. xviii. 19),</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">For I know him that he will command his
+          children,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">etc., and also the words of Isaiah
+          (lix. 21),</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
+          "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And this is
+          my covenant,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
+          <span style="font-size: 90%">etc. But as often as they shall read
+          this will, they shall also read the two letters below written,
+          which Rabbi Moses ben Nachman sent to his sons, with a view of
+          being serviceable to them in many respects.</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141"
+          class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">Should,
+          heaven forbid, they be by any sad accident prevented from
+          fulfilling the injunctions above laid down, they must fine
+          themselves by not drinking wine on that day, or by eating one
+          course less at the dinner, or by giving some fine in
+          charity....</span></p>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this is the
+        letter which the above-mentioned Rabbi sent from the Holy Land to
+        Castile, when his son was staying before the king (in his
+        service):—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">... May God bless you and preserve you from sin and
+        punishment. Behold, our master, King David, had a son, wise and of an
+        understanding heart, like unto whom there was never one before or
+        after. Nevertheless he said to him (1 Kings ii. 2):</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And keep the
+        charge of the Lord thy God,</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">etc. He
+        also said to him:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And thou, my
+        son, know the God of thy father</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(1
+        Chron. xxviii. 9). Now, my son, if thou wilt measure thyself with
+        Solomon, thou wilt find thyself a worm—not a man, merely an insect;
+        nevertheless, if thou wilt seek God, he will make thee great; and if
+        thou wilt forsake him, thou wilt be turned out and forsaken. My son,
+        be careful that thou read the</span> <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Shema</span></span><a id=
+        "noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a>
+        <span style="font-size: 90%">morning and evening, as well as that
+        thou say the daily prayers. Have always with thee a Pentateuch
+        written correctly, and read therein the Lesson for each
+        Sabbath....</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Cast thy burden
+        upon the Lord,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span>
+        <span style="font-size: 90%">for the thing which thou believest far
+        from thee is often very near unto thee. Know, again, that thou art
+        not master over thy words, nor hast power over thy hand; but
+        everything is in the hand of the Lord, who formeth thy heart.... Be
+        especially careful to keep aloof from the women [of the court?]. Know
+        that our God hates immorality, and Balaam could in no other way
+        injure Israel than by inciting them to unchastity. [Here come many
+        quotations from Malachi and Ezra.]... My son, remember me always, and
+        let the image of my countenance be never absent from before thine
+        eyes. Love not that which I hate.... Let the words of the Psalmist be
+        always upon thy lips,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am a stranger
+        in the earth: hide not thy commandments from me</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(Ps.
+        cxix. 19); and God, who is good and the dispenser of good, shall
+        increase thy peace and prolong thy life in peace and happiness, and
+        promote thy honour according to thy wish and the wish of thy father
+        who begat thee, Moses ben Nachman.</span><span style=
+        "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
+        </div>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name=
+      "Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">V. A Jewish Boswell</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is a saying
+        in the Talmud <span class="tei tei-q">“Nothing exists of which there
+        is not some indication in the Torah.”</span> These words are often
+        quoted, and some modern authors have pressed them so far as to find
+        even the discoveries of Columbus and the inventions of Watt and
+        Stephenson indicated in the Law. This is certainly misapplied
+        ingenuity. But it is hardly an exaggeration to maintain that there is
+        no noble manifestation of real religion, no expression of real piety,
+        reverence, and devotion, to which Jewish literature would not offer a
+        fair parallel.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it will
+        hardly be astonishing to hear that Jewish literature has its Boswell
+        to show, more than three centuries before the Scottish gentleman came
+        to London to admire his Johnson, and more than four centuries before
+        the Sage of Chelsea delivered his lectures on Hero Worship. And this
+        Jewish Boswell was guided only by the motives suggested to him in the
+        old Rabbinic literature. In this literature the reverence for the
+        great man, and the absorption of one's whole self in him, went so far
+        that one Rabbi declared that the whole world was only created to
+        serve such a man as company.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106"
+        href="#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the fact
+        that, in the language of the Rabbis, the term for studying the Law
+        and discussing it is <span class="tei tei-q">“to <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> attend”</span> or rather <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“to serve the disciples of the Wise”</span> may also have
+        led people to the important truth that the great man is not a
+        lecturing machine, but a sort of living Law himself. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“When the man,”</span> said one Rabbi, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“has wholly devoted himself to the Torah, and thoroughly
+        identified himself with it, it becomes almost his own Torah.”</span>
+        Thus people have not only to listen to his words but to observe his
+        whole life, and to profit from all his actions and movements.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was what the
+        Jewish Boswell sought to do. His name was Rabbi Solomon, of St. Goar,
+        a small town on the Rhine, while the name of the master whom he
+        served was R. Jacob, the Levite, better known by his initials
+        Maharil, who filled the office of Chief Rabbi in Mayence and Worms
+        successively. The main activity of Maharil falls in the first three
+        decades of the fifteenth century. Those were troublous times for a
+        Rabbi. For the preceding century with its persecution and
+        sufferings—one has only to think of the Black Death and its terrible
+        consequences for the Jews—led to the destruction of the great
+        Schools, the decay of the study of the Law, and to the dissolution of
+        many congregations. Those which remained lost all touch with each
+        other, so that almost every larger Jewish community had its own
+        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Minhag</span></span> or ritual custom.<a id=
+        "noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was Maharil who
+        brought some order into this chaos, and in the course of time his
+        influence asserted itself so strongly that the rules observed by him
+        in the performing of religious ceremonies were accepted by the great
+        majority of the Jewish communities. Thus the personality of Maharil
+        himself became a standing Minhag, suppressing all the other Minhagim
+        (customs).</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg
+        144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there must
+        have been something very strong and very great about the personality
+        of the man who could succeed in such an arduous task. For we must not
+        forget that the Minhag or custom in its decay degenerates into a kind
+        of religious fashion, the worst disease to which religion is liable,
+        and the most difficult to cure. It is therefore an irreparable loss
+        both for Jewish literature and for Jewish history, that the greatest
+        part of Maharil's posthumous writings are no longer extant, so that
+        our knowledge about him is very small. But the little we know of him
+        we owe chiefly to the communicativeness of his servant, the Solomon
+        of St. Goar whom I mentioned above.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Solomon not only
+        gave us the <span class="tei tei-q">“Customs”</span> of his master,
+        but also observed him closely in all his movements, and
+        conscientiously wrote down all that he saw and heard, under the name
+        of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span>. It seems that the
+        bulk of these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span> was also lost. But in
+        the fragments that we still possess we are informed, among other
+        things, how Maharil addressed his wife, how he treated his pupils,
+        how careful he was in the use of his books, and even how clean his
+        linen was. Is this not out-Boswelling Boswell?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most striking
+        point of agreement between the Boswell of the fifteenth and him of
+        the eighteenth century, is that they both use the same passage from
+        the Talmud to excuse the interest in trifles which their labours of
+        love betrayed. Thus Solomon prefaces his <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span> with the following
+        words: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is written, His leaf shall not
+        wither. These words were explained by our Sages to mean that even the
+        idle talk of the disciples of the wise deserves a study. Upon this
+        interpretation I have relied. In my love to R. Jacob the Levite, I
+        collected everything about him. I did not refuse even small things,
+        though many <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg
+        145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        derided me. Everything I wrote down, for such was the desire of my
+        heart.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far Solomon.
+        Now, if we turn to the introduction to Boswell's <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of
+        Johnson</span></span>, we read the following sentence: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“For this almost superstitious reverence, I have found
+        very old and venerable authority quoted by our great modern prelate,
+        Secker, in whose tenth sermon there is the following passage:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘Rabbi Kimchi, a noted Jewish commentator who
+        lived about five hundred years ago, explains that passage in the
+        first Psalm, <span class="tei tei-q">“His leaf also shall not
+        wither”</span> from Rabbins yet older than himself, that even the
+        idle talk, so he expressed it, of a good man ought to be
+        regarded.’</span> ”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Croker's note to
+        this passage sounds rather strange. This editor says: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Kimchi was a Spanish Rabbi, who died in 1240. One
+        wonders that Secker's good sense should have condescended to quote
+        this far-fetched and futile interpretation of the simple and
+        beautiful metaphor, by which the Psalmist illustrates the prosperity
+        of the righteous man.”</span> Now Kimchi died at least five years
+        earlier than Croker states, but dates, we know from Macaulay's essay
+        on the subject, were not Croker's strong point. But one can hardly
+        forgive the editor of Boswell this lack of sympathy. Had he known
+        what strong affinity there was between his most Christian author and
+        the humble Jew Solomon, he would have less resented this
+        condescension of Archbishop Secker.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As for the Jewish
+        Boswell himself, we know very little about him. The only place in
+        which he speaks about his own person is that in which he derives his
+        pedigree from R. Eleazar ben Samuel Hallevi (died 1357), and says
+        that he was generally called <span class="tei tei-q">“Der gute (the
+        good) R. Salman.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg
+        146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> He
+        well deserved this appellation. In his Will we find the following
+        injunction to his children: <span class="tei tei-q">“Be honest, and
+        conscientious in your dealing with men, with Jews as well as
+        Gentiles, be kind and obliging to them; do not speak what is
+        superfluous.”</span> And wisdom is surely rare enough to render
+        inappropriate a charge of superfluousness against the work of those
+        who in bygone times spent their energies in gathering the crumbs that
+        fell from the tables of the wise.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name=
+      "Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The object of this
+        essay is to say about the dogmas of Judaism a word which I think
+        ought not to be left unsaid.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In speaking of
+        dogmas it must be understood that Judaism does not ascribe to them
+        any saving power. The belief in a dogma or a doctrine without abiding
+        by its real or supposed consequences (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> the
+        belief in <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">creatio ex nihilo</span></span>
+        without keeping the Sabbath) is of no value. And the question about
+        certain doctrines is not whether they possess or do not possess the
+        desired charm against certain diseases of the soul, but whether they
+        ought to be considered as characteristics of Judaism or not.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must again be
+        premised that the subject, which occupied the thoughts of the
+        greatest and noblest Jewish minds for so many centuries, has been
+        neglected for a comparatively long time. And this for various
+        reasons. First, there is Mendelssohn's assertion, or supposed
+        assertion, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Jerusalem</span></span>, that Judaism has no
+        dogmas—an assertion which has been accepted by the majority of modern
+        Jewish theologians as the only dogma Judaism possesses. You can hear
+        it pronounced in scores of Jewish pulpits; you can read it written in
+        scores of Jewish books. To admit the possibility that Mendelssohn was
+        in error was hardly permissible, especially for those with
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148"
+        id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> whom he enjoys a certain
+        infallibility. Nay, even the fact that he himself was not consistent
+        in his theory, and on another occasion declared that Judaism
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">has</span></em> dogmas, only that they are purer
+        and more in harmony with reason than those of other religions; or
+        even the more important fact that he published a school-book for
+        children, in which the so-called Thirteen Articles were embodied,
+        only that instead of the formula <span class="tei tei-q">“I
+        believe,”</span> he substituted <span class="tei tei-q">“I am
+        convinced,”</span>—even such patent facts did not produce much effect
+        upon many of our modern theologians.<a id="noteref_108" name=
+        "noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> They
+        were either overlooked or explained away so as to make them harmonise
+        with the great dogma of dogmalessness. For it is one of the
+        attributes of infallibility that the words of its happy possessor
+        must always be reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the
+        unbeliever as gross contradictions.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another cause of
+        the neglect into which the subject has fallen is that our century is
+        an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">historical</span></em> one. It is not only books
+        that have their fate, but also whole sciences and literatures. In
+        past times it was religious speculation that formed the favourite
+        study of scholars, in our time it is history with its critical
+        foundation on a sound philology. Now as these two most important
+        branches of Jewish science were so long neglected—were perhaps never
+        cultivated in the true meaning of the word, and as Jewish literature
+        is so vast and Jewish history so far-reaching and eventful, we cannot
+        wonder that these studies have absorbed the time and the labour of
+        the greatest and best Jewish writers in this century.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is, besides,
+        a certain tendency in historical studies that is hostile to mere
+        theological speculation. The historian deals with realities, the
+        theologian with abstractions. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> The latter likes to shape the universe after
+        his system, and tells us how things <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ought to
+        be</span></em>, the former teaches us how they <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">are</span></em> or
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">have
+        been</span></em>, and the explanation he gives for their being so and
+        not otherwise includes in most cases also a kind of justification for
+        their existence. There is also the <span lang="la" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">odium theologicum</span></span>, which has been
+        the cause of so much misfortune that it is hated by the historian,
+        whilst the superficial, rationalistic way in which the theologian
+        manages to explain everything which does not suit his system is most
+        repulsive to the critical spirit.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it cannot be
+        denied that this neglect has caused much confusion. Especially is
+        this noticeable in England, which is essentially a theological
+        country, and where people are but little prone to give up speculation
+        about things which concern their most sacred interest and greatest
+        happiness. Thus whilst we are exceedingly poor in all other branches
+        of Jewish learning, we are comparatively rich in productions of a
+        theological character. We have a superfluity of essays on such
+        delicate subjects as eternal punishment, immortality of the soul, the
+        day of judgment, etc., and many treatises on the definition of
+        Judaism. But knowing little or nothing of the progress recently made
+        in Jewish theology, of the many protests against all kinds of
+        infallibility, whether canonised in this century or in olden times,
+        we in England still maintain that Judaism has no dogmas as if nothing
+        to the contrary had ever been said. We seek the foundation of Judaism
+        in political economy, in hygiene, in everything except religion.
+        Following the fashion of the day to esteem religion in proportion to
+        its ability to adapt itself to every possible and impossible
+        metaphysical and social system, we are <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> anxious to squeeze out of Judaism the last drop
+        of faith and hope, and strive to make it so flexible that we can turn
+        it in every direction which it is our pleasure to follow. But alas!
+        the flexibility has progressed so far as to classify Judaism among
+        the invertebrate species, the lowest order of living things. It
+        strongly resembles a certain Christian school which addresses itself
+        to the world in general and claims to satisfy everybody alike. It
+        claims to be socialism for the adherents of Karl Marx and Lassalle,
+        worship of man for the followers of Comte and St. Simon; it carefully
+        avoids the word <span class="tei tei-q">“God”</span> for the comfort
+        of agnostics and sceptics, whilst on the other hand it pretends to
+        hold sway over paradise, hell, and immortality for the edification of
+        believers. In such illusions many of our theologians delight. For
+        illusions they are; you cannot be everything if you want to be
+        anything. Moreover, illusions in themselves are bad enough, but we
+        are menaced with what is still worse. Judaism, divested of every
+        higher religious motive, is in danger of falling into gross
+        materialism. For what else is the meaning of such declarations as
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Believe what you like, but conform to this
+        or that mode of life”</span>; what else does it mean but <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“We cannot expect you to believe that the things you are
+        bidden to do are commanded by a higher authority; there is not such a
+        thing as belief, but you ought to do them for conventionalism or for
+        your own convenience.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But both these
+        motives—the good opinion of our neighbours, as well as our bodily
+        health—have nothing to do with our nobler and higher sentiments, and
+        degrade Judaism to a matter of expediency or diplomacy. Indeed,
+        things have advanced so far that well-meaning but ill-advised writers
+        even think to render a service to Judaism <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> by declaring it to be a kind of enlightened
+        Hedonism, or rather a moderate Epicureanism.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have no
+        intention of here answering the question, What is Judaism? This
+        question is not less perplexing than the problem, What is God's
+        world? Judaism is also a great Infinite, composed of as many endless
+        Units, the Jews. And these Unit-Jews have been, and are still,
+        scattered through all the world, and have passed under an immensity
+        of influences, good and bad. If so, how can we give an exact
+        definition of the Infinite, called Judaism?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if there is
+        anything sure, it is that the highest motives which worked through
+        the history of Judaism are the strong belief in God and the unshaken
+        confidence that at last this God, the God of Israel, will be the God
+        of the whole world; or, in other words, Faith and Hope are the two
+        most prominent characteristics of Judaism.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the following
+        pages I shall try to give a short account of the manner in which
+        these two principles of Judaism found expression, from the earliest
+        times down to the age of Mendelssohn; that is, to present an outline
+        of the history of Jewish Dogmas. First, a few observations on the
+        position of the Bible and the Talmud in relation to our theme.
+        Insufficient and poor as they may be in proportion to the importance
+        of these two fundamental documents of Judaism, these remarks may
+        nevertheless suggest a connecting link between the teachings of
+        Jewish antiquity and those of Maimonides and his successors.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I begin with the
+        Scriptures.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Bible itself
+        hardly contains a command bidding us <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to
+        believe</span></em>. We are hardly ordered, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span>, to
+        believe in the existence of God. I say hardly, but I do not
+        altogether deny the existence of such a command. It is true that we
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152"
+        id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> do not find in the Scripture
+        such words as: <span class="tei tei-q">“You are commanded to believe
+        in the existence of God.”</span> Nor is any punishment assigned as
+        awaiting him who denies it. Notwithstanding these facts, many Jewish
+        authorities—among them such important men as Maimonides, R. Judah
+        Hallevi, Nachmanides—perceive, in the first words of the Ten
+        Commandments, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the Lord thy God,”</span>
+        the command to believe in His existence.<a id="noteref_109" name=
+        "noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Be this as it may,
+        there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that the Bible, in which every
+        command is dictated by God, and in which all its heroes are the
+        servants, the friends, or the ambassadors of God, presumes such a
+        belief in every one to whom those laws are dictated, and these heroes
+        address themselves. Nay, I think that the word <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“belief”</span> is not even adequate. In a world with so
+        many visible facts and invisible causes, as life and death, growth
+        and decay, light and darkness; in a world where the sun rises and
+        sets; where the stars appear regularly; where heavy rains pour down
+        from the sky, often accompanied by such grand phenomena as thunder
+        and lightning; in a world full of such marvels, but into which no
+        notion has entered of all our modern true or false explanations—who
+        but God is behind all these things? <span class="tei tei-q">“Have the
+        gates,”</span> asks God, <span class="tei tei-q">“have the gates of
+        death been open to thee? or hast thou seen the doors of the shadow of
+        death?... Where is the way where light dwelleth? and as for darkness,
+        where is the place thereof?... Hath the rain a father? or who hath
+        begotten the drops of dew?... Canst thou bind the sweet influences of
+        Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?... Canst thou send lightnings,
+        that they may go, and say unto thee, Here we are?”</span> (Job
+        xxxviii.). Of all these wonders, God <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> was not merely the <span lang="la" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">prima causa</span></span>; they were the result
+        of His direct action, without any intermediary causes. And it is as
+        absurd to say that the ancient world believed in God, as for a future
+        historian to assert of the nineteenth century that it believed in the
+        effects of electricity. We <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">see</span></em> them, and so antiquity
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">saw</span></em> God. If there was any danger, it
+        lay not in the denial of the existence of a God, but in having a
+        wrong belief. Belief in as many gods as there are manifestations in
+        nature, the investing of them with false attributes, the
+        misunderstanding of God's relation to men, lead to immorality. Thus
+        the greater part of the laws and teachings of the Bible are either
+        directed against polytheism, with all its low ideas of God, or rather
+        of gods; or they are directed towards regulating God's relation to
+        men. Man is a servant of God, or His prophet, or even His friend. But
+        this relationship man obtains only by his conduct. Nay, all man's
+        actions are carefully regulated by God, and connected with His
+        holiness. The 19th chapter of Leviticus, which is considered by the
+        Rabbis as the portion of the Law in which the most important articles
+        of the Torah are embodied, is headed, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ye
+        shall be holy, for I the Lord your own God am holy.”</span> And each
+        law therein occurring, even those which concern our relations to each
+        other, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> founded on utilitarian reasons,
+        but is ordained because the opposite of it is an offence to the
+        holiness of God, and profanes His creatures, whom He desired to be as
+        holy as He is.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href=
+        "#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the whole
+        structure of the Bible is built upon the visible fact of the
+        existence of a God, and upon the belief in the relation of God to
+        men, especially to Israel. In spite of all that has been said to the
+        contrary, the Bible <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">does</span></em> lay stress upon belief, where
+        belief is required. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg
+        154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        unbelievers are rebuked again and again. <span class="tei tei-q">“For
+        all this they sinned still, and believed not for His wondrous
+        work,”</span> complains Asaph (Ps. lxxviii. 32). And belief is
+        praised in such exalted words as, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus saith
+        the Lord, I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of
+        thine espousals, when thou wentest after me in the wilderness, in a
+        land that was not sown”</span> (Jer. ii. 2). The Bible, especially
+        the books of the prophets, consists, in great part, of promises for
+        the future, which the Rabbis justly termed the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Consolations.”</span><a id="noteref_111" name=
+        "noteref_111" href="#note_111"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> For our
+        purpose, it is of no great consequence to examine what future the
+        prophets had in view, whether an immediate future or one more remote,
+        at the end of days. At any rate, they inculcated hope and confidence
+        that God would bring to pass a better time. I think that even the
+        most advanced Bible critic—provided he is not guided by some modern
+        Aryan reasons—must perceive in such passages as, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The Lord shall reign for ever and ever,”</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord shall rejoice in his works,”</span>
+        and many others, a hope for more than the establishment of the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“national Deity among his votaries in
+        Palestine.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have now to
+        pass over an interval of many centuries, the length of which depends
+        upon the views held as to the date of the close of the canon, and
+        examine what the Rabbis, the representatives of the prophets, thought
+        on this subject. Not that the views of the author of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wisdom of
+        Solomon</span></span>, of Philo and Aristobulus, and many others of
+        the Judæo-Alexandrian school would be uninteresting for us. But
+        somehow their influence on Judaism was only a passing one, and their
+        doctrines never became authoritative in the Synagogue. We must here
+        confine ourselves to those who, even by the <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> testimony of their bitterest enemies, occupied
+        the seat of Moses.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The successors of
+        the prophets had to deal with new circumstances, and accordingly
+        their teachings were adapted to the wants of their times. As the
+        result of manifold foreign influences, the visible fact of the
+        existence of God as manifested in the Bible had been somewhat
+        obscured. Prophecy ceased, and the Holy Spirit which inspired a few
+        chosen ones took its place. Afterwards this influence was reduced to
+        the hearing of a Voice from Heaven, which was audible to still fewer.
+        On the other hand the Rabbis had this advantage that they were not
+        called upon to fight against idolatry as their predecessors the
+        prophets had been. The evil inclination to worship idols was, as the
+        Talmud expresses it allegorically, killed by the Men of the Great
+        Synagogue, or, as we should put it, it was suppressed by the
+        sufferings of the captivity in Babylon. This change of circumstances
+        is marked by the following fact:—Whilst the prophets mostly
+        considered idolatry as the cause of all sin, the Rabbis show a strong
+        tendency to ascribe sin to a defect in, or a want of, belief on the
+        part of the sinner. They teach that Adam would not have sinned unless
+        he had first denied the <span class="tei tei-q">“Root of all”</span>
+        (or the main principle), namely, the belief in the Omnipresence of
+        God. Of Cain they say that before murdering his brother he declared:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“There is no judgment, there is no judge,
+        there is no world to come, and there is no reward for the just, and
+        no punishment for the wicked.”</span><a id="noteref_112" name=
+        "noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In another place
+        we read that the commission of a sin in secret is an impertinent
+        attempt by the doer to oust God from the world. But if unbelief is
+        considered as <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg
+        156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
+        root of all evil, we may expect that the reverse of it, a perfect
+        faith, would be praised in the most exalted terms. So we read: Faith
+        is so great that the man who possesses it may hope to become a worthy
+        vessel of the Holy Spirit, or, as we should express it, that he may
+        hope to obtain by this power the highest degree of communion with his
+        Maker. The Patriarch Abraham, notwithstanding all his other virtues,
+        only became <span class="tei tei-q">“the possessor of both
+        worlds”</span> by the merit of his strong faith. Nay, even the
+        fulfilment of a single law when accompanied by true faith is,
+        according to the Rabbis, sufficient to bring man nigh to God. And the
+        future redemption is also conditional on the degree of faith shown by
+        Israel.<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href=
+        "#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has often been
+        asked what the Rabbis would have thought of a man who fulfils every
+        commandment of the Torah, but does not believe that this Torah was
+        given by God, or that there exists a God at all. It is indeed very
+        difficult to answer this question with any degree of certainty. In
+        the time of the Rabbis people were still too simple for such a
+        diplomatic religion, and conformity in the modern sense was quite an
+        unknown thing. But from the foregoing remarks it would seem that the
+        Rabbis could not conceive such a monstrosity as atheistic orthodoxy.
+        For, as we have seen, the Rabbis thought that unbelief must needs end
+        in sin, for faith is the origin of all good. Accordingly, in the case
+        just supposed they would have either suspected the man's orthodoxy,
+        or would have denied that his views were really what he professed
+        them to be.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still more
+        important than the above cited Agadic passages is one which we are
+        about to quote from the tractate Sanhedrin. This tractate deals with
+        the constitution, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg
+        157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
+        the supreme law-court, the examination of the witnesses, the
+        functions of the judges, and the different punishment to be inflicted
+        on the transgressors of the law. After having enumerated various
+        kinds of capital punishment, the Mishnah adds the following words:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“These are (the men) who are excluded from
+        the life to come: He who says there is no resurrection from death; he
+        who says there is no Torah given from heaven, and the
+        Epikurus.”</span><a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href=
+        "#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> This
+        passage was considered by the Rabbis of the Middle Ages, as well as
+        by modern scholars, the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
+        xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">locus
+        classicus</span></span> for the dogma question. There are many
+        passages in the Rabbinic literature which exclude man from the world
+        to come for this or that sin. But these are more or less of an Agadic
+        (legendary) character, and thus lend themselves to exaggeration and
+        hyperbolic language. They cannot, therefore, be considered as serious
+        legal dicta, or as the general opinion of the Rabbis.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Mishnah in
+        Sanhedrin, however, has, if only by its position in a legal tractate,
+        a certain <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Halachic</span></span> (obligatory) character.
+        And the fact that so early an authority as R. Akiba made additions to
+        it guarantees its high antiquity. The first two sentences of this
+        Mishnah are clear enough. In modern language, and positively
+        speaking, they would represent articles of belief in Resurrection and
+        Revelation. Great difficulty is found in defining what was meant by
+        the word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Epikurus</span></span>. The authorities of the
+        Middle Ages, to whom I shall again have to refer, explain the
+        Epikurus to be a man who denies the belief in reward and punishment;
+        others identify him with one who denies the belief in Providence;
+        while others again consider the Epikurus to be one who denies
+        Tradition. But the parallel <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg
+        158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        passages in which it occurs incline one rather to think that this
+        word cannot be defined by one kind of heresy. It implies rather a
+        frivolous treatment of the words of Scripture or of Tradition. In the
+        case of the latter (Tradition) it is certainly not honest difference
+        of opinion that is condemned; for the Rabbis themselves differed very
+        often from each other, and even Mediæval authorities did not feel any
+        compunction about explaining Scripture in variance with the Rabbinic
+        interpretation, and sometimes they even went so far as to declare
+        that the view of this or that great authority was only to be
+        considered as an isolated opinion not deserving particular attention.
+        What they did blame was, as already said, scoffing and impiety. We
+        may thus safely assert that reverence for the teachers of Israel
+        formed the third essential principle of Judaism.<a id="noteref_115"
+        name="noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have still to
+        remark that there occur in the Talmud such passages as <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the Jew, even if he has sinned, is still a Jew,”</span>
+        or <span class="tei tei-q">“He who denies idolatry is called a
+        Jew.”</span> These and similar passages have been used to prove that
+        Judaism was not a positive religion, but only involved the negation
+        of idolatry. But it has been overlooked that the statements quoted
+        have more a legal than a theological character. The Jew belonged to
+        his nationality even after having committed the greatest sin, just as
+        the Englishman does not cease to be an Englishman—in regard to
+        treason and the like—by having committed a heinous crime. But he has
+        certainly acted in a very un-English way, and having outraged the
+        feelings of the whole nation will have to suffer for his misconduct.
+        The Rabbis in a similar manner did not maintain that he who gave up
+        the belief in Revelation and Resurrection, and treated irreverently
+        the teachers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg
+        159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
+        Israel, severed his connection with the Jewish nation, but that, for
+        his crime, he was going to suffer the heaviest punishment. He was to
+        be excluded from the world to come.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, important
+        as is the passage quoted from Sanhedrin, it would be erroneous to
+        think that it exhausted the creed of the Rabbis. The liturgy and
+        innumerable passages in the Midrashim show that they ardently clung
+        to the belief in the advent of the Messiah. All their hope was turned
+        to the future redemption and the final establishment of the Kingdom
+        of Heaven on earth. Judaism, stripped of this belief, would have been
+        for them devoid of meaning. The belief in reward and punishment is
+        also repeated again and again in the old Rabbinic literature. A more
+        emphatic declaration of the belief in Providence than is conveyed by
+        the following passages is hardly conceivable. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Everything is foreseen, and free will is given. And the
+        world is judged by grace.”</span> Or, <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+        born are to die, and the dead to revive, and the living to be judged.
+        For to know and to notify, and that it may be known that He (God) is
+        the Framer and He the Creator, and He the Discerner, and He the
+        Judge, and He the Witness,”</span> etc.<a id="noteref_116" name=
+        "noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it must not be
+        forgotten that it was not the habit of the Rabbis to lay down, either
+        for conduct or for doctrine, rules which were commonly known. When
+        they urged the three points stated above there must have been some
+        historical reason for it. Probably these principles were controverted
+        by some heretics. Indeed, the whole tone of the passage cited from
+        Sanhedrin is a protest against certain unbelievers who are threatened
+        with punishment. Other beliefs, not less essential, but less
+        disputed, remain <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg
+        160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        unmentioned, because there was no necessity to assert them.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not till a
+        much later time, when the Jews came into closer contact with new
+        philosophical schools, and also new creeds which were more liable
+        than heathenism was to be confused with Judaism, that this necessity
+        was felt. And thus we are led at once to the period when the Jews
+        became acquainted with the teachings of the Mohammedan schools. The
+        Caraites came very early into contact with non-Jewish systems. And so
+        we find that they were also the first to formulate Jewish dogmas in a
+        fixed number, and in a systematic order. It is also possible that
+        their separation from the Tradition, and their early division into
+        little sects among themselves, compelled them to take this step, in
+        order to avoid further sectarianism.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The number of
+        their dogmas amounts to ten. According to Judah Hadasi (1150), who
+        would appear to have derived them from his predecessors, their dogmas
+        include the following articles:—1. <span lang="la" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>; 2. The
+        existence of a Creator, God; 3. This God is an absolute unity as well
+        as incorporeal; 4. Moses and the other prophets were sent by God; 5.
+        God has given to us the Torah, which is true and complete in every
+        respect, not wanting the addition of the so-called Oral Law; 6. The
+        Torah must be studied by every Jew in the original (Hebrew) language;
+        7. The Holy Temple was a place elected by God for His manifestation;
+        8. Resurrection of the dead; 9. Punishment and reward after death;
+        10. The Coming of the Messiah, the son of David.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How far the
+        predecessors of Hadasi were influenced by a certain Joseph Albashir
+        (about 950), of whom there exists a manuscript work, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Rudiments of Faith,”</span> I am unable to <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> say. The little we know of him reveals
+        more of his intimacy with Arabic thoughts than of his importance for
+        his sect in particular and for Judaism in general. After Hadasi I
+        shall mention here Elijah Bashazi, a Caraite writer of the end of the
+        fifteenth century. This author, who was much influenced by
+        Maimonides, omits the second and the seventh articles. In order to
+        make up the ten he numbers the belief in the eternity of God as an
+        article, and divides the fourth article into two. In the fifth
+        article Bashazi does not emphasise so strongly the completeness of
+        the Torah as Hadasi, and omits the portion which is directed against
+        Tradition. It is interesting to see the distinction which Bashazi
+        draws between the Pentateuch and the Prophets. While he thinks that
+        the five books of Moses can never be altered, he regards the words of
+        the Prophets as only relating to their contemporaries, and thus
+        subject to changes. As I do not want to anticipate Maimonides'
+        system, I must refrain from giving here the articles laid down by
+        Solomon Troki in the beginning of the eighteenth century. For the
+        articles of Maimonides are copied by this writer with a few slight
+        alterations so as to dress them in a Caraite garb.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I must dismiss the
+        Caraites with these few remarks, my object being chiefly to discuss
+        the dogmas of the Synagogue from which they had separated themselves.
+        Besides, as in everything Caraitic, there is no further development
+        of the question. As Bashazi laid them down, they are still taught by
+        the Caraites of to-day. I return to the Rabbanites.<a id=
+        "noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As is well known,
+        Maimonides (1130-1205), was the first Rabbanite who formulated the
+        dogmas of the Synagogue. But there are indications of earlier
+        attempts. R. Saadiah <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg
+        162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Gaon's (892-942) work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Creeds and Opinions</span></span>, shows such
+        traces. He says in his preface, <span class="tei tei-q">“My heart
+        sickens to see that the belief of my co-religionists is impure and
+        that their theological views are confused.”</span> The subjects he
+        treats in this book, such as creation, unity of God, resurrection of
+        the dead, the future redemption of Israel, reward and punishment, and
+        other kindred theological subjects might thus, perhaps, be considered
+        as the essentials of the creed that the Gaon desired to present in a
+        pure and rational form. R. Hannaneel, of Kairowan,<a id="noteref_118"
+        name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> in the
+        first half of the eleventh century, says in one of his commentaries
+        that to deserve eternal life one must believe in <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">four</span></em>
+        things: in God, in the prophets, in a future world where the just
+        will be rewarded, and in the advent of the Redeemer. From R. Judah
+        Hallevi's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Cusari</span></span>, written in the beginning
+        of the twelfth century, we might argue that the belief in the
+        election of Israel by God was the cardinal dogma of the author.<a id=
+        "noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> Abraham
+        Ibn Daud, a contemporary of Maimonides, in his book <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The High
+        Belief</span></span>,<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href=
+        "#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> speaks
+        of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">rudiments</span></em>, among which, besides such
+        metaphysical principles as unity, rational conception of God's
+        attributes, etc., the belief in the immutability of the Law, etc., is
+        included. Still, all these works are intended to furnish evidence
+        from philosophy or history for the truth of religion rather than to
+        give a definition of this truth. The latter task was undertaken by
+        Maimonides.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I refer to the
+        thirteen articles embodied in his first work, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Commentary to the
+        Mishnah</span></span>. They are appended to the Mishnah in Sanhedrin,
+        with which I dealt above. But though they do not form an independent
+        treatise, Maimonides' remarks must not be considered as merely
+        incidental.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg
+        163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That Maimonides
+        was quite conscious of the importance of this exposition can be
+        gathered from the concluding words addressed to the reader:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Know these (words) and repeat them many
+        times, and think them over in the proper way. God knows that thou
+        wouldst be deceiving thyself if thou thinkest thou hast understood
+        them by having read them once or even ten times. Be not, therefore,
+        hasty in perusing them. I have not composed them without deep study
+        and earnest reflection.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of this
+        deep study was that the following Thirteen Articles constitute the
+        creed of Judaism. They are:—</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. The belief in
+        the existence of a Creator; 2. The belief in His Unity; 3. The belief
+        in His Incorporeality; 4. The belief in His Eternity; 5. The belief
+        that all worship and adoration are due to Him alone; 6. The belief in
+        Prophecy; 7. The belief that Moses was the greatest of all Prophets,
+        both before and after him; 8. The belief that the Torah was revealed
+        to Moses on Mount Sinai; 9. The belief in the Immutability of this
+        revealed Torah; 10. The belief that God knows the actions of men; 11.
+        The belief in Reward and Punishment; 12. The belief in the coming of
+        the Messiah; 13. The belief in the Resurrection of the dead.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The impulse given
+        by the great philosopher and still greater Jew was eagerly followed
+        by succeeding generations, and Judaism thus came into possession of a
+        dogmatic literature such as it never knew before Maimonides.
+        Maimonides is the centre of this literature, and I shall accordingly
+        speak in the remainder of this essay of Maimonists and
+        Anti-Maimonists. These terms really apply to the great controversy
+        that raged round Maimonides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Guide of</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">the
+        Perplexed</span></span>, but I shall, chiefly for brevity's sake,
+        employ them in these pages in a restricted sense to refer to the
+        dispute concerning the Thirteen Articles.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the
+        Maimonists we may probably include the great majority of Jews, who
+        accepted the Thirteen Articles without further question. Maimonides
+        must indeed have filled up a great gap in Jewish theology, a gap,
+        moreover, the existence of which was very generally perceived. A
+        century had hardly elapsed before the Thirteen Articles had become a
+        theme for the poets of the Synagogue. And almost every country where
+        Jews lived can show a poem or a prayer founded on these Articles. R.
+        Jacob Molin (1420) of Germany speaks of metrical and rhymed songs in
+        the German language, the burden of which was the Thirteen Articles,
+        and which were read by the common people with great devotion. The
+        numerous commentaries and homilies written on the same topic would
+        form a small library in themselves.<a id="noteref_121" name=
+        "noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> But on
+        the other hand it must not be denied that the Anti-Maimonists, that
+        is to say those Jewish writers who did not agree with the creed
+        formulated by Maimonides, or agreed only in part with him, form also
+        a very strong and respectable minority. They deserve our attention
+        the more as it is their works which brought life into the subject and
+        deepened it. It is not by a perpetual Amen to every utterance of a
+        great authority that truth or literature gains anything.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The
+        Anti-Maimonists can be divided into two classes. The one class
+        categorically denies that Judaism has dogmas. I shall have occasion
+        to touch on this view when I come to speak of Abarbanel. Here I pass
+        at once to the second class of Anti-Maimonists. This consists of
+        those who agree with Maimonides as to the existence of dogmas
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165"
+        id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in Judaism, but who differ
+        from him as to what these dogmas are, or who give a different
+        enumeration of them.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the first of
+        these Anti-Maimonists we may regard Nachmanides, who, in his famous
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sermon in
+        the Presence of the King</span></span>, speaks of three fundamental
+        principles: Creation (that is, non-eternity of matter), Omniscience
+        of God, and Providence. Next comes R. Abba Mari ben Moses, of
+        Montpellier. He wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and
+        is famous in Jewish history for his zeal against the study of
+        philosophy. We possess a small pamphlet by him dealing with our
+        subject, and it forms a kind of prologue to his collection of
+        controversial letters against the rationalists of his time.<a id=
+        "noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> He lays
+        down three articles as the fundamental teachings of Religion: 1.
+        Metaphysical: The existence of God, including His Unity and
+        Incorporeality; 2. Mosaic: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
+        xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
+        nihilo</span></span> by God—a consequence of this principle is the
+        belief that God is capable of altering the laws of nature at His
+        pleasure; 3. Ethical: Special Providence—<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> God
+        knows all our actions in all their details. Abba Mari does not
+        mention Maimonides' Thirteen Articles. But it would be false to
+        conclude that he rejected the belief in the coming of the Messiah, or
+        any other article of Maimonides. The whole tone and tendency of this
+        pamphlet is polemical, and it is therefore probable that he only
+        urged those points which were either doubted or explained in an
+        unorthodox way by the sceptics of his time.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another scholar,
+        of Provence, who wrote but twenty years later than Abba Mari—R. David
+        ben Samuel d'Estella (1320)—speaks of the seven pillars of religion.
+        They are: Revelation, Providence, Reward and Punishment, <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Coming of the Messiah, Resurrection
+        of the Dead, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
+        nihilo</span></span>, and Free Will.<a id="noteref_123" name=
+        "noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of authors living
+        in other countries, I have to mention here R. Shemariah, of Crete,
+        who flourished at about the same time as R. David d'Estella, and is
+        known from his efforts to reconcile the Caraites with the Rabbanites.
+        This author wrote a book for the purpose of furnishing Jewish
+        students with evidence for what he considered the five fundamental
+        teachings of Judaism, viz.: 1. The Existence of God; 2. The
+        Incorporeality of God; 3. His Absolute Unity; 4. That God created
+        heaven and earth; 5. That God created the world after His will 5106
+        years ago—5106 (1346 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>), being the year in
+        which Shemariah wrote these words.<a id="noteref_124" name=
+        "noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Portugal, at
+        about the same time, we find R. David ben Yom-Tob Bilia adding to the
+        articles of Maimonides thirteen of his own, which he calls the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Fundamentals of the Thinking Man.”</span>
+        Five of these articles relate to the functions of the human soul,
+        that, according to him, emanated from God, and to the way in which
+        this divine soul receives its punishment and reward. The other eight
+        articles are as follows: 1. The belief in the existence of spiritual
+        beings—angels; 2. <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
+        nihilo</span></span>; 3. The belief in the existence of another
+        world, and that this other world is only a spiritual one; 4. The
+        Torah is above philosophy; 5. The Torah has an outward (literal)
+        meaning and an inward (allegorical) meaning; 6. The text of the Torah
+        is not subject to any emendation; 7. The reward of a good action is
+        the good work itself, and the doer must not expect any other reward;
+        8. It is only by the <span class="tei tei-q">“commands relating to
+        the heart,”</span> for instance, the belief in one eternal God, the
+        loving and fearing Him, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg
+        167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not
+        through good actions, that man attains the highest degree of
+        perfection.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href=
+        "#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> Perhaps
+        it would be suitable to mention here another contemporaneous writer,
+        who also enumerates twenty-six articles. The name of this writer is
+        unknown, and his articles are only gathered from quotations by later
+        authors. It would seem from these quotations that the articles of
+        this unknown author consisted mostly of statements emphasising the
+        belief in the attributes of God: as, His Eternity, His Wisdom and
+        Omnipotence, and the like.<a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126"
+        href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">More important for
+        our subject are the productions of the fifteenth century, especially
+        those of Spanish authors. The fifteen articles of R. Lipman
+        Muhlhausen, in the preface to his well-known <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
+        Victory</span></span><a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href=
+        "#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> (1410),
+        differ but slightly from those of Maimonides. In accordance with the
+        anti-Christian tendency of his polemical book, he lays more stress on
+        the two articles of Unity and Incorporeality, and makes of them four.
+        We can therefore dismiss him with this short remark, and pass at once
+        to the Spanish Rabbis.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first of these
+        is R. Chasdai Ibn Crescas, who composed his famous treatise,
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Light
+        of God</span></span>, about 1405. Chasdai's book is well known for
+        its attacks on Aristotle, and also for its influence on Spinoza. But
+        Chasdai deals also with Maimonides' Thirteen Articles, to which he
+        was very strongly opposed. Already in his preface he attacks
+        Maimonides for speaking, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Book of the Commandments</span></span>, of the
+        belief in the existence of God as an <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“affirmative precept.”</span> Chasdai thinks it absurd;
+        for every commandment must be dictated by some authority, but on
+        whose authority can we dictate the acceptance of this authority? His
+        general objection to the Thirteen Articles <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> is that Maimonides confounded dogmas or
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fundamental
+        beliefs</span></em> of Judaism, without which Judaism is
+        inconceivable, with beliefs or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">doctrines</span></em> which Judaism inculcates,
+        but the denial of which, though involving a strong heresy, does not
+        make Judaism impossible. He maintains that if Maimonides meant only
+        to count fundamental teachings, there are not more than seven; but
+        that if he intended also to include doctrines, he ought to have
+        enumerated sixteen. As beliefs of the first class—namely, fundamental
+        beliefs—he considers the following articles: 1. God's knowledge of
+        our actions; 2. Providence; 3. God's omnipotence—even to act against
+        the laws of nature; 4. Prophecy; 5. Free will; 6. The aim of the
+        Torah is to make man long after the closest communion with God. The
+        belief in the existence of God, Chasdai thinks, is an axiom with
+        which every religion must begin, and he is therefore uncertain
+        whether to include it as a dogma or not. As to the doctrines which
+        every Jew is bound to believe, but without which Judaism is not
+        impossible, Chasdai divides them into two sections: (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) 1.
+        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>; 2. Immortality
+        of the soul; 3. Reward and Punishment; 4. Resurrection of the dead;
+        5. Immutability of the Torah; 6. Superiority of the prophecy of
+        Moses; 7. That the High Priest received from God the instructions
+        sought for, when he put his questions through the medium of the Urim
+        and Thummim; 8. The coming of the Messiah. (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>)
+        Doctrines which are expressed by certain religious ceremonies, and on
+        belief in which these ceremonies are conditioned: 1. The belief in
+        the efficacy of prayer—as well as in the power of the benediction of
+        the priests to convey to us the blessing of God; 2. God is merciful
+        to the penitent; 3. Certain days in the year—for instance,
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169"
+        id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Day of Atonement—are
+        especially qualified to bring us near to God, if we keep them in the
+        way we are commanded. That Chasdai is a little arbitrary in the
+        choice of his <span class="tei tei-q">“doctrines,”</span> I need
+        hardly say. Indeed, Chasdai's importance for the dogma-question
+        consists more in his critical suggestions than in his positive
+        results. He was, as we have seen, the first to make the distinction
+        between fundamental teachings which form the basis of Judaism, and
+        those other simple Jewish doctrines without which Judaism is not
+        impossible. Very daring is his remark, when proving that Reward and
+        Punishment, Immortality of the soul, and Resurrection of the dead
+        must not be considered as the basis of Judaism, since the highest
+        ideal of religion is to serve God without any hope of reward. Even
+        more daring are his words concerning the Immutability of the Law. He
+        says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Some have argued that, since God is
+        perfection, so must also His law be perfect, and thus unsusceptible
+        of improvement.”</span> But he does not think this argument
+        conclusive, though the fact in itself (the Immutability of the Law)
+        is true. For one might answer that this perfection of the Torah could
+        only be in accordance with the intelligence of those for whom it was
+        meant; but as soon as the recipients of the Torah have advanced to a
+        higher state of perfection, the Torah must also be altered to suit
+        their advanced intelligence. A pupil of Chasdai illustrates the words
+        of his master by a medical parallel. The physician has to adapt his
+        medicaments to the various stages through which his patient has to
+        pass. That he changes his prescription does not, however, imply that
+        his medical knowledge is imperfect, or that his earlier remedies were
+        ignorantly chosen; the varying condition of the invalid was the cause
+        of the variation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg
+        170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
+        the doctor's treatment. Similarly, were not the Immutability of the
+        Torah a <span class="tei tei-q">“doctrine,”</span> one might maintain
+        that the perfection of the Torah would not be inconsistent with the
+        assumption that it was susceptible of modification, in accordance
+        with our changing and progressive circumstances. But all these
+        arguments are purely of a theoretic character; for, practically,
+        every Jew, according to Chasdai, has to accept all these beliefs,
+        whether he terms them fundamental teachings or only Jewish
+        doctrines.<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href=
+        "#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some years later,
+        though he finished his work in the same year as Chasdai, R. Simeon
+        Duran (1366-1444,) a younger contemporary of the former, made his
+        researches on dogmas. His studies on this subject form a kind of
+        introduction to his commentary on Job, which he finished in the year
+        1405. Duran is not so strongly opposed to the Thirteen Articles as
+        Chasdai, or as another <span class="tei tei-q">“thinker of our
+        people,”</span> who thought them an arbitrary imitation of the
+        thirteen attributes of God. Duran tries to justify Maimonides; but
+        nevertheless he agrees with <span class="tei tei-q">“earlier
+        authorities,”</span> who formulated the Jewish creed in Three
+        Articles—The Existence of God, Revelation, and Reward and
+        Punishment—under which Duran thinks the Thirteen Articles of
+        Maimonides may be easily classed. Most interesting are his remarks
+        concerning the validity of dogmas. He tells us that only those are to
+        be considered as heretics who abide by their own opinions, though
+        they know that they are contradictory to the views of the Torah.
+        Those who accept the fundamental teachings of Judaism, but are led by
+        their deep studies and earnest reflection to differ in details from
+        the opinions current among their co-religionists, and explain certain
+        passages <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg
+        171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
+        the Scripture in their own way, must by no means be considered as
+        heretics. We must, therefore, Duran proceeds to say, not blame such
+        men as Maimonides, who gave an allegorical interpretation to certain
+        passages in the Bible about miracles, or R. Levi ben Gershom, who
+        followed certain un-Jewish views in relation to the belief in
+        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>. Only the views
+        are condemnable, not those who cherish them. God forbid, says Duran,
+        that such a thing should happen in Israel as to condemn honest
+        inquirers on account of their differing opinions. It would be
+        interesting to know of how many divines as tolerant as this
+        persecuted Jew the fifteenth century can boast.<a id="noteref_129"
+        name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can now pass to
+        a more popular but less original writer on our theme. I refer to R.
+        Joseph Albo, the author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Roots</span></span>,<a id="noteref_130" name=
+        "noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> who was
+        the pupil of Chasdai, a younger contemporary of Duran, and wrote at a
+        much later period than these authors. Graetz has justly denied him
+        much originality. The chief merit of Albo consists in popularising
+        other people's thoughts, though he does not always take care to
+        mention their names. And the student who is a little familiar with
+        the contents of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Roots</span></span> will easily find that Albo
+        has taken his best ideas either from Chasdai or from Duran. As it is
+        of little consequence to us whether an article of faith is called
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“stem,”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“root,”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“branch,”</span> there is scarcely anything fresh left to
+        quote in the name of Albo. The late Dr. Löw, of Szegedin, was indeed
+        right, when he answered an adversary who challenged him—<span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Who would dare to declare me a heretic as long as I
+        confess the Three Articles laid down by Albo?”</span> with the words
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Albo himself.”</span> For, after all the
+        subtle distinctions Albo makes between <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> different classes of dogmas, he declares that
+        every one who denies even the immutability of the Law or the coming
+        of the Messiah, which are, according to him, articles of minor
+        importance, is a heretic who will be excluded from the world to come.
+        But there is one point in his book which is worth noticing. It was
+        suggested to him by Maimonides, indeed; still Albo has the merit of
+        having emphasised it as it deserves. Among the articles which he
+        calls <span class="tei tei-q">“branches”</span> Albo counts the
+        belief that the perfection of man, which leads to eternal life, can
+        be obtained by the fulfilling of <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em>
+        commandment. But this command must, as Maimonides points out, be done
+        without any worldly regard, and only for the love of God. When one
+        considers how many platitudes are repeated year by year by certain
+        theologians on the subject of Jewish legalism, we cannot lay enough
+        stress on this article of Albo, and we ought to make it better known
+        than it has hitherto been.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131"
+        href="#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though I cannot
+        enter here into the enumeration of the Maimonists, I must not leave
+        unmentioned the name of R. Nissim ben Moses of Marseilles, the first
+        great Maimonist, who flourished about the end of the thirteenth
+        century, and was considered as one of the most enlightened thinkers
+        of his age.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href=
+        "#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> Another
+        great Maimonist deserving special attention is R. Abraham ben
+        Shem-Tob Bibago, who may perhaps be regarded as the most prominent
+        among those who undertook to defend Maimonides against the attacks of
+        Chasdai and others. Bibago wrote <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Path of
+        Belief</span></span><a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href=
+        "#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> in the
+        second half of the fifteenth century, and was, as Dr. Steinschneider
+        aptly describes him, a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Denkgläubiger</span></span>. But, above all, he
+        was a believing Jew. When he was once asked, at the table of King
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173"
+        id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> John II., of Aragon, by a
+        Christian scholar, <span class="tei tei-q">“Are you the Jewish
+        philosopher?”</span> he answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am a Jew
+        who believes in the Law given to us by our teacher Moses, though I
+        have studied philosophy.”</span> Bibago was such a devoted admirer of
+        Maimonides that he could not tolerate any opposition to him. He
+        speaks in one passage of the prudent people of his time who, in
+        desiring to be looked upon as orthodox by the great mob, calumniated
+        the Teacher (Maimonides), and depreciated his merits. Bibago's book
+        is very interesting, especially in its controversial parts; but in
+        respect to dogmas he is, as already said, a Maimonist, and does not
+        contribute any new point on our subject.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To return to the
+        Anti-Maimonists of the second half of the fifteenth century. As such
+        may be considered R. Isaac Aramah, who speaks of three foundations of
+        religion: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
+        nihilo</span></span>, Revelation (?), and the belief in a world to
+        come.<a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href=
+        "#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> Next to
+        be mentioned is R. Joseph Jabez, who also accepts only three
+        articles: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
+        nihilo</span></span>, Individual Providence, and the Unity of
+        God.<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href=
+        "#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> Under
+        these three heads he tries to classify the Thirteen Articles of
+        Maimonides.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last Spanish
+        writer on our subject is R. Isaac Abarbanel. His treatise on the
+        subject is known under the title <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Top of
+        Amanah</span></span>,<a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href=
+        "#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> and was
+        finished in the year 1495. The greatest part of this treatise forms a
+        defence of Maimonides, many points in which are taken from Bibago.
+        But, in spite of this fact, Abarbanel must not be considered a
+        Maimonist. It is only a feeling of piety towards Maimonides, or
+        perhaps rather a fondness for argument, that made him defend
+        Maimonides against Chasdai and others. His own view is that it is a
+        mistake <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name=
+        "Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to formulate dogmas of
+        Judaism, since every word in the Torah has to be considered as a
+        dogma for itself. It was only, says Abarbanel, by following the
+        example of non-Jewish scholars that Maimonides and others were
+        induced to lay down dogmas. The non-Jewish philosophers are in the
+        habit of accepting in every science certain indisputable axioms from
+        which they deduce the propositions which are less evident. The Jewish
+        philosophers in a similar way sought for first principles in religion
+        from which the whole of the Torah ought to be considered as a
+        deduction. But, thinks Abarbanel, the Torah as a revealed code is
+        under no necessity of deducing things from each other, for all the
+        commands came from the same divine authority, and, therefore, all are
+        alike evident, and have the same certainty. On this and similar
+        grounds Abarbanel refused to accept dogmatic articles for Judaism,
+        and he thus became the head of the school that forms a class by
+        itself among the Anti-Maimonists to which many of the greatest
+        Cabbalists also belong. But it is idle talk to cite this school in
+        aid of the modern theory that Judaism has no dogmas. As we have seen,
+        it was rather an <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">embarras de richesse</span></span> that
+        prevented Abarbanel from accepting the Thirteen Articles of
+        Maimonides. To him and to the Cabbalists the Torah consists of at
+        least 613 Articles.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Abarbanel wrote
+        his book with which we have just dealt, at Naples. And it is Italy to
+        which, after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, we have to look
+        chiefly for religious speculation. But the philosophers of Italy are
+        still less independent of Maimonides than their predecessors in
+        Spain. Thus we find that R. David Messer Leon, R. David Vital, and
+        others were Maimonists. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg
+        175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Even the otherwise refined and original thinker, R. Elijah Delmedigo
+        (who died about the end of the fifteenth century) becomes almost
+        impolite when he speaks of the adversaries of Maimonides in respect
+        to dogmas. <span class="tei tei-q">“It was only,”</span> he says,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“the would-be philosopher that dared to
+        question the articles of Maimonides. Our people have always the bad
+        habit of thinking themselves competent to attack the greatest
+        authorities as soon as they have got some knowledge of the subject.
+        Genuine thinkers, however, attach very little importance to their
+        objections.”</span><a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href=
+        "#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Indeed, it seems
+        as if the energetic protests of Delmedigo scared away the
+        Anti-Maimonists for more than a century. Even in the following
+        seventeenth century we have to notice only two Anti-Maimonists. The
+        one is R. Tobijah, the Priest (1652), who was of Polish descent,
+        studied in Italy, and lived as a medical man in France. He seems to
+        refuse to accept the belief in the Immutability of the Torah, and in
+        the coming of the Messiah, as fundamental teachings of Judaism.<a id=
+        "noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> The
+        other, at the end of the seventeenth century (1695), is R. Abraham
+        Chayim Viterbo, of Italy. He accepts only six articles: 1. Existence
+        of God; 2. Unity; 3. Incorporeality; 4. That God was revealed to
+        Moses on Mount Sinai, and that the prophecy of Moses is true; 5.
+        Revelation (including the historical parts of the Torah); 6. Reward
+        and Punishment. As to the other articles of Maimonides, Viterbo, in
+        opposition to other half-hearted Anti-Maimonists, declares that the
+        man who denies them is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> to be considered as a heretic;
+        though he ought to believe them.<a id="noteref_139" name=
+        "noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have now arrived
+        at the limit I set to myself at the beginning of this essay. For,
+        between the times of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg
+        176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Viterbo and those of Mendelssohn, there is hardly to be found any
+        serious opposition to Maimonides worth noticing here. Still I must
+        mention the name of R. Saul Berlin (died 1794); there is much in his
+        opinions on dogmas which will help us the better to understand the
+        Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. As the reader has seen, I have
+        refrained so far from reproducing here the apologies which were made
+        by many Maimonists in behalf of the Thirteen Articles. For, after all
+        their elaborate pleas, none of them was able to clear Maimonides of
+        the charge of having confounded dogmas or fundamental teachings with
+        doctrines. It is also true that the Fifth Article—that prayer and
+        worship must only be offered to God—cannot be considered even as a
+        doctrine, but as a simple precept. And there are other difficulties
+        which all the distinctions of the Maimonists will never be able to
+        solve. The only possible justification is, I think, that suggested by
+        a remark of R. Saul. This author, who was himself—like his friend and
+        older contemporary Mendelssohn—a strong Anti-Maimonist, among other
+        remarks, maintains that dogmas must never be laid down but with
+        regard to the necessities of the time.<a id="noteref_140" name=
+        "noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now R. Saul
+        certainly did not doubt that Judaism is based on eternal truths which
+        can in no way be shaken by new modes of thinking or changed
+        circumstances. What he meant was that there are in every age certain
+        beliefs which ought to be asserted more emphatically than others,
+        without regard to their theological or rather logical importance. It
+        is by this maxim that we shall be able to explain the articles of
+        Maimonides. He asserted them, because they were necessary for his
+        time.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg
+        177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We know, for
+        instance, from a letter of his son and from other contemporaries,
+        that it was just at his time that the belief in the incorporeality of
+        God was, in the opinion of Maimonides, a little relaxed. Maimonides,
+        who thought such low notions of the Deity dangerous to Judaism,
+        therefore laid down an article against them. He tells us in his
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Guide</span></span> that it was far from him to
+        condemn any one who was not able to demonstrate the Incorporeality of
+        God, but he stigmatised as a heretic one who refused to believe it.
+        This position might be paralleled by that of a modern astronomer who,
+        while considering it unreasonable to expect a mathematical
+        demonstration of the movements of the earth from an ordinary
+        unscientific man, would yet regard the person who refused to believe
+        in such movements as an ignorant faddist.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, Maimonides
+        undoubtedly knew that there may be found in the Talmud—that
+        bottomless sea with its innumerable undercurrents—passages that are
+        not quite in harmony with his articles; for instance, the well-known
+        dictum of R. Hillel, who said, there is no Messiah for Israel—a
+        passage which has already been quoted <span lang="la" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad
+        nauseam</span></span> by every opponent of Maimonides from the
+        earliest times down to the year of grace 1896. Maimonides was well
+        aware of the existence of this and similar passages. But, being
+        deeply convinced of the necessity of the belief in a future
+        redemption of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Israel</span></em>—in opposition to other creeds
+        which claim this redemption exclusively for their own
+        adherents—Maimonides simply ignored the saying of R. Hillel, as an
+        isolated opinion which contradicts all the consciousness and
+        traditions of the Jew as expressed in thousands of other passages,
+        and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name=
+        "Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> especially in the
+        liturgy. Most interesting is Maimonides' view about such isolated
+        opinions in a letter to the wise men of Marseilles. He deals there
+        with the question of free will and other theological subjects. After
+        having stated his own view he goes on to say: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“I know that it is possible to find in the Talmud or in
+        the Midrash this or that saying in contradiction to the views you
+        have heard from me. But you must not be troubled by them. One must
+        not refuse to accept a doctrine, the truth of which has been proved,
+        on account of its being in opposition to some isolated opinion held
+        by this or that great authority. Is it not possible that he
+        overlooked some important considerations when he uttered this strange
+        opinion? It is also possible that his words must not be taken
+        literally, and have to be explained in an allegorical way. We can
+        also think that his words were only to be applied with regard to
+        certain circumstances of his time, but never intended as permanent
+        truths.... No man must surrender his private judgment. The eyes are
+        not directed backwards but forwards.”</span> In another place
+        Maimonides calls the suppression of one's own opinions—for the reason
+        of their being irreconcilable with the isolated views of some great
+        authority—a moral suicide.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By such motives
+        Maimonides was guided when he left certain views hazarded in the
+        Rabbinic literature unheeded, and followed what we may perhaps call
+        the religious instinct, trusting to his own conscience. We may again
+        be certain that Maimonides was clear-headed enough to see that the
+        words of the Torah: <span class="tei tei-q">“And there arose no
+        prophet since in Israel like unto Moses”</span> (Deut. xxxiv. 10),
+        were as little intended to imply a doctrine as the passage relating
+        to the king Josiah, <span class="tei tei-q">“And like unto
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179"
+        id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> him was there no king before
+        him that turned to the Lord with all his heart ... neither after him
+        arose there any like him”</span> (2 Kings xxiii. 25). And none would
+        think of declaring the man a heretic who should believe another king
+        to be as pious as Josiah. But living among followers of the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“imitating creeds”</span> (as he calls
+        Christianity and Mohammedism), who claimed that their religion had
+        superseded the law of Moses, Maimonides, consciously or
+        unconsciously, felt himself compelled to assert the superiority of
+        the prophecy of Moses. And so we may guess that every article of
+        Maimonides which seems to offer difficulties to us contains an
+        assertion of some relaxed belief, or a protest against the
+        pretensions of other creeds, though we are not always able to
+        discover the exact necessity for them. On the other hand, Maimonides
+        did not assert the belief in free will, for which he argued so
+        earnestly in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Guide</span></span>. The common <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“man,”</span> with his simple unspeculative mind, for
+        whom these Thirteen Articles were intended, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“never dreamed that the will was not free,”</span> and
+        there was no necessity of impressing on his mind things which he had
+        never doubted.<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href=
+        "#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So much about
+        Maimonides. As to the Anti-Maimonists, it could hardly escape the
+        reader that in some of the quoted systems the difference from the
+        view of Maimonides is only a logical one, not a theological. Of some
+        authors again, especially those of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+        centuries, it is not at all certain whether they intended to oppose
+        Maimonides. Others again, as for instance R. Abba Mari, R. Lipman,
+        and R. Joseph Jabez, acted on the same principle as Maimonides,
+        urging only those teachings of Judaism which they thought endangered.
+        One could now, indeed, animated by the praiseworthy example
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180"
+        id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> given to us by Maimonides,
+        also propose some articles of faith which are suggested to us by the
+        necessities of our own time. One might, for instance, insert the
+        article, <span class="tei tei-q">“I believe that Judaism is, in the
+        first instance, a divine religion, <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em> a
+        mere complex of racial peculiarities and tribal customs.”</span> One
+        might again propose an article to the effect that Judaism is a
+        proselytising religion, having the mission to bring about God's
+        kingdom on earth, and to include in that kingdom all mankind. One
+        might also submit for consideration whether it would not be advisable
+        to urge a little more the principle that religion means chiefly a
+        <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Weltanschauung</span></span> and worship of God
+        by means of holiness both in thought and in action. One would even
+        not object to accept the article laid down by R. Saul, that we have
+        to look upon ourselves as sinners. Morbid as such a belief may be, it
+        would, if properly impressed on our mind, have perhaps the wholesome
+        effect of cooling down a little our self-importance and our mutual
+        admiration that makes all progress among us almost impossible.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was not my
+        purpose to ventilate here the question whether Maimonides' articles
+        are sufficient for us, or whether we ought not to add new ones to
+        them. Nor do I attempt to decide what system we ought to prefer for
+        recitation in the Synagogue—that of Maimonides or that of Chasdai, or
+        of any other writer. I do not think that such a recital is of much
+        use. My object in this sketch has been rather to make the reader
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">think</span></em> about Judaism, by proving that
+        it regulates not only our actions, but also our thoughts. We usually
+        urge that in Judaism religion means life; but we forget that a life
+        without guiding principles and thoughts is a life not worth living.
+        At <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name=
+        "Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> least it was so
+        considered by the greatest Jewish thinkers, and hence their efforts
+        to formulate the creed of Judaism, so that men should not only be
+        able to do the right thing, but also to think the right thing.
+        Whether they succeeded in their attempts towards formulating the
+        creed of Judaism or not will always remain a question. This concerns
+        the logician more than the theologian. But surely Maimonides and his
+        successors <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">did</span></em> succeed in having a religion
+        depending directly on God, with the most ideal and lofty aspirations
+        for the future; whilst the Judaism of a great part of our modern
+        theologians reminds one very much of the words with which the author
+        of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marius
+        the Epicurean</span></span> characterises the Roman religion in the
+        days of her decline: a religion which had been always something to be
+        done rather than something to be thought, or believed, or loved.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Political economy,
+        hygiene, statistics, are very fine things. But no sane man would for
+        them make those sacrifices which Judaism requires from us. It is only
+        for God's sake, to fulfil His commands and to accomplish His purpose,
+        that religion becomes worth living and dying for. And this can only
+        be possible with a religion which possesses dogmas.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true that
+        every great religion is <span class="tei tei-q">“a concentration of
+        many ideas and ideals,”</span> which make this religion able to adapt
+        itself to various modes of thinking and living. But there must always
+        be a point round which all these ideas concentrate themselves. This
+        centre is Dogma.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name=
+      "Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">VII. The History of Jewish
+        Tradition</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is an
+        anecdote about a famous theologian to the effect that he used to tell
+        his pupils, <span class="tei tei-q">“Should I ever grow old and
+        weak—which usually drives people to embrace the safer side—and alter
+        my opinions, then pray do not believe me.”</span> The concluding
+        volume of Weiss's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">History of Jewish Tradition</span></span><a id=
+        "noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> shows
+        that there was no need for our author to warn his pupils against the
+        dangers accompanying old age. For though Weiss had, when he began to
+        write this last volume, already exceeded his three-score and ten,
+        and, as we read in the preface, had some misgivings as to whether he
+        should continue his work, there is no trace in it of any abatement of
+        the great powers of the author. It is marked by the same freshness in
+        diction, the same marvellous scholarship, the same display of
+        astonishing critical powers, and the same impartial and
+        straightforward way of judging persons and things, for which the
+        preceding volumes were so much distinguished and admired.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This book, which
+        is recognised as a standard work abroad, is, I fear, owing to the
+        fact of its being written in the Hebrew language, not sufficiently
+        known in this country. Weiss does not want <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">our</span></em>
+        recognition; we are rather in need of his instruction. Some general
+        view <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name=
+        "Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his estimate of
+        Jewish Tradition may, therefore, be of service to the student. It is,
+        indeed, the only work of its kind. Zunz has confined himself to the
+        history of the Agadah. Graetz gave most of his attention to the
+        political side of Jewish history. But comparatively little has been
+        done for the Halachah, though Frankel, Geiger, Herzfeld, and others
+        have treated some single points in various monographs. Thus it was
+        left for Weiss to write the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">History of Tradition</span></span>, which
+        includes both the Agadah and the Halachah. The treatment of this
+        latter must have proved, in consequence of the intricate and
+        intractable nature of its materials, by far the more difficult
+        portion of his task.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In speaking of the
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">History</span></em> of Tradition, a term which
+        suggests the fluctuating character of a thing, its origin,
+        development, progress, and retrogression, we have already indicated
+        that Weiss does not consider even the Halachah as having come down
+        from heaven, ready-made, and definitely fixed for all time. To define
+        it more clearly, Tradition is, apart from the few ordinances and
+        certain usages for which there is no precedent in the Bible, the
+        history of interpretation of the Scriptures, which was constantly
+        liable to variation, not on grounds of philology, but through the
+        subjective notions of successive generations regarding religion and
+        the method and scope of its application.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weiss's standpoint
+        with reference to the Pentateuch is the conservative one, maintaining
+        both its unity and its Mosaic authorship. Those passages and accounts
+        in the Bible in which the modern critic discerns traces of different
+        traditional sources, are for Weiss only indicative of the various
+        stages of interpretation through which the <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Pentateuch had to pass. The earliest stage was
+        a very crude one, as may be seen from the case of Jephthah's vow, for
+        which only a misinterpretation of certain passages in the Pentateuch
+        (Gen. xxii. 2; Num. xxv. 4) could be made responsible. Nor was
+        Jephthah, who felt himself bound to carry out his vow, acquainted
+        with the provision for dissolving vows<a id="noteref_143" name=
+        "noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> that
+        was sufficiently familiar to later ages. When, on the other hand,
+        Jeremiah declared sacrifices to be altogether superfluous, and said
+        that God did not command Israel, when he brought them from the land
+        of Egypt, concerning burnt offerings or sacrifices (vii. 22), he was
+        not in contradiction with Leviticus, but interpreted the laws
+        contained in this book as a concession to popular custom, though not
+        desirable on their own account. This concession, whenever it was of a
+        harmless nature, the prophets carried so far as to permit altars
+        outside the Tabernacle or Temple, though this was against the plain
+        sense of Deuteronomy. Elijah even bewailed their destruction (1 Kings
+        xix. 10). He and other prophets probably interpreted the law in
+        question as directed against the construction and maintenance of
+        several chief sanctuaries, but not against sacrificing in different
+        places on minor occasions. This is evidently a free interpretation,
+        or rather application, of the Law. Occasionally the conception as to
+        when and how a law should be applied took a completely negative form.
+        In this manner is to be explained the action of Solomon in suspending
+        the Fast of the Day of Atonement before the festival he was going to
+        celebrate in honour of the consecration of the Temple (1 Kings viii.
+        65), the king being convinced that on this unique occasion the latter
+        was of more religious importance than the former. Weiss <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> thinks that the later custom of holding
+        public dances in the vineyards on the 10th of Tishri might have had
+        its origin in this solemn, but also joyful, festival. Ezekiel, again,
+        though alluding more frequently than any other prophet to the laws in
+        the Pentateuch, is exceedingly bold in his interpretation of them,
+        as, for instance, when he says that <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">priests</span></em>
+        shall not eat anything that is dead or torn (xliv. 31), which shows
+        that he took the verses in Exod. xxii. 30, and Deut. xiv. 20, to have
+        been meant only as a good advice to the laymen to refrain from eating
+        these unclean things, but not as having for them the force of a real
+        commandment.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Starting from this
+        proposition, that there existed always some sort of interpretation
+        running side by side with the recognised Scriptures, which from the
+        very looseness of its connection with the letter of the Scripture
+        could claim to be considered a thing independent in itself, and might
+        therefore be regarded as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Oral Law</span></span>, in contradistinction to
+        the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Written
+        Law</span></span>, the author passes to the age of the Second Temple,
+        the period to which the rest of the first volume is devoted. In these
+        pages Weiss reviews the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, the ordinances
+        of the Men of the Great Synagogue, the institutions of the Scribes,
+        the Lives of the so-called Pairs,<a id="noteref_144" name=
+        "noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> the
+        characteristics of the three sects, the Sadducees, Pharisees, and
+        Essenes, and the differences between the schools of Shammai and
+        Hillel. To each of these subjects Weiss gives his fullest attention,
+        and his discussions of them would form perfect monographs in
+        themselves. To reproduce all the interesting matter would mean to
+        translate the whole of this portion of his work into English. I shall
+        only draw attention to one or two points.</p><span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, this
+        liberal interpretation was active during the whole period referred
+        to. Otherwise no authority could have abolished the <span lang="la"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">lex talionis</span></span>, or have permitted
+        war on Sabbath, or made the condition that no crime should be
+        punished without a preceding warning (which was chiefly owing to the
+        aversion of the Rabbis to the infliction of capital punishment), or
+        have sanctioned the sacrificing of the Passover when the 14th of
+        Nisan fell on Sabbath. Indeed Shemaiah and Abtalyon, in whose name
+        Hillel communicated this last law, were called the Great
+        Interpreters.<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href=
+        "#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Secondly, as to
+        the so-called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">laws given to Moses on
+        Sinai</span></span>.<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href=
+        "#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> Much
+        has been said about these. The distinction claimed for them by some
+        scholars, viz. that they were never contested, is not tenable,
+        considering that there prevailed much difference of opinion about
+        some of them. Nor is the theory that they were ancient religious
+        usages, dating from time immemorial, entirely satisfactory. For
+        though the fact may be true in itself, this could not have justified
+        the Rabbis in calling them all Sinaitic laws, especially when they
+        were aware that not a few of them were contested by certain of their
+        colleagues, a thing that would have been quite impossible if they had
+        a genuine claim to Mosaic authority. But if we understand Weiss
+        rightly these laws are only to be considered as a specimen of the
+        whole of the Oral Law, which was believed to emanate, both in its
+        institutional and in its expository part, from the same authority.
+        The conviction was firmly held that everything wise and good, be it
+        ethical or ceremonial in its character, whose effect would be to
+        strengthen the cause of religion, was at least potentially contained
+        in the Torah, and that it only required an earnest religious mind
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187"
+        id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to find it there. Hence the
+        famous adage that <span class="tei tei-q">“everything which any
+        student will teach at any future time was already communicated to
+        Moses on Mount Sinai”</span>; or the injunction that any acceptable
+        truth, even if discovered by an insignificant man in Israel, should
+        be considered as having the authority of a great sage or prophet, or
+        even of Moses himself. The principle was that the words of the Torah
+        are <span class="tei tei-q">“fruitful and multiply.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will probably
+        be said that the laws of clean and unclean, and such like, have
+        proved rather too prolific; but if we read Weiss carefully, we shall
+        be reminded that it was by the same process of propagation that the
+        Rabbis developed from Deut. xxii. 8, a whole code of sanitary and
+        police-laws which could even now be studied with profit; from the few
+        scanty civil laws in Exod. xxi., a whole <span lang="la" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">corpus juris</span></span>, which might well
+        excite the interest and the admiration of any lawyer; and from the
+        words <span class="tei tei-q">“And thou shalt teach them diligently
+        unto thy children,”</span> a complete school-system on the one hand,
+        and on the other the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">résumé</span></span> of a liturgy that appears
+        to have sufficed for the spiritual needs of more than fifty
+        generations of Israelites.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before we pass to
+        the age of the Tannaim,<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href=
+        "#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> the
+        subject of Weiss's second volume, we must take account of two
+        important events which have greatly influenced the further
+        development of Tradition. I refer to the destruction of the Temple
+        and the rise of Christianity. With the former event Judaism ceased to
+        be a political commonwealth, and if <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+        nation was already in the times of Ezra converted into a
+        church,”</span>—an assertion, by the way, which has not the least
+        basis in fact,—it became the more so after it had lost the last
+        remains of its independence. But it was a church without priests, or,
+        since such a thing, as far as <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> history teaches us, has never existed, let us
+        rather call it a Synagogue.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this fact
+        diverse results flowed. A Synagogue can exist not only without
+        priests, but also without sacrifices, for which prayer and charity
+        were a sufficient substitute. With the progress of time also many
+        agricultural laws, as well as others relating to sacerdotal purity,
+        gradually became obsolete, though they lingered on for some
+        generations, and, as a venerable reminiscence of a glorious time,
+        entered largely into Jewish literature. This disappearance of so many
+        laws and the weakening of the national element, however, required, if
+        Judaism was to continue to exist, the strengthening of religion from
+        another side. The first thing needed was the creation of a new
+        religious centre which would not only replace the Temple to a certain
+        degree, but also bring about a greater solidarity of views, such as
+        would render impossible the ancient differences that divided the
+        schools of Hillel and Shammai. The creator of this centre was R.
+        Johanan ben Zaccai, who founded the school of Jamnia, and invested it
+        with the same authority and importance as the Sanhedrin had enjoyed
+        during Temple times. The consciousness that they were standing before
+        a new starting-point in history, with a large religious inheritance
+        from the past, actuated them not only to collect the old traditional
+        laws and to take stock of their religious institutions, but also to
+        give them more definite shape and greater stability. As many of these
+        traditions were by no means undisputed, the best thing was to bring
+        them under one or other heading of the Scriptures. This desire gave
+        the impulse to the famous hermeneutic schools of R. Akiba and R.
+        Ishmael.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next cause
+        that contributed to give a more determinate <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> expression to the Law was the rise of
+        Christianity. This is not the place to give an account of the views
+        which the Rabbis entertained of Christianity. Suffice it to say they
+        could not see in the destruction of the Law its fulfilment. They also
+        thought that under certain conditions it is not only the letter that
+        killeth, but also the spirit, or rather that the spirit may sometimes
+        be clothed in a letter, which, in its turn, will slay more victims
+        than the letter against which the loudest denunciations have been
+        levelled. Spirit without letter, let theologians say what they will,
+        is a mere phantasm. However, the new sect made claims to the gift of
+        prophecy, which, as they thought, placed them above the Law. It would
+        seem that this was a time of special excitement. The student of the
+        Talmud finds that such marvels as predicting the future, reviving the
+        dead, casting out demons, crossing rivers dry-shod, curing the sick
+        by a touch or prayer, were the order of the day, and performed by
+        scores of Rabbis. Voices from heaven were often heard, and strange
+        visions were frequently beheld. Napoleon I. is said to have forbidden
+        the holy coat of Treves to work miracles. The Jewish legislature,
+        however, had no means of preventing these supernatural workings; but
+        when the Rabbis saw their dangerous consequences, they insisted that
+        miracles should have no influence on the interpretation and
+        development of the Law. Hence the saying with regard to Lev. xxvii.
+        34, that no prophet is authorised to add a new law. And when R.
+        Eliezer b. Hyrkanos (about 120 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>) thought to prove the
+        justice of his case by the intervention of miracles, the majority
+        answered that the fact of this or that variation, effected at his
+        bidding, in the established order of nature, proved nothing for the
+        soundness of his argument. Nay, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> they even ignored the <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Bath-Kol</span></span><a id="noteref_148" name=
+        "noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> (the
+        celestial voice), which declared itself in favour of R. Eliezer,
+        maintaining that the Torah having once been given to mankind, it is
+        only the opinion of the majority that should decide on its
+        interpretation and application. Very characteristic is the legend
+        connected with this fact. When one of the Rabbis afterwards met
+        Elijah and asked him what they thought in heaven of the audacity of
+        his colleagues, the prophet answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“God
+        rejoiced and said, my children have conquered me.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Into such
+        discredit did miracles fall at that period, whilst the opinion of the
+        interpreting body, or the Sanhedrin, became more powerful than ever.
+        These were merely dogmatical consequences. But new laws were enacted
+        and old ones revived, with the object of resisting Christian
+        influences over the Jews. To expand the Oral Law, and give it a firm
+        basis in the Scriptures, were considered the best means of preserving
+        Judaism intact. <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses desired,”</span> an
+        old legend narrates, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the Mishnah also
+        (that is Tradition) should be written down;”</span> but foreseeing
+        the time when the nations of the world would translate the Torah into
+        Greek, and would assert their title to rank as the Children of God,
+        the Lord refused to permit tradition to be recorded otherwise than by
+        word of mouth. The claim of the Gentiles might then be refuted by
+        asking them whether they were also in possession of <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the Mystery.”</span> The Rabbis therefore concentrated
+        their attention upon <span class="tei tei-q">“the Mystery,”</span>
+        and this contributed largely towards making the expository methods of
+        R. Akiba and R. Ishmael, to which I have above referred, the main
+        object of their study in the schools.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would, however,
+        be a mistake to think that the Sanhedrin <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> now spent their powers in <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“enforcing retrograde measures and creating a strange
+        exegesis.”</span> I especially advise the student to read carefully
+        that admirable chapter (VII., of Vol. II.) in which Weiss classifies
+        all the Ordinances, <span class="tei tei-q">“Fences,”</span> Decrees,
+        and Institutions, dating both from this and from earlier ages, under
+        ten headings, and also shows their underlying principles. The main
+        object was to preserve the Jewish religion by strengthening the
+        principle of Jewish nationality, and to preserve the nationality by
+        the aid of religion. But sometimes the Rabbis also considered it
+        necessary to preserve religion against itself, so to speak, or, as
+        they expressed it, <span class="tei tei-q">“When there is time to
+        work for the Lord, they make void thy Torah.”</span> This authorised
+        the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+        Din</span></span><a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href=
+        "#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> to act
+        in certain cases against the letter of the Torah. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The welfare of the World”</span> was another great
+        consideration. By <span class="tei tei-q">“World”</span> they
+        understood both the religious and the secular world. From a regard to
+        the former resulted such <span class="tei tei-q">“Fences”</span> and
+        Ordinances as were directed against <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+        transgressors,”</span> as well as the general injunction to
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“keep aloof from what is morally unseemly,
+        and from whatever bears any likeness thereto.”</span> In the
+        interests of the latter—the welfare of the secular world—they enacted
+        such laws as either tended to elevate the position of women, or to
+        promote the peace and welfare of members of their own community, or
+        to improve the relations between Jews and their Gentile neighbours.
+        They also held the great principle that nothing is so injurious to
+        the cause of religion as increasing the number of sinners by needless
+        severity. Hence the introduction of many laws <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“for the benefit of penitents,”</span> and the maxim not
+        to issue any decree which may prove too heavy a burden to the
+        majority of the community. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg
+        192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The
+        relaxation of certain traditional laws was also permitted when they
+        involved a serious loss of property, or the sacrifice of a man's
+        dignity. Some old decrees were even permitted to fall into oblivion
+        when public opinion was too strong against them, the Rabbis holding
+        that it was often better for Israelites to be unconscious sinners
+        than wilful transgressors. The <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Minhag</span></span>, or religious custom, also
+        played an important part, it being assumed that it must have been
+        first introduced by some eminent authority; but, if there was reason
+        to believe that the custom owed its origin to some fancy of the
+        populace, and that it had a pernicious effect on the multitude, no
+        compunction was felt in abolishing it.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Very important it
+        is to note that the Oral Law had not at this period assumed a
+        character of such rigidity that all its ordinances, etc., had to be
+        looked upon as irremovable for all times. With those who think
+        otherwise, a favourite quotation is the administratory measure laid
+        dawn in Tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Evidences</span></span>,<a id="noteref_150"
+        name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> I. 5,
+        where we read that no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span> has the right of
+        annulling the dicta of another <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span>, unless it is stronger in
+        numbers (having a larger majority) and greater in wisdom than its
+        fellow tribunal. Confess with becoming modesty that the world is
+        always going downhill, decreasing both in numbers and in wisdom, and
+        the result follows that any decision by the earlier Rabbis is fixed
+        law for all eternity. Weiss refutes such an idea not only as
+        inconsistent with the nature of Tradition, but also as contradictory
+        to the facts. He proves by numerous instances that the Rabbis did
+        abolish ordinances and decrees introduced by preceding authorities,
+        and that the whole conception is based on a misunderstanding. For the
+        rule in question, as Weiss clearly points out, originally only meant
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193"
+        id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that a <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span>
+        has no right to undo the decrees of another <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">contemporary Beth
+        Din</span></span>, unless it was justified in doing so by the weight
+        of its greater authority. This was necessary if a central authority
+        was to exist at all. Weiss is indeed of opinion that the whole
+        passage is a later interpolation from the age of R. Simeon b.
+        Gamaliel II., when certain Rabbis tried to emancipate themselves from
+        the authority of the Patriarch. But it was not meant that the
+        decision of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span> should have perpetual
+        binding power for all posterity. This was left to the discretion of
+        the legislature of each generation, who had to examine whether the
+        original cause for maintaining such decision still existed.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rest of this
+        volume is for the greater part taken up with complete monographs of
+        the Patriarchs and the heads of the schools of that age, whilst the
+        concluding chapters give us the history of the literature, the
+        Midrash, Mechilta, Siphra, Siphré, Mishnah, etc., which contain both
+        the Halachic and the Agadic sayings emanating from these
+        authorities.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With regard to
+        these Patriarchs, I should like only to remark that Weiss defends
+        them against the charge made by Schorr and others, who accuse them of
+        having assumed too much authority on account of their noble descent,
+        and who describe their opponents as the true friends of the people.
+        Weiss is no lover of such specious phrases. The qualifications
+        required for the leadership of the people were a right instinct for
+        the necessities of their time, a fair amount of secular knowledge,
+        and, what is of chief importance, an unbounded love and devotion to
+        those over whose interests they were called to watch. These
+        distinctions, as Weiss proves, the descendants of Hillel possessed in
+        the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name=
+        "Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> highest degree. It is
+        true that occasionally, as for instance in the famous controversy of
+        R. Gamaliel II. with R. Joshua b. Hananiah, or that of R. Simeon b.
+        Gamaliel II. with R. Nathan and R. Meir, they made their authority
+        too heavily felt;<a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href=
+        "#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> but
+        this was again another necessity of those troubled times, when only
+        real unity could save Israel.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, Weiss is
+        no partisan, and the love he lavishes on his favourite heroes does
+        not exhaust his resources of sympathy and appreciation for members of
+        the other schools. Weiss is no apologist either, and does not make
+        the slightest attempt towards explaining away even the defects of R.
+        Akiba in his somewhat arbitrary method of interpretation, which our
+        author thinks much inferior to the expository rules of R. Ishmael;
+        but this does not prevent him from admiring his excellences.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Altogether it
+        would seem that Weiss thinks R. Akiba more happy in his quality as a
+        great saint than in that of a great exegete. What is most admirable
+        is the instinct with which Weiss understands how to emphasise the
+        right thing in its right place. As an indication of the literary
+        honesty and marvellous industry of our author, I would draw attention
+        to the fact that the sketch of R. Akiba and his school alone is based
+        on more than two thousand quotations scattered over the whole area of
+        the Rabbinic literature; but he points in a special note to a
+        sentence attributed to R. Akiba, which presents the whole man and his
+        generation in a single stroke. I refer to that passage in Tractate
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Joys</span></span>,<a id="noteref_152" name=
+        "noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> in
+        which R. Akiba speaks of the four types of sufferers. He draws the
+        comparison of a king chastising his children; the first son maintains
+        stubborn silence, the second simply rebels, the third supplicates
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195"
+        id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for mercy, and the fourth (the
+        best of sons) says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Father, proceed with thy
+        chastisement, as David said, Wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity
+        and cleanse me from my sin”</span> (Ps. li. 4). This absolute
+        submission to the will of God, which perceives in suffering only an
+        expression of His fatherly love and mercy, was the ideal of R.
+        Akiba.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great literary
+        production of this period was the Mishnah, which, through the high
+        authority of its compiler, R. Judah the Patriarch, his saintliness
+        and popularity, soon superseded all the collections of a similar
+        kind, and became the official text-book of the Oral Law. But a text
+        requires interpretation, whilst other collections also demanded some
+        attention. This brings us to the two <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Talmuds</span></span>,
+        namely, the Talmud of Jerusalem and the Talmud of Babylon, the origin
+        and history of which form the subject of Weiss's third volume.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here again the
+        first chapters are more of a preliminary character, giving the
+        student some insight into the labyrinth of the Talmud. The two
+        chapters entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“The instruments employed
+        in erecting the great Edifice,”</span> and the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Workmanship displayed by the Builders,”</span> give
+        evidence of almost unrivalled familiarity with the Rabbinical
+        literature, and of critical powers of the rarest kind. Now these
+        instruments were by no means new, for, as Weiss shows, the Amoraim
+        employed in interpreting the Mishnah the same explanatory rules that
+        are known to us from the School of R. Ishmael as <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the Thirteen Rules by which the Torah is
+        explained,”</span> though they appear in the Talmud under other
+        names, and are in reality only a species of Midrash. Besides this
+        there comes another element into play. It was the exaggerated awe of
+        all <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name=
+        "Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> earlier authorities
+        that endeavoured to reconcile the most contradictory statements by
+        means of a subtle dialectic for which the schools in Babylon were
+        especially famous. There were certainly many opponents of this
+        system, and from the monographs which Weiss gives on the various
+        heads of the western and eastern schools we see that not all followed
+        this method, and some among them even condemned it in the strongest
+        words. However, it cannot be denied that there is a strong scholastic
+        feature in the Talmud, which is very far from what we should look for
+        in a trustworthy exegesis. Thus we must not always expect to find in
+        the Talmud the true meaning of the sayings of their predecessors, and
+        it is certain that a more scientific method in many cases has led to
+        results the very opposite of those at which the later Rabbis have
+        arrived. This fact was already recognised in the sixteenth century,
+        though only in part, by R. Yom-Tob Heller and others. Only he
+        insisted that in this matter a line must be drawn between theory and
+        practice. But Weiss gives irrefragable proofs that even this line was
+        often overstepped by the greatest authorities, though they remained
+        always within the limits of Tradition. Indeed, as Weiss points out,
+        not every saying to be found in the Talmud is to be looked upon as
+        representing Tradition; for there is much in it which only gives the
+        individual opinion or is merely an interpolation of later hands; nor
+        does the Talmud contain the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">whole</span></em> of Tradition, this latter
+        proceeding and advancing with the time, and corresponding to its
+        conditions and notions. As we read Weiss, the conviction is borne in
+        upon us that there was a Talmud before, and another after
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
+        Talmud</span></span>.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much space in this
+        volume is given to the Agadah and <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“Teachers
+        of the Agadah.”</span> Weiss makes no attempt at apology for that
+        which seems to us strange, or even repugnant in this part of the
+        Rabbinic literature. The greatest fault to be found with those who
+        wrote down such passages as appear objectionable to us is, perhaps,
+        that they did not observe the wise rule of Johnson, who said to
+        Boswell on a certain occasion, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let us get
+        serious, for there comes a fool.”</span> And the fools unfortunately
+        did come in the shape of certain Jewish commentators and Christian
+        controversialists, who took as serious things which were only the
+        expression of a momentary impulse, or represented the opinion of some
+        isolated individual, or were meant simply as a piece of humorous
+        by-play, calculated to enliven the interest of a languid audience.
+        But on the other hand, as Weiss proves, the Agadah contains also many
+        elements of real edification and eternal truths as well as abundant
+        material for building up the edifice of dogmatic Judaism. Talmudical
+        quotations of such a nature are scattered by thousands over Weiss's
+        work, particularly in those chapters in which he describes the lives
+        of the greatest Rabbinical heroes. But the author lays the student
+        under special obligations by putting together in the concluding pages
+        of this volume some of these sentences, and classifying them under
+        various headings. I give here a few extracts. For the references to
+        authorities I must direct the reader to the original:—</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The unity of God is the keystone of dogmatic Judaism.
+        The Rabbis give Israel the credit of having proclaimed to the world
+        the unity of God. They also say that Israel took an oath never to
+        change Him for another God. This only God is eternal, incorporeal,
+        and immutable. And though the prophets saw Him in different aspects,
+        He <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name=
+        "Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> warned them that they
+        must not infer from the visions vouchsafed to them that there are
+        different Gods. <span class="tei tei-q">‘I am the first,’</span> He
+        tells them, which implies that he had no father, and the words,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘There is no God besides me,’</span> mean
+        that he has no son. Now, this God, the God of Israel, is holy in
+        every thinkable way of holiness. He is merciful and gracious, as it
+        is said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘And I will be gracious to whom I
+        will be gracious,’</span> even though he who is the recipient of
+        God's grace has no merit of his own. <span class="tei tei-q">‘And I
+        will show mercy to whom I will show mercy,’</span> that is, even to
+        those who do not deserve it. His attributes are righteousness,
+        loving-kindness, and truth. God speaks words of eternal truth, even
+        as He himself is the eternal life. All that the Merciful One does is
+        only for good, and even in the time of His anger He remembers His
+        graciousness, and often suppresses His attribute of judgment before
+        His attribute of mercy. But with the righteous God is more severe
+        than with the rest of the world, and when His hand falls in
+        chastening on His saints His name becomes awful, revered, and
+        exalted. This God of Israel, again, extends His providence over all
+        mankind, and especially over Israel. By His eye everything is
+        foreseen, yet freedom of choice is given, and the world is judged by
+        grace, yet all according to the works wrought. Hence, know what is
+        above thee, a seeing eye and a hearing ear, and that all thy deeds
+        are written in a book.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“They [the Rabbis] believed that God created the world
+        out of nothing, without toil and without weariness. This world was
+        created by the combination of His two attributes, mercy and justice.
+        He rejoices in His creation, and if the Maker praises it, who dares
+        to blame it? And if He exults in it, who shall find a blemish in it?
+        Nay, it is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg
+        199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a
+        glorious and a beautiful world. It is created for man, and its other
+        denizens were all meant but to serve him. Though all mankind are
+        formed after the type of Adam, no one is like his fellow-man (each
+        one having an individuality of his own). Thus he is able to say,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘For my sake, also, was the world
+        created’</span>; and with this thought his responsibilities increase.
+        But the greatest love shown to man is that he was created in the
+        image of God. Man is a being possessed of free will, and, though
+        everything is given on pledge, whosoever wishes to borrow may come
+        and borrow. Everything is in the gift of Heaven except the fear of
+        God. In man's heart abide both the evil inclination and the good
+        inclination; and the words of Scripture, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt not bow down before a strange god,’</span>
+        point to the strange god who is within man himself, who entices him
+        to sin in this world, and gives evidence against him in the next. But
+        the Holy One—blessed be He!—said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I have
+        created the evil inclination, but I have also created its antidote,
+        the Torah.’</span> And when man is occupied with the Torah and in
+        works of charity, he becomes the master of the evil inclination;
+        otherwise, he is its slave. When man reflects the image of God, he is
+        the lord of creation, and is feared by all creatures; but this image
+        is defaced by sin, and then he has no power over the universe, and is
+        in fear of all things.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Another principle of Judaism is the belief in reward and
+        punishment. <span class="tei tei-q">‘I am the Lord, your God,’</span>
+        means, <span class="tei tei-q">‘it is I who am prepared to recompense
+        you for your good actions, and to bring retribution upon you for your
+        evil deeds.’</span> God does not allow to pass unrewarded even the
+        merit of a kind and considerate word. By the same measure which man
+        metes out, it shall be meted out to <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> him. Because thou drownedst others, they have
+        drowned thee, and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves
+        be drowned. Though it is not in our power to explain either the
+        prosperity of the wicked or the affliction of the righteous,
+        nevertheless know before whom thou toilest, and who thy employer is,
+        who will pay thee the reward of thy labour. Here at thy door is a
+        poor man standing, and at his right hand standeth God. If thou
+        grantest his request, be certain of thy reward; but if thou refusest,
+        think of him who is by the side of the poor, and will avenge it on
+        thee. <span class="tei tei-q">‘God seeketh the persecuted’</span> to
+        defend him, even though it be the wicked who is persecuted by the
+        righteous. The soul of man is immortal, the souls of the righteous
+        being treasured up under the throne of God. Know that everything is
+        according to the reckoning, and let not thy imagination give thee
+        hope that the grave will be a place of refuge for thee, for perforce
+        thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and thou livest
+        perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt in the
+        future have to give account and reckoning before the Supreme King of
+        kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The advent of the Messiah is another article of the
+        belief of the Rabbis. But if a man tell thee that he knows when the
+        redemption of Israel will take place, believe him not, for this is
+        one of the unrevealed secrets of the Almighty. The mission of Elijah
+        is to bring peace into the world, while the Messiah, in whose days
+        Israel will regain his national independence, will lead the whole
+        world in repentance to God. On this, it is believed, will follow the
+        resurrection of the dead.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Another main principle in the belief of the Rabbis
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201"
+        id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is the election of Israel,
+        which imposes on them special duties, and gives them a peculiar
+        mission. Beloved are Israel, for they are called the children of God,
+        and His firstborn. <span class="tei tei-q">‘They shall endure for
+        ever’</span> through the merit of their fathers. There is an especial
+        covenant established between God and the tribes of Israel. God is
+        their father, and He said to them, My children, even as I have no
+        contact with the profanity of the world, so also withdraw yourselves
+        from it. And as I am holy, be ye also holy. Nay, sanctify thyself by
+        refraining even from that which is not forbidden thee. There is no
+        holiness without chastity.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The main duty of Israel is to sanctify the name of God,
+        for the Torah was only given that His great name might be glorified.
+        Better is it that a single letter of the law be cast out than that
+        the name of Heaven be profaned. And this also is the mission of
+        Israel in this world: to sanctify the name of God, as it is written,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘This people have I formed for myself, that
+        they may show forth my praise.’</span> Or, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘And thou shalt love the Lord thy God,’</span> which
+        means, Thou shalt make God beloved by all creatures, even as Abraham
+        did. Israel is the light of the world; as it is said, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘And nations shall walk by thy light.’</span> But he who
+        profanes the name of Heaven in secret will suffer the penalty thereof
+        in public; and this whether the Heavenly Name be profaned in
+        ignorance or in wilfulness.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Another duty towards God is to love Him and to fear Him.
+        God's only representative on earth is the God-fearing man. Woe unto
+        those who are occupied in the study of the Torah, but who have no
+        fear of God. But a still higher duty it is to perform the
+        commandments of God from love. For greater is he who submits to the
+        will of God from love than he who does so from
+        fear.</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg
+        202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Now, how shall man love God? This is answered in the
+        words of Scripture, <span class="tei tei-q">‘And these words shall be
+        upon thy heart.’</span> For by them thou wilt recognise Him whose
+        word called the world into existence, and follow His divine
+        attributes.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“God is righteous; be ye also righteous, O Israel. By
+        righteousness the Rabbis understand love of truth, hatred of lying
+        and backbiting. The seal of the Holy One, blessed be He, is Truth, of
+        which the actions of man should also bear the impress. Hence, let thy
+        yea be yea, and thy nay, nay. He who is honest in money transactions,
+        unto him this is reckoned as if he had fulfilled the whole of the
+        Torah. Greater is he who earns his livelihood by the labour of his
+        hands than even the God-fearing man; whilst the righteous judge is,
+        as it were, the companion of God in the government of the world. For
+        upon three things the world stands: upon truth, upon judgment, upon
+        peace; as it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Judge ye the truth and
+        the judgment of peace in your gates.’</span> But he who breaks his
+        word, his sin is as great as if he worshipped idols; and God, who
+        punished the people of the time of the Flood, will also punish him
+        who does not stand by his word. Such a one belongs to one of the four
+        classes who are not admitted into the presence of the Shechinah;
+        these are the scoffers, the hypocrites (who bring the wrath of God
+        into the world), the liars, and the slanderers. The sin of the
+        slanderer is like that of one who would deny the root (the root of
+        all religion, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the existence of God). The
+        greatest of liars, however, is he who perjures himself, which also
+        involves the sin of profanation of the name of God. The hypocrite,
+        who insinuates himself into people's good opinions, who wears his
+        phylacteries and is enwrapped <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> in his gown with the fringes, and secretly
+        commits sins, equally transgresses the command, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in
+        vain.’</span></span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“God is gracious and merciful; therefore man also should
+        be gracious and merciful. Hence, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt
+        love thy neighbour as thyself,’</span> which is a main principle in
+        the Torah. What is unpleasant to thyself, do not unto thy neighbour.
+        This is the whole Torah, to which the rest is only to be considered
+        as a commentary. And this love is also extended to the stranger, for
+        as it is said with regard to Israel, <span class="tei tei-q">‘And
+        thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself,’</span> so is it also said,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘And thou shalt love him (the stranger) as
+        thyself.’</span> And thus said God to Israel, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘My beloved children, Am I in want of anything that I
+        should request it of you? But what I ask of you is that you should
+        love, honour, and respect one another.’</span> Therefore, love
+        mankind, and bring them near to the Torah. Let the honour of thy
+        friend be as dear to thee as thine own. Condemn not thy fellow-man
+        until thou art come into his place, and judge all men in the scale of
+        merit. Say not <span class="tei tei-q">‘I will love scholars, but
+        hate their disciples;’</span> or even, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I
+        will love the disciples, but hate the ignorant,’</span> but love all,
+        for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer. Indeed,
+        during the age of the second Temple, men studied the Torah and the
+        commandments, and performed works of charity, but they hated each
+        other, a sin that outweighs all other sins, and for which the holy
+        Temple was destroyed. Be careful not to withdraw thy mercy from any
+        man, for he who does so rebels against the kingdom of God on earth.
+        Walk in the ways of God, who is merciful even to the wicked, and as
+        He is gracious alike to those who know Him, and to those who know
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204"
+        id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Him not, so be thou. Indeed,
+        charity is one of the three pillars on which the world is based. It
+        is more precious than all other virtues. The man who gives charity in
+        secret is greater even than Moses our teacher. An act of charity and
+        love it is to pray for our fellow-man, and to admonish him.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy neighbour,
+        and not suffer sin upon him’</span> (Lev. xix. 18), means it is thy
+        duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be, even if he be thy
+        superior; for Jerusalem was only destroyed for the sin of its people
+        in not admonishing one another. The man whose protest would be of any
+        weight, and who does not exercise his authority (when any wrong is
+        about to be committed), is held responsible for the whole
+        world.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love. Be
+        of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace. Let
+        every man be cautious in the fear of God; let him ever give the soft
+        answer that turneth away wrath; let him promote peace, not only among
+        his own relatives and acquaintances, but also among the Gentiles. For
+        (the labour of) all the prophets was to plant peace in the world. Be
+        exceeding lowly of spirit, since the hope of man is but the worm. Be
+        humble as Hillel, for he who is humble causes the Divine presence to
+        dwell with man. But the proud man makes God say, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘I and he cannot dwell in the same place.’</span> He who
+        runs after glory, glory flees from him, and he who flees from glory,
+        glory shall pursue him. Be of those who are despised rather than of
+        those who despise; of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors;
+        be of those who bear their reproach in silence and answer
+        not.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Another distinctive mark of Judaism is faith in God,
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205"
+        id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and perfect confidence in Him.
+        Which is the right course for a man to choose for himself? Let him
+        have a strong faith in God, as it is said, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘Mine eye shall be upon the faithful (meaning those
+        possessing faith in God) of the land.’</span> And so also Habakkuk
+        based the whole Torah on the principle of faith, as it is said,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘And the just shall live by his faith’</span>
+        (ii. 4). He who but fulfils a single commandment in absolute faith in
+        God deserves that the Holy Spirit should rest on him. Blessed is the
+        man who fears God in private, and trusts in Him with all his heart,
+        for such fear and trust arms him against every misfortune. He who
+        puts his trust in the Holy One, blessed be He, God becomes his shield
+        and protection in this world and in the next. He who has bread in his
+        basket for to-day, and says, <span class="tei tei-q">‘What shall I
+        have to eat to-morrow?’</span> is a man of little faith. One
+        consequence of real faith is always to believe in the justice of
+        God's judgments. It is the duty of man to thank God when he is
+        visited with misfortune as he does in the time of prosperity.
+        Therefore, blessed is the man who, when visited by suffering,
+        questions not God's justice. But what shall he do? Let him examine
+        his conduct and repent.</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“For repentance is the greatest prerogative of man.
+        Better is one hour of repentance and good deeds in this world than
+        the whole life of the world to come. The aim of all wisdom is
+        repentance and good deeds. The place where the truly penitent shall
+        stand is higher than that of the righteous. Repentance finds its
+        special expression in prayer; and when it is said in Scripture,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">‘Serve God with all thy heart,’</span> by
+        this is meant, serve Him by prayer, which is even greater than
+        worship by means of sacrifices. Never is a prayer entirely unanswered
+        by God. Therefore, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg
+        206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        even though the sword be on a man's neck, let him not cease to
+        supplicate God's mercy. But regard not thy prayer as a fixed
+        mechanical task, but as an appeal for mercy and grace before the
+        All-Present; as it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘For He is
+        gracious and full of mercy, slow to anger, abounding in
+        loving-kindness, and repenteth him of the evil.’</span> ”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last two
+        volumes of Weiss's work deal with the history of Tradition during the
+        Middle Ages, that is, from the conclusion of the Talmud to the
+        compilation of the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro. I have already
+        indicated that with Weiss Tradition did not terminate with the
+        conclusion of the Talmud. It only means that a certain undefinable
+        kind of literature, mostly held in dialogue form and containing many
+        elements of Tradition, was at last brought to an end. The authorities
+        who did this editorial work were the so-called <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Rabbanan
+        Saburai</span></span><a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href=
+        "#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> and the
+        <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Gaonim</span></span>, whose lives and literary
+        activity are fully described by Weiss. But, while thus engaged in
+        preserving their inheritance from the past, they were also enriching
+        Tradition by new contributions, both the Saburai and the Gaonim
+        having not only added to and diminished from the Talmud, but having
+        also introduced avowedly new ordinances and decrees, and created new
+        institutions.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, it cannot be
+        denied that a few of these ordinances and decrees had a reforming
+        tendency (see the second and twentieth chapters of vol. iv.); in
+        general, however, they took a more conservative turn than was the
+        case in the previous ages. This must be ascribed to the event of the
+        great schism within the Rabbinical camp itself. I refer to the rise
+        of Caraism, which took place during the first half of the eighth
+        century.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg
+        207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is probably
+        no work in which the Halachic or legalistic side of this sect is
+        better described than in this volume of Weiss. I regret that I am
+        unable to enter into its details. But I cannot refrain from pointing
+        to one of the main principles of the Caraites. This was <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Search the Scriptures.”</span> Now this does not look
+        very dissimilar from the principle held by the Rabbis. For what else
+        is the Talmud, but a thorough searching through the Bible for
+        whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances? The light which
+        the Caraites applied to the searching of the Scriptures was the same
+        which illumined the paths of the Rabbis' investigations. They
+        employed most of the expository rules of the Tannaite schools. The
+        fact is that they were only determined to find something different
+        from what the Rabbis found in the Scriptures. They wanted to have
+        gloomy Sabbaths and Festivals, and discovered authority for it in the
+        Bible; they wanted to retain most of the dietary laws which had their
+        root only in Tradition, but insisted on petty differences which they
+        thought might be inferred from the Scriptures, and they created a new
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“order of inheritance,”</span> and varied the
+        forbidden degrees in marriage, in all which the only merit was that
+        they were in contradiction to the interpretation of the Rabbis. They
+        also refused to accept the Liturgy of Rabbinical Judaism, but never
+        succeeded in producing more than a patch-work from verses of the
+        Bible, which, thus recast, they called a prayer-book. There were
+        undoubtedly among their leaders many serious and sincere men, but
+        they give us the impression of prigs, as for instance, Moses Darai,
+        when he reproaches the Rabbinical Jews for having an <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“easy religion,”</span> or Israel Hammaarabi, when he
+        recommended his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208"
+        id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of animals, as having the
+        special advantage that his decisions were always on the more
+        stringent side. Those who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land were by
+        the Caraites canonised as <span class="tei tei-q">“mourners.”</span>
+        The Rabbanite R. Judah Hallevi also visited the ruins of Jerusalem,
+        but he did something more than <span class="tei tei-q">“mourn and
+        sigh and cry,”</span> he became a God-intoxicated singer, and wrote
+        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Zion-Elegy.”</span> The novel
+        terminology which they use in their exegetical and theological works,
+        was only invented to spite the Rabbanites, and marks its authors as
+        pedants. On the other hand, it is not to be denied that their
+        opponents did not employ the best means to conciliate them. The
+        Middle Ages knew no other remedy against schism than excommunication,
+        and the Gaonim were the children of their time. Nor were the
+        arguments which the latter brought forward in defence of Tradition
+        always calculated to convince the Caraites of their error. When R.
+        Saadiah, in his apology for the institution of the Second Day of the
+        Festival,<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" href=
+        "#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> went
+        the length of assigning to it a Sinaitic origin, he could only
+        succeed in making the Caraites more suspicious of the claims of
+        Tradition than before. In a later generation one of his own party, R.
+        Hai Gaon, had to declare his predecessor's words a <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“controversial exaggeration.”</span> The zeal which some
+        of the Gaonim showed in their defence of such works as the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Chambers</span></span> and the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Measure of the
+        Stature</span></span><a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href=
+        "#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> was a
+        not less unfortunate thing, for it involved the Rabbanites in
+        unnecessary responsibilities for a new class of literature of
+        doubtful origin, which in succeeding centuries was disowned by the
+        best minds in Judaism.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Gaonic period,
+        to which we also owe the rise of the Massorah and the introduction of
+        points in the text of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg
+        209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Bible—of which Weiss treats fully in the twenty-third and
+        twenty-fourth chapters of vol. iv.—comes to an end with the death of
+        R. Hai. The famous schools of Sura and Pumbeditha, over which these
+        two Gaonim presided, fell into decay, and Babylon ceased to be the
+        centre of Judaism. To be more exact, we should say that Judaism had
+        no longer any real centre. Instead of dwelling in one place for
+        centuries, we now have to be perpetually on our journey, accompanying
+        our authors through all the inhabited parts of the world—France,
+        Italy, Spain, Germany, with an occasional trip to Africa and Russia.
+        There we shall meet with the new schools, each of which, though
+        interpreting the same Torah, occupied with the study of the same
+        Talmud, and even conforming more or less to the same mode of life,
+        has an individuality and character of its own, reflecting the thought
+        and habits of the country which it represents. Thus <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“geographical Judaism”</span> becomes a factor in history
+        which no scholar can afford to neglect. It is true that Judaism never
+        remained entirely unbiassed by foreign ideas, and our author points
+        in many a place to Persian, Greek, and Roman influences on Tradition;
+        still, these influences seem to have undergone such a thorough
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Judaization”</span> that it is only the
+        practised eye of the scholar that is able to see through the
+        transformation. But it requires no great skill to discriminate
+        between the work produced by a Spanish and that of a French Rabbi.
+        Though both would write in Hebrew, they betray themselves very soon
+        by the style, diction, and train of thought peculiar to each country.
+        The Spaniard is always logical, clear, and systematising, whilst the
+        French Rabbi has very little sense of order, is always writing
+        occasional notes, has a great tendency to be <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> obscure, but is mostly profound and critical.
+        Hence the fact that whilst Spain produced the greatest codifiers of
+        the law, we owe to France and Germany the best commentaries on the
+        Talmud. What these codes and commentaries meant for Judaism the
+        student will find in Weiss's book, and still more fully in his
+        admirable essays on Rashi (Solomon b. Isaac), Maimonides, and R.
+        Jacob Tam (published in his periodical, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+        Talmud</span></span>, and also separately). It is enough for us here
+        only to notice the fact of the breadth of Tradition, which could
+        include within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics,
+        Maimonides, Solomon b. Gabirol, and Abn Ezra on one side, and the
+        simple <span class="tei tei-q">“non-questioning”</span> Rabbenu
+        Gershom, Rashi, and Jacob Tam on the other.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last three
+        centuries, which occupy our author's attention in the fifth volume,
+        are not remarkable for their progress. The world lives on the past.
+        The rationalists write treatises on Maimonides' philosophical works,
+        whilst the German Talmudists add commentary to commentary. It is,
+        indeed, the reign of authority, <span class="tei tei-q">“modified by
+        accidents.”</span> Such an accident was the struggle between the
+        Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists, or the rise of the Cabbalah, or the
+        frequent controversies with Christians, all of which tended to direct
+        the minds of people into new channels of thought. But though this
+        period is less original in its work, it is not on that account less
+        sympathetic. One cannot read those beautiful descriptions which Weiss
+        gives of R. Meir of Rothenburg and his school, or of R. Asher and his
+        descendants, without feeling that one is in an atmosphere of saints,
+        who are the more attractive the less they were conscious of their own
+        saintliness. The only mistake, perhaps, was that the successors of
+        these <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name=
+        "Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Chassidim or pious men of Germany”</span> looked on many
+        of the religious customs that were merely the voluntary expression of
+        particularly devout souls as worthy of imitation by the whole
+        community, and made them obligatory upon all.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This brings us to
+        the question of the Code already mentioned (by R. Joseph Caro), with
+        which Weiss's work concludes. I have already transgressed the limits
+        of an essay, without flattering myself that I have done anything like
+        justice to the greatest work on Jewish Tradition which modern Jewish
+        genius has produced. But I should not like the reader to carry away
+        with him the false impression that our author shares in the general
+        cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“Save us from the Codifiers.”</span>
+        Weiss, himself a Rabbi, and the disciple of the greatest Rabbis of
+        the first half of this century, is quite aware of the impossibility
+        of having a law without a kind of manual to it, which brings the
+        fluid matter into some fixed form, classifying it under its proper
+        headings, and this is what we call codifying the law. And thus he
+        never passes any attempt made in this direction without paying due
+        tribute to its author—be it Maimonides or Caro. But however great the
+        literary value of a code may be, it does not invest it with the
+        attribute of infallibility, nor does it exempt the student or the
+        Rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph
+        on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same rules of
+        interpretation that were always applied to Tradition. Indeed, Weiss
+        shows that Maimonides deviated in some cases from his own code, when
+        it was required by circumstances.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor do I know any
+        modern author who is more in favour of strong authority than Weiss.
+        His treatment of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg
+        212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
+        struggle between the Patriarch R. Gamaliel and his adversaries, which
+        I have touched on above, proves this sufficiently. What Weiss really
+        objects to, is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">weak</span></em> authority—I mean that
+        phonograph-like authority which is always busy in reproducing the
+        voice of others without an opinion of its own, without originality,
+        without initiative and discretion. The real authorities are those
+        who, drawing their inspiration from the past, also understand how to
+        reconcile us with the present and to prepare us for the future.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name=
+      "Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">VIII. The Doctrine of Divine
+        Retribution in Rabbinical Literature</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Blessed be he who knows.”</span> These are the words
+        with which Nachmanides, in his classical treatise, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gate of
+        Reward</span></span>, dismisses a certain theory of the Gaonim with
+        regard to this question; after which he proceeds to expound another
+        theory, which seems to him more satisfactory. This mode of treatment
+        implies that, unsatisfactory as the one or other theory may appear to
+        us, it would be presumptuous to reject either entirely, there being
+        only One who knows the exact truth about the great mystery. But we
+        may indicate our doubt about one doctrine by putting by its side
+        another, which we may affirm to be not more absolutely true, but more
+        probable. This seems to have been the attitude, too, of the compilers
+        of the ancient Rabbinical literature, in which the most conflicting
+        views about this grave subject were embodied. Nor did the Synagogue
+        in general feel called upon to decide between these views. There is
+        indeed no want of theodicies, for almost every important expounder of
+        Job, as well as every Jewish philosopher of note, has one with its
+        own system of retribution. Thus Judaism has no fixed doctrine on the
+        subject. It refused a hearing to no theory, for fear that it should
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214"
+        id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> contain some germ of truth,
+        but on the same ground it accepted none to the exclusion of the
+        others.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These theories
+        may, perhaps, be conveniently reduced to the two following main
+        doctrines that are in direct opposition to each other, whilst all
+        other views about the subject will be treated as the more or less
+        logical results of the one or other doctrine.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. There is no
+        death without (preceding) sin, nor affliction without (preceding)
+        transgression.<a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href=
+        "#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> This
+        view is cited in the name of R. Ammi, who quoted in corroboration the
+        verses Ez. xviii. 20, and Ps. lxxxix. 33. Though this Rabbi
+        flourished towards the end of the third century, there is hardly any
+        doubt that his view was held by the authorities of a much earlier
+        date. For it can only be under the sway of such a notion of
+        Retribution that the Tannaim were so anxious to assign some great
+        crime as the antecedent to every serious calamity by which mankind
+        was visited. The following illustrations will suffice:—<span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Pestilence comes into the world for capital crimes
+        mentioned in the Torah, which are not brought before the earthly
+        tribunal.... Noisome beasts come into the world for vain swearing and
+        for profanation of the name (of God). Captivity comes upon the world
+        for strange worship and incest, and for shedding of blood and for
+        (not) giving release to the land.”</span> As an example of the
+        misfortune befalling the individual I will merely allude to a passage
+        in another tractate of the Talmud, according to which leprosy is to
+        be regarded as the penalty for immorality, slander, perjury, and
+        similar sins.<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href=
+        "#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we were now to
+        complement R. Ammi's view by adding that there is no happiness
+        without some preceding merit—and there is no serious objection to
+        making this <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg
+        215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        addition—then it would resolve itself into the theory of Measure for
+        Measure, which forms a very common standard of reward and punishment
+        in Jewish literature. Here are a few instances:—<span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Because the Egyptians wanted to destroy Israel by water
+        (Exod. i. 22), they were themselves destroyed by the waters of the
+        Red Sea, as it is said, Therefore I will <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">measure</span></em>
+        their former work into their bosom (Is. lxv. 7);”</span> whilst, on
+        the other hand, we read, <span class="tei tei-q">“Because Abraham
+        showed himself hospitable towards strangers, providing them with
+        water (Gen. xviii. 4), God gave to his children a country blessed
+        with plenty of water (Deut. viii. 1).”</span> Sometimes this form of
+        retribution goes so far as to define a special punishment to that
+        part of the body which mostly contributed to the committing of the
+        sin. Thus we read, <span class="tei tei-q">“Samson rebelled against
+        God by his eyes, as it is said, Get her (the Philistine woman) for
+        me, for she pleases <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">my eyes</span></em> (Judg. xvi. 21); therefore
+        his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">eyes</span></em> were put out by the Philistines
+        (Judg. xviii. 9)”</span>; whilst Absalom, whose sinful pride began by
+        his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">hair</span></em> (2 Sam. xiv. 25), met his fate
+        by his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">hair</span></em> (2 Sam. xviii. 9).<a id=
+        "noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> Nahum
+        of Gemzo himself explained his blindness and the maimed condition of
+        his arms and legs as a consequence of a specific offence in having
+        neglected the duty of succouring a poor man. Addressing the dead body
+        of the suppliant who perished while Nahum was delaying his help, he
+        said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let my eyes (which had no pity for
+        your pitiful gaze) become blind; may my hands and legs (that did not
+        hasten to help thine) become maimed, and finally my whole body be
+        covered with boils.”</span><a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159"
+        href="#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“This was the hand that wrote it,”</span>
+        said Cranmer at the stake; <span class="tei tei-q">“therefore it
+        shall first suffer punishment.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is worth
+        noticing that this retribution does not always <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> consist in a material reward, but, as Ben
+        Azzai expressed it: <span class="tei tei-q">“The reward of a command
+        is a command, and the reward of a transgression is a
+        transgression.”</span><a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href=
+        "#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> So
+        again: <span class="tei tei-q">“Because Abraham showed himself so
+        magnanimous in his treatment of the king of Sodom, and said, I will
+        not take from thee a thread; therefore, his children enjoyed the
+        privilege of having the command of Zizith, consisting in putting a
+        thread or fringe in the border of their garments.”</span> In another
+        passage we read, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who is anxious to do
+        acts of charity will be rewarded by having the means enabling him to
+        do so.”</span><a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href=
+        "#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> In more
+        general terms the same thought is expressed when the Rabbis explained
+        the words, Ye shall sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy (Lev.
+        xi. 44), to the effect that if man takes the initiative in holiness,
+        even though in a small way, Heaven will help him to reach it to a
+        much higher degree.<a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href=
+        "#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Notwithstanding
+        these passages, to which many more might be added, it cannot be
+        denied that there are in the Rabbinical literature many passages
+        holding out promises of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">material</span></em> reward to the righteous as
+        well as threatening the wicked with <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">material</span></em>
+        punishment. Nor is there any need of denying it. Simple-minded
+        men—and such the majority of the Rabbis were—will never be persuaded
+        into looking with indifference on pain and pleasure; they will be far
+        from thinking that poverty, loss of children, and sickness are no
+        evil, and that a rich harvest, hope of posterity, and good health,
+        are not desirable things. It <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">does</span></em> lie in our nature to consider
+        the former as curses and the latter as blessings; <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“and if this be wrong there is no one to be made
+        responsible for it but the Creator of nature.”</span> Accordingly the
+        question must arise, How can a just and omnipotent God allow it to
+        happen that men <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg
+        217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        should suffer innocently? The most natural suggestion towards solving
+        the difficulty would be that we are <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
+        innocent. Hence R. Ammi's assertion that affliction and death are
+        both the outcome of sin and transgression; or, as R. Chanina ben
+        Dossa expressed it, <span class="tei tei-q">“It is not the wild beast
+        but sin which kills.”</span><a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163"
+        href="#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may thus
+        perceive in this theory an attempt <span class="tei tei-q">“to
+        justify the ways of God to man.”</span> Unfortunately it does not
+        correspond with the real facts. The cry wrung from the prophets
+        against the peace enjoyed by the wicked, and the pains inflicted on
+        the righteous, which finds its echo in so many Psalms, and reaches
+        its climax in the Book of Job, was by no means silenced in the times
+        of the Rabbis. If long experience could be of any use, it only served
+        to deepen perplexity. For all this suffering of the people of God,
+        and the prosperity of their wicked persecutors, which perplexed the
+        prophets and their immediate followers, were repeated during the
+        death-struggle for independence against Rome, and were not lessened
+        by the establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion. The
+        only comfort which time brought them was, perhaps, that the long
+        continuance of misfortune made them less sensible to suffering than
+        their ancestors were. Indeed, a Rabbi of the first century said that
+        his generation had by continuous experience of misery become as
+        insensible to pain as the dead body is to a prick of a needle.<a id=
+        "noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> The
+        anæsthetic effect of long suffering may, indeed, help one to endure
+        pain with more patience, but it cannot serve as an apology for the
+        deed of the inflictors of the pain. The question, then, how to
+        reconcile hard reality with the justice of God, remained as difficult
+        as ever.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg
+        218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most important
+        passage in Rabbinical literature relating to the solution of this
+        problem is the following:—With reference to Exod. xxxiii. 13, R.
+        Johanan said, in the name of R. José, that, among other things, Moses
+        also asked God to explain to him the method of his Providence, a
+        request that was granted to him. He asked God, Why are there
+        righteous people who are prosperous, and righteous who suffer; wicked
+        who are prosperous and wicked who suffer? The answer given to him
+        was, according to the one view, that the prosperity of the wicked and
+        the suffering of the righteous are a result of the conduct of their
+        ancestors, the former being the descendants of righteous parents and
+        enjoying their merits, whilst the latter, coming from a bad stock,
+        suffer for the sins of those to whom they owe their existence. This
+        view was suggested by the Scriptural words, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Keeping mercy for thousands (of generations) ...
+        visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children”</span> (Exod.
+        xxxiv. 7), which were regarded as the answer to Moses' question in
+        the preceding chapter of Exodus.<a id="noteref_165" name=
+        "noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a>
+        Prevalent, however, as this view may have been in ancient times, the
+        Rabbis never allowed it to pass without some qualification. It is
+        true that they had no objection to the former part of this doctrine,
+        and they speak very frequently of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Merits
+        of the Fathers”</span> for which the remotest posterity is rewarded;
+        for this could be explained on the ground of the boundless goodness
+        of God, which cannot be limited to the short space of a lifetime. But
+        there was no possibility of overcoming the moral objection against
+        punishment of people for sins they have not committed.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will suffice to
+        mention here that, with reference to Joshua vii. 24, 25, the Rabbis
+        asked the question, If he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg
+        219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        (Achan) sinned, what justification could there be for putting his
+        sons and daughters to death? And by the force of this argument they
+        interpreted the words of the Scriptures to mean that the children of
+        the criminal were only compelled to be present at the execution of
+        their father.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such passages,
+        therefore, as would imply that children have to suffer for the sins
+        of their parents are explained by the Rabbis as referring to cases in
+        which the children perpetuate the crimes of their fathers.<a id=
+        "noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> The
+        view of R. José, which I have already quoted, had, therefore, to be
+        dropped, and another version in the name of the same Rabbi is
+        accepted. According to this theory the sufferer is a person either
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“entirely wicked”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“not perfectly righteous,”</span> whilst the prosperous
+        man is a person either <span class="tei tei-q">“perfectly
+        righteous,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“not entirely
+        wicked.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is hardly
+        necessary to say that there is still something wanting to supplement
+        this view, for the given classification would place the not entirely
+        wicked on the same level with the perfectly righteous, and on a much
+        higher level than the imperfectly righteous, who are undoubtedly far
+        superior. The following passage may be regarded as supplying this
+        missing something:—<span class="tei tei-q">“The wicked who have done
+        some good work are as amply rewarded for it in <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em>
+        world as if they were men who have fulfilled the whole of the Torah,
+        so that they may be punished for their sins in the next world
+        (without interruption); whilst the righteous who have committed some
+        sin have to suffer for it (in this world) as if "they were men who
+        burned the Law,”</span> so that they may enjoy their reward in the
+        world to come (without interruption).<a id="noteref_167" name=
+        "noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> Thus
+        the real retribution takes place in the next world, the fleeting
+        existence on earth not being the fit time either to compensate
+        righteousness <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg
+        220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or
+        to punish sin. But as, on the one hand, God never allows <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“that the merit of any creature should be cut
+        short,”</span> whilst, on the other hand, He deals very severely with
+        the righteous, punishing them for the slightest transgression; since,
+        too, this reward and punishment are only of short duration, they must
+        take place in this short terrestrial existence. There is thus
+        established a sort of divine economy, lest the harmony of the next
+        world should be disturbed.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet another
+        objection to the doctrine under discussion remains to be noticed. It
+        is that it justifies God by accusing man, declaring every sufferer as
+        more or less of a sinner. But such a notion, if carried to its last
+        consequences, must result in tempting us to withhold our sympathies
+        from him. And, indeed, it would seem that there were some non-Jewish
+        philosophers who argued in this way. Thus a certain Roman official is
+        reported to have said to R. Akiba, <span class="tei tei-q">“How can
+        you be so eager in helping the poor? Suppose only a king, who, in his
+        wrath against his slave, were to set him in the gaol, and give orders
+        to withhold from him food and drink; if, then, one dared to act to
+        the contrary, would not the king be angry with him?”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> There
+        is some appearance of logic in this notion put into the mouth of a
+        heathen. The Rabbis, however, were inconsistent people, and responded
+        to the appeal which suffering makes to every human heart without
+        asking too many questions. Without entering here into the topic of
+        charity in the Rabbinic literature, which would form a very
+        interesting chapter, I shall only allude now to the following
+        incident, which would show that the Rabbis did not abandon even those
+        afflicted with leprosy, which, according to their own <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> notion, given above, followed only as a
+        punishment for the worst crimes. One Friday, we are told, when the
+        day was about to darken, the Chassid Abba Tachnah was returning home,
+        bearing on his shoulders the baggage that contained all his fortune;
+        he saw a leprous man lying on the road, who addressed him:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Rabbi, do me a deed of charity and take me
+        into the town.”</span> The Rabbi now thought, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“If I leave my baggage, where shall I find the means of
+        obtaining subsistence for myself and my family? But if I forsake this
+        leprous man I shall commit a mortal sin.”</span> In the end, he
+        allowed the good inclination to prevail over the evil one, and first
+        carried the sufferer to the town.<a id="noteref_169" name=
+        "noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> The
+        only practical conclusion that the Rabbis drew from such theories as
+        identify suffering with sin were for the sufferer himself, who
+        otherwise might be inclined to blame Providence, or even to
+        blaspheme, but would now look upon his affliction as a reminder from
+        heaven that there is something wrong in his moral state. Thus we read
+        in tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>:<a id="noteref_170"
+        name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“If a man sees that affliction comes upon
+        him, he ought to inquire into his actions, as it is said, Let us
+        search and try our ways, and turn again to the Lord (Lam. iii.
+        40).”</span> This means to say that the sufferer will find that he
+        has been guilty of some offence. As an illustration of this statement
+        we may perhaps consider the story about R. Huna, occurring in the
+        same tractate.<a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href=
+        "#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> Of this
+        Rabbi it is said that he once experienced heavy pecuniary losses,
+        whereupon his friends came to his house and said to him, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Let the master but examine his conduct a little
+        closer.”</span> On this R. Huna answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“Do
+        you suspect me of having committed some misdeed?”</span> His friends
+        rejoined, <span class="tei tei-q">“And do you think that God would
+        pass judgment without <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg
+        222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        justice?”</span> R. Huna then followed their hint, and found that he
+        did not treat his tenant farmer so generously as he ought. He offered
+        redress, and all turned out well in the end. Something similar is to
+        be found in the story of the martyrdom of R. Simeon ben Gamaliel and
+        R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Of these Rabbis we are told that on their way
+        to be executed the one said to the other, <span class="tei tei-q">“My
+        heart leaves me, for I am not aware of a sin deserving such a
+        death”</span>; on which the other answered, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“It might have happened that in your function as judge
+        you sometimes—for your own convenience—were slow in administering
+        justice.”</span><a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href=
+        "#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even if the
+        personal actions of the righteous were blameless, there might still
+        be sufficient ground for his being afflicted and miserable. This may
+        be found in his relations to his kind and surroundings, or, to use
+        the term now more popular, by reason of human solidarity. Now, after
+        the above remarks on the objections entertained by the Rabbis against
+        a man's being punished for the sins of others, it is hardly necessary
+        to say that their idea of solidarity has little in common with the
+        crude notions of it current in very ancient times. Still, it can
+        hardly be doubted that the relation of the individual to the
+        community was more keenly felt by the Rabbis than by the leaders in
+        any other society, modern or ancient. According to the view given by
+        an ancient Rabbi whose name is unknown, it would, indeed, seem that
+        to them the individual was not simply a member of the Jewish
+        commonwealth, or a co-religionist, but a limb of the great and single
+        body <span class="tei tei-q">“Israel,”</span> and that as such he
+        communicated both for good and evil the sensations of the one part to
+        the whole. In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>, where a parallel is to be
+        found to this idea, the responsibility <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the individual towards the community is
+        further illustrated by R. Simeon ben Yochai, in the following way:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“It is,”</span> we read there, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“to be compared to people sitting on board a ship, one of
+        the passengers of which took an awl and began to bore holes in the
+        bottom of the vessel. Asked to desist from his dangerous occupation,
+        he answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Why, I am only making holes on
+        my own seat,’</span> forgetting that when the water came in it would
+        sink the whole ship.”</span> Thus the sin of a single man might
+        endanger the whole of humanity. It was in conformity with the view of
+        his father that R. Eliezer, the son of R. Simeon (ben Yochai) said,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The world is judged after the merits or
+        demerits of the majority, so that a single individual by his good or
+        bad actions can decide the fate of his fellow-creatures, as it may
+        happen that he is just the one who constitutes this
+        majority.”</span><a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href=
+        "#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> Nor
+        does this responsibility cease with the man's own actions. According
+        to the Rabbis man is responsible even for the conduct of others—and
+        as such liable to punishment—if he is indifferent to the wrong that
+        is being perpetrated about him, whilst an energetic protest from his
+        side could have prevented it. And the greater the man the greater is
+        his responsibility. He may suffer for the sins of his family which is
+        first reached by his influence; he may suffer for the sins of the
+        whole community if he could hope to find a willing ear among them,
+        and he may even suffer for the sins of the whole world if his
+        influence extend so far, and he forbear from exerting it for
+        good.<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href=
+        "#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> Thus
+        the possibility is given that the righteous man may suffer with
+        justice, though he himself has never committed any transgression.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a much higher
+        aspect of this solidarity—and as may have already suggested itself to
+        the reader from the passage <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg
+        224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        cited above from the anonymous Rabbi—we may regard the suffering of
+        the righteous as an atonement for the sins of their contemporaries.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“When there will be neither Tabernacle nor
+        the Holy Temple,”</span> Moses is said to have asked God,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“what will become of Israel?”</span>
+        Whereupon God answers, <span class="tei tei-q">“I will take from
+        among them the righteous man whom I shall consider as pledged for
+        them, and will forgive all their sins;”</span> the death of the
+        perfect man, or even his suffering being looked upon as an expiation
+        for the shortcoming of his generation.<a id="noteref_175" name=
+        "noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is hardly
+        necessary to remind the reader of the affinity of this idea with that
+        of sacrifices in general, as in both cases it is the innocent being
+        which has to suffer for the sins of another creature. But there is
+        one vital point which makes all the difference. It is that in our
+        case the suffering is not enforced, but is a voluntary act on the
+        part of the sacrifice, and is even desired by him. Without entering
+        here on the often-discussed theme of the suffering of the Messiah, I
+        need only mention the words of R. Ishmael who, on a very slight
+        provocation, exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the atonement
+        for the Jews,”</span> which means that he took upon him all their
+        sins to suffer for them.<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href=
+        "#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> This
+        desire seems to have its origin in nothing else than a deep sympathy
+        and compassion with Israel. To suffer <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for</span></em>, or,
+        at least <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">with</span></em> Israel was, according to the
+        Rabbis, already the ideal of Moses. He is said, indeed, to have
+        broken the Two Tables with the purpose of committing some sin, so
+        that he would have either to be condemned together with Israel (for
+        the sin of the golden calf), or to be pardoned together with
+        them.<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href=
+        "#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> And
+        this conduct was expected not only from the leaders of Israel, but
+        almost from every Jew. <span class="tei tei-q">“When Israel is in a
+        state of affliction (as, for instance, famine) one <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> must not say, I will rather live by
+        myself, and eat and drink, and peace be unto thee, my soul. To those
+        who do so the words of the Scriptures are to be applied: And in that
+        day did the Lord God of Hosts call to weeping and to mourning, ...
+        and behold joy and gladness.... Surely this iniquity shall not be
+        purged out from you till ye die”</span> (Is. xxii. 12-14). Another
+        passage is to the effect that, when a man shows himself indifferent
+        to the suffering of the community, there come the two angels (who
+        accompany every Jew), put their hands on his head, and say,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“This man who has separated himself shall be
+        excluded from their consolations.”</span><a id="noteref_178" name=
+        "noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We might now
+        characterise this sort of suffering as the chastisement of love (of
+        the righteous) to mankind, or rather to Israel. But we must not
+        confuse it with the Chastisement of Love often mentioned in the
+        Talmud, though this idea also seems calculated to account for the
+        suffering of the righteous. Here the love is not on the side of the
+        sufferer, but proceeds from him who inflicts this suffering.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Him,”</span> says R. Huna, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“in whom God delights he crushes with suffering.”</span>
+        As a proof of this theory the words of Is. liii. 10 are given, which
+        are interpreted to mean: him whom the Lord delights in He puts to
+        grief. Another passage, by the same authority, is to the effect that
+        where there is no sufficient cause for punishment (the man being
+        entirely free from sin), we have to regard his suffering as a
+        chastisement of love, for it is said: <span class="tei tei-q">“Whom
+        the Lord loveth He correcteth”</span> (Proverbs iii. 11).<a id=
+        "noteref_179" name="noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> To what
+        purpose He corrects him may, perhaps, be seen from the following
+        passage: <span class="tei tei-q">“R. Eleazar ben Jacob says: If a man
+        is visited by affliction he has to be thankful to God for it: for
+        suffering draws man to, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg
+        226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        reconciles him with God, as it is said: For whom God loveth he
+        correcteth.”</span><a id="noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href=
+        "#note_180"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is in
+        conformity with such a high conception that affliction, far from
+        being dreaded, becomes almost a desirable end, and we hear many
+        Rabbis exclaim, <span class="tei tei-q">“Beloved is
+        suffering,”</span> for by it fatherly love is shown to man by God; by
+        it man obtains purification and atonement, by it Israel came in
+        possession of the best gifts, such as the Torah, the Holy Land, and
+        eternal life.<a id="noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href=
+        "#note_181"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> And so
+        also the sufferer, far from being considered as a man with a
+        suspected past, becomes an object of veneration, on whom the glory of
+        God rests, and he brings salvation to the world if he bears his
+        affliction with joyful submission to the will of God.<a id=
+        "noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href="#note_182"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a>
+        Continuous prosperity is by no means to be longed after, for, as R.
+        Ishmael taught, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who has passed forty days
+        without meeting adversity has already received his (share of the)
+        world (to come) in this life.”</span><a id="noteref_183" name=
+        "noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> Nay,
+        the standing rule is that the really righteous suffer, whilst the
+        wicked are supposed to be in a prosperous state. Thus, R. Jannai
+        said, <span class="tei tei-q">“We (average people) enjoy neither the
+        prosperity of the wicked nor the afflictions of the
+        righteous,”</span><a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href=
+        "#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> whilst
+        his contemporary, Rab, declared that he who experiences no affliction
+        and persecution does not belong to them (the Jews).<a id=
+        "noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. The second main
+        view on Retribution is that recorded by the Rabbis as in direct
+        opposition to that of R. Ammi. It is that there is suffering as well
+        as death without sin and transgression. We may now just as well infer
+        that there is prosperity and happiness without preceding merits. And
+        this is, indeed, the view held by R. Meir. For in contradiction to
+        the view cited above, R. Meir declares that the request of Moses to
+        have <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name=
+        "Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> explained to him the
+        mysterious ways of Providence was <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
+        granted, and the answer he received was, <span class="tei tei-q">“And
+        I will shew mercy on whom I will shew mercy”</span> (Exod. xxxiii.
+        19), which means to say, even though he to whom the mercy is shown be
+        unworthy of it. The old question arises how such a procedure is to be
+        reconciled with the justice and omnipotence of God. The commentaries
+        try to evade the difficulty by suggesting some of the views given
+        above, as that the real reward and punishment are only in the world
+        to come, or that the affliction of the righteous is only chastisement
+        of love, and so on. From the passages I am about to quote, however,
+        one gains the impression that some Rabbis rather thought that this
+        great problem will indeed not bear discussion or solution at all.
+        Thus we have the legend: <span class="tei tei-q">“The angels said to
+        God, why have you punished Adam with death? He answered, On account
+        of his having transgressed my commandment (with regard to the eating
+        of the tree of knowledge). But why had Moses and Aaron to die? The
+        reply given to them is the words, Eccl. ix. 2: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘All things come alike to all; there is one event to the
+        righteous and to the wicked, to the good and to the clean and to the
+        unclean.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href=
+        "#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> Another
+        legend records, <span class="tei tei-q">“When Moses ascended to
+        heaven, God showed him also the great men of futurity. R. Akiba was
+        sitting and interpreting the law in a most wonderful way. Moses said
+        to God: Thou hast shown me his worth, show me also his reward; on
+        which he is bidden to look back. There he perceives him dying the
+        most cruel of deaths, and his flesh being sold by weight. Moses now
+        asks: Is this the reward of such a life? whereupon God answers him:
+        Be silent; this I have determined.”</span><a id="noteref_187" name=
+        "noteref_187" href="#note_187"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is impossible
+        not to think of the fine lines of the German poet:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Warum schleppt sich blutend,
+              elend,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Unter Kreuzlast der
+              Gerechte,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Während glücklich als ein
+              Sieger</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Trabt auf hohem Ross der
+              Schlechte?</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Also fragen wir beständig,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Bis man uns mit einer
+              Handvoll</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Erde endlich stopft die
+              Mäuler—</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Aber ist das eine Antwort?</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, one might
+        perhaps suggest that these passages when examined a little closer,
+        not only contain a rebuke to man's importunity in wanting to intrude
+        into the secrets of God, but also hint at the possibility that even
+        God's omnipotence is submitted to a certain law—though designed by
+        His own holy will—which He could not alter without detriment to the
+        whole creation. Indeed, in one of the mystical accounts of the
+        martyrdom of R. Akiba and other great Rabbis, God is represented as
+        asking the sufferers to accept His hard decree without protest,
+        unless they wish Him to destroy the whole world. In another place
+        again, we read of a certain renowned Rabbi, who lived in great
+        poverty, that once in a dream he asked the divine Shechinah how long
+        he would have still to endure this bitter privation? The answer given
+        to him was: <span class="tei tei-q">“My son, will it please you that
+        I destroy the world for your sake?”</span><a id="noteref_188" name=
+        "noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> It is
+        only in this light that we shall be able to understand such passages
+        in the Rabbinic literature as that God almost suffers Himself when He
+        has to inflict punishment either on the individual or on whole
+        communities. Thus God is represented as mourning for <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seven days (as in the case when one loses
+        a child) before He brought the deluge on the world; He bemoans the
+        fall of Israel and the destruction of the Temple, and the Shechinah
+        laments even when the criminal suffers his just punishment. And it is
+        not by rebelling against these laws that He tries to redeem His
+        suffering. He himself has recourse to prayer, and says: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“May it be my will that my mercy conquer my wrath, that
+        my love over-rule my strict justice, so that I may treat my children
+        with love.”</span><a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href=
+        "#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> If now
+        man is equal to God, he has nevertheless, or rather on that account,
+        to submit to the law of God without any outlook for reward or
+        punishment; or, as Antigonos expressed it, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Be not as slaves that minister to the Lord with a view
+        to receive recompense.”</span><a id="noteref_190" name="noteref_190"
+        href="#note_190"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a>
+        Certainly it would be hazardous to maintain that Antigonos's saying
+        was a consequence of this doctrine; but, at any rate, we see a clear
+        tendency to keep the thought of reward (in spite of the prominent
+        part it holds in the Bible) out of view. Still more clearly is it
+        seen when, with reference to Ps. cxii., <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Blessed is the man ... that delighteth greatly in his
+        commandments,”</span> Rabbi Eleazar remarks that the meaning is that
+        the man desires only to do His commandments, but he does not want the
+        rewards connected with them.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191"
+        href="#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> This is
+        the more remarkable, as the whole contents of this psalm are nothing
+        else than a long series of promises of various rewards, so that the
+        explanation of Rabbi Eleazar is in almost direct contradiction to the
+        simple meaning of the words. On the other hand, also, every complaint
+        about suffering must cease. Not only is affliction no direct
+        chastisement by God in the way of revenge; but even when it would
+        seem to us that we suffer innocently, we have no right to murmur, as
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230"
+        id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> God himself is also suffering,
+        and, as the Talmud expresses it, <span class="tei tei-q">“It is
+        enough for the slave to be in the position of his
+        master.”</span><a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href=
+        "#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This thought of
+        the compassion—in its strictest sense of fellow-suffering—of God with
+        His creatures becomes a new motive for avoiding sin. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Woe to the wicked,”</span> exclaims a Rabbi,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“who by their bad actions turn the mercy of
+        God into strict justice.”</span><a id="noteref_193" name=
+        "noteref_193" href="#note_193"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> And the
+        later mystics explain distinctly that the great crime of sin consists
+        in causing pain, so to speak, to the Shechinah. One of them compared
+        it with the slave who abuses the goodness of his master so far as to
+        buy with his money arms to wound him. But, on the other hand, it
+        becomes, rather inconsistently, also a new source of comfort; for, in
+        the end, God will have to redeem Himself from this suffering, which
+        cannot be accomplished so long as Israel is still under
+        punishment.<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href=
+        "#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> Most
+        interesting is the noble prayer by a Rabbi of a very late mystical
+        school: <span class="tei tei-q">“O God, speedily bring about the
+        redemption. I am not in the least thinking of what I may gain by it.
+        I am willing to be condemned to all tortures in hell, if only the
+        Shechinah will cease to suffer.”</span><a id="noteref_195" name=
+        "noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we were now to
+        ask for the attitude of the Synagogue towards these two main views,
+        we should have to answer that—as already hinted at the opening of
+        this paper—it never decided for the one or the other. R. David Rocca
+        Martino dared even to write a whole book in Defence of Adam proving
+        that he committed no sin in eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge
+        against the literal sense of the Scriptures, which were also taken by
+        the Rabbis literally.<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href=
+        "#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> By this
+        he destroyed the prospects of many a theodicy, but it is not known to
+        me that he was severely <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg
+        231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        rebuked for it. It has been said by a great writer that the best
+        theology is that which is not consistent, and this advantage the
+        theology of the Synagogue possesses to its utmost extent. It accepted
+        with R. Ammi the stern principle of divine retribution, in as far as
+        it makes man feel the responsibility of his actions, and makes
+        suffering a discipline. But it never allowed this principle to be
+        carried so far as to deny the sufferer our sympathy, and by a series
+        of conscious and unconscious modifications, he passed from the state
+        of a sinner into the zenith of the saint and the perfectly righteous
+        man. But, on the other hand, the Synagogue also gave entrance to the
+        very opposite view which, abandoning every attempt to account for
+        suffering, bids man do his duty without any hope of reward, even as
+        God also does His. Hence the remarkable phenomenon in the works of
+        later Jewish moralists, that, whilst they never weary of the most
+        detailed accounts of the punishments awaiting the sinner and the
+        rewards in store for the righteous, they warn us most emphatically
+        that our actions must not be guided by these unworthy considerations,
+        and that our only motive should be the love of God and submission to
+        His holy will.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor must it be
+        thought that the views of the Rabbis are so widely divergent from
+        those enunciated in the Bible. The germ of almost all the later ideas
+        is already to be found in the Scriptures. It only needed the process
+        of time to bring into prominence those features which proved at a
+        later period most acceptable. Indeed, it would seem that there is
+        also a sort of domestication of religious ideas. On their first
+        association with man there is a certain rude violence about them
+        which, when left to the management of untutored minds, would
+        certainly <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg
+        232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> do
+        great harm. But, let only this association last for centuries, during
+        which these ideas have to be subdued by practical use, and they will,
+        in due time, lose their former roughness, will become theologically
+        workable, and turn out the greatest blessing to inconsistent
+        humanity.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name=
+      "Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">IX. The Law And Recent
+        Criticism</span><a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href=
+        "#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style=
+        "text-align: left"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor Toy's
+        work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Judaism and Christianity</span></span>, gives an
+        admirable conspectus of the results of the modern critical school in
+        their bearing on the genesis of Christianity. The author takes
+        various important doctrines of Christianity, traces them back to
+        their origin in Israelitism, pursues their course through their
+        various phases in Judaism, until they reach their final development
+        in the teaching of Jesus and His disciples, which, in the author's
+        judgment, is the consummation of that which the prophets and their
+        successors had to give to the world. Laying so much stress as
+        Professor Toy does on the saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“By their
+        fruits shall ye know them,”</span> he ought also, perhaps, to have
+        told us what, in the course of time, has become of these several
+        doctrines. For when, for instance, with regard to the doctrine of
+        original sin, he remarks that <span class="tei tei-q">“in certain
+        systems of Christian theology the human race is involved in the
+        condemnation of the first man”</span> (p. 185, n. 1); or that, in the
+        New Testament, <span class="tei tei-q">“the demand for a mediating
+        power between God and humanity is pushed to the farthest point which
+        thought can occupy consistently with the maintenance of the
+        absoluteness of the one Supreme Deity”</span> (p. 121), he is rather
+        evading a difficulty than answering it. Such elaboration would,
+        however, have been outside <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg
+        234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
+        scope of Professor Toy's book, which claims only to be a sketch of
+        the progress of thought from the Old Testament to the New. For his
+        own solution of the indicated difficulty, Toy, to judge from his
+        liberal standpoint, would probably refer us to Dr. Hatch's Hibbert
+        lectures; the issue of such an appeal must, I imagine, remain for
+        long doubtful and disputed.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A delightful
+        characteristic of Toy's book is its transparent clearness and
+        sobriety, which will make it interesting reading, even to those who
+        are acquainted with the writer's authorities in their original
+        sources. Almost entirely new, as well as most suggestive, is the
+        justice which Toy does to the law in recognising it as a factor for
+        good in the history of religion. In this point Toy is not only up to
+        his date, but beyond it. It is true that even the Pharisees have made
+        some advance in the estimation of the liberal school. They are no
+        longer condemned <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">en masse</span></span> as so many hypocrites. It
+        is even admitted that there were a few honest men among them, such as
+        Rabban Gamaliel, the teacher of Paul, or R. Akiba, the patriot of
+        Bethar. We are now too polite to be personal. But with regard to the
+        law, on the other hand, there is at present a markedly opposite
+        tendency. The general idea seems to be that, as the doctrine of the
+        resurrection of Christ must be loosely interpreted in a spiritual
+        sense, it must logically have been preceded by a universal spiritual
+        death, and the germs of the disease which brought this death about
+        are to be sought for in the law. Hence the strained efforts to
+        discover in the law the source of all religious evil,—cant,
+        hypocrisy, formalism, externalism, transcendentalism, and as many
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“isms”</span> more, of bad
+        reputation.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg
+        235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was probably
+        with this current representation of the law in view that Toy, when
+        speaking of the Levitical legislation, and of its fixing <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“men's minds on ceremonial details which, in some cases,
+        it put into the same category and on the same level with moral
+        duties,”</span> asks the question: <span class="tei tei-q">“Would
+        there not thence result a dimming of the moral sense and a confusion
+        of moral distinctions? The ethical attitude of a man who could regard
+        a failure in the routine of sacrifice as not less blameworthy than an
+        act of theft cannot be called a lofty one”</span> (p. 186). The
+        answer which he gives is more favourable than such a leading question
+        would induce us to expect. He tells us that, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“in point of fact, the result was different”</span>
+        (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">ibid</span></span>). <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The Levitical law is not to be looked on as a mere
+        extension and organisation of the ritual.... Its ritual was, in great
+        part, the organised expression of the consciousness of sin”</span>
+        (p. 226). Of the law in general Toy says that it had <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“larger consequences than its mere details would
+        suggest,”</span> for it <span class="tei tei-q">“cultivated the moral
+        sense of the people into results above its mechanical
+        prescriptions,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“it developed the
+        sense of sin, as Paul points out”</span> (Gal. iii. 19), <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“and therewith a freer feeling, which brought the soul
+        into more immediate contact with God”</span> (p. 227); whilst in
+        another place he reminds us <span class="tei tei-q">“that much of the
+        law is moral, and that no one could fail to see a spiritual
+        significance beneath its letter”</span> (p. 245), and he even admits
+        that <span class="tei tei-q">“the great legal schools which grew up
+        in the second century, if we may judge by the sayings of the teachers
+        which have come down to us, did not fail to discriminate between the
+        outward and the inward, the ceremonial and the moral”</span> (p.
+        186).</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These and similar
+        passages will suffice to show that <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Toy's estimate of the law is a very different
+        one from that of Smend and his school. However, it must not be
+        supposed that he is not on the look-out for the germs of the disease.
+        He must find these germs somewhere, or else the progress, which his
+        book is intended to illustrate, would be difficult to detect. And
+        thus he repeats the old accusations, though not without
+        modification.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor Toy's
+        objections may, perhaps, be summed up in the passage in which he
+        represents the Jewish law as <span class="tei tei-q">“an attempt to
+        define all the beliefs and acts of life”</span> (p. 239), or as
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“the embodiment of devotion to a fixed rule
+        of belief and conduct”</span> (p. 237). Toy does not entirely condemn
+        this system, and even speaks of it as a <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“lofty attempt”</span> (p. 239); but, on the whole, he
+        considers that it must have resulted in bad theology, as well as in
+        doubtful conduct. Without following Professor Toy over the whole area
+        of his investigations, which would require a volume for itself, I
+        will only take the opportunity of making a few general remarks upon
+        the nature and character of this legal system, which seems to hold
+        the key to the spiritual history of Judaism.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, as to its
+        theology, Toy's description of the law as an attempt to define all
+        the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">beliefs</span></em> of life—an assertion which
+        is also made by Schürer—is not wholly accurate. For such an attempt
+        was never made by Judaism. The few dogmas which Judaism possesses,
+        such as the Existence of God, Providence, Reward, and
+        Punishment—without which no revealed religion is conceivable—can
+        hardly be called a creed in the modern sense of the term, which
+        implies something external and foreign to man's own knowledge, and
+        received only in deference to the weight of authority. To the Jew of
+        the Christian era, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg
+        237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        these simpler dogmas were so self-evident that it would have cost him
+        the greatest effort <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> to believe them. Hence the fact
+        that, whilst there have come down to us so many controverted points
+        between the Sadducees and Pharisees with regard to certain juristic
+        and ritual questions, we know of only one of an essentially dogmatic
+        character, viz. the dispute concerning the Resurrection.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is thus
+        difficult to imagine to what Professor Toy can be alluding when he
+        speaks of the <span class="tei tei-q">“interest they (the Jews) threw
+        into the discussion and determination of minutiæ of faith”</span> (p.
+        241). Discussions upon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></em> of faith are only to be read
+        in the works of the later schoolmen (as Saadiah, Maimonides and their
+        followers), in which such subtle problems as <span lang="la" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>, the origin of
+        evil, predestination, free will and similar subjects are examined;
+        but this period is very distant from that with which Toy is
+        concerned. The older schools and the so-called houses of Shammai and
+        Hillel, most of whose members were the contemporaries of the
+        Apostles, show very little predilection for such <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></em>.
+        Their discussions and differences of opinion about ritual matters are
+        very numerous, scattered as they are over the whole of the ancient
+        Rabbinic literature, but I can only remember two of a metaphysical
+        character, or touching upon the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></em> of faith. The one, dealing
+        with the efficacy of certain sacrifices, discusses whether it only
+        extends to the remission of the pending punishment for sins, or also
+        includes their purification and washing away; the other considers the
+        question whether it would not have been better for man not to have
+        been created.<a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href=
+        "#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> But
+        this latter controversy, which is said to have lasted for two years
+        and a half, by no means led to any big metaphysical or <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> theological system, but only to the
+        practical advice that, as we have been created, we ought to be
+        watchful over our conduct. It is, indeed, a noteworthy feature of
+        Judaism that theological speculations have never resulted in the
+        formulation of any imposing or universal doctrine, but usually in
+        divers ceremonial practices. To give one illustration: according to
+        Professor Toy (p. 210) the conclusion which the author of 1 Tim. ii.
+        11-14 draws from the fact that woman was the immediate agent of the
+        introduction of sin was the subordination of her sex. The Rabbis also
+        noticed the same fact, and in their less abstract language speak of
+        woman as having brought death and grief into the world; but the
+        conclusion which they drew was that since woman had extinguished the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“light of the world,”</span> she ought to
+        atone for it by lighting the candles for the Sabbath.<a id=
+        "noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> Nor is
+        Toy quite correct when he maintains that the conception of the Memra
+        as Creator and Lord, etc., and as <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“representative of the immediate divine activity,”</span>
+        did not keep its hold on Jewish thought, having been discarded in the
+        later literature (p. 104). For the Shechinah of the Talmud, the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Metatron</span></span><a id="noteref_200" name=
+        "noteref_200" href="#note_200"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> of the
+        Gaonic-mystical literature, the Active Intelligence of the
+        philosophical schools, as well as the Ten Sephiroth<a id=
+        "noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a>
+        (Emanations) of the Cabbalists, all owe their existence to the same
+        theosophic scruples and subtleties in which the Logos of Philo and
+        the Memra<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href=
+        "#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> of the
+        Targums originated. Thus, they always kept—though under various
+        forms—their hold on the Jewish mind. Judaism was always broad enough
+        to accommodate itself to these formulæ, which for the one may mean
+        the most holy mysteries, and for the other empty and meaningless
+        catchwords. The objection—in fact, the active opposition—of the
+        Synagogue began when <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg
+        239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        these possible or impossible explanations of the universe tended to
+        transgress the bounds of abstract speculation, and, passing over into
+        real concrete beings, to be worshipped as such. An instance from
+        comparatively modern times might be found in one of the vagaries of
+        the followers of the Pseudo-Messiah, Shabbethai Tsebi. For many
+        generations the controversy had raged among the Cabbalists, whether
+        the first of the above-mentioned Ten Emanations (called by some
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Original
+        Adam</span></span>, by others, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Crown</span></span><a id="noteref_203" name=
+        "noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a>) is to
+        be considered as a part of the Deity or as something separate, and so
+        to speak, having a reality in itself. The danger of establishing a
+        Being near the Deity, having an existence of its own and invested
+        with divine attributes, could not have escaped the thoughtful, and
+        there are indeed some indications to this effect. The Synagogue as
+        such, however, remained during the whole controversy strictly
+        neutral, and allowed these theosophists to fight in the air as much
+        as they liked. But the moment that the sect of Shabbethai Tsebi
+        identified the incarnate Original Adam with their leader, and
+        worshipped him as a sort of God-Messiah, the Synagogue at once took
+        up a hostile attitude against those who separated God from His world,
+        and, declaring Shabbethai Tsebi and his followers to be apostates,
+        excluded them from Judaism for ever.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor can it be
+        proved that legalism or nomism has ever tended to suppress the
+        spiritual side of religion, either in respect of consciousness of
+        sin, or of individual love and devotion. With an equal logic quite
+        the opposite might be argued. Professor Toy tells us himself that it
+        is no <span class="tei tei-q">“accident that along with this more
+        definite expression of ethical-religious law we find the first traces
+        of a more <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg
+        240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        spiritual conception of righteousness in the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">‘new heart’</span> of Jeremiah and Ezekiel”</span> (p.
+        235), whilst in another passage we read that <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“a turning point is marked by the Deuteronomist Jeremiah
+        and Ezekiel, who announce the principles of individual responsibility
+        and inwardness of obedience”</span> (p. 184). Now, two things are
+        certain; first, that Ezekiel urges the necessity of the new heart as
+        well as of individual responsibility more keenly than any of his
+        predecessors; secondly, that in Ezekiel the legalistic tendency is
+        more evident than in Deuteronomy and Jeremiah. The logical conclusion
+        would thus be that the higher ideals of religion are not only not
+        inconsistent with legalism, but are the very outcome of it, and the
+        so-called Priestly Code, by the very fact of its markedly legalistic
+        tendency, should be considered as a step in the right direction. The
+        latter assertion sounds like a paradox, but it will seem less so when
+        the prevailing characteristic of this portion of the Pentateuch, as
+        given even by Kuenen, who is by no means a champion of the Law, is
+        borne in mind. <span class="tei tei-q">“The centre of
+        gravity,”</span> according to the great Dutch critic, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“lies for the priestly author elsewhere than for the
+        prophet; it lies in man's attitude, not towards his fellow-men, but
+        towards God; not in his social, but in his personal life”</span>
+        (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hibbert
+        Lectures</span></span>, p. 161). It is here that we seem to strike
+        the keynote of the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Weltanschauung</span></span> of
+        the Priestly Legislation. In it man is more than a social being. He
+        has also an individual life of his own, his joys and sorrows, his
+        historical claims, his traditions of the past, and his hopes for the
+        future—and all these have to be brought under the influence of
+        religion, and to become sanctified through their relation to God.
+        Hence, the work of the Priestly narrator and legislator opens with a
+        cosmogony of his <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg
+        241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        own, in which we find the grand theological idea of man being created
+        in the Divine image; hence, too, his religious conception of the
+        history of the nation and the control claimed by him over all the
+        details of human life, which became with him so many opportunities
+        for the worship of God. To him, God is not a mere figurehead; He not
+        only reigns, but governs. Everywhere,—in the temple, in the judge's
+        seat, in the family, in the farm, and in the market-place,—His
+        presence is felt in enforcing the laws bearing His <span lang="la"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">imprimatur</span></span>, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“I am the Lord thy God.”</span> By thus diffusing
+        religion over the whole domain of human life—not confining it to the
+        social institutions which are represented only by a few personages,
+        such as the king, the princes, the priests, the judges or elders—they
+        made it the common good of the whole people, and the feeling of
+        personal responsibility for this good became much deeper than before.
+        Thus it came to pass that whilst, during the first temple, the
+        apostasy of kings and aristocracy involved the entire people, so that
+        the words <span class="tei tei-q">“And he (the king) did evil in the
+        sight of the Lord,”</span> embrace the whole nation, during the
+        second temple it was no longer of much consequence which side the
+        political leaders took. Both during the Hellenistic persecutions, as
+        well as afterwards in the struggles of some Maccabean kings with the
+        Pharisees, the bulk of the people showed that they considered
+        religion as their own personal affair, not to be regulated by the
+        conscience of either priest or prince. It is true that this success
+        may be largely ascribed to such contemporary religious factors as the
+        Synagogue with its minimum of form, the Scribes with their activity
+        as teachers, and the Psalmists with their divine enthusiasm; but the
+        very circumstance that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg
+        242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        these factors arose and flourished under the influence of the
+        Priestly Code would suffice to prove that its tendency was not so
+        sacerdotal as some writers would have us believe. Jewish tradition
+        indeed attributes the composition of the daily public prayers, as
+        well as of others for private worship, to the very men whom modern
+        biblical criticism holds responsible for the introduction of the
+        Priestly Code. Now this fact may perhaps be disputed, but there is
+        little doubt that the age in which these prayers were composed was
+        one of flourishing legalism. Nor is there any proof that the
+        synagogues and their ritual were in opposition to the temple. From
+        the few documents belonging to this period, it is clear that there
+        was no opposition to the legalistic spirit by which the Priestly Code
+        was actuated. This would prove that legalism meant something more
+        than tithes and sacrifices for the benefit of the priests.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor is it true
+        that the legal tendency aimed at narrowing the mind of the nation,
+        turning all its thoughts into the one direction of the law. Apart
+        from the fact that the Torah contained other elements besides its
+        legalism, the prophets were not forgotten, but were read and
+        interpreted from a very early age. It was under the predominance of
+        the Law that the Wisdom literature was composed, which is by no means
+        narrow or one-sided, but is even supposed by some critics to contain
+        many foreign elements. In the book of Job, the great problems of
+        man's existence are treated with a depth and grandeur never equalled
+        before or since. This book alone ought partly to compensate the
+        modern school for the disappearance of prophecy, which is usually
+        brought as a charge against the Law. Then, too, the Psalms, placed by
+        the same school in the post-exilic <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> period, are nothing but another aspect of
+        prophecy, with this difference, perhaps, that in the Prophets God
+        speaks to man, while in the Psalms it is man who establishes the same
+        communion by speaking to God. There is no reason why the critical
+        school, with its broad conception of inspiration, and with its
+        insistence that prophecy does <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> mean prediction, should so
+        strongly emphasise this difference. If <span class="tei tei-q">“it is
+        no longer as in the days of Amos, when the Lord Yahveh did nothing
+        without revealing his counsel to his servants the prophets,”</span>
+        there is in the days of the Psalmists nothing in man's heart, no
+        element in his longings and meditations and aspirations, which was
+        not revealed to God. Nay, it would seem that at times the Psalmist
+        hardly ever desires the revelation of God's secrets. Let future
+        events be what they may, he is content, for he is with God. After all
+        his trials, he exclaims, <span class="tei tei-q">“And yet I am
+        continually with thee; thou hast taken hold of my right hand.
+        According to thy purpose wilt thou lead me, and afterwards receive me
+        with glory. Whom have I (to care for) in heaven? and possessing thee,
+        I have pleasure in nothing upon earth. Though my flesh and my heart
+        should have wasted away, God would for ever be the rock of my heart
+        and my portion”</span> (Ps. lxxiii. 23-26). How an age producing a
+        literature containing passages like these—of which Wellhausen in his
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Abriss</span></span> (p. 95) justly remarks,
+        that we are not worthy even to repeat them—can be considered by the
+        modern school as wanting in intimate relation to God and inferior to
+        that of the prophets is indeed a puzzle.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now a few words as
+        to the actual life under the Law. Here, again, there is a fresh
+        puzzle. On the one side, we hear the opinions of so many learned
+        professors, proclaiming <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg
+        244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">ex cathedrâ</span></span>, that the Law was a
+        most terrible burden, and the life under it the most unbearable
+        slavery, deadening body and soul. On the other side we have the
+        testimony of a literature extending over about twenty-five centuries,
+        and including all sorts and conditions of men, scholars, poets,
+        mystics, lawyers, casuists, schoolmen, tradesmen, workmen, women,
+        simpletons, who all, from the author of the 119th Psalm to the last
+        pre-Mendelssohnian writer—with a small exception which does not even
+        deserve the name of a vanishing minority—give unanimous evidence in
+        favour of this Law, and of the bliss and happiness of living and
+        dying under it,—and this, the testimony of people who were actually
+        living under the Law, not merely theorising upon it, and who
+        experienced it in all its difficulties and inconveniences. The
+        Sabbath will give a fair example. The law of the Sabbath is one of
+        those institutions the strict observance of which was already the
+        object of attack in early New Testament times. Nevertheless, the
+        doctrine proclaimed in one of the Gospels—that the son of man is Lord
+        also of the Sabbath—was also current among the Rabbis. They, too,
+        taught that the Sabbath had been delivered into the hand of man (to
+        break, if necessary), and not man delivered over to the
+        Sabbath.<a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href=
+        "#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> And
+        they even laid down the axiom that a scholar who lived in a town,
+        where among the Jewish population there could be the least
+        possibility of doubt as to whether the Sabbath might be broken for
+        the benefit of a dangerously sick person, was to be despised as a man
+        neglecting his duty; for, as Maimonides points out, the laws of the
+        Torah are not meant as an infliction upon mankind, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“but as mercy, loving-kindness, and peace.”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href="#note_205"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The attacks upon
+        the Jewish Sabbath have not abated <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> with the lapse of time. The day is still
+        described by almost every Christian writer on the subject in the most
+        gloomy colours, and long lists are given of minute and easily
+        transgressed observances connected with it, which, instead of a day
+        of rest, would make it to be a day of sorrow and anxiety, almost
+        worse than the Scotch Sunday as depicted by continental writers. But
+        it so happens that we have the prayer of R. Zadok, a younger
+        contemporary of the Apostles, which runs thus: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Through the love with which Thou, O Lord our God, lovest
+        Thy people Israel, and the mercy which Thou hast shown to the
+        children of Thy covenant, Thou hast given unto us in love this great
+        and holy Seventh Day.”</span><a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206"
+        href="#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> And
+        another Rabbi, who probably flourished in the first half of the
+        second century, expresses himself (with allusion to Exod. xxxi. 13:
+        Verily my Sabbaths ye shall keep ... that ye may know that I am the
+        Lord that doth sanctify you)—<span class="tei tei-q">“The Holy One,
+        blessed be He, said unto Moses, I have a good gift in my treasures,
+        and Sabbath is its name, which I wish to present to Israel. Go and
+        bring to them the good tidings.”</span><a id="noteref_207" name=
+        "noteref_207" href="#note_207"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> The
+        form again of the Blessing over the Sanctification-cup<a id=
+        "noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a>—a
+        ceremony known long before the destruction of the Second Temple—runs:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, who hast
+        sanctified us by Thy commandments, and hast taken pleasure in us, and
+        in love and grace hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an
+        inheritance.”</span> All these Rabbis evidently regarded the Sabbath
+        as a gift from heaven, an expression of the infinite mercy and grace
+        of God which He manifested to His beloved children.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the gift was,
+        as already said, a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">good</span></em> gift. Thus the Rabbis
+        paraphrase the words in the Scripture <span class="tei tei-q">“See,
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246"
+        id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for that the Lord hath given
+        you the Sabbath”</span> (Exod. xvi. 29): God said unto Israel behold
+        the gem I gave you, My children I gave you the Sabbath for your good.
+        Sanctify or honour the Sabbath by choice meals, beautiful garments;
+        delight your soul with pleasure and I will reward you (for this very
+        pleasure); as it is said: <span class="tei tei-q">“And if thou wilt
+        call the Sabbath a delight and the holy of the Lord honourable (that
+        is honouring the Sabbath in this way) ... then shalt thou delight
+        thyself in the Lord”</span> (Is. lviii. 13, 14).<a id="noteref_209"
+        name="noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The delight of the
+        Sabbath was keenly felt. Israel fell in love with the Sabbath, and in
+        the hyperbolic language of the Agadah the Sabbath is personified as
+        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Bride of Israel,”</span> whilst others
+        called it <span class="tei tei-q">“Queen Sabbath,”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href="#note_210"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> and
+        they are actually jealous of a certain class of semi-proselytes who,
+        as it seems, were willing to observe the Sabbath, but declined to
+        submit to the covenant of Abraham. The Gentile Sabbath-keepers—who,
+        like all the nations of the world, envy Israel their Sabbath—the
+        Rabbis considered as shameless intruders deserving punishment.<a id=
+        "noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> No, it
+        was Israel's own Queen or Bride Sabbath whose appearance in all her
+        heavenly glory they were impatiently awaiting. Thus we are told of R.
+        Judah b. Ilai that when the eve of the Sabbath came <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“he made his ablutions, wrapped himself up in his white
+        linen with fringed borders looking like an angel of the Lord of
+        Hosts,”</span> thus prepared for the solemn reception of Queen
+        Sabbath. Another Rabbi used to put on his best clothes, and arise and
+        invite the Sabbath with the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Come in
+        Bride, come in.”</span><a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" href=
+        "#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> What
+        the Bride brought was peace and bliss. Nay, man is provided with a
+        super soul for the Sabbath, enabling him to bear both the spiritual
+        and the material delights of the day with <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> dignity and solemnity.<a id="noteref_213" name=
+        "noteref_213" href="#note_213"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> The
+        very light (or expression) of man's face is different on Sabbath,
+        testifying to his inward peace and rest. And when man has recited his
+        prayers (on the eve of the Sabbath) and thus borne testimony to God's
+        creation of the world and to the glory of the Sabbath, there appear
+        the two angels who accompany him, lay their hands on his head and
+        impart to him their blessing with the words: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“And thine iniquity is taken away and thy sin
+        purged”</span> (Is. vi. 7).<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214"
+        href="#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> For
+        nothing is allowed to disturb the peace of the Sabbath; not even
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“the sorrows of sin,”</span> though the
+        Sabbath had such a solemn effect on people that even the worldly man
+        would not utter an untruth on the Day of the Lord. Hence it was not
+        only forbidden to pray on Sabbath for one's own (material) needs, but
+        everything in the liturgy of a mournful character (as for instance
+        the confession of sin, supplication for pardon) was carefully
+        avoided. It was with difficulty, as the Rabbis say, that they made an
+        exception in the case of condoling with people who had suffered loss
+        through the death of near relatives. There is no room for morbid
+        sentiment on Sabbath, for the blessing of the Lord maketh rich, and
+        He addeth no sorrow with it (Prov. x. 22).<a id="noteref_215" name=
+        "noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> The
+        burden of the Sabbath prayers is for peace, rest, sanctification, and
+        joy (through salvation) and praise of God for this ineffable bliss of
+        the Sabbath.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the
+        Sabbath of the old Rabbis and the same spirit continued through all
+        ages. The Sabbath was and is still celebrated by the people who did
+        and do observe it, in hundreds of hymns, which would fill volumes, as
+        a day of rest and joy, of pleasure and delight, a day in which man
+        enjoys some foretaste of the pure <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> bliss and happiness which are stored up for the
+        righteous in the world to come. Somebody, either the learned
+        professors, or the millions of the Jewish people, must be under an
+        illusion. Which it is I leave to the reader to decide.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is also an
+        illusion to speak of the burden which a scrupulous care to observe
+        six hundred and thirteen commandments must have laid upon the Jew.
+        Even a superficial analysis will discover that in the time of Christ
+        many of these commandments were already obsolete (as for instance
+        those relating to the tabernacle and to the conquest of Palestine),
+        while others concerned only certain classes, as the priests, the
+        judges, the soldiers, the Nazirites, or the representatives of the
+        community, or even only one or two individuals among the whole
+        population, as the King and the High-Priest. Others, again, provided
+        for contingencies which could occur only to a few, as for instance
+        the laws concerning divorce or levirate marriages, whilst many—such
+        as those concerning idolatry, and incest, and the sacrifice of
+        children to Moloch—could scarcely have been considered as a practical
+        prohibition by the pre-Christian Jew; just as little as we can speak
+        of Englishmen as lying under the burden of a law preventing them from
+        burning widows or marrying their grandmothers, though such acts would
+        certainly be considered as crimes. Thus it will be found by a careful
+        enumeration that barely a hundred laws remain which really concerned
+        the life of the bulk of the people. If we remember that even these
+        include such laws as belief in the unity of God, the necessity of
+        loving and fearing Him, and of sanctifying His name, of loving one's
+        neighbour and the stranger, of providing <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> for the poor, exhorting the sinner, honouring
+        one's parents and many more of a similar character, it will hardly be
+        said that the ceremonial side of the people's religion was not well
+        balanced by a fair amount of spiritual and social elements. Besides,
+        it would seem that the line between the ceremonial and the spiritual
+        is too often only arbitrarily drawn. With many commandments it is
+        rather a matter of opinion whether they should be relegated to the
+        one category or the other.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, the wearing
+        of Tephillin<a id="noteref_216" name="noteref_216" href=
+        "#note_216"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> or
+        phylacteries has, on the one hand, been continually condemned as a
+        meaningless superstition, and a pretext for formalism and hypocrisy.
+        But, on the other hand, Maimonides, who can in no way be suspected of
+        superstition or mysticism, described their importance in the
+        following words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Great is the holiness of
+        the Tephillin; for as long as they are on the arm and head of man he
+        is humble and God-fearing, and feels no attraction for frivolity or
+        idle things, nor has he any evil thoughts, but will turn his heart to
+        the words of truth and righteousness.”</span> The view which R.
+        Johanan, a Palestinian teacher of the third century, took of the
+        fulfilment of the Law, will probably be found more rational than that
+        of many a rationalist of to-day. Upon the basis of the last verse in
+        Hosea, <span class="tei tei-q">“The ways of the Lord are right, and
+        the just shall walk in them, but the transgressors shall fall
+        therein,”</span> he explains that while one man, for instance, eats
+        his paschal lamb with the purpose of doing the will of God who
+        commanded it, and thereby does an act of righteousness, another
+        thinks only of satisfying his appetite by the lamb, so that his
+        eating it (by the very fact that he professes at the same time to
+        perform a religious <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg
+        250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        rite) becomes a stumbling-block for him.<a id="noteref_217" name=
+        "noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> Thus
+        all the laws by virtue of their divine authority—and in this there
+        was in the first century no difference of opinion between Jews and
+        Christians—have their spiritual side, and to neglect them implies, at
+        least from the individual's own point of view, a moral offence.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The legalistic
+        attitude may be summarily described as an attempt to live in
+        accordance with the will of God, caring less for what God is than for
+        what He wants us to be. But, nevertheless, on the whole this life
+        never degenerated into religious formalism. Apart from the fact that
+        during the second temple there grew up laws, and even beliefs, which
+        show a decided tendency towards progress and development, there were
+        also ceremonies which were popular with the masses, and others which
+        were neglected. Men were not, therefore, the mere soulless slaves of
+        the Law; personal sympathies and dislikes also played a part in their
+        religion. Nor were all the laws actually put upon the same level.
+        With a happy inconsistency men always spoke of heavier and slighter
+        sins, and by the latter—excepting, perhaps, the profanation of the
+        Sabbath—they mostly understood ceremonial transgressions. The
+        statement made by Professor Toy (p. 243), on the authority of James
+        (ii. 10), that <span class="tei tei-q">“the principle was established
+        that he who offended in one point was guilty of all,”</span> is
+        hardly correct; for the passage seems rather to be laying down a
+        principle, or arguing that logically the law ought to be looked upon
+        as a whole, than stating a fact. The fact was that people did not
+        consider the whole law as of equal importance, but made a difference
+        between laws and laws, and even spoke of certain commandments, such
+        as those of charity and kindness, as outweighing all the rest of the
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251"
+        id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Torah. It was in conformity
+        with this spirit that in times of great persecution the leaders of
+        the people had no compunction in reducing the whole Law to the three
+        prohibitions of idolatry, of incest, and of bloodshed. Only these
+        three were considered of sufficient importance that men should rather
+        become martyrs than transgress them.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These, then, are
+        some of the illusions and misrepresentations which exist with regard
+        to the Law. There are many others, of which the complete exposure
+        would require a book by itself. Meanwhile, in the absence of such a
+        book to balance and correct the innumerable volumes upon the other
+        side, Professor Toy has done the best he could with existing
+        materials, and produced a meritorious work deserving of wide
+        recognition and approval.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name=
+      "Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">X. The Hebrew Collection of the British
+        Museum</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hebrew
+        collection in the British Museum forms one of the greatest centres of
+        Jewish thought. It is only surpassed by the treasures which are
+        contained in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. The fame of these
+        magnificent collections has spread far and wide. It has penetrated
+        into the remotest countries, and even the Bachurim (<span lang="la"
+        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">alumni</span></span>) of some obscure place in
+        Poland, who otherwise neither care nor know anything about British
+        civilisation, have a dim notion of the nature of these mines of
+        Jewish learning.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All sorts of
+        legends circulate amongst them about the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“millions”</span> of books which belong to the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Queen of England.”</span> They speak
+        mysteriously of an autograph copy of the Book of Proverbs, presented
+        to the Queen of Sheba on the occasion of her visit to Jerusalem, and
+        brought by the English troops as a trophy from their visit to
+        Abyssinia, which is still ruled by the descendants of that famous
+        lady. They also talk of a copy of the Talmud of Jerusalem which once
+        belonged to Titus, afterwards to a Pope, was presented by the latter
+        to a Russian Czar, and taken away from him by the English in the
+        Crimean war; of a manuscript <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the book <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Light is
+        Sown</span></span>,<a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href=
+        "#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> which
+        is so large that no shelf can hold it, and which therefore hangs on
+        iron chains. How they long to have a glance at these precious things!
+        Would not a man get wiser only by looking at the autograph of the
+        wisest of men?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even the
+        students of Germany and Austria, who are inaccessible to such fables,
+        and by the aid of Zedner's, Steinschneider's, and Neubauer's
+        catalogues have a fair notion of our libraries, cherish the belief
+        that they would gain in scholarship and wisdom by examining these
+        grand collections. How often have I been asked by Jewish students
+        abroad: <span class="tei tei-q">“Have you really been to the British
+        Museum? Have you really seen this or that rare book or manuscript?
+        Had you not great difficulties in seeing them? Is not the place where
+        these heaps of jewels are treasured up always crowded by students and
+        visitors?”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet how little
+        does our English public know of these wonderful things! We are fairly
+        interested in Græco-Roman art. We betray much curiosity about the
+        different Egyptian dynasties. We look with admiration at the
+        cuneiform inscriptions in the Nimrod room. We do not even grudge a
+        glance at the abominable idols of the savage tribes. But as to the
+        productions of Jewish genius,—well, it is best to quote here the
+        words of Heine, who ridiculed this indifference to everything that is
+        Jewish, in the following lines:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Alte Mumien, ausgestopfte,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Pharaonen von Ægypten,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Merowinger Schattenkön'ge,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Ungepuderte Perticken,</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Auch die Zopfmonarchen
+              China's</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Porzellanpagodenkaiser—</span>
+            </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg
+            254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Alle lernen sie answendig,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Kluge Mädchen, aber,
+              Himmel!</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Fragt man sie nach grossen
+              Namen,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Aus dem grossen
+              Goldzeitalter</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Der arabisch-althispanisch</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Jüdischen Poetenschule,</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Fragt man nach dem
+              Dreigestirn</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Nach Jehuda ben Halevy,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Nach dem Salomon Gabirol</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Und dem Moses Iben Esra.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Fragt man nach dergleichen
+              Namen,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Dann mit grossen Augen
+              schaun</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Uns die Kleinen an—alsdann</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Stehn am Berge die
+              Ochsinnen.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now Heine goes on
+        to advise his beloved one to study the Hebrew language. It would be
+        indeed the best remedy against this indifference. But this is so
+        radical a cure that one cannot hope that it will be made use of by
+        many. A few remarks in English, trying to give some notion of the
+        Hebrew collection in the British Museum, may, therefore, not be
+        considered altogether superfluous.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hebrew
+        collection in the Museum may be divided into two sections: Printed
+        Books, and Manuscripts. The number of the printed books amounted in
+        the year 1867, in which Zedner concluded his catalogue, to 10,100
+        volumes. Within the last twenty-eight years about 5000 more have been
+        added.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This enormous
+        collection has grown out of very small beginnings. The British Museum
+        was first opened to the public in the year 1759. Amongst the 500,000
+        volumes which it possessed at that time only a single Jewish work,
+        the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">editio princeps</span></span>
+        of the Talmud (Bomberg, Venice, 1520-1523) <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> was to be found on its shelves. According to an
+        article by Zedner in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Hebräische Bibliographie</span></span> (ii. p.
+        88), this copy of the Talmud once belonged to Henry VIII. But very
+        soon the Museum was enriched by a small collection of Hebrew books,
+        presented to it by Mr. Solomon da Costa, surnamed Athias, who had
+        emigrated to England from Holland. The translation of the Hebrew
+        letter with which the donor accompanied his present to the Trustees
+        of the Museum was first published in the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gentleman's
+        Magazine</span></span>, February 1760, and was afterwards republished
+        by the Rev. A. L. Green, in an article in the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jewish
+        Chronicle</span></span>, 1859. I shall only reproduce here the
+        passage relating to the history of this collection. After expressing
+        his gratitude to the <span class="tei tei-q">“crowning city, the city
+        of London, in which he dwelt for fifty-four years in ease and
+        quietness and safety,”</span> and telling us that he bequeaths these
+        books to the British nation as a token of his gratitude, Da Costa
+        proceeds to say that they are 180 books, which had been gathered and
+        bound for Charles II., with valuable bindings and marked with the
+        king's own cipher. These books were intended as a present from the
+        London Jewish community to Charles for certain privileges which he
+        had bestowed on them. The sudden death of the king seems to have
+        frustrated the intention of the first donors. The books were
+        scattered, and Da Costa had to collect them again.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Small as this
+        collection is, it is most valuable on account of its including many
+        early editions of Venice, Constantinople, Naples, etc. The original
+        letter of Da Costa, with a full list of the 180 books, is preserved
+        in a MS. in the British Museum (Additional, 4710-11).</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of still greater
+        importance is the Michaelis collection. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> It consists of 4420 volumes, and was bought by
+        the Trustees of the Museum in 1848. Other successive acquisitions,
+        especially the purchase of a large number of printed books from the
+        Almanzi collection, brought the Museum into possession of one of the
+        most complete and one of the largest Hebrew libraries in the
+        world.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the
+        foregoing remarks on the quantity of this collection, I shall now
+        attempt to give some idea of its quality. The following table, taken
+        from the Preface of Zedner's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Catalogue</span></span>, shows its manifold
+        contents:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">1. Bibles, 1260</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">2. Commentaries on the Bible,
+              510</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">3. Talmud, 730</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">4. Commentaries on the Talmud,
+              700</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">5. Codes of Law, 1260</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">6. Decisions, 520</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">7. Midrash, 160</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">8. Cabbalah, 460</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">9. Sermons, 400</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">10. Liturgies, 1200</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">11. Divine Philosophy, 690</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">12. Scientific works, 180</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">13. Grammars, Dictionaries,
+              450</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">14. History, Geography, 320</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">15. Poetry, Criticism, 770</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader can see
+        that almost every branch of human thought, religious and secular, is
+        amply represented in this collection. Looking at this table from a
+        geographical point of view, we may perhaps classify the authors in
+        the following way:—France and Germany in the Middle Ages, Poland and
+        the East in modern times, are represented by the fourth, fifth, and
+        sixth classes. The Rabbis of Spain and Italy would probably excel in
+        the last five classes. In the productions of classes eight and nine
+        all the before-mentioned countries would have an equal share. English
+        Judaism, by reason of its large number of occasional prayers and
+        wedding hymns (Zedner, pp. 472, 652), may perhaps be represented in
+        the last class (criticism <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg
+        257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        excluded). We in England are a pious, devotional people, and leave
+        the thinking to others.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what is still
+        more welcome to the student is the fact that all these branches of
+        Jewish learning are represented in the British Museum by the best
+        editions. It would be a rather tedious task to enumerate here all the
+        early editions of which this collection can boast. There is hardly
+        any Hebrew book of importance from the Bible down to the Code of R.
+        Joseph Caro of which the Museum does not possess the first printed
+        edition. There are also many books and editions in the Museum of
+        which no second copy is known to be in existence. An enumeration of
+        these rare books and editions would require long lists, the perusal
+        of which would be rather trying. But I shall say a few words to show
+        the importance of such early editions for the student. They possess,
+        first, the advantage of being free from the misprints which crept in
+        with every fresh republication. The art of editing books in a correct
+        and scientific way is of a very recent date. And even Hebrew
+        literature does not find that support from the public which would
+        enable scholars to edit Jewish books in such a way as Roman and Greek
+        classics are prepared by Oxford and Cambridge students. A new edition
+        of a Hebrew book meant therefore an addition of new mistakes and
+        misprints. And it is only by examining the <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">editiones
+        principes</span></span> that the scholar finds his way out of these
+        perplexities.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another advantage
+        is the fact that these early editions escaped the hand of the censor,
+        whose office was not introduced till a comparatively late date. The
+        same advantage is also possessed by the Hebrew books published at
+        Constantinople, Salonica, and other Mohammedan cities. Only
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258"
+        id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Christian countries indulged
+        in the barbarous pleasure of burning and disfiguring Jewish books. It
+        is one of the most touching points in the life of R. David Oppenheim,
+        of Prague, who spent all his life and fortune in collecting Hebrew
+        works, and whose collection now forms one of the greatest ornaments
+        of the Bodleian Library, that he was not allowed by the censor to
+        enjoy the use of his treasures. He had to put them under the
+        protection of Lipman Cohen, his father-in-law in Hanover, many
+        hundreds of miles from his own home. With the exception of the Bible
+        hardly any Jewish books escaped mutilation. In certain Christian
+        countries some books were not allowed to be published at all; of
+        others, again, whole chapters had to be omitted, while of others many
+        passages had to be expunged. The words Roman, Greek, Gentile, were
+        strictly forbidden, and had to be changed into Turks, Arabs,
+        Samaritans, or worshippers of the stars and planets. One can imagine
+        what confusion such stupid alterations caused. Fancy what blunders
+        would have been committed in history if the old chroniclers had been
+        compelled to change the Pope into the Grand Turk or the Shah of
+        Persia, the Christian rulers into as many califs and pashas, or Rome
+        and Athens into Pekin and Mecca!</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may perhaps be
+        interesting to learn that Jews sometimes imitated their bitter
+        enemies in this work of mutilation. Thus in the later editions of the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
+        Genealogies</span></span> by Abraham Zacuto,<a id="noteref_219" name=
+        "noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> a
+        passage was left out reproducing the evidence given by the widow of
+        Moses de Leon to the effect that the cabbalistic work, the Zohar, was
+        a forgery manufactured by her poor dear husband. Another omission of
+        this kind is to be found in the Code of R. Joseph Caro, mentioned
+        above. Here the earliest editions declare, <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> in the heading of section 605, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“a certain religious usage”</span> to be <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“a custom of folly.”</span> In the republications, the
+        last three words were left out. From such nonsensical omissions and
+        changes only the earliest editions, which are abundant in the Museum,
+        were exempt.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A remarkable
+        feature about the books of this Hebrew collection also is that many
+        of them are provided in the margin with manuscript notes by their
+        former possessors. These often happen to bear very great names in
+        literature. I shall only mention here R. Jacob Emden, Almanzi,
+        Michael, Gerundi, and Heidenheim. Of the works written by R. Jacob
+        Emden, the Museum possesses an almost complete author's copy with
+        abundant corrections, notes, and emendations by the author himself.
+        His works are still very popular among Polish and Russian Jews,
+        especially his Prayer-Book, and his Responses. It would be advisable
+        for publishers in these countries to avail themselves of this copy on
+        the occasion of a new edition. Of Christian scholars I should name
+        here Isaac Casaubon. A rather amusing mistake occurs in Ben-Jacob's
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treasure of
+        Books</span></span> in connection with this name. Among the many
+        valuable copies of Kimchi's grammatical work <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Perfection</span></span>,<a id="noteref_220"
+        name="noteref_220" href="#note_220"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a>
+        possessed by the Museum, there is included one which belonged to
+        Casaubon, and is full of notes by him. The author of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treasure</span></span>
+        speaks of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Perfection</span></span> with notes by Rabbi
+        Yitzchak Kasuban. I was at first at a loss to guess who that Rabbi
+        Casaubon might be. When examining Zedner I found it was no other than
+        the famous Christian scholar, Isaac Casaubon. It is not known that
+        Casaubon's ambition lay in this direction. But when Philo was
+        regarded as a Father of the Church, Ben Gabirol quoted for many
+        centuries as a Mohammedan philosopher, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> why should not Casaubon obtain for once the
+        dignity of a Rabbi?</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After having given
+        the reader some notion of the collection of printed works, I should
+        like now to invite him to accompany me through the Manuscript
+        Department of the Museum. But I am afraid that I shall make a bad
+        guide here; for the Museum is still without a descriptive catalogue
+        of the Hebrew manuscripts, which is the only means of enabling the
+        student to obtain a general view of the number and nature of these
+        works. The manuscript catalogue of Dukes goes only as far as 1856. It
+        was, as we shall soon see, just after this time that the Museum made
+        its largest and, to a certain degree also, its most valuable
+        acquisitions in Hebrew manuscripts. The following remarks must,
+        therefore, not be taken as the result of a systematic study of this
+        collection, which would be quite impossible without the aid of a
+        catalogue. They rest partly on the descriptions given of a certain
+        number of manuscripts in the catalogue by Dukes, but for the greater
+        part on occasional glances at this or that MS.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the history
+        of the collection, it has grown out of small beginnings just as that
+        of printed books. The collection of Dr. Sloane, which laid the
+        foundation of the Museum Library, contained only nine Hebrew MSS.
+        Later acquisitions, as the Harleian collection, the Cottonian
+        collection, the Royal collection, and many other smaller collections
+        marked as Additional up to 1854, increased the number of the Hebrew
+        manuscripts to 232. Of much more importance was the Almanzi
+        collection, bought by the trustees of the Museum in 1865, and
+        consisting of 335 MSS. Of succeeding acquisitions I shall mention
+        here only the Yemen MSS., which were brought <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> to this country by the famous Shapira. The
+        number of Hebrew MSS. at the present day is said to exceed one
+        thousand. But we must not forget that many MSS. contain more than one
+        work; in some cases even three or four, so that the number of Hebrew
+        works is far greater still.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I shall now speak
+        of the nature and importance of these MSS. As to their contents they
+        may be easily grouped under the following headings: Biblical MSS.,
+        Commentaries (to the Bible) and Super-Commentaries, parts of the
+        Talmud and their Commentaries, Theology, Philosophy and Ethics,
+        Massorah, Grammar and Lexicography, Cabbalah, Poetry, Mathematics,
+        Astronomy, Astrology and Magic, Historical and Polemical Literature,
+        etc. All these branches of theological and secular learning and even
+        of human folly are fairly represented in the collection of Hebrew
+        MSS. in the Museum, though often only by a part or a fragment of a
+        work.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the
+        Babylonian Talmud is to be found only in two MSS. (Harl. 5508 and
+        Add. 25,717) both of them including 11 Tractates, hardly a third part
+        of the whole work. Indeed poor <span class="tei tei-q">“Rabbinus
+        Talmud”</span> had to go to the <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">auto de
+        fé</span></span> on so many occasions that one cannot wonder if only
+        disjointed limbs are to be found of him in libraries. The only
+        complete MS. copy which escaped this vandalism is that in the Royal
+        Library in Munich, from which Mr. Rabbinowicz has edited his
+        monumental work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Variae Lectiones of the
+        Talmud</span></span>.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All other
+        libraries, Oxford included, have to be satisfied with fragments.
+        Still worse, as it is seen, fared the Jerusalem Talmud, and excepting
+        the well-known copy in Leyden from which the Venice edition was
+        prepared, not <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg
+        262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        even fragments of this Talmud are to be found in the majority of
+        libraries. To my knowledge it is only the British Museum which can
+        boast of the Jerusalem Talmud in MS. extending over <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Order of
+        Seeds</span></span> and one tractate of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Order of
+        Festivals</span></span><a id="noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href=
+        "#note_221"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> (Or.
+        2122-24) with commentaries of R. Solomon Syrillo, the first few pages
+        of which were edited by Dr. Lehmann of Mayence. The Museum also
+        possesses a great part of the Tosephta extending over 14 Tractates
+        (Add. 27,296). Of Midrashim we find in the Museum two excellent
+        manuscripts of the Genesis <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Rabbah</span></span>, one of the Leviticus
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Rabbah</span></span>, and one of the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span> and the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>
+        (Add. 27,169 and 16,406), besides two copies of the Midrash
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Haggadol</span></span> and other Aagadic
+        collections brought from Yemen. The <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>
+        by Machir b. Abba Mari to the minor prophets included in the Harleian
+        collection (5704) is unique. Of Liturgies, besides a great number of
+        MSS. representing the most peculiar rites, I shall mention the
+        Machzor<a id="noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href=
+        "#note_222"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> Vitri
+        (Add. 27,200-1) composed by the disciples of R. Solomon b. Isaac, and
+        forming in itself almost a small library. For, apart from the prayers
+        for festivals and week days which gave it its title, it includes,
+        besides the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span> with a
+        large commentary, three of the Minor Tractates of the Talmud, many
+        responses by German and French Rabbis, and a whole series of
+        religious hymns by German and Spanish authors, and many other
+        literary pieces. Cabbalah is represented by various valuable writings
+        of the pre-Zoharistic time (see for instance Add. 15,299) and the
+        works of R. Moses de Leon and R. Abraham Abulafia. Of Poetry, I shall
+        point here to the Tarshish of R. Moses Ibn Ezra, the Makames by Judah
+        Al Charisi (Add. 27,122), and the Divan of R. Abraham of Bedres (Add.
+        27,188). Of works <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg
+        263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        relating to grammar and lexicography, I may refer to a Codex (Add.
+        27,214) which contains the lexicon of R. Menahem ben Saruk, which is
+        considered as the oldest Hebrew MS. in the Museum, dating from the
+        year 1091. Of historical works, I mention the chronicle of R. Joseph
+        the Priest (Add. 27,122) and the letter of R. Sherira Gaon (Arundel
+        51), the oldest existing copy of this work (1189), which was edited
+        by Dr. Neubauer in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Mediæval Jewish Chronicles</span></span>.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These examples
+        will suffice to show the significance of the MSS. collection of this
+        Library. And the student may rest assured that in whatever branch of
+        Jewish thought he is interested, he will always find in the Museum
+        some Hebrew manuscript useful for his purpose.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I ought now to say
+        a few words as to the value of this collection of manuscripts. Now,
+        if the work contained in a MS. has never been edited, as for instance
+        the Machzor Vitri<a id="noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href=
+        "#note_223"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> and so
+        many others, its value is established by the mere fact of its
+        existence. For those who published MSS. were not always guided by the
+        best literary motives. And while they published and republished many
+        books of which one edition would have been more than enough, many
+        other works of the greatest importance for Jewish literature and
+        history remained in manuscript. As an instance, it will suffice to
+        mention here the Zohar, which has passed through twenty-four editions
+        since the sixteenth century, whilst the earliest Jewish Midrash, the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pessikta de
+        Rab Kahana</span></span>, had to linger in the libraries till the
+        year 1868, when it was edited by Mr. S. Buber. Thus there are still
+        many pearls of Jewish literature which exist only in MS. Likewise
+        most publishers were careless in their choice of the manuscript from
+        which our editions <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg
+        264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        have been prepared. Almost the whole of Jewish literature will have
+        to be re-edited before a scientific study of it will be possible. But
+        such critical editions can only be obtained by the aid of the MSS.
+        not yet made use of, in which better readings are to be found. From
+        this fact even those MSS. the contents of which have been several
+        times reprinted, as for instance the MSS. of the Midrash <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rabbah</span></span>,
+        gain the greatest literary importance. And the more MSS. the editor
+        of a work has at his disposal, the more certain is he of being able
+        to furnish us with a good text.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even when the
+        whole of Jewish literature lies before the student in the best of
+        texts, there will still remain a great charm about manuscripts.
+        Printed books, like the great mass of the modern society for which
+        they are prepared, are devoid of any originality. They interest us
+        only as classes, and it is very seldom that they have a story of
+        their own to tell. It is quite different with manuscripts, where the
+        fact of their having been produced by a living being invests them
+        with a certain kind of individuality. This is specially the case with
+        Hebrew MSS., which were not copied by men shut up in cloisters, but
+        by sociable people living in the world and sharing its joys and
+        sorrows. Even women were employed in this art, and I remember to have
+        read in some MS. or catalogue a postscript by the lady copyist,
+        which, if I remember rightly, ran as follows: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“I beseech the reader not to judge me very harshly when
+        he finds that mistakes have crept into this work; for when I was
+        engaged in copying it God blessed me with a son, and thus I could not
+        attend to my business properly.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To be sure, some
+        of these copyists were curious folk. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Their mind as well as that of the world around
+        them must have been of a peculiar constitution hardly conceivable to
+        us. Take, for example, Benjamin, the copyist of a certain Machzor in
+        the Museum (Add. 11,639). This Machzor was written in times of bitter
+        persecution. The copyist, who was himself a learned man, alludes in
+        one place to the sufferings which the Jews in a certain French town
+        had to undergo in the year 1276. On one of them, the martyr R.
+        Samson, Benjamin the copyist composed a lamentation written in a most
+        mournful strain. But this lamentation is followed by a wine-song, one
+        of the jolliest and wildest parodies for the feast of Purim.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Speaking of this
+        Machzor I should like to remark that it forms one of the greatest
+        ornaments of the Museum. Besides including the whole of the
+        Pentateuch, the above-mentioned Tarshish by R. Moses Ibn Ezra, and
+        many other smaller literary pieces which would require a small volume
+        to describe them properly, this MS. is most richly illuminated, and
+        contains very many illustrations. The subjects of these illustrations
+        are biblical, sometimes also apocryphal, such as—Adam and Eve in
+        Paradise, Noah in the Ark, Abraham meeting the angels, Sarah behind
+        the door listening to the conversation of her husband with his
+        guests, Moses with the rod in his hands dividing the Red Sea, Samson
+        riding on the back of a lion, Solomon on his throne, Daniel in the
+        lion's den, the king Ahasuerus holding out the golden sceptre to
+        Esther, Judith addressing Holofernes, the Leviathan, the mythical
+        bird Bar Yochni, and many other similar subjects. In passing I
+        recommend these illustrations and illuminations to the attention of
+        the artist as the most worthy examples of Jewish ecclesiastical
+        art,—if there is such a thing as a <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> special Jewish art. The artist will find the
+        Museum best suited for this purpose, its collection being considered
+        as the richest of the kind. Besides this Machzor I must also allude
+        to the illuminated Bible (Or. 2226-28) written in Lisbon for R. Judah
+        Alchakin—it is said to be one of the finest specimens of such
+        works—and the illuminated Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, executed for
+        R. Joseph of the famous Yachya family, also thought to be most
+        artistically done. The liturgies for the Passover Eve service will
+        also offer to the artist a rich harvest, especially Codex, Add.
+        27,210, which the wealthy Lady Rosa Galico presented to her
+        son-in-law on his wedding-day, and Codex, Add. 14,762, even the
+        binding of which is considered as an artistic curiosity.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leaving now these
+        marvels to the appreciation of the artist, the greatest wonder which
+        suggests itself to us is how the Jews could maintain such a cultured
+        taste in such unhappy times, and get the means of satisfying it.
+        These reflections about the owners present themselves the more
+        strongly to our mind when we meet with one of those old Jewish
+        prayer-books, which in many cases formed the whole religious and
+        literary treasure of the family. In their fly-leaves, in which the
+        births and deaths of successive generations are very often
+        registered, the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">spiritus
+        familiaris</span></span> seems to be still haunting the pages. When
+        you turn them over and see the service for Passover Eve, are you not
+        bound to think of the anxiety with which these poor creatures engaged
+        in this ceremony lest they might be attacked suddenly by a fanatic
+        mob? must you not ask how they could bear life under such
+        circumstances? And when you turn a few more pages and arrive at the
+        prayers read for the dead, must you not ask how did they die?
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267"
+        id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Were they perhaps burnt alive
+        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">ad majorem Dei gloriam</span></span>, or torn to
+        pieces by a <span class="tei tei-q">“saintly mob”</span>? Take again
+        the illuminated copies of the Bible and the Mishneh Torah, both of
+        which were finished only a few years before the great expulsion of
+        the Jews from Spain and Portugal, times when the earth already
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“burnt under their feet, and the heaven was
+        also very unkind to them.”</span> And nevertheless Jews were still,
+        as these MSS. show us, cultivating science and art. Another instance
+        of such a devotion to science in spite of the unfavourable times may
+        be seen from a colophon to Codex Or. 39. It contains the book
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Nissim</span></span>, a philosophical treatise
+        on the fundamental teachings of Judaism, together with a
+        philosophical commentary on the Pentateuch by R. Nissim of
+        Marseilles, a contemporary of R. Solomon ben Adereth in the
+        thirteenth century. The Museum copy was written by R. Jacob, the son
+        of David, who also added some annotations to the book. At the end he
+        says: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have copied this book <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nissim</span></span>
+        for my own use, that I may study in it, I and my children and my
+        grandchildren.... I have finished it to-day, Sunday, the 28th of Ab,
+        5333 (1573), at Venice, in the year of the expulsion which befell us
+        on account of our sins.”</span> Now, only observe this poor R. Jacob,
+        who has to go through all these horrors, yet is still occupied in
+        copying MSS. for his own pleasure, and in meditating on the most
+        complicated problems of philosophy and religion.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is not
+        always stories of this heroic nature that the MSS. tell us. They
+        betray also very much of the instability of human affairs and their
+        weakness. You find in many copies the words that they must not
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“be sold or given in mortgage.”</span> But
+        scarcely a generation has passed away, and they are already in the
+        possession <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg
+        268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
+        a new owner, who writes the same injunction to be broken again by his
+        children in their turn. In Codex 27,122, we find commendatory letters
+        for a worthy poor man, who is so unhappy as to have two grown-up
+        daughters, and not to have the means of supplying them with marriage
+        portions. Indeed, he must have been very poor, not possessing even a
+        book in his house, or else his troubles could not have been so great.
+        For in Codex Harl. 5702, we find the owner saying: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“To eternal memory that I have acquired this <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Third Book of
+        Avicena</span></span> from the hands of my father-in-law, R.
+        Jekuthiel, as a part of my dowry.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a sign of human
+        weakness I give the following two instances. There lies before me a
+        cabbalistic Codex (Add. 27,199), which acquired some notoriety from
+        the fact of its having been copied by the famous grammarian, R.
+        Elijah Levita, for his pupil Cardinal Aegidius. At the end of this
+        MS. we read: <span class="tei tei-q">“I (Levita) have finished (the
+        copying of) this book on Wednesday, the day of Hoshana Rabba,<a id=
+        "noteref_224" name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a> 5277
+        (1516), on which day I have seen my head in the shadow of the moon.
+        Praised be God (for it), for now I am sure not to die in the
+        following year.”</span> These words relate to a well-known
+        superstition, according to which, when a man is going to die in the
+        course of the next year his shadow disappears from him on the
+        preceding Hoshana Rabba. But is it not humiliating to see that the
+        great Levita, who was superior to many prejudices of his time, and
+        taught Christians Hebrew, and who denied the antiquity of the vowels
+        in the Bible, which was considered by the great majority of his
+        contemporaries as a mortal heresy—is it not humiliating to see this
+        enlightened man trembling for his life on this night, and
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269"
+        id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> anxiously observing his
+        shadow? Another Codex lies before me (Add. 17,053), containing the
+        Novellæ to three tractates of the Talmud. Its owner must accordingly
+        have been a learned man. But in the fly-leaf of this MS. we read the
+        following words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Memorandum—Thursday, the
+        25th of Sivan, 5295 (1535), I have taken an oath in the presence of
+        R. David Ibn Shushan and R. Moses de Castro, etc., not to play
+        (cards) any more.”</span> I might perhaps suggest on this occasion
+        that in our days when all sorts of Judaisms are circulating, a
+        cooking Judaism, a racing Judaism, a muscular Judaism, and so many
+        Judaisms more—it would be interesting to take up also the subject of
+        playing Judaism, and to write its history.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In conclusion I
+        shall mention the colophon to Codex Harl. 5713, which may have some
+        interest for the English reader. It runs: <span class="tei tei-q">“I
+        have written it in honour of the noble and pious, etc., Humphrey
+        Wanley, the noble Librarian of my Lord Treasurer. May his glory be
+        increased. In the year 5474 (1714) in the holy community of London,
+        under the reign of the noble and happy Queen Anne. May the Lord
+        increase her splendour and glory.”</span> The signature of the
+        copyist is <span class="tei tei-q">“Aaron the son of Moses, born in
+        the city of Navaschadok in Poland.”</span> By the way, we learn from
+        this signature that the immigration of Polish Jews into this country
+        had already begun in the time of Queen Anne, and perhaps still
+        earlier.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus everything in
+        a MS., the arrangement of the matter, the remarks of the owners, the
+        signature of the copyist, sets the reader thinking, and contributes
+        many a side-light to the history of the Jews.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name=
+      "Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">XI. Titles of Jewish Books</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is now more
+        than half a century since Isaac Reggio in his edition of Elijah
+        Delmedigo's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Examination of Religion</span></span>, made the
+        remark that this book adds to its other merits that of bearing a
+        title corresponding to its contents,—a merit that is very rare in
+        Jewish books. Reggio proceeds to give a few specimens confirming his
+        assertion, and concludes his remarks with a eulogy on Delmedigo, who
+        in this respect also had the courage to differ from his
+        contemporaries. Zunz also once wrote an article on titles of books.
+        But this article unfortunately appeared in some German periodical
+        which the British Museum does not possess, and I could not even
+        succeed in ascertaining whether Zunz treats at all of titles of
+        Hebrew books, nor am I aware that the subject has been taken up by
+        any other scholar, Isaac D'Israeli's few notes on the subject in his
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Curiosities
+        of Literature</span></span> being scarcely worth mention. It seems to
+        me, however, interesting enough to deserve some illustration, though
+        I can by no means hope to be complete.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The titles of the
+        books contained in the Bible need not be discussed here; information
+        concerning them is to be found in every critical introduction to the
+        Old Testament. The Rabbinical works dating from antiquity also offer
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271"
+        id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> little opportunity for
+        reflection on their titles. The Talmud, as a work, has no title at
+        all; for Talmud simply means <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“teaching”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“study.”</span> Sometimes it is termed ShaSS, an
+        abbreviation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Shisha Sedarim</span></span>,<a id="noteref_225"
+        name="noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> meaning
+        the Six Orders or divisions contained in the Mishnah. This last word
+        means, according to some authors, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Repetition.”</span> Other Tannaitic collections of laws
+        or expositions of the Scriptures are called <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the Book”</span> (Siphra), <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+        Books”</span> (Siphré), or <span class="tei tei-q">“Additions”</span>
+        (Tosephta to the Mishnah). The word <span lang="he" class=
+        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Baraitha</span></span><a id="noteref_226" name=
+        "noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> means
+        the external Mishnah that enjoyed less authority than the Mishnah of
+        R. Judah the Patriarch. Some approach to titles we find in the names
+        given to the different tractates included in the Mishnah, as
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, because it treats of
+        Benedictions, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Peah</span></span><a id="noteref_227" name=
+        "noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a>
+        (Corner) which contains the particulars concerning the law in Lev.
+        xix. and so forth. Of the few works quoted in the Talmud it will
+        suffice to mention the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Seder Olam</span></span>, the Order of the
+        World, the name of which is very suitable to the chronological
+        contents of the book. In general, I may observe that as long as the
+        law which prohibited the writing down of the Oral teachings was in
+        force, there hardly existed Jewish books. But where there are no
+        books there is also no need for titles. The few titles, however,
+        which can be proved to be historical are simple and to the point. It
+        is not till about the beginning of the Middle Ages, when this
+        prohibitive law had, for reasons not to be explained here, been
+        abolished, that we can speak of Hebrew books. But here also the
+        Title-confusion begins.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order that we
+        may have some general view of the thousands of titles that are
+        catalogued by the Jewish bibliographers, it will perhaps be well to
+        arrange them under the following six classes:—</p><span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I. <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Simple
+        titles</span></span>, that have no other object than that of
+        indicating the subject matter of the book. These are, as we have just
+        seen, the only kind of titles known to antiquity. The few books which
+        the Gaonim left us bear such simple titles as could have served as
+        models to later generations. Among them may be mentioned the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Halachoth</span></span> or collection of Laws,
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Creeds and
+        Opinions</span></span>, by R. Saadiah Gaon, the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book on Buying and
+        Selling</span></span>, by R. Hai Gaon, containing the laws relating
+        to commercial transactions. It may be noticed that this last book is
+        one of the best arranged in Jewish literature, and displays more
+        systematising powers than even the Code of Maimonides. The greatest
+        part of the literary activity of the Gaonim consists in their
+        Responsa, in which they gave decisions on ritual questions, or
+        explanations of difficult passages in the Talmud. The titles borne by
+        the various collections of those Responsa belong to a period later
+        than the author's. The great majority of the books produced by the
+        Franco-German school may also be included in this class. They are
+        termed <span class="tei tei-q">“Commentaries,”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Additions”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Glosses,”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Novellæ,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Confirming
+        Proofs,”</span> and similar modest titles which show both their
+        relation to, and dependence on, another older authority. The largest
+        collection of Midrashim we possess bears the simple title
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bag.”</span><a id="noteref_228" name=
+        "noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> Many of
+        the Responsa satisfy themselves with the words <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Questions to, and Answers by.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">II. <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titles taken from the
+        first word with which the book begins</span></span>, or from the
+        first word of the Scriptural verse occurring first in the book. This
+        class is strongly represented by the Midrashim. Thus the Midrash to
+        the Song of Songs is also quoted as the Midrash <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Chazitha</span></span>,<a id="noteref_229" name=
+        "noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Midrash, Seest thou”</span> (the first text
+        with which this Midrash deals <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> being Proverbs xxii. 28). The Midrash to the
+        Psalms is called Midrash <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Shocher Tob</span></span>,<a id="noteref_230"
+        name="noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Midrash, He that diligently seeketh the
+        good”</span> (Prov. xi. 37). The Midrash containing the legendary
+        story of the wars of the sons of Jacob with the Canaanites is quoted
+        as Midrash <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">V'yisseu</span></span>,<a id="noteref_231" name=
+        "noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Midrash, And they journeyed,”</span> as the
+        story begins with the verse from Gen. xxxv. 5. And this is the case
+        with the titles of many other Midrashim. Whether the work cited under
+        the strange name of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Meat on Coals</span></span> did not begin with
+        those words, containing some law relating to the salting of meat, I
+        do not venture to decide. Under this class we may also arrange those
+        books that are called after a phrase which is often used in the book,
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span>, the Midrash <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yelamdenu</span></span>
+        (He may teach us), or the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Vehizhir</span></span>, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“And He commanded us,”</span> almost every paragraph in
+        these books beginning with the phrases mentioned.<a id="noteref_232"
+        name="noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a>
+        Probably all the books belonging to this class received from the
+        hands of their authors or compilers no titles at all. The student who
+        had to quote them gave them names after the phrase or word which
+        first caught his eye. In later centuries this class disappears almost
+        entirely (see, however, Ben-Jacob's <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treasure</span></span>,
+        p. 201, No. 827).</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">III. <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pompous
+        titles.</span></span> The largest contributions to this class were
+        made by the mystical writers. Books which profess to know what is
+        going on in the heavens above and the earth beneath cannot possibly
+        be satisfied with modest titles. Thus we have the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Book of Brightness”</span> (Zohar), <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the shining book”</span> (Bahir), <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the Confidential Shepherd”</span> (Moses).<a id=
+        "noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href="#note_233"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> The
+        books which the Zohar quotes bear such titles as the Book of Adam,
+        the Book of Enoch. The only excuse for the Zohar is that the
+        manufacturing of such books with pseudo-epigraphical titles
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274"
+        id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had already begun in
+        antiquity. It is not, however, till the Gaonic period that a whole
+        apocryphal literature suddenly emerges which perplexes the Gaonim
+        themselves. No one is spared. Angels, patriarchs, and martyrs are
+        called upon to lend their names to these books. What one resents most
+        is that history came within the range of the forger's activity. There
+        is, for instance, the Josippon, which professes to be written by
+        Josephus, the well-known Jewish historian of the first century. But
+        in spite of all the care taken by the author to disguise himself in
+        the garb of antiquity, the Josippon is a forgery of the ninth or
+        tenth century. Of a similar kind is the Book of Jasher, containing
+        legendary stories relating to Biblical personages. It pretends to be
+        identical with the Book of Jasher quoted in Joshua x. 13 and 2 Sam.
+        i. 18. Some sixty years ago a certain Mr. Samuel of Liverpool had the
+        misfortune to make himself ridiculous by maintaining the pretensions
+        of this book; for, indeed, it does not require much knowledge of the
+        Agadic literature to see that the Book of Jasher is only a
+        compilation of comparatively late Midrashim.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">IV. <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titles suggested by
+        other Titles.</span></span> As an instance of this we may take
+        Maimonides' great Code of Law, which bears the title <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh
+        Torah</span></span>. The importance of the book made it the object of
+        study for hundreds of scholars, who wrote their commentaries and
+        glosses on it. Among the titles of the commentaries such
+        Title-genealogies may be discovered as Maggid <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh</span></span>,
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Mishneh</span></span> Lammelech; which last word
+        again suggested such titles as Emek ha-<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Melech</span></span>,
+        Shaar ha-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Melech</span></span>, and so on.<a id=
+        "noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same process
+        may be observed in other standard works, the importance of which made
+        them a subject of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg
+        275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        investigation and interpretation as the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Prepared Table,”</span> one of the glosses to which is
+        called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Mappah</span></span>, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Tablecloth,”</span> whilst others provided it with the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Shewbread</span></span> and with <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">New
+        Fruit</span></span>.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">V. <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Euphemistic
+        Titles</span></span>, as <span class="tei tei-q">“The Tractate of
+        Joys,”</span> treating of funeral ceremonies and kindred subjects. It
+        does not seem that this title was known to antiquity, but it is
+        certain that already the earlier authorities quoted it by this name.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Book of Life”</span> (the German Jewish
+        title of which is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Alle Dinim, von Freuden</span></span>), is the
+        name of a very popular book containing the prayers to be read in the
+        house of mourning as well as in the cemetery, which is also called
+        the House of Life.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">VI. <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titles taken from the
+        Bible</span></span>, or Fancy Titles. This is the largest class of
+        all, though it was utterly unknown in antiquity. It will be, perhaps,
+        convenient to arrange this class of titles under the following
+        sub-divisions. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">a</span></span>) Titles taken from the Bible,
+        but also fulfilling the purpose of indicating the name of the author.
+        For instance, <span class="tei tei-q">“Seed of Abraham”</span> (Ps.
+        cv. 6), is the title of nine different books, the name of whose
+        authors happened to be Abraham; <span class="tei tei-q">“And Isaac
+        entreated”</span> (Gen. xxv. 21), is by Isaac Satanow on the Prayers;
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Then Isaac sowed”</span> (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
+        xxvi. 12), edited by R. Isaac Perles, contains an index to the Zohar.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Jacob shall take root”</span> (Is. xxvii. 6)
+        is the name of a book on Grammar and Massorah by R. Jacob Bassani. R.
+        Joseph of Posen left two collections of sermons and commentaries on
+        the Pentateuch, of which the one is called <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“And Joseph nourished”</span> (Gen. xlvii. 12), the other
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“And Joseph gathered”</span> (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
+        14). Authors with the name of Judah are represented among others by
+        such titles as <span class="tei tei-q">“And this of Judah”</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276"
+        id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> (Deut. xxxiii.7), a treatise
+        on the laws concerning the killing of animals; or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Judah shall go up”</span> (Judges i. 2), a pamphlet
+        containing a collection of prayers to be said on a journey.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses began”</span> (Deut. i. 5) forms the
+        title of three different books on various subjects, the authors of
+        which had the name Moses. <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses shall
+        rejoice,”</span> a phrase occurring in the morning prayer for
+        Sabbaths, is also the title of two books, the authors of which were
+        named Moses. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Rod of Aaron”</span>
+        enjoyed, as it seems, a goodly popularity; there are four bearing
+        this name, not to speak of a fifth, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Rod
+        of Aaron brought forth buds”</span> (Exod. xvii. 23), which is the
+        name of a collection of Responsa by R. Aaron ben Chayim. But other
+        Rods also were fashionable; there are, besides the five Rods of
+        Moses, also Rods of Ephraim, Dan, Judah, Joseph, Naphtali, and
+        Manasseh. By authors of the name of David we find books with the
+        title <span class="tei tei-q">“And David said,”</span> or a
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Prayer of David,”</span> and other phrases
+        occurring in the Psalms relating to David; whilst the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Tower of David”</span> became the stronghold of other
+        writers, and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Shield of David”</span>
+        protected as many as nine more. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Chariot
+        of Solomon”</span> (Cant. iii. 9) adorns the title-pages of five
+        books by authors named Solomon. The Caraite Solomon Troki was so fond
+        of that title that he called his two polemical treatises <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“He made himself a chariot,”</span> while R. Solomon of
+        Mir's collection of sermons has the title, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“This Bed which is Solomon's”</span> (Cant. iii. 7). As
+        to family names, there were not many authors in the enjoyment of that
+        luxury (especially among the German Jews), but we find them
+        indicating the fact of their being Priests or Levites. Among such
+        books are the collection of Responsa, by R. Raphael Cohen, which has
+        the title <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg
+        277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“And the Priest shall come again”</span>
+        (Lev. xiv. 39), and the Cabbalistic treatise by R. Abraham Cohen, of
+        Lask, with the title <span class="tei tei-q">“And the Priest shall
+        reckon unto him”</span> (Lev. xxvii. 18). Probably the author deals
+        with numbers. R. Hirsch Horwitz, the Levite, called his Novellæ to
+        the Talmud <span class="tei tei-q">“The Camp of Levi.”</span> The
+        title <span class="tei tei-q">“The Service of the Levite”</span>
+        (with allusion to Exodus xxxviii. 21) is borne by five other books by
+        authors who were Levites. And there may be found hundreds of books
+        with titles suggesting the Priestly or Levitical descent of their
+        authors. Most anxious is Joseph Ibn Kaspi (Joseph the Silvern, so
+        called after his native place Argentière, in the south of France) to
+        provide most of his numerous books with some Biblical titles combined
+        with silver, as a <span class="tei tei-q">“Bowl of Silver”</span>
+        (Numb. vii. 13), or <span class="tei tei-q">“Points of Silver”</span>
+        (Song of Songs i. 11), or <span class="tei tei-q">“Figures of
+        Silver”</span> (Prov. xxv. 10), and other similar phrases. On the
+        other hand Azulai manages to indicate at least one of his three
+        Hebrew names, Chayim Joseph David, in most of his works, of which the
+        number exceeds seventy, as Chayim Shaal,<a id="noteref_235" name=
+        "noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“He asked Life”</span> (Ps. xxi. 4), or
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The knees of Joseph”</span> (alluding to
+        Gen. xlviii. 12), and <span class="tei tei-q">“Truth unto
+        David”</span> (Ps. cxxxii. 11).</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) The
+        Tabernacle with its furniture was also a great favourite with many
+        authors. There are not only six tabernacles (two on Cabbalah, two on
+        grammar, and two on Talmudical subjects), but also three <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Arks of the Testimony,”</span> two <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Altars of gold,”</span> two <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Tables of Shewbread,”</span> four <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Candlesticks of the Light,”</span> two <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Sockets of Silver,”</span> and two <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Pillars of Silver.”</span> Others again preferred the
+        vestments of the priests as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Plate of
+        Judgment,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Robe of the
+        Ephod,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Mitre of Aaron,”</span>
+        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Plate <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of Gold,”</span> the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Bell and Pomegranate,”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Wreathen Chains,”</span> and the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Arches of Gold.”</span> Many of these books were written
+        by authors claiming to be priests. (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) But
+        besides the canonical, other costumes were also fashionable. R.
+        Mordecai Yafeh composed ten books, every one of them bearing the name
+        of some garment or apparel, as <span class="tei tei-q">“Apparel of
+        Royalty,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Apparel of Blue,”</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Apparel of White,”</span> and so the whole
+        suit with which Mordecai went out from the presence of the king
+        (Esther viii. 15). These ten works range from codifications of the
+        law and occasional sermons to philosophy, astronomy, and Cabbalah. By
+        other writers we have three <span class="tei tei-q">“Coats of many
+        colours”</span> (Gen. xxxvii. 4), one <span class="tei tei-q">“Bridal
+        Attire,”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Thread of
+        Scarlet”</span> is not missing. (<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>) The
+        ingredients for incense as well as other articles used in the
+        Tabernacle or in the Temple were also fancied by some authors, and we
+        have two books with the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Principal
+        Spices,”</span> two <span class="tei tei-q">“Pure Myrrh,”</span>
+        three <span class="tei tei-q">“Arts of the Apothecary,”</span> one
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Oil of Holy Ointment,”</span> five
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Meat Offerings mingled or dry,”</span> three
+        or four <span class="tei tei-q">“Flour of the Meat Offering,”</span>
+        and also one <span class="tei tei-q">“Two Young Pigeons”</span> (Bene
+        Yonah) by R. Jonah Zandsopher. But the appetite of the authors did
+        not stop at these holy things. It extended also to such lay articles
+        as <span class="tei tei-q">“Spiced Wine,”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Juice of Pomegranate”</span> (Cant. viii. 2),
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Forests of Honey,”</span> the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Book of the Apple,”</span> and <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Seven Kinds of Drink.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>) Field
+        and flock also suggested to Hebrew writers as well as to Mr. Ruskin
+        such titles as <span class="tei tei-q">“The Fruit of the
+        Hand,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Rose of Sharon,”</span>
+        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lily of the Valleys,”</span> or
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Shepherds' Tents,”</span> and
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“In the Green Pastures”</span> (Ps. xxiii.
+        2).</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The specimens
+        given for every class may with very little trouble be doubled and
+        redoubled. But it is not my intention <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> to reproduce here whole catalogues. Reggio
+        thinks all such titles, which do not correspond with the context of
+        the book, absurd and confusing. He suggests that the Jews followed in
+        this respect the Arabic writers. There is no doubt that Reggio is not
+        altogether wrong in his complaint. Almost all the titles included in
+        class vi., as the reader might have observed, never indicate to the
+        student the subject of which the books treat. How can one guess that
+        the Responsa, the Dance of Mahanaim (two companies), is of a
+        polemical nature against the tendencies of reform? This list may be
+        lengthened by hundreds of titles. But even these incomprehensible
+        titles are better than the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Chad Gadyah Lo Israel</span></span> (One Kid No
+        Israel),<a id="noteref_236" name="noteref_236" href=
+        "#note_236"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> the
+        un-Hebrew title of a pamphlet trying to prove the un-Jewish origin of
+        the well-known folk-song sung on Passover Eve. But, on the other
+        hand, it must not be overlooked that even this class has, though not
+        always, something suggestive and even practical about it. The
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Choice of Pearls”</span> is undoubtedly more
+        attractive than the prosaic <span class="tei tei-q">“Collection of
+        Proverbs and Sayings,”</span> which is what the book contains.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Understanding of the Seasons”</span> (1 Chr.
+        xii. 32), sounds also better than the simple <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Collection of Sermons on different occasions.”</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lips of those who Sleep”</span>
+        recommends itself as a very suggestive title for a catalogue,
+        especially when one thinks of the Agadic explanation given to Cant.
+        vii. 10, according to which the study of the book of a departed
+        author makes the lips of the dead man to speak. Such titles as
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bunch of Lilies”</span> for a collection of
+        poems are still usual with us. Such a title as the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Jealousy Offering,”</span> or the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Law of Jealousies,”</span> in polemical literature is
+        very appropriate for its subject. R. Jacob Emden, who named one
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280"
+        id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his pamphlets <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Rod for the fool's back”</span> (Prov. xxvi. 3), will be
+        envied for his choice by many a controversialist even to-day. Wittily
+        devised is the pun-title, <span class="tei tei-q">“City of
+        Sihon”</span> for a mathematical book by R. Joseph Tsarphathi,
+        alluding to Numb. xxi. 27, <span class="tei tei-q">“For Hesbon
+        (reckoning) is the City of Sihon.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other titles were
+        probably intended more as mottoes than titles. <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Go forth and behold, ye daughters of Zion”</span> (Cant.
+        iii. 11), is put in the title-page of R. Jacob's German-Jewish
+        paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which was written chiefly for the use
+        of ladies. <span class="tei tei-q">“Let another man praise thee and
+        not thine own mouth, a stranger and not thine own lips”</span> (Prov.
+        xxvii. 2), forms the title of a book extending over only one and a
+        half page in quarto. It contains letters by seven Rabbis (among them
+        R. Liva of Prague) recommending the Ascetic, R. Abraham Wangos, who
+        has a daughter to marry, and wants also to make a pilgrimage to the
+        Holy Land, as deserving the support of his brethren.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is also
+        another objection to these titles. It is that they seem sometimes not
+        quite consonant with our notions of modesty. Thus we have
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Desirable and Sweet”</span> on astronomy,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Sweeter than Honey”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“He shall comfort us,”</span> and many others of this
+        kind. But it must not be thought that we have a right to infer from
+        the title to the author. There is, indeed, an anecdote that three
+        authors were rather too little careful about the choice of their
+        titles, namely Maimonides in calling his Code <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh
+        Torah</span></span> (which is the traditional title of the Book of
+        Deuteronomy), R. Moses Alshech in calling his homiletical
+        commentaries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Torah</span></span> of Moses, and R. Isaiah
+        Horwitz in calling his book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Shene Luchoth ha-Berith</span></span>
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281"
+        id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> (The Two Tables of the
+        Covenant). These authors, as the story goes, had for their punishment
+        that their works are never quoted by the titles they gave to them,
+        the former two being usually cited as Rambam or Alshech, whilst the
+        last is more known by its abbreviated title of SHeLa<a id=
+        "noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href="#note_237"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> than by
+        its full name.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I do not remember
+        where I have read this story, but I am quite sure that its pious
+        author would have been more careful about repeating it had he known
+        that this accusation against Maimonides was a favourite topic with
+        apostates, who thought to hit Judaism in the person of its
+        representative Maimonides. But, as R. Solomon Duran in his polemical
+        work remarks, Maimonides was too much of a truly great man to find
+        any satisfaction in such petty vanity. Nor do I believe that even the
+        character of less-known authors can in any way be impugned by the
+        seemingly conceited titles of their books; just as on the other hand
+        the humility of the author is not proved by calling his book
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Offering of the Poor,”</span> or other
+        modest titles. The fancy title was in common use, and was therefore a
+        commonplace with no significance whatever. The real disadvantage of
+        such titles lies in the fact that, as already pointed out, they
+        conceal from the student the contents of the book which he might
+        otherwise consult in the course of his researches.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Did these authors
+        perhaps foresee that there would come a time in which index-knowledge
+        would pass for deep scholarship? and did they thus by using these
+        obscure titles try to put a check on the dabblers who speak the more
+        of a book the less they have read of its contents? If this be the
+        case we can only admire their foresight.</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name=
+      "Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">XII. The Child in Jewish
+        Literature</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“I saw a Jewish lady only yesterday with a child at her
+        knee, and from whose face towards the child there shone a sweetness
+        so angelical that it seemed to form a sort of glory round both. I
+        protest I could have knelt before her, too, and adored in her the
+        divine beneficence in endowing us with the maternal <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">storgé</span></span> which began with our race
+        and sanctifies the history of mankind.”</span> These words, which are
+        taken from Thackeray's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Pendennis</span></span>, may serve as a
+        starting-point for this paper. The fact that the great student of man
+        perceived this glory just round the head of a Jewish lady rouses in
+        me the hope that the small student of letters may, with a little
+        search, be able to discover in the remains of our past many similar
+        traces of this divine beneficence and sanctifying sentiment.
+        Certainly the glimpses which we shall catch from the faded leaves of
+        ancient volumes, dating from bygone times, will not be so bright as
+        those which the novelist was so fortunate as to catch from the face
+        of a lady whom he saw but the previous day. The mothers and fathers,
+        about whom I am going to write in this essay, have gone long ago, and
+        the objects of their anxiety and troubles have also long ago
+        vanished. But what the subject will lose in brightness, it may
+        perhaps gain in reality and intensity. A few moments <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of enraptured devotion do not make up the
+        saint. It is a whole series of feelings and sentiments betrayed on
+        different occasions, expressed in different ways, a whole life of
+        sore troubles, of bitter disappointments, but also moments of most
+        elevated joys and real happiness.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And surely these
+        manifestations of the divine beneficence, which appear in their
+        brightest glory in the literature of every nation when dealing with
+        the child, shine strongest in the literature of the Jewish nation. In
+        it, to possess a child was always considered as the greatest blessing
+        God could bestow on man, and to miss it as the greatest curse. The
+        patriarch Abraham, with whom Israel enters into history,
+        complains—<span class="tei tei-q">“Oh Lord, what wilt Thou give me,
+        seeing I go childless!”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Rabbis
+        regarded the childless man as dead, whilst the Cabbalist in the
+        Middle Ages thought of him who died without posterity as of one who
+        had failed in his mission in this world, so that he would have to
+        appear again on our planet to fulfil this duty. To trace out the
+        feelings which accompanied the object of their greatest anxiety, to
+        let them pass before the reader in some way approaching to a
+        chronological order, to draw attention to some points more worthy of
+        being emphasised than others, is the aim of this essay.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I said that I
+        propose to treat the subject in chronological order. I meant by this
+        that I shall follow the child in the different stages through which
+        it has to pass from its birth until it ceases to be a child and
+        attains its majority. This latter period is the beginning of the
+        thirteenth year in the case of a female, and the beginning of the
+        fourteenth year in the case of a male. I shall have occasion later on
+        to examine this point more closely.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there is the
+        embryo-period which forms a kind of preliminary stage in the life of
+        the child, and plays a very important part in the region of Jewish
+        legends. Human imagination always occupies itself most with the
+        things of which we know least. And so it got hold of this
+        semi-existence of man, the least accessible to experience and
+        observation, and surrounded it by a whole cycle of legends and
+        stories. They are too numerous to be related here. But I shall hint
+        at a few points which I regard as the most conspicuous features of
+        these legends.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These legends are
+        chiefly based on the notion of the pre-existence of the soul on the
+        one hand, but on the other hand they are a vivid illustration of the
+        saying of the Fathers, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou art born against
+        thy will.”</span> Thus the soul, when it is brought before the throne
+        of God, and is commanded to enter into the body, pleads before Him:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“O Lord, till now have I been holy and pure;
+        bring me not into contact with what is common and unclean.”</span>
+        Thereupon the soul is given to understand that it was for this
+        destiny alone that it was created. Another remarkable feature is the
+        warning given to man before his birth that he will be responsible for
+        his actions. He is regularly sworn in. The oath has the double
+        purpose of impressing upon him the consciousness of his duty to lead
+        a holy life, and of arming him against the danger of allowing a holy
+        life to make him vain. As if to render this oath more impressive, the
+        unborn hero is provided with two angels who, besides teaching him the
+        whole of the Torah, take him every morning through paradise and show
+        him the glory of the just ones who dwell there. In the evening he is
+        taken to hell to witness <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg
+        285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
+        sufferings of the reprobate. But such a lesson would make free will
+        impossible. His future conduct would only be dictated by the fear of
+        punishment and hope of reward. And the moral value of his actions
+        also depends, according to Jewish notions, upon the power to commit
+        sin. Thus another legend records: <span class="tei tei-q">“When God
+        created the world, He produced on the second day the angels with
+        their natural inclinations to do good, and the absolute inability to
+        commit sin. On the following days again He created the beasts with
+        their exclusively animal desires. But He was pleased with neither of
+        these extremes. If the angels follow my will, said God, it is only on
+        account of their impotence to act in the opposite direction. I shall
+        therefore create man, who will be a combination of both angel and
+        beast, so that he will be able to follow either the good or evil
+        inclination. His evil deeds will place him beneath the level of
+        animals, whilst his noble aspirations will enable him to obtain a
+        higher position than angels.”</span> Care is therefore taken to make
+        the child forget all it has seen and heard in these upper regions.
+        Before it enters the world an angel strikes it on the upper lip, and
+        all his knowledge and wisdom disappear at once. The pit in the upper
+        lip is a result of this stroke, which is also the cause why children
+        cry when they are born.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the origin
+        of these legends, the main features of which are already to be found
+        in the Talmud, I must refer the reader to the researches of Löw and
+        others.<a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href=
+        "#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> Here we
+        have only to watch the effect which these legends had upon the minds
+        of Jewish parents. The newly born child was in consequence looked
+        upon by them as a higher being, which, but a few seconds before, had
+        been conversing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg
+        286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        with angels and saints, and had now condescended into our profane
+        world to make two ordinary mortals happy. The treatment which the
+        child experienced from its parents, as well as from the whole of the
+        community, was therefore a combination of love and veneration. One
+        may go even further and say that the belief in these legends
+        determines greatly the destination of the child. What other
+        destination could a being of such a glorious past have than to be
+        what an old German Jewish poem expressed in the following lines:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Geboren soll es wehren</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Zu Gottes Ehren.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The child should be born to the honour of God.”</span>
+        The mission of the child is to glorify the name of God on earth. And
+        the whole bringing up of the child in the old Jewish communities was
+        more or less calculated to this end. The words of the Bible,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of
+        priests,”</span> were taken literally. Every man felt it his duty to
+        bring up his children, or at least one member of his family, for this
+        calling. How they carried out this programme we shall see later
+        on.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, regarding
+        almost every infant as a predestined priest, and thinking of it as
+        having received a certain preparation for this calling before it came
+        into this world, we cannot wonder that the child was supposed to show
+        signs of piety from the days of its earliest existence, and even
+        earlier. Thus we read that even the unborn children joined in with
+        the chorus on the Red Sea and sang the Song (of Moses). David, again,
+        composed Psalms before perceiving the face of this world. On the Day
+        of Atonement they used to communicate to the unborn child,
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287"
+        id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> through the medium of its
+        mother, that on this great day it had to be satisfied with the good
+        it had received the day before. And when a certain child, afterwards
+        named Shabbethai, refused to listen to such a request, R. Johanan
+        applied to it the verse from the Psalm, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
+        wicked are estranged from the womb.”</span> Indeed, Shabbethai turned
+        out a great sinner. It will perhaps be interesting to hear what his
+        sin was. It consisted in forestalling the corn in the market and
+        afterwards selling it to the poor at a much higher price. Of a
+        certain child the legend tells that it was born with the word
+        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">emeth</span></span> (truth) engraved on its
+        fore-head. Its parents named it Amiti,<a id="noteref_239" name=
+        "noteref_239" href="#note_239"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> and the
+        child proved to be a great saint.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The priest,
+        however, could not enter into his office without some consecration.
+        As the first step in this consecration of the child we may consider
+        the Covenant of Abraham. But this was prefaced by a few other solemn
+        acts which I must mention. One of the oldest ceremonies connected
+        with the birth of a child was that of tree-planting. In the case of a
+        boy they planted a cedar, in that of a girl a pine; and on their
+        marriage they cut branches from these trees to form the
+        wedding-canopy. Other rites followed, but they were more of a medical
+        character, and would be better appreciated by the physician. In the
+        Middle Ages superstition played a great part. To be sure, I have
+        spoken of saints; but we ought not to forget that saints, too, have
+        their foolish moments, especially when they are fighting against
+        hosts of demons, the existence of which is only guaranteed by their
+        own over-excited brains. Jewish parents were for many centuries
+        troubled by the fear of Lilith,<a id="noteref_240" name="noteref_240"
+        href="#note_240"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> the
+        devil's mother, who was suspected of stealing children and killing
+        them. The precautions they <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg
+        288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        took to prevent this atrocity were as foolish as the object of their
+        fear. I do not intend to enumerate here all these various
+        precautions. Every country almost has its own usages and charms, one
+        more absurd than the other. It will suffice to refer here to the most
+        popular of these charms, in which certain angels are invoked to
+        protect the child against its dangerous enemy Lilith. But of whatever
+        origin they may be, Judaism could do better without them. The only
+        excuse for their existence among us is to my mind that they provoked
+        the famous Dr. Erter to the composition of one of the finest satires
+        in the Hebrew language.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of a less
+        revolting character was the so-called ceremony of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Reading of the Shema.”</span><a id="noteref_241" name=
+        "noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> It
+        consisted in taking all the little children of the community into the
+        house of the newly-born child, where the teacher made them read the
+        Shema, sometimes also the ninety-first Psalm. The fact that little
+        children were the chief actors in this ceremony reconciles one a
+        little to it despite its rather doubtful origin. In some communities
+        these readings took place every evening up to the day when the child
+        was brought into the covenant of Abraham. In other places they
+        performed the ceremony only on the eve of the day of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Berith
+        Milah</span></span><a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href=
+        "#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a>
+        (Ceremony of the Circumcision). Indeed, this was the night during
+        which Lilith was supposed to play her worst tricks, and the watch
+        over the child was redoubled. Hence the name <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Wachnacht,”</span> or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Night
+        of Watching.”</span> They remained awake for the whole night, and
+        spent it in feasting and in studying certain portions of the Bible
+        and the Talmud, mostly relating to the event which was to take place
+        on the following day. This ceremony was already known to Jewish
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289"
+        id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> writers of the thirteenth
+        century. Nevertheless, it is considered by the best authorities on
+        the subject to be of foreign origin. Quite Jewish, as well as
+        entirely free from superstitious taint, was the visit which was paid
+        to the infant-boy on the first Sabbath of his existence. It was
+        called <span class="tei tei-q">“Shalom Zachar,”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a>
+        probably meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“Peace-boy,”</span> in
+        allusion to a well-known passage in the Talmud to the effect that the
+        advent of a boy in the family brings peace to the world.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At last the dawn
+        of the great day of the Berith came. I shall, however, only touch
+        here on the social aspects of this rite.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its popularity
+        began, as it seems, in very early times. The persecutions which
+        Israel suffered for it in the times of Antiochus Epiphanes,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“when the princes and elders mourned, the
+        virgins and the young men were made feeble, and the beauty of women
+        was changed, and when certain women were put to death for causing
+        their children to be circumcised,”</span> are the best proof of the
+        attachment of the people to it. The repeated attempts against this
+        law, both by heathen and by Christian hands, only served to increase
+        its popularity. Indeed R. Simeon ben Eleazar characterised it as the
+        law for which Israel brought the sacrifice of martyrdom, and
+        therefore held firmly by it. In other words they suffered for it, and
+        it became endeared to them. R. Simeon ben Gamaliel declares it to be
+        the only law which Israel fulfils with joy and exultation. As a sign
+        of this joy we may regard the eagerness and the lively interest which
+        raised this ceremony from a strictly family affair to a matter in
+        which the whole of the community participated. Thus we find that
+        already in the times of the Gaonim the ceremony was <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> transferred from the house of the parents
+        to the synagogue. Here it took place after the prayers, in the
+        presence of the whole congregation. The synagogue used to be
+        specially illuminated in honour of the event. Certain pieces of the
+        daily prayer, of a rather doleful nature, such as the confession of
+        sins, were omitted, lest the harmony of the festival should be
+        disturbed. As a substitute for these prayers, various hymns suitable
+        for the occasion were composed and inserted in the liturgy for the
+        day. As the most prominent members among those present figured the
+        happy father of the child and the medical man who performed the
+        ceremony, usually called the Mohel or Gozer,<a id="noteref_244" name=
+        "noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> both
+        wearing their festal garments and having certain privileges, such as
+        being called up to the Reading of the Law and chanting certain
+        portions of the prayers. It is not before the tenth century that a
+        third member suddenly emerges to become almost as important as the
+        father of the child. I refer to the <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Sandek</span></span> or Godfather. In some
+        countries he was also called the Baal Berith (Master of the
+        Covenant). In Italy they seemed to have had two Sandeks. This word
+        was for a long time supposed to be the Greek word σύνδικος. But it is
+        now proved beyond doubt that it is a corruption of the word σύντεκνος
+        used in the Greek church for godfather. In the church he was the man
+        who lifted the neophyte from the baptismal waters. Among the Jews,
+        the office of the Sandek was to keep the child on his knees during
+        the performance of the rite. The Sandek's place was, or is still,
+        near the seat of honour, which is called the Throne of Elijah, who is
+        supposed to be the angel of the covenant. Other angels, too, were
+        believed to officiate at this rite. Thus the angel Gabriel is also
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291"
+        id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> said to have performed the
+        office of Sandek to a certain child. According to other sources the
+        archangel Metatron himself attended. Probably it was on this account
+        that later Rabbis admonished the parents to take only a pious and
+        good Jew as Sandek for their children. Christian theologians also
+        declared that no good Christian must render such a service to a Jew.
+        The famous Buxtorf had to pay a fine of 100 florins for having
+        attended the Berith of a child, whose father he had employed as
+        reader when editing the well-known Basel Bible. The poor reader
+        himself, who was the cause of Buxtorf's offence, was fined 400
+        florins. Of an opposite case in which a Jew served as godfather to a
+        Christian child, we find a detailed account in Schudt's <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Merkwürdigkeiten der
+        Juden</span></span>, a very learned and very foolish book. When the
+        father was summoned before the magistrate, and was asked how he dared
+        to charge a Jew with such a holy Christian ceremony, he coolly
+        answered, because he knew that the Jew would present him with a
+        silver cup. As to the present, I have to remark that with the Jews
+        also the godfather was expected to bestow a gift on the child. In
+        some communities he had to defray the expenses of the
+        festival-dinner, of which I shall speak presently. In others, again,
+        he had also to give a present to the mother of the child.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much older than
+        the institution of the Sandek is the festival-dinner just alluded to,
+        which was held after the ceremony. Jewish legend supplies many
+        particulars of the dinner the patriarch Abraham gave at the Berith of
+        his son Isaac. This is a little too legendary, but there is ample
+        historical evidence that such meals were already customary in the
+        times of the Second Temple. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Talmud of Jerusalem gives us a detailed account
+        of the proceedings which took place at the Berith dinner of Elisha
+        ben Abuyah, who afterwards obtained a sad celebrity as Acher.
+        Considering that Elisha's birth must have fallen within the first
+        decades after the destruction of the Temple, and that these sad times
+        were most unsuitable for introducing new festivals, we may safely
+        date the custom back to the times of the Temple. The way in which the
+        guests entertained themselves is also to be gathered from the passage
+        referred to. First came the dinner, in which all the guests
+        participated; afterwards the great men of Jerusalem occupied one
+        room, indulging there in singing, hand clapping, and dancing. The
+        scholars again, who apparently did not belong to the great men, were
+        confined to another room, where they employed themselves in
+        discussing biblical subjects. In later times special hymns, composed
+        for this festival, were inserted in the grace after dinner. After the
+        dinner, sermons or speeches used also to be given, the contents of
+        which were usually made up of reflections on biblical and Talmudical
+        passages relating to the event of the day. Sometimes they consisted
+        of a kind of learned puns on the name which the child received on
+        this occasion.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this meal the
+        first consecration of the child-priest was concluded. In some places
+        they used to come to the father's house on the third day after the
+        circumcision with the purpose of making inquiries after the child's
+        health. In the case when the child was the first-born the ceremony of
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“redeeming the child”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> in
+        accordance with Exodus xiii. used to take place. The details of this
+        ceremony are to be found in almost every prayer-book, and there is
+        nothing fresh to add. But perhaps I may be allowed to draw
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293"
+        id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> attention to another
+        distinction that the first-born received in the Middle Ages. I refer
+        to an account given by the author of the book, <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Ordinance of the
+        Law</span></span>,<a id="noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href=
+        "#note_246"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> who
+        flourished in the thirteenth century. He says: Our predecessors made
+        the rule to destine every first-born to God, and before its birth the
+        father had to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“I take the vow that if my
+        wife presents me with a son, he shall be holy unto the Lord, and in
+        His Torah he shall meditate day and night.”</span> On the eighth day
+        after the Berith Milah they put the child on cushions, and a Bible on
+        its head, and the elders of the community, or the principal of the
+        college, imparted their blessings to it. These first-born sons
+        formed, when grown up, the chief contingent of the Yeshiboth
+        (Talmudical Colleges), where they devoted the greatest part of their
+        lives to the study of the Torah. In later centuries the vow was
+        dropped, but from the abundance of the Yeshiboth in Poland and
+        elsewhere it seems as if almost every child was considered as having
+        no other calling but the study of the Torah. Indeed, the growing
+        persecutions required a strengthening of the religious force.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With these
+        ceremonies the first act of consecration ended in the case where the
+        new-born child was a boy. I will now refer to the ceremony of the
+        name-giving, which was common to males and females. In the case of
+        the former this ceremony was connected with the Berith Milah. The
+        oldest formula, which is already to be found in the <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ritual Rab Amram
+        Gaon</span></span>, is composed in Aramaic. It is, like many prayers
+        in that language, a most beautiful composition, and very suitable for
+        the occasion. Our present Hebrew prayer is far less beautiful, and
+        dates from a much later age. In some countries the ceremony
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294"
+        id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of naming was repeated in the
+        house of the parents. It took place on the Sabbath, when the mother
+        returned home from her first visit to the synagogue after her
+        recovery. Here the friends and relatives of the family assembled, and
+        after arranging themselves round the cradle of the child they lifted
+        it three times, shouting the new name at every lifting. This name was
+        the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“profane”</span> name, whilst
+        the name it received in the synagogue was the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“sacred”</span> or Hebrew name. The ceremony concluded
+        with the usual festival-dinner. By the way, there was perhaps a
+        little too much feasting in those days. The contemporary Rabbis tried
+        indeed to suppress some of the banquets, and put all sorts of
+        restrictions on dinner-hunting people. But considering the fact that,
+        as Jews, they were excluded from every public amusement, we cannot
+        grudge them the pleasure they drew from these semi-religious
+        celebrations. For people of an ascetic disposition it was, perhaps,
+        the only opportunity of enjoying a proper meal. In the same way, in
+        our days, the most severe father would not deny his lively daughter
+        the pleasure of dancing or singing charitably for the benefit of
+        suffering humanity. The ceremony described was known to the authors
+        of the Middle Ages by the name of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Holle
+        Kreish</span></span>. These words are proved by Dr. Perles to be of
+        German origin, and based on some Teutonic superstition into the
+        explanation of which I cannot enter here.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of much more
+        importance was the ceremony of name-giving in the case of a girl, it
+        being the only attention the female child received from the
+        synagogue. The usages varied. In some countries the name was given on
+        the first Sabbath after the birth of the child. The father was
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“called up to the Reading of the Law,”</span>
+        on which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg
+        295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        followed the formula, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who blessed our
+        ancestors Abraham,”</span> etc., <span class="tei tei-q">“may He also
+        bless,”</span> etc., including the blessing and announcement of the
+        child's name. After the prayer the congregation assembled in the
+        house of the parents to congratulate them. In other countries the
+        ceremony took place on the Sabbath when the mother attended the
+        synagogue after the recovery. The ceremony of Holle Kreish seems to
+        have been especially observed in the case of a girl.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though the
+        feasting was now over for the parents, the child still lived in a
+        holiday atmosphere for a long time. In the legend of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Ages of Man”</span> the child is described in the first
+        year of its existence as a little prince, adored and petted by all.
+        The mother herself nourished and tended the child. Although the Bible
+        already speaks of nurses, many passages in the later Jewish
+        literature show a strong aversion to these substitutes for the
+        mother. In the event of the father of the child dying, the mother was
+        forbidden to marry before her suckling infant reached the age of two
+        years, lest a new courtship might lead to the neglect of the
+        child.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">More difficult is
+        it to say wherein the other signs of loyalty to the little prince
+        consisted; as, for instance, whether Jews possessed anything like
+        lullabies to soothe the little prince into happy and sweet slumber.
+        At least I am not aware of the existence of such songs in the ancient
+        Jewish literature, nor are they quoted by mediæval writers. The
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Schlummerlied,”</span> by an unknown Jewish
+        bard, about which German scholars wrote so much, contains more
+        heathen than Jewish elements. From the protest in <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of the
+        Pious</span></span>, against using non-Jewish cradle-songs, it seems
+        that little Moshechen was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg
+        296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        lulled to sleep by the same tunes and words as little Johnny. The
+        only Jewish lullaby of which I know, is to be found in the work of a
+        modern writer who lived in Russia. How far its popularity goes in
+        that country I have no means of ascertaining. This jingle runs as
+        follows:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">O! hush thee, my darling, sleep
+              soundly my son,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Sleep soundly and sweetly till day
+              has begun;</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">For under the bed of good children
+              at night</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">There lies, till the morning, a
+              kid snowy white.</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">We'll send it to market to buy
+              Sechora,</span><a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" href=
+              "#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style=
+              "text-align: left"><span style=
+              "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">While my little lad goes to study
+              Torah.</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Sleep soundly at night and learn
+              Torah by day,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Then thou'lt be a Rabbi when I
+              have grown gray.</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">But I'll give thee to-morrow ripe
+              nuts and a toy,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">If thou'lt sleep as I bid thee, my
+              own little boy.</span><a id="noteref_248" name="noteref_248"
+              href="#note_248"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style=
+              "text-align: left"><span style=
+              "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But naturally the
+        holiday atmosphere I spoke of was very often darkened by clouds
+        resulting from the illness of the child. Excepting small-pox, the
+        child was subject to most of those diseases which so often prove
+        fatal to our children. These diseases were known under the collective
+        name of <span class="tei tei-q">“the difficulties (or the pain) of
+        bringing up children.”</span> These difficulties seem to have been
+        still greater in Palestine, where one of the old Rabbis exclaimed
+        that it was easier to see a whole forest of young olive trees grow up
+        than to rear one child.<a id="noteref_249" name="noteref_249" href=
+        "#note_249"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a> To
+        avoid so mournful a subject, I refrain from repeating the touching
+        stories relating to the death of children. The pain was the more
+        keenly felt since there was no other way of explaining the misfortune
+        which befell the innocent creature than that it had suffered for the
+        sins of the parents; and the only comfort the latter had was that
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297"
+        id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the child could not have lost
+        much by its being removed from this vale of tears at such an early
+        period. A remarkable legend describes God Himself as giving lessons
+        so many hours a day to these prematurely deceased children.<a id=
+        "noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> Indeed,
+        to the mind of the old Rabbis, the only thing worth living for was
+        the study of the Law. Consequently the child that suffered innocently
+        could not have a better compensation than to learn Torah from the
+        mouth of the Master of masters.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even when the
+        child was healthy, and food and climate proved congenial to its
+        constitution, there still remained the troubles of its spiritual
+        education. And to be sure it was not an easy matter to bring up a
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“priest.”</span> The first condition for this
+        calling was learning. But learning cannot be acquired without honest
+        and hard industry. It is true that R. Akiba numbers wisdom among the
+        virtues which are hereditary from father to son. Experience, however,
+        has shown that it is seldom the case, and the Rabbis were already
+        troubled with the question how it happens that children so little
+        resemble their fathers in respect of learning.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Certainly Jewish
+        legends can boast of a whole series of prodigies. Thus a certain
+        Rabbi is said to have been so sharp as to have had a clear
+        recollection of the mid-wife who made him a citizen of this world.
+        Ben Sira again, instantly after his birth, entertains his terrified
+        mother with many a wise and foolish saying, refuses the milk she
+        offers him, and asks for solid food. A certain Nachman was born with
+        a prophecy on his lips, predicting the fate of all nations on earth,
+        as well as fixing the date for the advent of the Messiah. The
+        youngest of seven sons of Hannah, who became martyrs under the reign
+        of Antiochus <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg
+        298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Epiphanes, was according to one version aged two years, six months,
+        six hours, and thirty minutes. But the way in which he defied the
+        threats of the tyrant was really worthy of one of seventy. R. Judah
+        de Modena is said to have read the lesson from the prophets in the
+        synagogue at the age of two years and a half. A famous Cabbalist,
+        Nahum, at the age of three, gave a lecture on the decalogue that
+        lasted for three days. The Chassidim pretended of one of their
+        Zaddikim that he remembered all that he had been taught by the angels
+        before his birth, and thus excused their Zaddik's utter neglect of
+        studying anything. Perhaps I may mention in this place a sentence
+        from Schudt, which may reconcile one to the harmless exaggerations of
+        the Chassidim. It relates to a case where a Jewish girl of six was
+        taken away by a Christian with the intention of baptising her, for he
+        maintained that this was the wish and pleasure of the child. Probably
+        the little girl received her instruction from the Christian servant
+        of the house, as has happened many times. Schudt proves that this
+        wish ought to be granted in spite of the minority of the child. He
+        argues: As there is a maxim, <span class="tei tei-q">“What is wanting
+        in years may be supplied by wickedness,”</span> why could not also
+        the reverse be true that <span class="tei tei-q">“What is wanting in
+        years can be supplied by grace”</span>? Of a certain R. Meshullam,
+        again, we know that he preached in the synagogue at Brody, at the age
+        of nine, and perplexed the chief Rabbi of the place by his deep
+        Talmudical learning. As the Rabbi had a daughter of seven, the
+        cleverness exhibited by the boy Rabbi did not end without very
+        serious consequences for all his life.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Happily all these
+        prodigies or children of grace are only exceptional. I say happily,
+        for the Rabbis themselves <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg
+        299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        disliked such creatures. They were more satisfied with those signs of
+        intelligence that indicate future greatness. The following story may
+        serve as an instance:—R. Joshua ben Hananiah once made a journey to
+        Rome. Here he was told that amongst the captives from Jerusalem there
+        was a child with bright eyes, its hair in ringlets, and its features
+        strikingly beautiful. The Rabbi made up his mind to redeem the boy.
+        He went to the prison and addressed the child with a verse from
+        Isaiah, <span class="tei tei-q">“Who gave Jacob for a spoil and
+        Israel to the robbers?”</span> On this the child answered by
+        continuing the second half of the same verse, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Did not the Lord, He against whom we have sinned? For
+        they would not walk in His ways, neither were they obedient unto His
+        law”</span> (Isaiah xlii. 24). The Rabbi was so delighted with this
+        answer, that he said: <span class="tei tei-q">“I am sure he will grow
+        up to be a teacher in Israel. I take an oath to redeem him, cost what
+        it may.”</span> The child was afterwards known under the name of R.
+        Ishmael ben Elisha. Such children were ideals of the Rabbis, but they
+        hated the baby scholar, who very often grew impertinent and abused
+        his elders. The Rabbis much preferred the majority of those tiny
+        creatures, who are characterised by the already mentioned legends on
+        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Ages of Men”</span> as little animals
+        playing, laughing, crying, dancing, and committing all sorts of
+        mischief.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But these children
+        must be taught. Now, there is the well-known advice of Judah ben
+        Tema, who used to say that the child at five years was to be taught
+        Scripture, at ten years Mishnah, at thirteen to fulfil the Law, etc.
+        This saying, incorporated in most editions in the fifth Chapter of
+        the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sayings
+        of the Fathers</span></span>, is usually considered <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as the programme of Jewish education.
+        But, like so many programmes, this tells us rather how things ought
+        to have been than how they were. In the times of the Temple, the
+        participation of the youth in religious actions began at the
+        tenderest age. As soon as they were able to walk a certain distance
+        with the support of their parents, the children had to accompany them
+        on their pilgrimages to Jerusalem. In the Sabbatical year they were
+        brought to the Temple, to be present at the reading of Deuteronomy by
+        the king.<a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href=
+        "#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> The
+        period at which the child's allegiance to the Synagogue began is
+        still more distinctly described. Of the many Talmudical passages
+        relating to this question, I shall select the following quotation
+        from a later Midrash, because it is the most concise. In allusion to
+        Leviticus xix. 23, 24, concerning the prohibition of eating the
+        fruits of a tree in the first three years, this Midrash goes on to
+        say: <span class="tei tei-q">“And this is also the case with the
+        Jewish child. In the first three years the child is unable to speak,
+        and therefore is exempted from every religious duty, but in the
+        fourth year all its fruits shall be holy to praise the Lord, and the
+        father is obliged to initiate the child in religious works.”</span>
+        Accordingly the religious life of the child began as soon as it was
+        able to speak distinctly, or with the fourth year of its life. As to
+        the character of this initiation we learn from the same Midrash and
+        also from other Talmudical passages, that it consisted in teaching
+        the child the verses, <span class="tei tei-q">“Hear, O Israel: the
+        Lord our God <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">is</span></em> One”</span> (Deut. vi. 4), and
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses commanded us a Torah, the inheritance
+        of the congregation of Jacob”</span> (Deut. xxxiii. 4). It was also
+        in this year that the boys began to accompany their parents to the
+        synagogue, carrying <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg
+        301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        their prayer-books. At what age the girls first came out—not for
+        their first party, but with the purpose of going to the synagogue—is
+        difficult to decide with any degree of certainty. But if we were to
+        trust a rather doubtful reading in Tractate <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>,<a id="noteref_252" name=
+        "noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> we
+        might maintain that their first appearance in the synagogue was also
+        at a very tender age. I hope that they behaved there more
+        respectfully than their brothers, who played and cried instead of
+        joining in the responses and singing with the congregation. In some
+        communities they proved so great a nuisance that a certain Rabbi
+        declared it would be better to leave them at home rather than to have
+        the devotion of the whole congregation disturbed by these urchins.
+        Another Rabbi recommended the praiseworthy custom of the
+        Sephardim,<a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href=
+        "#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> who
+        confined all the boys in the synagogue to one place, and set a
+        special overseer by their side, with a whip in his hands, to compel
+        them to keep quiet and to worship with due devotion.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A strange custom
+        is known among the Arabian and Palestinian Jews under the name of
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Chalaka</span></span>. It means the first
+        hair-cutting of the boy after his fourth birthday. As on this
+        occasion loyalty to the Scripture is shown by not touching the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“corners”</span> (Lev. xix. 17), the whole
+        action is considered a religious ceremony of great importance. In
+        Palestine it usually takes place on the second day of the Feast of
+        the Passover when the counting of the seven weeks begins. On this day
+        friends and relatives assemble at the house of the parents. Thither
+        the boy is brought, dressed in his best garments, and every one of
+        the assembly is entrusted with the duty of cutting a few hairs, which
+        is considered a great privilege. The ceremony is as usual followed by
+        a dinner given to the guests. The Jews <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> in Safed and Tiberias perform the ceremony with
+        great pomp in the courtyard surrounding the (supposed) grave of R.
+        Simeon ben Yochai, in one of the neighbouring villages.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another custom
+        already mentioned in the Talmud, but which quite disappeared in later
+        times, is that of weighing the child. It would be worth reviving if
+        performed in the way in which the mother of Doeg ben Joseph did it.
+        This tender-hearted mother weighed her only son every day, and
+        distributed among the poor, in gold, the amount of the increased
+        weight of her child.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I pass now to the
+        second great consecration of the boy,—the rites performed on the day
+        when the boy went to school for the first time. This day was
+        celebrated by the Jews, especially in the Middle Ages, in such a way
+        as to justify the high esteem in which they held the school. The
+        school was looked upon as a second Mount Sinai, and the day on which
+        the child entered it as the Feast of Revelation. Of the many
+        different customs, I shall mention here that according to which this
+        day was fixed for the Feast of Weeks. Early in the morning, while it
+        was still dark, the child was washed and dressed carefully. In some
+        places they dressed it in a <span class="tei tei-q">“gown with
+        fringes.”</span> As soon as day dawned the boy was taken to the
+        synagogue, either by his father or by some worthy member of the
+        community. Arrived at their destination, the boy was put on the
+        Almemor, or reading-dais, before the Scroll of the Law, from which
+        the narrative of the Revelation (Exod. xx. 2-26) was read as the
+        portion of the day. From the synagogue the boy was taken to the house
+        of the teacher, who took him into his arms. Thereupon a slate was
+        brought, containing the alphabet in various combinations,
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303"
+        id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the verse, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Moses has commanded,”</span> etc. in Deut. xxxiii. 4,
+        the first verse of the Book of Leviticus, and the words, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The Torah will be my calling.”</span> The teacher then
+        read the names of the letters, which the boy repeated. After the
+        reading, the slate was besmeared with honey, which the boy licked
+        off. This was done in allusion to Ezekiel iii. 3, where it is said:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“And it (the roll) was in my mouth as honey
+        for sweetness.”</span> The boy was also made to eat a sweet cake, on
+        which were written passages from the Bible relating to the importance
+        of the study of the Torah. The ceremony was concluded by invoking the
+        names of certain angels, asking them to open the heart of the boy,
+        and to strengthen his memory. By the way, I am very much afraid that
+        this invocation was answerable for the abolition of this ceremony.
+        The year in which this ceremony took place is uncertain, probably not
+        before the fifth, nor later than the seventh, according to the good
+        or bad health of the child.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reverence for
+        the child already hinted at was still further increased when the boy
+        entered the school. <span class="tei tei-q">“The children of the
+        house (school) of the master”</span> is a regular phrase in Jewish
+        literature. It is on their pure breath that the existence of the
+        world depends, and it is their merit that justifies us in appealing
+        to the mercy of God. Words of Scripture, uttered by them quite
+        innocently, were considered as oracles; and many a Rabbi gave up an
+        undertaking on account of a verse pronounced by a schoolboy, who
+        hardly understood its import. Take only one instance: R. Johanan was
+        longing to see his friend Mar Samuel in Babylon. After many
+        disturbances and delays, he at last undertook the journey. On the way
+        he passed a school where the boys were reciting the verse
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304"
+        id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from 1 Samuel xxviii. 3,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“And Samuel died.”</span> This was accepted
+        by him as a hint given by Providence that all was over with his
+        friend.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Especially famous
+        for their wisdom and sharpness were the children of Jerusalem. Of the
+        many illustrative stories given in the Midrash to Lamentations, let
+        the following suffice: R. Joshua was one day riding on his donkey
+        along the high road. As he passed a well, he saw a little girl there,
+        and asked her to give him some water. She accordingly gave water to
+        him and to his animal. The Rabbi thanked her with the words:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“My daughter, you acted like Rebecca.”</span>
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“To be sure,”</span> she answered,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“I acted like Rebecca; but you did not behave
+        like Eleazar.”</span> I must add that there are passages in Jewish
+        literature from which, with a little ingenuity, it might be deduced
+        that Jewish babies are the most beautiful of their kind. The
+        assertion made by a monk that Jewish children are inferior to
+        Christian children is a dreadful libel. The author of the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old
+        Victory</span></span>,<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href=
+        "#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> in
+        whose presence this assertion was made, was probably childless, or he
+        would have simply scratched out the eyes of this malicious monk,
+        instead of giving a mystical reason for the superior beauty of any
+        other children than his own.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another point to
+        be emphasised is that the boys were not confined all day long to the
+        close air of the schoolroom. They had also their hours of recreation.
+        This recreation consisted chiefly, as one can imagine, in playing.
+        Their favourite game was the ball, boys as well as girls being fond
+        of this form of amusement. They did not deny themselves this pleasure
+        even on festivals. They were also fond of the kite and games with
+        nuts, in which their mothers also took part. Letter-games and
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305"
+        id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> riddles also occupied their
+        minds in the recreation hours. The angel Sandalphon,<a id=
+        "noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href="#note_255"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> who
+        also bears in the Cabbalah the name of <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Boy,”</span> was considered by the children as their
+        special patron, and they invoked him in their plays, addressing to
+        him the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Sandalphon, Lord of the
+        forest, protect us from pain.”</span> Speaking generally, there are
+        very few distinctively Jewish games. From the researches of Zunz,
+        Güdemann, and Löw on this subject, it is clear that the Jews always
+        adopted the pastimes of the peoples among whom they dwelt.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it must not be
+        thought that there was too much playing. Altogether, Jewish education
+        was far from spoiling the children. And though it was recommended—if
+        such recommendation were necessary—to love children more than one's
+        own soul, the Rabbis strongly condemned that blind partiality towards
+        our own offspring, which ends in burdening our world with so many
+        good-for-nothings. The sad experience of certain biblical personages
+        served as a warning for posterity. Even from the quite natural
+        behaviour of Jacob towards his son Joseph, which had the best
+        possible results in the end, they drew the lesson that a man must
+        never show to one of his children marks of greater favour than to the
+        others. In later times they have been even anxious to conceal this
+        love altogether, and some Rabbis went so far as to refrain from
+        kissing their children. The severity of Akabya ben Mahalaleel is
+        worth mentioning, if not imitating. When this Rabbi, only a few
+        minutes before his death, was asked by his son to recommend him to
+        his friends and colleagues, the answer the poor boy received was:
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Thy conduct will recommend thee to my
+        friends, or will estrange thee from them.”</span> Another Rabbi
+        declared (with reference to Prov. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> xxviii. 27) that it is life-giving to a youth
+        to teach him temperance in his diet, and not to accustom him to meat
+        and wine. R. Judah, the Pious, in the Middle Ages, gives the advice
+        to rich parents to withdraw their resources from their sons if they
+        lead a disorderly life. The struggle for their existence, and the
+        hardship of life, would bring them back to God. When the old Rabbi
+        said that poverty is a most becoming ornament for Israel, his remark
+        was probably suggested by a similar thought. And many a passage in
+        the Rabbinic literature gives expression to the same idea as that in
+        Goethe's divine lines:—</p>
+
+        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em">
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Wer nie sein Brot mit Thränen
+              ass,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Wer nie die kummervollen
+              Nächte</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Auf seinem Bette weinend
+              sass,</span>
+            </div>
+
+            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+              <span style="font-size: 90%">Der kennt Euch nicht, Ihr
+              himmlischen Mächte.</span>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have spoken of a
+        kingdom of priests, but there is one great disadvantage of such a
+        polity. One or two priests in a community may be sustained by the
+        liberality of the congregation. But if a community consisted of only
+        priests, how could it then be maintained? Besides, the old Jewish
+        ideal expected the teacher to be possessed of a divine goodness,
+        imparting his benefits only as an act of grace. Salaries, therefore,
+        either for teaching or preaching, or for giving ritual decisions,
+        were strongly forbidden. The solution of the question put by the
+        Bible, <span class="tei tei-q">“And if ye shall say, What shall we
+        eat?”</span> is to be found in the law that every father was obliged
+        to teach his son a handicraft, enabling him to obtain a living.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have now to
+        speak of the time when childhood is brought to a conclusion. It is,
+        as I stated above, in the case of a girl at the beginning of the
+        thirteenth year, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg
+        307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
+        that of a boy at the beginning of the fourteenth year. As a reason
+        for this priority I will reproduce the words of R. Chisda, who said
+        that God has endowed woman with a greater portion of intelligence
+        than man, and therefore she obtains her maturity at an earlier period
+        than man does. A very nice compliment, indeed; but like all
+        compliments it is of no practical consequence whatever. It is not
+        always the wiser who get the best of it in life. Whilst the day on
+        which the girl obtained her majority passed unnoticed either by her
+        or by her family, it was marked in the case of the boy as the day on
+        which he became a Son of the Law,<a id="noteref_256" name=
+        "noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> and was
+        signalised by various rites and ceremonies, and by the bestowing on
+        him of beautiful presents. I miss only the wig, which used to form
+        the chief ornament of the boy on this happy day.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Less known,
+        however, is the origin of this ceremony, and the reason for fixing
+        its date. It cannot claim a very high antiquity. I may remark that in
+        many cases centuries elapse before an idea or a notion takes
+        practical shape and is crystallised into a custom or usage, and still
+        longer before this custom is fossilised into a law or fixed
+        institution. As far as the Bible goes, there is not the slightest
+        indication of the existence of such a ceremony. From Lev. xxvii. 5,
+        and Num. xiv. 29, it would rather seem that it was not before the
+        twentieth year that the man was considered to have obtained his
+        majority, and to be responsible for his actions. It was only in the
+        times of the Rabbis, when Roman influence became prevalent in
+        juristic matters at least, that the date of thirteen, or rather the
+        <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">pubertas</span></span>, was fixed as giving the
+        boy his majority. But it would be a mistake to think that before
+        having obtained this majority the boy was considered as under age in
+        every <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name=
+        "Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> respect. Certainly the
+        law made every possible effort to connect him with the synagogue, and
+        to initiate him in his religious duties long before the age of
+        thirteen.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen that
+        the boy's first appearance in the synagogue was at the beginning of
+        the fourth year. We have noticed the complaints about his troublesome
+        behaviour. But how could we expect the poor child to be attentive to
+        things which quite surpassed the intellectual powers of his tender
+        age? There was no better reason for this attendance either in the
+        Temple or in the synagogue than that the parents might be rewarded by
+        God for the trouble of taking their children there. These cares, by
+        the way, fell most heavily upon the women. The mother of R. Joshua
+        enjoyed this burden so much that she carried her boy, when still in
+        the cradle, to the <span class="tei tei-q">“House of Study of the
+        Law,”</span> in order that his ears might be accustomed to the sound
+        of the Torah. In later times there was another excuse for taking the
+        little children to the synagogue. They were there allowed to sip the
+        wine of the Sanctification Cup,<a id="noteref_257" name="noteref_257"
+        href="#note_257"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> which
+        was the exclusive privilege of the children; an easy way of
+        worshipping, but, as you can observe, it is a method that they enjoy
+        and understand most excellently. They did not less enjoy and
+        understand the service with which they were charged on the day of
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Rejoicing of the Law.”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> On this
+        feast they were provided with flags, which they carried before the
+        bearers of the Torah, who feasted them after the service with sweets.
+        Another treat was that of being called up on this day to the Torah, a
+        custom that is still extant. In the Middle Ages they went in some
+        countries so far as to allow these little fellows who did not wear
+        caps <span class="tei tei-q">“to be called up”</span> to say the
+        blessings over the Law bare-headed. A beautiful custom was that
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309"
+        id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> every Sabbath, after finishing
+        the weekly lesson and dressing the Scroll of the Law, the children
+        used to come up to the Almemor and kiss the Torah. Leaving the
+        synagogue they kissed the hands of the scholars. At home the
+        initiation began with the blessing the child received on every eve of
+        the Sabbath, and with its instruction in <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Hear O Israel”</span> and other verses as already
+        mentioned. Short prayers, consisting of a single sentence, were also
+        chosen for children of this age. The function of the child on the eve
+        of the first day of Passover is well known. Besides the putting of
+        the four questions for the meaning of the strange ceremony (Exod.
+        xiii. 14), the boy had also to recite, or rather to sing, the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Praise.”</span><a id="noteref_259" name=
+        "noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> But I
+        am afraid that they enjoyed better the song of <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“One Kid,”</span> which was composed or rather adapted
+        for their special entertainment from an old German poem.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Within three or
+        four years after entering the synagogue, and with the growth of
+        intellect and strength, the religious duties of the boy increased,
+        and became of a more serious character. He had not only to attend the
+        school, which was troublesome enough, but he was also expected to
+        attend the services more regularly, and to gain something by it. Yet
+        the Rabbis were not so tyrannical as to put unjust demands on the
+        patience of the child. The voice of God on Mount Sinai, the Rabbis
+        said, was adapted to the intellect and powers of all who witnessed
+        the Revelation—adapted, as the Midrash says, to the powers of old and
+        young, children and women. It was in accordance with this sentiment
+        that the Rabbis suited their language to the needs of the less
+        educated classes. Thus we read in the Tractate <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>
+        that according to the law the portion of the week, after having
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310"
+        id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> been recited in Hebrew, must
+        be translated into the language of the vernacular for the benefit of
+        the unlearned people, the women, and the children. Another
+        consideration children experienced from the Rabbis was that at the
+        age of nine or ten the boy was initiated into the observance of the
+        Day of Atonement by fasting a few hours. Lest, however, this good
+        work might be overdone, and thus endanger the child's health, the
+        sage R. Acha used to tell his congregation after the Addition-Prayer
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“My brethren, let every one of you who has a
+        child go home and make it eat.”</span> In later centuries, when the
+        disease of small-pox became so fatal, some Rabbis declared it to be
+        the duty of every father to leave the town with his children as soon
+        as the plague showed itself. The joy with which the Rabbis hailed Dr.
+        Jenner's discovery deserves our recognition. None of them perceived
+        in vaccination a defiance of Providence. R. Abraham Nansich, from
+        London, wrote a pamphlet to prove its lawfulness. The Cabbalist
+        Buzagli disputed Dr. Jenner's priority, but nevertheless approved of
+        vaccination. R. Israel Lipschütz declared that the Doctor acquired
+        salvation by his new remedy.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With his advancing
+        age, not only the boy's duties but also his rights were increased. An
+        enumeration of all these rights would lead me too far, but I shall
+        mention the custom which allowed the boy the recital of <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Magnified”</span><a id="noteref_260" name="noteref_260"
+        href="#note_260"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a> and
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bless ye”</span><a id="noteref_261" name=
+        "noteref_261" href="#note_261"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> in the
+        synagogue. Now this privilege is restricted to the orphan boy. It is
+        interesting to hear that girls were also admitted to recite the
+        Magnified in the synagogue, in cases where their parents left no male
+        issue. I have myself witnessed such a case. In some countries the boy
+        had the exclusive privilege of <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> reading the prayers on the evenings of the
+        festivals and Sabbaths. R. Samson ben Eleazar, in the fifteenth
+        century, received his family name Baruch Sheamar<a id="noteref_262"
+        name="noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> from
+        the skill with which he recited this prayer when a boy. He chanted it
+        so well that he was called by the members of the community Master
+        Baruch Sheamar. As to the question whether the boy, while under age,
+        might lawfully be considered as one of the Ten when such a quorum was
+        required, or one of the three in the case of grace after meals, I can
+        only say that the authorities never agreed in this respect. Whilst
+        the one insisted upon his having obtained his majority, the other was
+        satisfied with his showing such signs of intelligence as would enable
+        him to participate in the ceremony in question. Here is an instance
+        of such a sign. Abaye and Raba, the two celebrated heroes of the
+        Babylonian Talmud, were sitting at the table of Rabbah. Before saying
+        grace he asked them, <span class="tei tei-q">“Do you know to whom
+        these prayers are addressed?”</span> Thereupon one boy pointed to the
+        roof, whilst the other boy went out and pointed to the sky. The
+        examiner was satisfied with their answer.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The privilege of
+        putting on the phylacteries forms now in most countries the chief
+        distinction of <span class="tei tei-q">“The Son of the Law”</span>;
+        in olden times, however, every boy had claim to it as soon as he
+        showed himself capable of behaving respectfully when wearing the holy
+        symbol. It even happened that certain honours of the synagogue were
+        bestowed on boys, though under age. We possess a copy of a Jewish
+        epitaph dating from about the third century, which was written in
+        Rome for a boy of eight years, who is there designated as archon. The
+        fact is the more curious, as on the other hand the Palestinian R.
+        Abuha, who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg
+        312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        lived in the same century, maintained that no man must be elected as
+        Warden before he has achieved his fiftieth year. That boys were
+        admitted to preach in the synagogue I have already mentioned.<a id=
+        "noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From all these
+        remarks it will easily be seen that in olden times the boy enjoyed
+        almost all the rights of majority long before the day of his being
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Son of the Law.”</span> The condition of
+        the novice is hardly distinguishable from that of the initiated
+        priest. The Talmud, the Gaonim, and even R. Isaac Alfasi and
+        Maimonides knew neither the term <span class="tei tei-q">“The Son of
+        the Law”</span> (in our sense of the word) nor any ceremony connected
+        with it. There is only one slight reference to such an institution,
+        recorded in the Tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>, with the quotation of
+        which I shall conclude this paper. We read there: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“In Jerusalem there was the godly custom to initiate the
+        children at the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">beginning</span></em> of the thirteenth year by
+        fasting the whole Day of Atonement. During this year they took the
+        boy to the priests and learned men that they might bless him, and
+        pray for him that God might think him worthy of a life devoted to the
+        study of the Torah and pious works.”</span> For, this author says,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“they were beautiful, and their lives
+        harmonious and their hearts directed to God.”</span></p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name=
+      "Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">XIII. Woman in Temple and
+        Synagogue</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The learned Woman
+        has always been a favourite subject with Jewish students; and her
+        intellectual capabilities have been fully vindicated in many an essay
+        and even fair-sized book. Less attention, however, has been paid to
+        woman's claims as a devotional being whom the Temple, and afterwards
+        the Synagogue, more or less recognised. At least it is not known to
+        me that any attempt has been made to give, even in outline, the
+        history of woman's relation to public worship. It is needless to say
+        that the present sketch, which is meant to supply this want in some
+        measure, lays no claim to completeness; but I venture to hope that it
+        will help to direct the attention of the friends of research to the
+        matter, and that it may induce others to deal more fully with the
+        subject and do it the justice it deserves.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The earliest
+        allusion to women's participation in <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">public</span></em>
+        worship, is that in Exodus xxxviii. 8, to the women who assembled to
+        minister at the door of the <span class="tei tei-q">“tent of
+        meeting,”</span> of whose mirrors the lavers of brass were made (cf.
+        1 Sam. ii. 22). Philo, who is not exactly enamoured of the
+        emancipation of women, and seeks to confine them to the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“small state,”</span> is here full of their praise.
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“For,”</span> he says, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“though no one enjoined them to do so, they of
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314"
+        id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> their own spontaneous zeal and
+        earnestness contributed the mirrors with which they had been
+        accustomed to deck and set off their beauty, as the most becoming
+        first-fruits of their modesty, and of the purity of their married
+        life, and, as one may say, of the beauty of their souls.”</span> In
+        another passage Philo describes the Jewish women as <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“competing with the men themselves in piety, having
+        determined to enter upon a glorious contest, and to the utmost extent
+        of their power to exert themselves so as not to fall short of their
+        holiness.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, however,
+        very difficult to ascertain in what this ministry of women consisted.
+        The Hebrew term <span class="tei tei-q">“Zobeoth”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_264" name="noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> would
+        suggest the thought of a species of religious Amazons, who formed a
+        guard of honour round the Sanctuary. Some commentators think that the
+        ministry consisted in performing religious dances accompanied by
+        various instruments. The Septuagint again speaks <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“of the women who fasted by the doors of the
+        Tabernacle.”</span> But most of the old Jewish expositors, as well as
+        Onkelos, conceive that the women went to the tent of meeting to pray.
+        Ibn Ezra offers the interesting remark, <span class="tei tei-q">“And
+        behold, there were women in Israel serving the Lord, who left the
+        vanities of this world, and not being desirous of beautifying
+        themselves any longer, made of their mirrors a free offering, and
+        came to the tabernacle every day to pray and to listen there to the
+        words of the commandments.”</span> When we find that in 1 Sam. i. 12,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Hannah continued to pray before the
+        Lord,”</span> she was only doing there what many of her sisters did
+        before and after her. We may also judge that it was from the number
+        of these noble women, who made religion the aim of their lives, that
+        the <span class="tei tei-q">“twenty-two”</span> heroines <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and prophetesses sprang who form part of
+        the glory of Jewish history. Sometimes it even happened that their
+        husbands derived their religious inspiration from them. Thus the
+        husband of the prophetess Deborah is said to have been an unlettered
+        man. But his wife made him carry to the Sanctuary the candles which
+        she herself had prepared, this being the way in which she encouraged
+        him to seek communion with the righteous.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The language in
+        which the husband of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Woman”</span>
+        of Shunem addresses his wife: <span class="tei tei-q">“Wherefore wilt
+        thou go to him”</span> (the prophet)? <span class="tei tei-q">“it is
+        neither New Moon nor Sabbath”</span> (2 Kings iv. 23), proves that on
+        Festivals and Sabbaths the women used to attend some kind of worship,
+        performed by the prophet, though we cannot say in what this worship
+        consisted. The New Moon was especially a woman's holiday, and was so
+        observed even in the Middle Ages, for the women refrained from doing
+        work on that day. The explanation given by the Rabbis is that when
+        the men broke off their golden earrings to supply material for the
+        golden calf, the women refused to contribute their trinkets, for
+        which good behaviour a special day of repose was granted to them.
+        Some Cabbalists even maintain that the original worshippers of the
+        golden calf continue to exist on earth, their souls having
+        successively migrated into various bodies, while their punishment
+        consists in this, that they are ruled over by their wives. Rather
+        interesting as well as complimentary to women is the remark which the
+        Rabbis made with regard to the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great
+        Woman.”</span> As will be remembered, it is <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she</span></em> who
+        says, <span class="tei tei-q">“I perceive that this (Elisha) is a
+        holy man of God”</span> (2 Kings iv. 19). In allusion to this verse
+        the Talmud says: <span class="tei tei-q">“From this fact we may infer
+        that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name=
+        "Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> woman is quicker in
+        recognising the worth of a stranger than man.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great woman,
+        or women, continued to pray and to join in the public worship also
+        after the destruction of the first Temple. Thus Esther is reported by
+        tradition to have addressed God in a long extempore prayer before she
+        presented herself before the throne of Ahasuerus to plead her
+        people's cause; and women were always enjoined to attend the reading
+        of the Book of Esther. When Ezra read the Law for the first time, he
+        did so in the presence of the men and the women (Neh. viii. 3). In
+        the Book of the Maccabees we read of <span class="tei tei-q">“The
+        women girt with sackcloth ... and the maidens that ran to the
+        gates.... And all holding their hands towards heaven made
+        supplication.”</span> In the Judith legend, mention is also made of
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Every man and woman ... who fell before the
+        Temple, and spread out their sackcloth before the face of the Lord
+        ... and cried before the God of Israel.”</span> In the second Temple,
+        the women, as is well known, possessed a court reserved for their
+        exclusive use. There the great illuminations and rejoicings on the
+        evening of the Feast of Tabernacles used to be held. On this
+        occasion, however, the women were confined to galleries specially
+        erected for them. It was also in this Women's Hall that the great
+        public reading of certain portions of the Law by the king, once in
+        seven years, used to take place, and women had also to attend at the
+        function. On the other hand, it is hardly necessary to say that women
+        were excluded from performing any important service in the Temple. If
+        we were to trust a certain passage in the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Chapters of R. Eliezer,”</span> we might perhaps
+        conclude that during the first Temple, the wives of the Levites
+        formed a part of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg
+        317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        choir, but the meaning of the passage is too obscure and doubtful for
+        us to be justified in basing on it so important an inference. Nor can
+        the three hundred maidens who were employed for the weaving of the
+        curtains in the Temple, be looked upon as having stood in closer
+        connection with the Temple, or as having formed an order of
+        women-priests or girl-devotees (as one might wrongly be induced to
+        think by certain passages in Apocryphal writings of the New
+        Testament). But on the other hand, it is not improbable that their
+        frequent contact with the Sanctuary of the nation produced in them
+        that religious enthusiasm and zeal which may account for the heroic
+        death which—according to the legend—they sought and found after the
+        destruction of the Temple. It is to be remarked that, according to
+        the law, women were even exempted from putting their hands on the
+        head of the victim, which formed an important item in the sacrificial
+        worship. It is, however, stated by an eye-witness, that the
+        authorities permitted them to perform this ceremony if they desired
+        to do so, and that their reason for this concession was <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“to give calmness of the spirit, or satisfaction, to
+        women.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still greater,
+        perhaps, was <span class="tei tei-q">“the calmness of spirit”</span>
+        given to women in the synagogue. We find in ancient epitaphs that
+        such titles of honour were conferred upon them as <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Mistress of the Synagogue,”</span> and <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Mother of the Synagogue,”</span> and, though they held
+        no actual office in the Synagogue, it is not improbable that they
+        acquired these titles by meritorious work connected with a religious
+        institution, viz.: Charity. There was, indeed, a tendency to exclude
+        women from the synagogue at certain seasons, but almost all the
+        authorities protest against it, many of them declaring such a notion
+        to be quite un-Jewish. Some <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg
+        318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        Jewish scholars even think that the ancient synagogues knew of no
+        partition for women. I am rather inclined to think that the synagogue
+        took for its model the arrangements in the Temple, and thus confined
+        women to a place of their own. But, whether they sat side by side
+        with the men or occupied a special portion of the edifice, there can
+        be no doubt that the Jewish women were great synagogue-goers. To give
+        only one instance. One Rabbi asks another: Given the case that the
+        members of the synagogue are all descendants of Aaron, to whom then
+        would they impart their blessing? The answer is, to the women who are
+        there.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the sermon they
+        were even more fond than their husbands. Thus one woman was so much
+        interested in the lectures of R. Meir, which he was in the habit of
+        giving every Friday evening, that she used to remain there so long
+        that the candles in her house burnt themselves out. Her lazy husband,
+        who stopped at home, so strongly resented having to wait in the dark,
+        that he would not permit her to cross the threshold until she gave
+        some offence to the preacher, which would make him sure that she
+        would not venture to attend his sermons again.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The prayers they
+        said were the Eighteen Benedictions which were prescribed by the Law.
+        But it would seem that occasionally they offered short prayers
+        composed by themselves as suggested by their personal feelings and
+        needs. Thus, to give one instance, R. Johanan relates that one day he
+        observed a young girl fall on her face and pray: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Lord of the world, Thou hast created Paradise, Thou hast
+        created hell, Thou hast created the wicked, Thou hast created the
+        righteous; may it be Thy will that I may not serve as a
+        stumbling-block to them.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> The fine Hebrew in which the prayer is
+        expressed, and the notion of the responsibility of Providence for our
+        actions, manifest a high degree of intelligence and reflection. It
+        would also seem that some women went so far in their religious
+        sensibility as to lead a regular ascetic life, and, according to the
+        suggestion of some scholars, even took the vow of celibacy. Of these
+        the Rabbis did not approve, and stigmatised them as the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“destroyers of the world.”</span> Perhaps it was just at
+        this period that Judaism could not afford to give free play to those
+        morbid feelings, degenerating into religious hysterics, which led
+        some to join rival sects, and others to abandon themselves to the
+        gross immorality we read of in the history of the Gnostics.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same
+        circumstances may have been the cause of public opinion being led to
+        accept the view of R. Eliezer, who thought it inadvisable—it would
+        seem on moral grounds—to permit woman to study the Law. This opinion
+        was opposed to that of Ben Azzai, who considered it incumbent upon
+        every father to teach his daughter Torah. But justified as the advice
+        of R. Eliezer may have been in his own time, it was rather
+        unfortunate that later generations continued to take it as the
+        guiding principle for the education of their children. Many great
+        women in the course of history indeed became law-breakers and studied
+        Torah; but the majority were entirely dependent on men, and became in
+        religious matters a sort of appendix to their husbands, who by their
+        good actions insured salvation also for them, and sometimes the
+        reverse. Thus there is a story about a woman which, put into modern
+        language, would be to the effect that she married a minister and
+        copied his sermons for him; he <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
+        "page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> died, and she then married a cruel usurer, and
+        kept his accounts for him.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact that
+        women were exempted from certain affirmative laws, which become
+        operative only at special seasons—<span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span>, the
+        taking of the palm branch on the Feast of Tabernacles—must also have
+        contributed to weaken their position as a religious factor in
+        Judaism. The idea that women should vie with men in the fulfilment of
+        every law, became even for the Rabbis a notion connected only with
+        the remotest past. This is the impression one gains when reading the
+        legend about Michal, the daughter of Saul, putting on phylacteries,
+        or the wife of the prophet Jonah making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem at
+        the three Festivals. It would indeed seem as if women were led to
+        strive for the satisfaction of their religious wants in another
+        direction. Yet it was said of Jewish women, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“The daughters of Israel were stringent and laid certain
+        restrictions on themselves.”</span> They were also allowed to form a
+        quorum by themselves for the purpose of saying the Grace, but they
+        could not be counted along with males for this end. It was also
+        against the early notion of the dignity of the congregation that
+        women should perform any public service for men.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One privilege was
+        left to women—that of weeping. In Judges xi. 40, we read of the
+        daughters of Israel that went yearly to lament the daughter of
+        Jephthah; while in 2 Chronicles xxxv. 25, we are told how
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“all the singing men and the singing women
+        spake of Josiah in their lamentations.”</span> Of this privilege they
+        were not deprived, and if they were not allowed to sing any longer,
+        they at least retained the right to weep as much as they pleased.
+        Even in later times they held a public office as mourning
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321"
+        id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> women at funerals. In the
+        Talmud fragments of compositions by women for such occasions are to
+        be found. Indeed, woman became in these times the type of grief and
+        sorrow. She cannot reason, but she feels much more deeply than man.
+        Here is one instance from an old legend: Jeremiah said, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“When I went up to Jerusalem (after the destruction of
+        the Temple) I lifted my eyes and saw there a lonely woman sitting on
+        the top of the mountain, her dress black, her hair dishevelled,
+        crying, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who will comfort me?’</span> I
+        approached her and spake to her, <span class="tei tei-q">‘If thou art
+        a woman, speak to me. If thou art a ghost, begone.’</span> She
+        answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Dost thou not know me?... I am the
+        Mother, Zion.’</span> ”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In general,
+        however, the principle applied to women was: The king's daughter
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">within the
+        palace</span></em> is all glorious (Psalm xlv. 14), but <em class=
+        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
+        outside of it. In the face of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Femina in
+        ecclesia taceat,”</span> which was the ruling maxim with other
+        religions, Jewish women could only feel flattered by this polite
+        treatment by the Rabbis, though it meant the same thing. We must not
+        think, however, that this prevented them from attending the service
+        of the synagogue. According to the Tractate <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>,
+        even <span class="tei tei-q">“the little daughters of Israel were
+        accustomed to go to the synagogue.”</span> In the same tractate we
+        find it laid down as <span class="tei tei-q">“a duty to translate for
+        them the portion (of the Law) of the week, and the lesson from the
+        prophets”</span> into the language they understand. The <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“King's daughter”</span> occasionally asserted her rights
+        without undue reliance on the opinion of the authorities. And thus
+        being ignorant of the Hebrew language women prayed in the vernacular,
+        though this was at least against the letter of the law. And many
+        famous Rabbis of the twelfth and thirteenth <span class="tei tei-pb"
+        id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class=
+        "tei tei-anchor"></a> centuries express their wonder that the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“custom of women praying in other
+        (non-Hebrew) languages extended over the whole world.”</span> It is
+        noteworthy that they did not suppress the practice, but on the
+        contrary, they endeavoured to give to the Law such an interpretation
+        as would bring it into accord with the general custom. Some even
+        recommended it, as, for example, the author of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of the
+        Pious</span></span>, who gives advice to women to learn the prayers
+        in the language familiar to them.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At about the same
+        period a lengthy controversy was being waged by the commentators of
+        the Talmud and the codifiers, about woman's partaking in the
+        fulfilment of the laws for special seasons, from which, as already
+        remarked, they were exempted. To the action itself there could not be
+        much objection, but the difficulty arose when women also insisted on
+        uttering the blessing. Now the point at issue was whether they could
+        be permitted to say, for instance, <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed
+        art Thou, O Lord our God, etc., who hast sanctified us by Thy
+        Commandments, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">hast commanded us</span></em>, concerning the
+        taking of the Palm branch,”</span> since in reality the women had
+        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> been commanded to do it. To such
+        logical and systematic minds as Maimonides and R. Joseph Caro, the
+        difficulty was insurmountable, and they forbade women to use the
+        formula; but with the less consistent majority women carried their
+        point. Rather interesting is the answer received by R. Jacob, of
+        Corbeil, with regard to this question. This Rabbi is said to have
+        enjoyed the mysterious power which enabled him to appeal in cases of
+        doubt to the celestial authorities. Before them he put also this
+        women's case for decision. Judgment was communicated to him in the
+        verse from the Scriptures, <span class="tei tei-q">“In all that Sarah
+        saith unto Thee, hearken <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg
+        323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        unto her voice”</span> (Gen. xxi. 12). Nor was it unknown for a pious
+        Jew to compose a special hymn for his wife's use in honour of the
+        Sabbath.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How long this
+        custom of women praying in the vernacular lasted, we have no means of
+        ascertaining. Probably was already extinct about the end of the
+        fifteenth century. For R. Solomon Portaleone, who lived in the
+        sixteenth century, already regrets the abolition of <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“this beautiful and worthy custom.”</span> <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“When they prayed in the vernacular,”</span> he says,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“they understood what they were saying,
+        whilst now they only gabble off their prayers.”</span> As a sort of
+        compromise we may regard the various <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Supplications”</span>;<a id="noteref_265" name=
+        "noteref_265" href="#note_265"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> they
+        form a kind of additional prayers supplementary to the ordinary
+        liturgy, and are written in German. Chiefly composed by women, they
+        specially answer the needs of the sex on various occasions. These
+        prayers deserve a full description by themselves, into which I cannot
+        enter here; I should like only to mention that in one of these
+        collections in the British Museum, a special supplication is added
+        for servant-maids, and if I am not quite mistaken, also one for their
+        mistresses.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is also worth
+        noticing that the manuals on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Three
+        Women's Commandments”</span> (mostly composed in German, sometimes
+        also in rhymes), contained much more than their titles would suggest.
+        They rather served as headings to groups of laws, arranged under each
+        commandment. Thus the first (about certain laws in Lev. xii. and xv.)
+        becomes the motto for purity in body and soul; the second (the
+        consecration of the first cake of the dough) includes all matters
+        relating to charity, in which women were even reminded to encourage
+        their newly married husbands not to withhold from the poor the
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324"
+        id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> tithes of the bridal dowry, as
+        well as of their future yearly income; whilst the third (the lighting
+        of the Sabbath lamp) becomes the symbol for spiritual light and
+        sweetness in every relation of human life.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As another
+        compromise may also be considered the institution of <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Vorsugern”</span> (woman-reader) or the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Woilkennivdicke”</span> (the well-knowing one) who reads
+        the prayers and translates them into the vernacular for the benefit
+        of her less learned sisters. In Poland and in Russia, even at the
+        present time, such a woman-reader is to be found in every synagogue,
+        and from what I have heard the institution is by no means unknown in
+        London. The various prayer-books containing the Hebrew text as well
+        as the Jewish-German translation, which appear in such frequent
+        editions in Russia, are mostly intended for the use of these praying
+        women. Not uninteresting is the title-page of R. Aaron Ben Samuel's
+        Jewish-German translations and collections of prayers which appeared
+        in the beginning of the eighteenth century. He addressed the Jewish
+        public in the following terms: <span class="tei tei-q">“My dear
+        brethren, buy this lovely prayer-book or wholesome tonic for body and
+        soul, which has never appeared in such German print since the world
+        began; and make your wives and children read it often, thus they will
+        refresh their bodies and souls, for this light will shine forth into
+        your very hearts. As soon as the children read it they will
+        understand their prayers, by which they will enjoy both this world
+        and the world to come.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An earlier
+        translator of the prayer-book addresses himself directly to the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“pious women”</span> whom he invites to buy
+        his book, <span class="tei tei-q">“in which they will see very
+        beautiful things.”</span> Recent centuries seem, on the whole, to
+        have been distinguished <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg
+        325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for
+        the number of praying-women they produced. The virtues which
+        constituted the claim of women to religious distinction were modesty,
+        charity, and daily attendance at the synagogue morning and evening.
+        In the memorial books of the time hundreds of such women are noticed.
+        Some used also to spin the <span class="tei tei-q">“Fringes,”</span>
+        which they presented to their friends; others fasted frequently,
+        whilst <span class="tei tei-q">“Old Mrs. Hechele”</span> not only
+        attended the synagogue every day, and did charity to poor and rich,
+        but also understood the art of midwifery, which she practised in the
+        community without accepting payment for her services. According to R.
+        Ch. J. Bachrach women used also to say the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Magnified”</span> prayer in the synagogue when their
+        parents left no male posterity.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In bringing to a
+        close this very incomplete sketch, perhaps I ought to notice the
+        confirmation of girls introduced during this century in some
+        communities in Germany, which the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Reformed”</span> Rabbis recommended, but of which the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Orthodox”</span> Rabbis disapproved. It
+        would be well if in the heat of such controversies both sides would
+        remember the words of R. Zedekiah b. Abraham, of Rome, who with
+        regard to a certain difference of opinion on some ritual question,
+        says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Every man receives reward from God for
+        what he is convinced is the right thing, if this conviction has no
+        other motive but the love of God.”</span></p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name=
+      "Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in
+        Europe</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Roman Judaism has
+        disappeared from our guide-books. Civilisation has levelled down the
+        walls of the Ghetto, and its former inhabitants are not any longer
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“a people that dwell alone.”</span> But with
+        this well-deserved destruction a good deal of the interest was also
+        destroyed which the traveller used to attach to <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“the peculiar people”</span> enclosed in that terrible
+        slum of Rome.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, if there is
+        anything eternal in the <span class="tei tei-q">“eternal
+        city,”</span> which was neither reconstructed by the Cæsars, nor
+        improved upon by the Popes, it is the little Jewish community at
+        Rome. It has survived the former; it has suffered for many centuries
+        under the latter, and, partaking in the general revival which has
+        come upon the Italian nation, it may still be destined for a great
+        future. Indeed, the history of the relation of Israel to Rome is so
+        old that it is not lacking even in legendary elements. On the day on
+        which King Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh, the Rabbis
+        narrate, there came down the angel Gabriel. He put a reed into the
+        sea, which, by means of the slime that adhered to it, formed itself,
+        in the course of time, into a large island, on which the city of Rome
+        was built—an event with which the troubles of Israel began. These
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327"
+        id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were the evil consequences of
+        the first <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">mésalliance</span></span>. Even more unfortunate
+        for Israel (and it is not impossible that this is the meaning of the
+        legend) were the results of that spiritual mixed marriage between
+        Judaism and paganism which took place at a much later period, whereat
+        a blunt soldier, who sympathised with neither, and <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“who dealt in salvation as he dealt in provinces,”</span>
+        acted as best man. As a fact, the parties concerned never understood
+        each other properly. The declaration of love, and the final proposal,
+        were made in an Alexandrine jargon, strange to both, the obscurities
+        of which only grew with the commentaries each successive generation
+        added to them. Under such circumstances, a happy union was not to be
+        expected, and the family quarrel which fills the annals of civilised
+        Europe soon broke out. Judaism, more particularly Roman Judaism,
+        witnessed this struggle from the beginning, and its fortunes were
+        greatly dependent on the chance which of these two elements, the
+        Jewish or the pagan, won the ascendency.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, I am
+        theologising too much, whilst I am deviating from the subject of
+        these lines. Nor could I think of giving here, even in outline, the
+        history of the oldest Jewish community in Europe. This has been
+        already admirably done by Dr. A. Berliner, who has made the history
+        of the Jews of Rome the subject of his studies for nearly a quarter
+        of a century. I intend only to reproduce here, in a stray fashion,
+        some of those impressions and reflections which, I am certain, must
+        occur to every Jewish traveller in Italy.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now I do not think
+        for a moment that we Jews should have a point of view of our own for
+        looking at things and men in this paradise of Europe. It would be as
+        silly to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg
+        328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        have a Jewish Baedeker as to think of orthodox mathematics or an
+        ecclesiastical logic or a racial morality—though unfortunately there
+        exist such things. But on the other hand, if we have not, like the
+        fox in the fable, left our heart at home, let us not do violence to
+        our feelings by passing over everything Jewish, over sights which
+        might remind us of our history, with a certain indifference which
+        would be affected on our part. We are not all little Goethes, nor
+        even little Ruskins, and our artistic enjoyment is hardly so intense
+        as to shut our hearts against impressions which force themselves upon
+        us either by the way of remembrance of the past, or even as a living
+        contrast in the present.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It so happened
+        that my first visit to the Vatican was on a Friday. After doing my
+        work in the Vatican Library, which is open till noon, I went into the
+        adjoining Church of St. Peter.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One should be,
+        like the angel of death in the legend, full of eyes, properly to see
+        all the wonders of art and marvels of architecture at which human
+        genius and piety laboured busily through centuries, in adorning the
+        grandest of sacred buildings in the world. But there is Baedeker or
+        Murray serving at least as a pair of good spectacles to the layman,
+        and it was by their aid that I made my round in St. Peter. But lo,
+        whilst you are observing the celebrated Pietà by Michael Angelo, and,
+        according to the instruction of your guides, admiring both the grief
+        of the Mother and the death of the Son, you notice in its vicinity a
+        little column, surrounded by rails to which the pilgrims approach
+        with a certain awe; for <span class="tei tei-q">“Tradition affirms it
+        to have been brought from Jerusalem.”</span> Naturally, one is
+        instantly reminded of the report, given by the <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> famous traveller of Tudela, of the
+        curiosities of Rome, which among other things records, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“That there are also to be seen in St. Giovanni in Porta
+        Latina (probably meant for Lateran) the two brazen pillars,
+        constructed by King Solomon of blessed memory, whose name, Solomon,
+        the son of David, is engraved upon each; of which he was also told
+        that every year about the 9th of Ab (the anniversary of the
+        destruction of Jerusalem), these pillars sweat so much that water
+        runs down from them.”</span> So far Benjamin of Tudela in the twelfth
+        century. In our days pillars weep no longer, and even of men it is
+        considered a special sign of good breeding to behave pillar-like; but
+        a sigh is still permissible at the sight of this temple-column, which
+        in its captivity symbolises, not less than the Pietà, the grief of a
+        whole people. Of course, not possessing on the spot either the
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Itinerary</span></span> or even Urlick, one is
+        unable to establish the connection between these two traditions and
+        their claim to authenticity. Perhaps one may even comfort oneself on
+        the same ground on which the famous curé tried to appease his flock
+        who were sobbing bitterly at his telling them the Passion story. He
+        exclaimed: <span class="tei tei-q">“My children, do not weep so much;
+        it happened long ago, and even perhaps is not quite true.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, the
+        Vatican is the last place in the world to exercise your critical
+        faculties; you are so deeply absorbed in seeing, that you have no
+        time to think. So on I went, from aisle to aisle, from niche to
+        niche, from chapel to chapel, looking, staring, and admiring, till of
+        a sudden my eyes were struck by a large statue, on which the words,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou shalt have no other God before
+        me,”</span> are engraved. There I stood before a question of
+        exegesis, where one is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg
+        330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        permitted to use his right senses without any regard to the æsthetic
+        side. Yet not all the manifold expositions of the Decalogue, nor all
+        the talk about the subjective-objective, the absolute and the real,
+        with which metaphysicians have tried to confuse the notion of the
+        Unity of God, will reconcile one to the meaning which Mediæval Art
+        has impressed upon the Ten Commandments. The truth has to be sought
+        elsewhere, and thus my thoughts were turned to the synagogue, and
+        thither I went.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The day was
+        already drawing to its close, and, by a marvellous coincidence, I
+        arrived at the synagogue just as the congregation was intoning the
+        words: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord is one, and His name is one
+        to His renown and glory.”</span> Here was sound, simple exegesis,
+        though sadly lacking in the illustrative matter in which the Vatican
+        is so rich. But what need was there of any real or artificial
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“aid to the believer,”</span> in the presence
+        of such a living faith, as enabled this little community to maintain
+        its protesting position in the teeth of the mistress of the world!
+        And this even at a time, when it only required a hint from the
+        successors of the old Roman Emperors to make the whole world renounce
+        its right of thinking and judging, and, were we to believe Herr
+        Janssen, even to feel perfectly happy in this torpor.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, by the way,
+        are our own times much better? As I write these lines (October 1893)
+        I hear that a Bill has been brought into the German Diet, asking that
+        the Talmud should be submitted to a Commission (which <span class=
+        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">en
+        passant</span></span>, has been sitting in unbroken session in that
+        country since the days of Pfefferkorn in the fifteenth century) with
+        the purpose of examining its contents, while in the Vatican the very
+        pupils of Loyola are offering every convenience <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and comfort to the student who should
+        care to devote his time to Rabbinic literature. Does not the work of
+        a great number of our poets, historians, theologians, and so-called
+        seers in this blessed century of ours, in many respects prove but a
+        strained effort to destroy the few humanitarian principles which were
+        established a few generations ago, as well as to deify every brutal
+        warrior who was successful in his day? Again, is the national idea so
+        much sublimer, so much grander, than that of a universal religion,
+        that we would willingly permit the former to employ the means which
+        have been denied to the latter as inhuman and barbarous? Every age
+        has its own idolatry, and the eternal wandering Jew will always be
+        the chosen victim of the Moloch in fashion.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us, however,
+        return to the synagogue, which withstood many a cruelty, both ancient
+        and modern. The place where the synagogue stands is near the Ghetto,
+        now called Piazza di Scuola. It is, besides a few other communal
+        houses, the only building left there,—all those narrow, dirty, and
+        typhoid-breeding streets which formed the old Ghetto having been
+        demolished by a sage and humane government, which by this action
+        wiped out the last stain from its history. There, on this vast blank
+        is the synagogue, a comparatively small, insignificant building,
+        laden with heavy age and looking down on her children whom she has
+        been nursing, consoling, and protecting for centuries, but who, now
+        grown old, have forsaken her and scattered to all the ends of the
+        city. Of all her former acquaintances there appears to be left only
+        father Tiber, who would seem to be murmuring to her many an old tale
+        of the times before she was called into existence. And if he listened
+        to the special prayers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg
+        332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        recited within her walls by the deputies of the Jewish communities,
+        when preparing themselves to go to the court of the Pope, the Tiber
+        heard many a sigh and cry, wrung out from the heart of a Jewish
+        captive who, preferring death to slavery even under the masters of
+        the world, found his last repose in its waters. But insignificant as
+        this synagogue appears, she proved the spiritual bulwark against all
+        the attacks of the time, and you admire her brave resistance all the
+        more when you look at that multitude of churches and cloisters in the
+        closest vicinity of the Ghetto, impressing you as so many
+        intrenchments, all directing their missiles and weapons against this
+        humble, defenceless building, threatening it with death and
+        destruction. One of these churches, probably founded by some Jewish
+        convert, who gained in it both salvation and a good living, bears on
+        its gates in Hebrew letters the inscription: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“I have spread out my hands all the day unto a rebellious
+        people, which walketh in the way that was not good, after their own
+        thoughts. A people that provoketh me to anger continually to my
+        face”</span> (Isaiah lxv. 2, 3). Menace is followed by persuasion,
+        the cited verses being accompanied by the Latin words: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Indulgentia plenaria quotodiana perpetua pro vivis et
+        defunctis.”</span> Theologians who like to quarrel most about things
+        they can know least, have for ages discussed the question, whether
+        prayers for the dead are of any use; here the matter is decided by a
+        simple advertisement. It is not to be denied that one would enjoy the
+        fortunes accumulated by one's late sinner of an uncle all the better
+        for being sure that a few pennyworths of prayer enable the legatee to
+        make one's benefactor in Hades comfortable and happy.</p><span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thought is
+        very consoling indeed, and it is not to be wondered at that the Roman
+        synagogue could not entirely withstand its temptations, and
+        introduced into the offering-blessing after one is called up to the
+        Torah, the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“To the advancing of the
+        soul of the departed.”</span> Of course much of this tendency may be
+        attributed to the Ford Jabbok,<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266"
+        href="#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> which
+        was and is still very popular in that country; but the fact that the
+        author of this Jewish <span class="tei tei-q">“Book of the
+        Dead”</span> was an Italian (from Modena), shows clearly that there
+        was some Catholic influence at work, from which even the
+        fellow-countrymen of Azariah de Rossi and Judah Messer Leon could not
+        entirely emancipate themselves.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I ought to have
+        spoken of Roman synagogues, since the building in the Ghetto to which
+        I have been constantly alluding comprises four prayer-houses devoted
+        to Spanish and Italian rites. It says much for Roman Judaism, that
+        they did not consider ritual differences of such importance as to
+        prevent them from forming one community for all charitable and
+        congregational purposes. In Verona and in Modena some congregations
+        even retained the German rite, which their ancestors who immigrated
+        from the Rhine provinces brought with them, whilst they accepted the
+        Spanish pronunciation. I wish that the Anglo-Jewish community could
+        see their way to imitate their example. Not that I think for a moment
+        that the Spanish pronunciation is more correct than the German. Each
+        system has its own mistakes and corruptions; and it is more than
+        probable that the prophet Isaiah, or even the author of Ecclesiastes,
+        would be as little able to follow the prayers in Bevis Marks as in
+        Duke's Place. But since the non-Jewish scientific world has, though
+        only by pure <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg
+        334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+        accident, accepted the Spanish way of reading the Hebrew, I should
+        like to see this trifling difference of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ba</span></span>ruch
+        over <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Bu</span></span>ruch at last disappear, by
+        pronouncing the camets-vowel <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">a</span></span> instead of <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">o</span></span>, and
+        accepting similar little changes, which are of no real importance to
+        us.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The inside of
+        these synagogues is even more simple than their outside. I was told
+        that the synagogue which was burned down last winter, and which also
+        formed a part of this building, could boast of many fine decorations
+        and carvings, etc., but I could observe nothing of the kind in the
+        synagogues I had occasion to frequent. Nor is there much of natural
+        decorum in them, and they reconcile one perfectly to the worst of the
+        Small Synagogues elsewhere. I venture to think that in this respect,
+        too, we have to recognise Catholic influence. It was, I think, one of
+        the leaders in the Oxford Movement who expressed his delight at
+        seeing in Italy a woman poorly-dressed coming into the church, who,
+        after putting down the basket from her back, kneels before one of the
+        many altars and says her prayers. A good deal of this familiarity in
+        the place of worship may also be noticed in the Roman synagogues,
+        where I have seen a woman come into the partition for men,
+        notwithstanding their having a separate gallery, without bonnet or
+        hat on her head, and with an infant in her arms, and listen there to
+        the prayers, till she walked home with her husband. The other people
+        were also very restless, coming and going often, whilst, as soon as
+        the reading of the Law was over, the greater part of the worshippers
+        left the synagogue. It was not a very delightful sight. A minus of
+        decorum does not always mean a plus of devotion; just as little as a
+        maximum of respectability and stiffness are to be taken as signs of
+        true piety.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg
+        335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not
+        uninteresting to notice that the Roman synagogue, in spite of its old
+        traditions, did not entirely shut itself against modern reforms.
+        Among them there is that of <span class="tei tei-q">“calling up the
+        people to the Torah”</span> by the simple formula, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Let the Priest”</span> (or <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+        Levite”</span>) <span class="tei tei-q">“step forth,”</span><a id=
+        "noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class=
+        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
+        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> and so
+        on, not mentioning either names or titles, which I should like to
+        recommend most strongly to our congregations. I hope that no man will
+        suspect me of such heresy as that of questioning the wisdom of the
+        Synagogue Regulations. But I am inclined to think that the business
+        of conferring the degrees of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">Rabbi</span></span>, <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Associate”</span> or <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Master,”</span> does not exactly fall within the sphere
+        of activity of the Wardens. The matter could only be decided by a
+        proper Board of examination. As the Council is not provided with such
+        a Board, nor is every aspirant to this honour prepared to undergo the
+        examination required, the wisest course would be to give up titles
+        altogether, calling up all people alike in the way indicated.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The robes the
+        ministers wear (somewhat similar to those of the Greek clergy), are
+        probably also an innovation of modern date,—the old orthodox Rabbis
+        looking at any special vestment for the Preacher or Reader with the
+        same feeling of disgust which the old Puritans entertained for
+        surplice or mitre. But the principle of <span class="tei tei-q">“The
+        Beauty of Holiness”</span> proved too strong for resistance, and it
+        was only a pardonable vanity when the reformers applied it to their
+        own persons; <span class="tei tei-q">“Vanity of vanities,”</span>
+        saith the preacher, so often, that he gets rather to like it. This
+        vanity is greatly redeemed by the fact that the preacher does not
+        grudge his uniform to his humbler brother, the beadle, who is in most
+        cases to be distinguished from the officiating ministry only by the
+        brass-plate on his breast, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg
+        336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on
+        which the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Servant”</span> is engraved.
+        Considering the great confusion arising from the meaningless
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Reverend”</span> and the universal white
+        neck-tie, such a label, indicating the proper office of the bearer,
+        might, perhaps, prove as useful among the English Jews as it is among
+        the Jews of Rome.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with a
+        pupil of the Rabbinical College, in company with his friends, that I
+        took my first walk through ancient Rome. I felt attracted to him by
+        his striking face of that peculiar fine Jewish type, which is more
+        common among the Jews in the East than among us. And when he was
+        reading the lesson from the Prophets in the synagogue, where I made
+        his acquaintance, he reminded me of that Jewish boy with bright eyes,
+        black curls, and features strikingly beautiful walking as a captive
+        from Jerusalem through the streets of Rome some seventeen centuries
+        ago, whose proficiency in the words of Isaiah caused his redemption.
+        It would be an exaggeration to say that my companion's remarks were
+        very instructive from an artistic point of view. Being born and bred
+        in Rome, he passed with utter indifference many objects which we are
+        bidden to admire, whilst at others he actually shouted out
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Image,”</span> or made some other prosaic
+        remark. But in a country where one is determined to play the heathen
+        for so many weeks, to worship superannuated deities, to get into
+        raptures at every reminiscence of superseded and vanishing religions,
+        and to be delighted at the sights of <span class="tei tei-q">“greasy
+        saints and martyrs hairy,”</span> there can be no great harm in being
+        called back to one's true nature.</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The feelings
+        crowding upon one, when entering that part of the ancient city which
+        probably was in the mind of the Rabbis when they spoke of
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Guilty Rome,”</span> are <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of a conflicting nature. Every stone and
+        every brick there saw the humiliation of Israel, in every theatre and
+        every circus the Jew served as a comic figure, and was held up to
+        ridicule, whilst there was, perhaps, hardly a single lane or gate
+        through which those who resented the yoke of the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“anti-Semites of Antiquity”</span> did not pass, in order
+        to <span class="tei tei-q">“be butchered to make a Roman
+        holiday.”</span> What concerns a Jew most in this perished world of
+        ruins, and at the same time causes him the deepest grief, is the
+        triumphal arch of Titus, <span class="tei tei-q">“commemorating the
+        defeat of the Jews, and dedicated to him by his successor,
+        Domitian.”</span> Enough has been said and written about it both by
+        antiquarians and theologians, the former admiring the workmanship of
+        the reliefs, the latter perceiving in it a proof of the fulfilment of
+        the well-known passages in the New Testament about the destruction of
+        the Temple, which came to pass in spite of the efforts made by Titus
+        to save it. Those who have read Bernay's essay on the <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“Chronik des Sulpicius Severus”</span> know that the
+        behaviour of <span class="tei tei-q">“the delight of the human
+        species”</span> on that occasion is rather open to doubt, and it is
+        more probable that, instead of trying to rescue it, he commanded that
+        it should be set on fire. Josephus, who witnessed the shame of his
+        compatriots and co-religionists, has left us a full account of the
+        triumphal procession. Only a flunkey like Josephus could maintain
+        that calm indifference with which he describes the events of the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“bitter day,”</span> the perusal of which
+        makes one's blood boil. His description fairly agrees with the famous
+        relief on the arch, showing that part of the procession in which the
+        table with the shewbread, the candlestick with the seven lamps, and
+        the golden trumpets figure as the chief objects. <span class=
+        "tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338"
+        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The only thing which we miss is the
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“Law of the Jews,”</span> which, according to
+        Josephus, was carried in the triumph as <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+        last of all the spoils.”</span> Was it only an oversight of the
+        artist, or had he no place for it, or is it Josephus who committed
+        the error, mistaking some other object for the Scroll of the Law? I
+        dearly hope that this last was the case, and that Heine was under the
+        impulse of a true and real and poetic inspiration when he wrote
+        (speaking of the Holy Scripture to which he owed his conversion):
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Jews, who appreciate the value of
+        precious things, knew right well what they did when, at the burning
+        of the second temple they left to their fate the golden and silver
+        implements of sacrifice, the candlesticks and lamps, even the
+        breastplate of the High Priest adorned with great jewels, but saved
+        the Bible. This was the real treasure of the temple, and, thanks be
+        to God! it was not left a prey to the flames, nor to the fury of
+        Titus Vespasian, the wretch, who, as the Rabbi tells us, met with so
+        dreadful a death.”</span></p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, there
+        were others who brought the glad tidings of the Old Testament to Rome
+        long before there existed a New one. And this is, on the other side,
+        what makes Rome a sort of Terra Sancta even to the Jew. It is true
+        that we have not to look for the footprints of the prophets, for whom
+        even tradition never claimed <span class="tei tei-q">“the gift of
+        missionary-travelling.”</span> But might not the ground there have
+        received a sort of consecration by the fact that it was traversed by
+        the ambassadors of Judas Maccabæus (about 161 <span class=
+        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>) <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“to make a league of amity and confederacy”</span> with
+        the Roman Senate? Of the embassy of Simon the Maccabee (about 140
+        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>) there is actual
+        historical evidence that they began to propagate in Rome the Jewish
+        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339"
+        id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> religion. Some seventy or
+        eighty years later the Jews had already their own quarter in Rome,
+        with their own synagogues, which they were in the habit of visiting,
+        <span class="tei tei-q">“most especially on the sacred Sabbath days,
+        when they publicly cultivate their national philosophy.”</span> That
+        many of the oldest teachers of Israel, the Tannaim, went to Rome as
+        deputies, and that one of them (R. Mathia ben Chares) founded a
+        school there early in the second century, is also an authenticated
+        fact. One would like to know what they taught, and in what way they
+        expounded their <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+        "font-style: italic">national philosophy</span></span>. Most of all
+        one would like to know what were the spiritual means they employed in
+        their proselytising work, in which they were, according to the
+        testimony of history, so successful. Did they preach in the streets?
+        Or did they hold public controversies? Or did they even send out
+        Epistles which, in form at least, served as a model to apostles of
+        another creed? How many a problem would be solved; how many a miracle
+        would disappear; how many a book would become superfluous, if we
+        could obtain certainty about these points! The Talmud tells us
+        little, almost nothing, about these important things, whilst we get
+        from the Roman writers only sneers and raillery. To these respectable
+        Romans the Jews were only a mob of unlettered atheists. Indeed, to a
+        good orthodox heathen, a religion without images and statues, with a
+        God without a pedigree and without a theogony, was an impossible
+        thing. Those poor metaphysicians!</p>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, why dwell
+        so long on a past world? A famous Rabbi once exclaimed: <span class=
+        "tei tei-q">“If a man would ask thee, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Where
+        is thy God?’</span> answer him: <span class="tei tei-q">‘In the great
+        city of Rome.’</span> ”</span> The underlying idea was the mystical
+        notion <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name=
+        "Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that wherever Israel
+        had to migrate, they were accompanied by the Divine presence. And
+        Rome was, in the times of the Rabbis, the point to which the streams
+        of Jewish migration from the Holy Land chiefly converged. But now,
+        instead of to Rome, might we not point to London and New York as
+        centres of Jewish migrations?</p>
+      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name=
+      "Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+      <hr class="page" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">Index</span></h1>
+
+        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This Index
+        contains the most important names of persons, titles of books,
+        technical terms and Hebrew words occurring in the text. In the notes
+        to the text, the Hebrew words are for the most part given also in
+        Hebrew characters.</p>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abarbanel, Isaac, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">174</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abaye, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">311</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Ab Beth
+            Din</span></span>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">84</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abba Mari b. Moses, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">179</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abba Tachnah, the Chassid, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">221</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abraham, Baalshem's father-in-law, <a href="#Pg007" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abraham, son of Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg088" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abraham of Bedres, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abraham Abulaphia, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abraham Ibn Daud, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">162</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abraham Ibn Ezra, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg071"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">314</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abraham b. Shem—Tob Bibago, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">172</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abtalyon, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">186</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Abuha, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">311</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Acha, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">310</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Acher</span></span>, <a href="#Pg292" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Adam, Primal</span></span>, <a href="#Pg239"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Agadah</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Agadoth</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg197"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Agadic</span></span>, <a href="#Pg110"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg279"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Ages of Man</span></span>, <a href="#Pg295"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Akabyah b. Mahalaleel, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">305</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Akiba, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg188"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg228"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Almemor</span></span>, <a href="#Pg302"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ammi, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">214</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg231"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Amora</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Amoraim</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Amram Gaon, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">293</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Anna of Kaidon, wife of Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg082" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Anselm, St., of Canterbury, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">79</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Antigonos of Socho, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">229</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Anti-Maimonists, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Aristotle, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">167</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Aryeh Leb, son of Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg088" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Ascension of Elijah</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Asher b. Jechiel, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">210</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Assideans, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Ayil
+            Meshulash</span></span>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">81</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Azariah de Rossi, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg333"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Aziluth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg117"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Azulai, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">277</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <a name="Index-Baalshem" id="Index-Baalshem" class=
+          "tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Baalshem</span></span>, Israel, <a href=
+            "#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3-12</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">14-35</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Bachrach, Ch. J., <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">325</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Bachur</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Bachurim</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">97</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Bachya, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">131</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Baraitha</span></span>, <a href="#Pg271"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Baruch
+            Sheamar</span></span>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">311</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Bashazi, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">161</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Bath-Kol</span></span>, <a href="#Pg190"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Beer of Mizriez, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">37</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Beer, Peter, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">66</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ben Azzai, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Benjamin of Tudela, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">329</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ben-Jacob, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">259</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ben Sira, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">297</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ben Zoma, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">130</a>
+          </div>
+        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name=
+        "Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Bereshith</span></span>, <a href="#Pg127"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Berith Milah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg288"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">293</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Berliner, A., <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">327</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Bernays, Isaak, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">337</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+            Din</span></span>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">191-193</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+            Hammidrash</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg016" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg084"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+            Talmud</span></span>, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">210</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Biccurim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Bloch, Samson, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">51</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Bodek, A., <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">51</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Book of Brightness</span></span>
+            (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#Index-Zohar"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Zohar</a>)
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Book of the Pious</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">322</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Book of Victory</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Book of Weight</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Boswell, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">142</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">197</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Buckle, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">96</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Burbot</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Buzagli, the Cabbalist, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">310</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Cabbalah, Cabbalists, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg133"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">283</a>, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">315</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Cabod</span></span>, <a href="#Pg120" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Caraites, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg207"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Casaubon, Isaac, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">259</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg077"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Chakhamim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg057"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Chambers</span></span>, the, <a href=
+            "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Chanina b. Dossa, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">217</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Chanukah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Chapters of R. Eliezer the
+            Great</span></span>, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">69</a>, <a href="#Pg316" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Chasdai Ibn Crescas, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">167-173</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Chassidim</span></span>, Chassid, Chassidic,
+            Chassidism, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">1-4</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg014"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14-16</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">25-27</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg033"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35-41</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">43-45</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg073"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">298</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Chayim Vital, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">99</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Chayim Walosin, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Chisda, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">307</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Chukkim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg124"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Code of the Law</span></span>, by Caro,
+            <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg211"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span>, <a href="#Pg144"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Commentary on the Pentateuch</span></span>,
+            by Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg135"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Creeds and Opinions</span></span>, by
+            Saadiah Gaon, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">162</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Crown</span></span>, <a href="#Pg239" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Cusari</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Date of the Redemption</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">105</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            David Rocca Martino, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">230</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            David Messer Leon, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">174</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            David b. Samuel d'Estella, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            David b. Yom-Tob Bilia, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">166</a>.
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Defence of Adam</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Delmedigo, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Disputation</span></span>, by Nachmanides,
+            <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">103</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Dukes, L., <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">260</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Eighteen Benedictions</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">83</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Eleazar, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">229</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Eleazar b. Jacob, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">225</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Eliezer, father of Baalshem, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">5</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Eliezer b. Hyrkanos, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">319</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Eliezer b. Samuel Hallevi, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">145</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Eliezer b. Simeon, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">223</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Elijah Levita, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">268</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">73-77</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81-92</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">97</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Elisha b. Abuyah, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Emden, Jacob, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">259</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Epikurus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg157"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Erech
+            Millin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">66</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Erter, Isaac, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Essenes, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">185</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Examination of the World</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">97</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Eybeschütz, J., <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">10</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ezra, or Azriel, the mystic, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">100</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Faithful City</span></span>, the, <a href=
+            "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Fichte, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">51</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Finn, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">75</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Ford Jabbok</span></span>, <a href="#Pg333"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Frankists, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">10</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Frankl, Z., <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">97</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Fürst, J., <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">66</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Gamaliel I., <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">234</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Gamaliel II., <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">212</a>
+          </div>
+        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name=
+        "Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
+            "text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Gaon</span></span>, pl. <span class=
+            "tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Gaonim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg073"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76-78</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">98</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg208"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">312</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Garden of Mystical
+            Contemplation</span></span>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">129</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Gate of Reward</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">213</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Geiger, A., <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">66</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Gemara</span></span>, <a href="#Pg078"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Gershon, brother-in-law of Baalshem, <a href="#Pg008" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg009"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ghetto, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">326</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">331-333</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Gnostics, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Goethe, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg328"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Gozer</span></span>, <a href="#Pg290" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Graetz, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg183"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Great Interpreters</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Green, A. L., <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">255</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg102"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">179</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed of the
+            Time</span></span>, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">67</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Hadasi, Judah, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">161</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Hai Gaon, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Halachah</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Halachic</span></span>, <a href="#Pg057"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg207"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth
+            Gedoloth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Hannaneel of Kairwan, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">162</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Hegel, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg065"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Heine, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">124</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">High Belief</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Hillel the Great, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">186</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg193"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Hillel, R., <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">177</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">History of Jewish Tradition</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">182</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Hithlahabuth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg032"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Holle Kreisch</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">295</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Huna, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">225</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Isaac Alfasi, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg111"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Isaac Aramah, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">173</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Isaac Loria, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Isaac b. Ruben, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">100</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ishmael, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ishmael b. Elishah, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">299</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Israel Baalshem (<span class="tei tei-hi" style=
+            "text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#Index-Baalshem"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Baalshem,
+            Israel</a>)
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jacob of Corbeil, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">322</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jacob Dubna, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">91</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jacob the Levite, or Maharil, <a href="#Pg143" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>, <a href="#Pg144"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jacob Sasportas, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">102</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jacob Tam, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">210</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jannai, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">226</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jedaiah of Bedres, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">131</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Jerusalem</span></span>, by Mendelssohn,
+            <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">147</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Johanan, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">249</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg303" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, <a href="#Pg318"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Johanan b. Zaccai, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">188</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jonah Gerundi, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">101</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jonah, son of Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">101</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            José, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">219</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Joseph Albashir, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">160</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Joseph Albo, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">172</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Joseph Caro, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg211"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Joseph Jabez, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Joshua b. Hananiah, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">299</a>, <a href="#Pg304" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href="#Pg308"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Jost, M., <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">66</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah Alcharisi, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah Hallevi, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg152" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>, <a href="#Pg162"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah b. Ilai, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">246</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah Messer Leon, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">333</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah de Modena, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">298</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah the Patriarch, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">195</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah the Pious, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">306</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah b. Tema, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">299</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Judah b. Yakar, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">100</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Karab</span></span>, <a href="#Pg124" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Kilayim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg087"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Kimchi, D., <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">145</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Korban</span></span>, <a href="#Pg124"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Krochmal, Nachman, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg048" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48-68</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">72</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Kuenen, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">240</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Law of Man</span></span>, <a href="#Pg113"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113-115</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Laws unto Moses on Mount
+            Sinai</span></span>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>
+          </div>
+        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name=
+        "Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Lessing, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">73</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Letteris, M., <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">57</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Levi b. Gershom, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Light of God</span></span>, <a href="#Pg167"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Lilac of Mysteries</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Lilith</span></span>, <a href="#Pg287"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Lipman of Mühlhausen, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">167</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">179</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Liva of Prague, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">78</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Lowell, R., <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">116</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Löw, L., <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Lucas, Mrs. Henry, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">135</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Macaulay, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">89</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Maggid</span></span>, <a href="#Pg019"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Magnified</span></span>, <a href="#Pg310"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Maimonides, or Moses b. Maimon, <a href="#Pg013" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg048"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg097"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">102</a>, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg126"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161-168</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">170-181</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg211"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg281" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>, <a href="#Pg312"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Maimonists, Anti-Maimonists, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">163-165</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg210"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Mar Samuel, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">84</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Mathia b. Chares, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">339</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Measure of the Stature</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">208</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">193</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Meheram Schiff, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">16</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Meir, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg318"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Meir b. Nathan of Trinquintaines, <a href="#Pg100" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Meir of Rothenburg, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">210</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Memra</span></span>, <a href="#Pg238" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Men of the Great Synagogue</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">185</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Menachoth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Mendelssohn, Moses, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg147"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">176</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Metatron</span></span>, <a href="#Pg238"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrashim</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg081"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">304</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Milton, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">114</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Minhag</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Minhagim</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">143</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">192</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Minim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg064" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Minor Tractates, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">81</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Mishnah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg057"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg082"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg190"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">271</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Mistress of the Synagogue, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">317</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Moses Cordevora, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Moses Ibn Ezra, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Moses de Leon, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href="#Pg262"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Moses of Tachau, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">131</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Mother Zion</span></span>, <a href="#Pg321"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Nachman, son of Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">101</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Nachmanides, or Moses b. Nachman, <a href="#Pg099" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99-141</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Nahum of Gemzo, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">215</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Nasi</span></span>, <a href="#Pg084" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Nathan, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">194</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Nephesh
+            Chayah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">117</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Neubauer, Dr. A., <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">263</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Night of Watching</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Nissim of Gerona, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Nissim of Marseilles, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">267</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Olam
+            Habba</span></span>, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">115</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Old Victory</span></span>, <a href="#Pg304"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Oral Law, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">10</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Orchard</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg133"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Ordinance of the Law</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Pablo Christiano, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg106" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Pairs</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg185"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Paradise Lost</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Pardes</span></span>, <a href="#Pg129"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Pashut</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Path of Belief</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Perles, J., <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Pharisees, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg241"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Philo, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg238"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Pilpul
+            Pilpulist</span></span>, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Plato, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">78</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Pugio Fidei</span></span>, <a href="#Pg107"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Raba, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">311</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Rabbanan Saburai</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Rabbah, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">311</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Rabbenu, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">13</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Rabbenu Mosheh</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Rabbinowicz, R. N. N., <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">261</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Raimund Martini, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">107</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Rapoport, Solomon Leb, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg056"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Reggio, Isaac, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">270</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Roots</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg171"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Ruskin, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">328</a>
+          </div>
+        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name=
+        "Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Saadiah Gaon, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg108" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sacred Letter</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Sadducees, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Salman the Good, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">145</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sambatyon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg095"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sanctification-cup</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Sandalphon, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">305</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sandek</span></span>, <a href="#Pg290"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Sanhedrin, the, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Saul Berlin, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">180</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>,
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Aboth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg299"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Schelling, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">51</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Schiller, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">73</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Schlummerlied</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Schorr, O., <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">193</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Schudt, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">298</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sechorah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg296"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Seder Nezikin</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Seder Olam</span></span>, <a href="#Pg081"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Seder Taharoth</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Segulah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg122"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sephardim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg301"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sepher</span></span>, <a href="#Pg013"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sephiroth</span></span>, Ten, <a href=
+            "#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sermon in the Presence of the
+            King</span></span>, by Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg165" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Shabbethai Tsebi, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">134</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">239</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Shalom
+            Zachar</span></span>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">289</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Shammai, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Shechinah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg120"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">228-230</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Shema</span></span>, reading of the,
+            <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">141</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">288</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Shemaiah, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">186</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Shemariah of Crete, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">166</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Sherira Gaon, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">263</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Shiphluth, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">30</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Simchah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg031"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Simeon Duran, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Simeon b. Eleazar, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">289</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Simeon b. Gamaliel, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">222</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Simeon b. Gamaliel II., <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Simeon b. Yochai, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">223</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Simlai, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">112</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon b. Adereth, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">267</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon b. Gabirol, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">210</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon of St. Goar, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">143-145</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon b. Isaac, Rashi, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon b. Isaac b. Zadok, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">137</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon Ladier, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">43</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon Portaleone, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">323</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon, son of Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">110</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon Syrillo, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">262</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Solomon Wilna, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">75</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Son of the Law</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">312</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg064"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">97</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Steinschneider, M., <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">172</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Talmid Chaber</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Talmid Chakam</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Talmud (of Jerusalem or Babylon), <a href="#Pg016" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg019"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57-59</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg082"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg092"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg111"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href="#Pg155"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg207"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">238</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg254"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254-256</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">261</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tanna</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Tannaim</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg187" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tephillin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg249"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Thackeray, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">282</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Thirteen Articles of the Creed, <a href="#Pg148" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg163"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Thirteen Rules</span></span> (of
+            Interpretation), <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">195</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Tobijah, the Priest, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">175</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tosephta</span></span>, <a href="#Pg081"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">92</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Toy, Prof., <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">233-239</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tractate Berachoth</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">271</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tractate Evidences</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tractate Joys</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tractate Sanhedrin</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">159</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tractate Sopherim</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">321</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Tree of Life</span></span>, the, <a href=
+            "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Troki, Solomon, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">161</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Variae Lectiones</span></span> (of the
+            Talmud), <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">261</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Viterbo, Abraham Chayim, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">175</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Vorsugerin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg324"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>
+          </div>
+        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name=
+        "Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Wars of the Lord</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Watchman</span></span>, the, <a href=
+            "#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Weiss, T. H., <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg182"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">185-187</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191-197</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">209-212</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Wellhausen, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">243</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Wisdom of Solomon</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">154</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Woilkennivdicke</span></span>, <a href=
+            "#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Yediah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Yeshibah</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeshiboth</span></span>,
+            <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">94-96</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Yom-Tob Heller, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">196</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Zaddik</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
+            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
+            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Zaddikim</span></span>
+            (Zaddikism), <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">36-44</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg298"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Zadoc, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">245</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Zebachim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Zedner, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">254-256</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span>, <a href="#Pg137" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137-139</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Zerahiah Hallevi of Gerona (or Gerondi), <a href="#Pg100" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg101"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Zion-Elegy</span></span>, <a href="#Pg208"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
+            xml:lang="he"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Zobeoth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg314"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+          <a name="Index-Zohar" id="Index-Zohar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
+            "font-style: italic">Zohar</span></span>, <a href="#Pg018" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg019"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
+        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
+            Zunz, Leopold, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg060"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>,
+            <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style=
+            "text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
+            style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class=
+            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg279"
+            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href=
+            "#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr class="doublepage" />
+
+    <div class="tei tei-back" style=
+    "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+      <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a>
+
+        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
+        <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1>
+
+        <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes">
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href=
+          "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">Subjoined is a List of selected
+          Authorities on the Subject of the
+          Chassidim.</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Historical and Bibliographical
+          Works</span></span>: Graetz (xi. including the polemical literature
+          quoted in the Appendix), Jost, Peter Beer, M. Bodek (סדר הרורות
+          הנרש, Lemberg, 1865), A. Walden (שמ תגרוליב הנדש, Warschau, 1864),
+          Finn (קרוה נאמנה, Wilna, 1860), D. Kahana (אצן אוסל in the
+          periodical השחר, iv.), Zederbaum (כחר כדונה, Odessa, 1868).
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays
+          and Satires</span></span>: T. Erter (הצפה, Wien, 1858), S. Szantó
+          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jahrbuch
+          für Israeliten</span></span>, p. 108-178, 1867), A. Gottlober (in
+          his periodical הברקר אור, iii.), L. Löw (Ben Chananjah, ii.),
+          Rudermann (השחר, vi.), Rapoport (נחלת יחודה, Lemberg, 1873, p. 10),
+          Fröhlich (המדרין, Warschau, 1876, p. 63 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>),
+          S. Maimon (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Autobiographie</span></span>, Berlin, 1792).
+          Compare also the Hebrew novels by P. Smolensky, L. Gordon, M.
+          Brandstätter, A. Gottlober and B. Horowitz (German). <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Occasional
+          references</span></span> to the liturgy or the system of the
+          Chassidim in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Responses”</span> of R.
+          Ezechiel Landau, Moses Sopher, E. Flekeles and T. Steinhart, and in
+          the works of Israel Samostsch, Salomon Chelma and Chayim Walosin.
+          Compare also Zunz (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Gottesdienstliche Vorträge</span></span>, p.
+          477) and L. Löw (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mannheimer Album</span></span>, Wien, 1874),
+          Senior Sachs (התחיה, i. 61) and B. L. Zeitlin (הות קשה, Paris,
+          1846). The best book on the whole subject is E. Zweifel's work שלום
+          צל ישראל (Zitomyr 1868, three parts), which I strongly recommend to
+          students. The books written by the Chassidim would amount to more
+          than 200. They are catalogued by Bodek and Walden. I shall only
+          draw the attention of the student to the works of Beer, Salomon
+          Ladier, and Mendel Witipsker on one side, who developed the theory
+          of the Immanence, and those of Nachman Braslaw and Melech
+          Liezensker, who, on the other hand, carried the theory of Zaddikism
+          to its utmost consequences. The student will find a fair collection
+          of sayings and sentences arranged according to theological subjects
+          in the books ררך המידים and לשן חכמים (Anon., Lemberg, 1876).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href=
+          "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חסידים, <span class="tei tei-q">“pious
+          ones”</span> (Ps. xxxvii. 28, lxx. 2, etc.). The reader is probably
+          acquainted with the term from the Maccabean history (1 Macc. ii.
+          42, vii. 13), in which the strict party, opposed to all Hellenistic
+          influence, are called <span class="tei tei-q">“Assideans”</span>
+          [R.V. <span class="tei tei-q">“Hasidaeans”</span>], Gr.
+          Ἁσιδαῖοι.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href=
+          "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בעל שם, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
+          Master of the Name,”</span> a term usually applied to exorcists,
+          who cast out devils and performed other miracles through adjuration
+          by the name of God (or angels). The unbelieving Rabbis maintained
+          indeed that in his exorcisms Baalshem employed <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“impure names”</span> (of devils), whilst the
+          Chassidim, on the other hand, declared that their Master never used
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“names”</span> at all, his miracles being
+          performed by the divine in Baalshem to which all nature owes
+          obedience. Occasionally the Chassidim call him בעל שם תוב (The Man
+          of Good Name), in allusion to Eccles. vii. 1, shortened by some
+          into <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Besht</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href=
+          "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בית המדרש—<span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“House of Research”</span> or of <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“study”</span> (of the Law), but in which also divine
+          service is held thrice a day.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href=
+          "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תלמיד הכם—<span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Disciple of the Wise,”</span> the usual title of a
+          scholar or student.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href=
+          "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A Jewish sect, so called after their
+          founder Jacob Leibovicz Frank, who was himself one of the apostles
+          of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai Tsebi of Smyrna in Turkey. Among
+          his other doctrines he taught also a sort of Trinity, consisting of
+          the Holy Ancient One, the Holy King or the Messiah, and a feminine
+          person in the Godhead, in which he, like his master, represented
+          the Second Person. The sect ultimately abolished the Law, and,
+          after many controversies with the Rabbinic Jews, went over to
+          Catholicism, the dominant religion in Poland, by which they were
+          soon absorbed. Eybeschütz, chief Rabbi of Prague and Hamburg, was
+          suspected by Emden to be a secret adherent of Shabbethai Tsebi,
+          which was tantamount to apostasy from Judaism. Eybeschütz
+          protested. The litigants excommunicated each other, and the Rabbis
+          divided into two camps, taking sides either with Emden or with his
+          antagonist.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href=
+          "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The works of Maimonides or Moses b.
+          Maimon (1135-1204) are too many to be enumerated here. The most
+          important are the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span> (מורה
+          נבוכום) and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Compendium of the Law</span></span> (משנה
+          הורה). Judah Hallevi or Abul Hassan flourished in the first half of
+          the twelfth century. He is well known as a poet by his <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divan</span></span>
+          and as a deep religious thinker by his <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cusari</span></span>.
+          The former contains also many songs of a secular nature. Isaac
+          Alfasi (died 1103) is best known by his Compendium of the Talmud,
+          which was so greatly admired by his contemporaries that they
+          declared it could never have been composed <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“without the aid of the Holy Spirit.”</span> R. Solomon
+          b. Isaac, also called by his initials Rashi (1040-1105), is well
+          known by his commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href=
+          "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">רבי רבינו.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href=
+          "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספר, <span lang="he" class=
+          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sepher</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href=
+          "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Hebrew word is פלפול, meaning
+          subtle discussion and sharp distinction. The word is closely
+          related to פלפל or פלפלא, which means <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“pepper”</span> or <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“seasoning.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href=
+          "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מחרם שיף = R. Meir Shiff, whose
+          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">novellæ</span></span> on the Talmud are of a
+          very subtle kind, and were very popular with the students of this
+          work.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href=
+          "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">המוראים—תנאים, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“The Repeaters,”</span> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“The Interpreters.”</span> The sayings and statements
+          of the former are embodied in the Mishnah, a work compiled by R.
+          Judah the Saint about 220 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>, and covering a
+          period of about 250 years (30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>-220 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>). The latter occupied
+          themselves mainly with the interpretation of the Mishnah, and their
+          discussions and controversies are incorporated in the Talmud of
+          Jerusalem and that of Babylon, and extend over the period from
+          220-500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span> The Talmud of
+          Jerusalem is mostly the product of the schools of Palestine. The
+          Talmud of Babylon is a growth of that country. The authorities of
+          this latter Talmud being far away from the place where the first
+          great Rabbis lived and laboured, their traditions are naturally not
+          so historically reliable as those of the Talmud of Jerusalem. The
+          authorities of Palestine were also simpler in their method of
+          interpretation. These again are followed by the Babylonian schools
+          of new interpreters (of the Talmud).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href=
+          "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שדין יהודאין, an expression that goes
+          back as far as to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Zohar</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href=
+          "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זוהר, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Brightness.”</span> Cf. Dan. xii. 3,—the authors of
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Brightness”</span> pretending to be
+          the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+          "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Maskilim</span></span> or
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“Wise Ones”</span> mentioned in this
+          verse.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href=
+          "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שפלות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href=
+          "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמחה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href=
+          "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">התלהבות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href=
+          "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">צדיק, pl. צדיקים.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href=
+          "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Johanan b. Zaccai was a
+          contemporary of the Apostles, and died about 110 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> He belonged to the
+          peace party in opposition to the Zealots, and obtained permission
+          from the Roman government to establish the school of Jamnia, which,
+          after the destruction of the Temple, became the centre of Jewish
+          religious life. See also p. 188.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href=
+          "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Saadiah Gaon was born in Egypt in
+          892, and died as the head of the school of Sura in Babylon in 942.
+          He is known by his translations of and commentaries on the Bible,
+          and many other works, especially his philosophical treatise
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Creeds
+          and Opinions</span></span>. He was also a great controversialist.
+          Most of his polemical writings are directed against the Caraites
+          (קראים) or <span class="tei tei-q">“Scripturalists,”</span> a
+          Jewish sect founded by Anan in the eighth century. They protested
+          against the Oral Law, and denied Tradition. On the title
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“Gaon,”</span> see note 1 to Elijah
+          Wilna.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href=
+          "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מורה נבוכים, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moreh
+          Nebuchim</span></span>, generally considered to be the greatest
+          philosophical work by any Jewish thinker.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href=
+          "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Abraham Ibn Ezra, who spent some
+          time in London, died about 1161. He is best known by his
+          commentaries on the Bible. He was the first writer who doubted the
+          unity of the book of Isaiah.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href=
+          "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תלמיד חבר.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href=
+          "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עיר מלאת הכמים וסופרים, meaning
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“sages”</span> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“scribes,”</span> but used by later writers in the
+          sense given in the text.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href=
+          "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בכורים, dealing with the laws relating
+          to the firstfruits which were brought to the temple (Ex. xxiii.
+          19). The processions formed by the pilgrims are very vividly
+          described after the said tractate by Delitzsch in his <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iris</span></span>,
+          p. 190 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (English ed.). See also by
+          the same author, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Jüdisches Handwerkerleben zur Zeit
+          Jesu</span></span>, p. 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href=
+          "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תענית, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Fast,”</span> or תעניות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Fasts.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href=
+          "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סדר נזיקין, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Order of Damages,”</span> treating of the civil law of
+          the Jews, the procedure of courts of justice, and kindred subjects.
+          This Order also includes the tractate אבות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aboth</span></span>
+          or <span class="tei tei-q">“Sayings of the Fathers,”</span> which
+          is very important for the study of Rabbinic doctrine and
+          ethics.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href=
+          "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סדר תהרות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Order of Purities,”</span> dealing with the laws
+          regarding Levitical purity.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href=
+          "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספרא (or הורת כהנים), ספרי, מכילתא.
+          These three works form the oldest Rabbinic commentary on Exodus,
+          Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The authorities cited in these
+          commentaries all belong to the period of the Tannaim. See above,
+          note 12 to the Chassidim. Constituting as they do, to a certain
+          extent, one of the sources used by the <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gemara</span></span>,
+          they are naturally indispensable for a scientific study of the
+          Talmud.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href=
+          "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הצפה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Hatsophe</span></span>,”</span> a spirited
+          satire against the orthodox and especially against the then
+          prevailing belief in the transmigration of souls taught by the
+          mystical schools. The book is written in the purest biblical
+          Hebrew.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href=
+          "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מורה נבוכי הזמן.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href=
+          "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מדרש, pl. מדרשים (<span lang="he"
+          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Midrashim</span></span>), <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Research,”</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Researches,”</span> a name usually applied to the
+          homiletical part of the Rabbinic literature. The most important
+          collection of this kind is the <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrash
+          Rabbah</span></span> to the Pentateuch. The usual way of quoting it
+          is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Genesis Rabbah</span></span>, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exodus
+          Rabbah</span></span>, and so on.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href=
+          "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <a href="#Pg017" class=
+          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's
+          Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href=
+          "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מינים, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Heretics,”</span> applied to the first Christians, and
+          more so to certain Gnostic sects.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href=
+          "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלכה למשה מפיני, see below, p.
+          <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.
+          [Transcriber's Note: The footnote on <span class="tei tei-q">“laws
+          given to Moses on Sinai.”</span>]</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href=
+          "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הגדה or אגדה—הלכה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“rule,”</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“method,”</span>—<span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“narrative.”</span> The former deals with the legal
+          side of the Scriptures, and is thus more of a juristic nature; the
+          latter represents a collection of homilies having mostly as their
+          text the historical and exhortatory parts of the Bible, and is thus
+          more of an edifying character. The theological side of Judaism, as
+          well as its ideal aspirations and Messianic hopes, find their
+          expression in the Agadah. The two words are also used as
+          adjectives, as <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+          "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachic</span></span>
+          (legalistic, juristic, and obligatory) and <span lang="he" class=
+          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Agadic</span></span> (poetic, edifying, and
+          hyperbolic).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href=
+          "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ערך מלין, a sort of encyclopædia to
+          the Talmud, of which only the first letter appeared.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href=
+          "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Menahem Azariah de Rossi, an Italian
+          Jew who flourished in the first half of the sixteenth century. His
+          great work, מאור עינים, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Meor Enayim</span></span>, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Light of the Eyes,”</span> is the first attempt made
+          by a Jew to submit the statements of the Talmud to a critical
+          examination, and to question the value of tradition in its
+          historical records.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href=
+          "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פרקי דריי אליעזר.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href=
+          "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Italian Jews of the fifteenth and
+          seventeenth centuries. The one, Elijah Delmedigo, wrote an
+          Examination of Religion, whilst his grandson, Joseph Solomon
+          Delmedigo, wrote various pamphlets of a deeply sceptical character.
+          See Geiger's Introduction to his <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Melo
+          Chofnayim</span></span> (Berlin, 1840).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href=
+          "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">גאון, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
+          Great One.”</span> The authorities of the Babylonian schools after
+          the sixth century were also called the Gaonim (גאונים),
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“[their] Eminences.”</span> The title was
+          also given afterwards to great Rabbis distinguished for their
+          learning.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href=
+          "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Joseph Caro (1488-1575) lived in
+          Safed. The title of his code is שלחן ערוך, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prepared
+          Table</span></span>. This is a code of the Oral Law compiled from
+          the Rabbinic literature.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href=
+          "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קדיה נאמנה, containing an account of
+          the Jewish worthies of that city.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href=
+          "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עלית אלירו.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href=
+          "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A famous mystic of the sixteenth
+          century, from Safed, who was the more admired the less his pupils
+          understood him.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href=
+          "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hai was the last of the authorities
+          called Gaon. With his death (1038) the schools of Babylon fell into
+          decay and soon disappeared.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href=
+          "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חגיגה, treating of the voluntary
+          offerings brought by the pilgrims to Jerusalem.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href=
+          "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">גמרה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Perfection or Supplementary Explanations.”</span> By
+          this is understood the interpretation given to the Mishnah by the
+          schools in Palestine and Babylon. See <a href="#Pg017" class=
+          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's
+          Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href=
+          "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dean Church's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St.
+          Anselm</span></span>, from which this story is taken.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href=
+          "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תוספתה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Addition”</span> (to the Mishnah), but also containing
+          only the sayings and discussions of the period of the Tannaim.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href=
+          "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סדר עולם, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Order of the World,”</span> dealing with the
+          Chronology of the Bible, and dating from about the end of the
+          second century.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href=
+          "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These <span class="tei tei-q">“Minor
+          Tractates”</span> include, among others, treatises on proselytes,
+          on the laws concerning funerals, the writing of the Law, and the
+          like. Others are more of an edifying nature, treating of good
+          manners, conduct, etc.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href=
+          "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פבלת נלות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href=
+          "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמונה עשרה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Eighteen.”</span> They are recited thrice a day, and
+          form the original germ of the prayers, from which a very rich
+          liturgy developed in the course of time.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href=
+          "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The titles of the old authorities from
+          70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> to 500 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span> See <a href="#Pg017"
+          class="tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+          [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href=
+          "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אב בית דין, נשיא, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Prince,”</span> or <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Patriarch,”</span> religious head, of the Jews (not
+          political), and <span class="tei tei-q">“Father (or president) of
+          the Court of Justice.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href=
+          "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מנחות, זבחים, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Sacrifices,”</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Offerings.”</span> They treat of the laws relating to
+          sacrifices and meal-offerings.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href=
+          "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בלאים, the laws relating to diverse
+          seeds and garments of diverse sorts. Cf. Deut. xxii. 9-11.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href=
+          "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מגיד, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Teller,”</span> a sort of travelling preacher.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href=
+          "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">לולב, <span class="tei tei-q">“palm
+          branch.”</span> Cf. Lev. xxiii. 40.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href=
+          "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ישיבה, <span class="tei tei-q">“High
+          School,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Academy,”</span> in
+          which the Rabbinic literature is studied.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href=
+          "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ישיבה עץ חיים.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href=
+          "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סמבטיון, a mythical river which is
+          supposed to stop its course on Sabbath.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href=
+          "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בחורים, sing. בחור, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Young man,”</span> by which term the Jews usually
+          understand the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
+          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">alumni</span></span> of their
+          Talmudical schools.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href=
+          "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Levi b. Gershom (1286-1344) is
+          generally regarded as the greatest successor of Maimonides. Besides
+          his rationalistic commentaries on the Bible, he wrote various
+          treatises on metaphysics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
+          etc.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href=
+          "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בחינת עולם.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href=
+          "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Steinschneider's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catalogue of the
+          Bodleian Library</span></span>, under the name of Moses
+          Nachmanides, pp. 1947-1965, all the works which are ascribed to
+          this author are put together, and also discussed as to their
+          authenticity. There are only to be added the new edition of the
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Derasha</span></span> by Jellinek (Vienna,
+          1872), in which the variants from Schorr's MS. (החלוץ, viii. 162)
+          are already incorporated; a new edition of the זיכות, and the
+          commentary to Is. lii.-liii. by Steinschneider (Berlin, 1860); a
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sermon</span></span> for the New Year, ed. by
+          H. Berliner (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Libanon</span></span>, v. 564); and another
+          Sermon at a wedding (?), ed. by Schorr (<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Hechalus</span></span>, xii. 3). For the
+          literature on Nachmanides, besides the references given by
+          Steinschneider, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Catalogue</span></span>, and the Addenda, p.
+          cxviii. (cf. also the pedigree in the <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Catalogue</span></span> 2305), see also
+          Graetz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, vii., pp. 112-143,
+          and p. 147 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>; Michael, אור החיים, No.
+          1125, and Weiss, דור דור ודערקיו, v. 4 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>;
+          Perles' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1860, p. 175;
+          Zomber, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> 421; and Z. Frankel,
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> 1868, p. 449, and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
+          Jewish Quarterly Review</span></span>, iv. 245 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>
+          For Nachmanides' disputation we have to add M. Loeb in the
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Révue des
+          Études Juives</span></span>, xv. 1 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>,
+          and xviii. 52 (about Abner), and Dr. Neubauer's Essay on Jewish
+          Controversy in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Expositor</span></span>, vol. vii. (third
+          series), p. 98 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>, with the references given
+          there. See also his article on the Bahir and the Zohar in
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
+          Jewish Quarterly Review</span></span>, iv. 357. With regard to
+          Nachmanides' mystical system see the references to S. Sachs (whose
+          remarks are most suggestive), Krochmal, and Jellinek in
+          Steinschneider, col. 1949 and 1964, Perles' <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1858, p. 83
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>, and Steinschneider in the
+          Heb. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Bibliographie</span></span>, i. 34. See also
+          Professor Kaufmann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Die Geschichte der
+          Attributenlehre</span></span>, and the references given in the
+          index under this name. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Novellæ</span></span> by his son R. Nachman,
+          alluded to in the text, are in the University Library, Cambridge
+          (Add. 1187, 2). The פץ הנאולה is extant in the British Museum, MS.
+          Add. 26,894, and the passage quoted by De Rossi is to be found on
+          p. 163<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, but a few words are erased by
+          the censor. As to the poem given at the end of this paper, see
+          Zunz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Synagogale Poesie</span></span>, p. 478;
+          Landshut, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Amude ha-Abodah</span></span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>,
+          the references in Sachs' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Religiöse Poesie der Juden</span></span>, and
+          Luzzatto in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Ozar Nechmad</span></span>, ii. 27. Compare
+          also Professor Cheyne's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">The Origin of the Psalter</span></span>, p.
+          421.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href=
+          "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">New Year's Day, on the first of
+          Tishri. It is in autumn.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href=
+          "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A famous Rabbi of the fifteenth
+          century, known by his various casuistical and philosophical
+          works.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href=
+          "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chiefly known through his
+          controversial writings against the adherents of the pseudo-Messiah
+          Shabbethai Tsebi. He was for some time the Rabbi of the Portuguese
+          congregation in London.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href=
+          "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The main objections of the opponents
+          of Maimonides were directed against his rationalistic notions of
+          Revelation, and his allegorising interpretation of the Scriptures,
+          which amounted in some places to a denial of miracles. He was also
+          suspected of having denied bodily resurrection. A history of Jewish
+          rationalism is still a desideratum. I am certain that it would
+          prove at least as interesting as Reuter's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
+          religiösen Aufklärung im Mittelalter</span></span> (Berlin,
+          1845-60).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href=
+          "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">רבינו משה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href=
+          "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אגדות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Homilies.”</span> See above, p. <a href="#Pg064"
+          class="tei tei-ref">64</a> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href=
+          "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קץ הנאולה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“The end of the Redemption,”</span> that is the time
+          when the advent of the Messiah is to be expected.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href=
+          "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This patriarch is famous in Jewish
+          legend for his hospitality. See Beer's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben
+          Abrahams</span></span>, pp. 37 and 56.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href=
+          "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the quorum necessary to form a
+          congregation (עדת) for the purpose of holding divine service.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href=
+          "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zobah</span></span>,
+          or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aram
+          Zobah</span></span>, the Jews of the Middle Ages usually understood
+          Aleppo. See Benjamin of Tudela's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Itinerary</span></span>, i. 88, ii. 124
+          (London and Berlin, 1840-41).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href=
+          "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, p. <a href="#Pg141" class=
+          "tei tei-ref">141</a>, where a full translation of the letter is
+          given.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href=
+          "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלכות גדולות, a compendium of the Law,
+          dating from the ninth century, by R. Simon Caro.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href=
+          "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Simlai flourished in Palestine in
+          the third century. He is best known as an Agadic teacher and a
+          great controversialist. According to him, 613 commandments were
+          given to Moses on Mount Sinai, of which 365 are prohibitive laws,
+          whilst the remaining 248 are positive injunctions.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href=
+          "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שער הנמול, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Treatise on Reward (and Punishment).”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href=
+          "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עלם הבא.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href=
+          "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ps. cix. 4; ואנ תפלה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href=
+          "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אצילות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href=
+          "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">נפש חיח.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href=
+          "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ידיעה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Knowledge,”</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Foreknowledge,”</span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Omniscience.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href=
+          "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בכוד, שבינה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href=
+          "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סגולה. See Exod. xix. 5.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href=
+          "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חקים.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href=
+          "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קרב, קרבן.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href=
+          "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">According to a Jewish tradition (the
+          date of which is uncertain) the advent of the Messiah, the Son of
+          David, will be preceded by that of the Messiah, the Son of Joseph.
+          The latter will perish in the battle against Gog and Magog (the
+          Antichrist of Jewish literature), but will soon be brought back to
+          life on the appearance of the former. Cf. G. H. Dalman's
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der
+          leidende und der sterbende Messias der Synagoge</span></span>
+          (Berlin, 1881).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href=
+          "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בראשית, <span class="tei tei-q">“In
+          the beginning,”</span> Gen. i. 1.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href=
+          "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מאין; Job xxvii. 12.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href=
+          "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span> 14<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>. The
+          activity of these four Rabbis falls chiefly in the second century.
+          R. Akiba died as a martyr in the Hadrianic persecution (about 130).
+          Elisha b. Abuyah, the apostate, was usually called אחר,
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Acher</span></span>, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“the other one.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href=
+          "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The former lived in the twelfth, the
+          latter in the sixteenth, century. They are both known for their
+          hostility to philosophy.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href=
+          "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bachya wrote in the eleventh century a
+          famous book called חובות חלבבות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Duties of the
+          Heart</span></span>. For the others see above, p. <a href="#Pg013"
+          class="tei tei-ref">13</a> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
+          p. <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref">49</a> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
+          p. <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
+          p. <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref">97</a> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
+          p. <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref">71</a> and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.
+          They all belong to the rationalistic school.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href=
+          "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A younger contemporary of Maimonides,
+          who translated the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Guide</span></span> from Arabic into
+          Hebrew.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href=
+          "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספר המשקל. See above, p. <a href=
+          "#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>. R. Moses Cordovora, the author
+          of the סררם, lived in Safed in the sixteenth century. For R. Isaac
+          Loria, the author of the עץ החיים, see <a href="#Pg076" class=
+          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 5 to Elijah Wilna.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href=
+          "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שושן סודות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100"
+          href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סשר הבהיר, a forgery by a Provençal
+          Jew of the thirteenth century, who attributed it to a Rabbi of the
+          first century.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101"
+          href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This hymn is now incorporated in her
+          excellent little book, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Songs of Zion</span></span>, pp. 13-15.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102"
+          href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זהוב, a gold piece. The country and
+          the date of the writer not being certain, it is impossible to
+          determine the value of this coin.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103"
+          href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The lawfulness of eating this fish (=
+          sturgeon?) was contested for many centuries, and the controversy
+          still continues.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104"
+          href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פשוט, a smaller coin than the
+          Zehub.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105"
+          href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמע, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Hear,”</span> the verses from Deut. vi. 4-9, xi.
+          13-21, and Num. xv. 37-41, recited twice a day by the Jews.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106"
+          href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 30<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107"
+          href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מנהג, pl. מנהגים (<span lang="he"
+          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Minhagim</span></span>), applied usually to
+          those ritual customs and ceremonies for which there is no distinct
+          authority in the Scriptures or even in the Talmud.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108"
+          href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Jerusalem</span></span>, in Mendelssohn's
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sämmtliche Werke</span></span> (Vienna, 1838),
+          especially from p. 264 onwards, and a letter by him published in
+          Frankel-Graetz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1859, p. 173. For
+          Mendelssohn's position, see Graetz's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, xi. 86 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>,
+          especially p. 88 and note 1; Kayserling, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben und
+          Werke</span></span> of M., 2d ed., p. 394; Steinheim, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moses
+          Mendelssohn</span></span> (Hamburg, 1840), p. 30 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>;
+          Holdheim, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Moses Mendelssohn</span></span> (Berlin,
+          1859), p. 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>; Leopold Löw's pamphlet,
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jüdische
+          Dogmen</span></span> (Pesth, 1871).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109"
+          href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Commentaries on Maimonides'
+          סשר המצות, especially R. Simeon Duran's זוהר הרקיע; cf. also
+          ancient and modern commentaries on Exod. xx. 2.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110"
+          href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>
+          (ed. Weiss), pp. 86<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, 93<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111"
+          href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Baba Bathra</span></span>, 14<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>; cf.
+          Fürst's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Kanon</span></span>, p. 15.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112"
+          href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, 38<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Pseudo-Jonathan</span></span> to Gen. iv.
+          8.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113"
+          href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 33<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114"
+          href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אפיקורוס, Lat. Epicurus.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115"
+          href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mishnah</span></span>, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, x. e, § 1, and
+          Talmud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> 90<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and Rabbinowicz's
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Variae
+          Lectiones</span></span>, ix. p. 247 notes. Besides the ordinary
+          commentaries on the Talmud, account must also be taken of the
+          remarks of Crescas, Duran, Albo, and Abarbanel on the subject. Cf.
+          also Kämpf in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span> (1863), p. 144
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>; Oppenheim, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
+          (1864), p. 144; Friedmann in the <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+          Talmud</span></span>, i. p. 210 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>
+          See also Talmudical Dictionaries, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
+          אפיקורום. The explanation I have adopted agrees partly with
+          Friedmann's and partly with Oppenheim's views.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116"
+          href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, iii. §
+          9, and iv. § 22.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117"
+          href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See אדרת אליהו (Jovslow, 1835), p. 48.
+          In my exposition of the dogmas of the Caraites I have mainly
+          followed the late Dr. Frankl's article <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Karaiten”</span> in Ersch u. Gruber's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Encyclopädie</span></span> (sec. ii. vol.
+          xxxvi. pp. 12-18). See also his <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ein mutazilitischer
+          Kalam</span></span> and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur Literaturgeschichte der
+          Karäer</span></span> (Berlin, 1887) on Bashazi. Cf. also Jost's
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, ii. c. 13.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118"
+          href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kairowan was one of the greatest
+          centres of Jewish learning in North Africa during that period.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119"
+          href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, however, Professor D. Kaufmann's
+          note in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Jewish Quarterly Review</span></span>, i. p.
+          441. From this it would seem that the creed of R. Judah Hallevi may
+          be formulated in the following articles:—The conviction of the
+          existence of God, of His eternity, of His guidance of our fathers,
+          of the Divine Origin of the Law, and of the proof of all this, the
+          pledge or token of its truth, the exodus from Egypt.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120"
+          href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אמונה רמה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emunah
+          Ramah</span></span>, pp. 44 and 69; cf. Gulmann, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1878, p.
+          304.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121"
+          href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the various translations of the
+          Thirteen Articles which were originally composed in Arabic, see
+          Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1887. Cf. Rosin, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethik des
+          Maimonides</span></span>, p. 30; Weiss, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+          Talmud</span></span>, i. p. 330, and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ben
+          Chananjah</span></span>, 1863, p. 942, and 1864, pp. 648 and 697,
+          and Landshut, עמודי העבודה, p. 231.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122"
+          href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מנחת קנאות. See pp. 1-16.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123"
+          href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Hammaskir</span></span>, viii. pp. 63 and
+          103.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124"
+          href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Steinschneider, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cat.
+          München</span></span>, No. 210.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125"
+          href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Collection דברי הבמימ, by
+          Ashkenazi, pp. 56<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span> <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126"
+          href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Albo, c. iii. Probably identical
+          with the author mentioned by Duran, 13<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127"
+          href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספר נצחון, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Sepher Nizzachon.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128"
+          href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See אור ה (ed. Johannisburg), preface,
+          and pp. 20<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>, 44<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>,
+          59<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and elsewhere. The style of
+          this author is very obscure. Cf. Joel's pamphlet on this author
+          (Breslau, 1874).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129"
+          href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the first pages of the מגן
+          (Leghorn, 1758), and his משסם, pp. 13 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130"
+          href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עקרים, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Ikkarim</span></span>, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Fundamentals.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131"
+          href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Ikkarim</span></span>, i. c. 23, and
+          Maimonides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Commentary on the Mishnah</span></span> (end
+          of tractate Maccoth). On Albo compare Schlesinger's Introduction
+          and notes to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Ikkarim</span></span>, Joel's pamphlet, p. 82;
+          Paulus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1874, p. 463, and
+          Brüll's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Jahrb.</span></span> iv. p. 52.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132"
+          href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I know his work from a MS. in the
+          British Museum, Orient. 39.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133"
+          href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">דרך אמונה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Derech
+          Emunah</span></span>. Cf. Steinschneider, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1883, p. 79
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134"
+          href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See עקידת יצחק, gate 55.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135"
+          href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his ימוד האמונה and מאמר
+          האחרות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136"
+          href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ראש אמנה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137"
+          href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See בהיגת הדת, ed. Reggio, p. 28.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138"
+          href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See מעשה מבית (Venice, 1707),
+          16<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">a</span></span> and 23<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>. His
+          language is very vague.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139"
+          href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Collection by Ashkenazi (as
+          above, note 18), p. 29<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140"
+          href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his בשמים ראש, p. 331.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141"
+          href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Weiss's admirable monograph on
+          Maimonides, published in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Beth Talmud</span></span>, i.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142"
+          href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Hebrew title of the work is דור
+          דור ורורשיו.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143"
+          href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That is, vows of an ascetic nature
+          (not vows or oaths enforced by a court of justice), which the
+          tribunal could annul when there was sufficient reason for it.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144"
+          href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ten Rabbis who are named as the
+          bearers of tradition during the period between 170 and 30
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> The <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“pair”</span> in each case is supposed to have
+          consisted of the president and the vice-president of the Sanhedrin
+          for the time being. See, however, Kuenen, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesammelte
+          Schriften</span></span>, p. 49 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145"
+          href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">דרשנים גדולים.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146"
+          href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלכות למשה מסיני. They amount, in the
+          whole of Rabbinic literature, to about forty, of which more than
+          ten concern the preparation of the phylacteries, whilst others
+          relate to the libations of water at the Feast of Tabernacles and
+          similar subjects.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147"
+          href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the time when the school of R.
+          Johanan b. Zaccai began its activity. Others place the Tannaitic
+          age in Hillel's time (30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>).</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148"
+          href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בת קרל.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149"
+          href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בית דין, lit. <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Court of Justice,”</span> as above, note 16 to Elijah
+          Wilna, but it means also a sort of permanent Synod, in which of
+          course justice was also administered as a part of religion.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150"
+          href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עדיות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Evidences given by Witnesses.”</span> The tractate
+          consists mostly of a number of laws attested by various Rabbis as
+          having come down to them as old traditions.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151"
+          href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The family of Hillel, which was
+          supposed to be descended from the house of David, supplied the Jews
+          with patriarchs for many generations. Gamaliel II. flourished about
+          120 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>, whilst Simon b.
+          Gamaliel's activity as Patriarch falls about 160 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152"
+          href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמכות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Semachoth</span></span>. It is a euphemistic
+          title, the tractate dealing with the laws relating to funeral
+          ceremonies and mourning.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153"
+          href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מבוראי, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Elucidators”</span> or <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Explainers.”</span> The heads of the schools in
+          Babylon during the fifth and sixth centuries were so
+          designated.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154"
+          href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Rabbinic Jews of the dispersion
+          add one day to each festival, and thus celebrate the Passover eight
+          days, the Feast of Weeks two days, etc. The custom arose out of the
+          uncertainty about the first day of the month, the prerogative of
+          fixing the New Moon resting with the great <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
+          Din</span></span> in Palestine, which had not always the means of
+          communicating in time the evidence given before them that the New
+          Moon had been seen by qualified witnesses. The prerogative was
+          abolished in the fourth century, and the calendar fixed for all
+          future time, but the additional day is still kept by the Rabbinic
+          Jews as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Custom of their
+          Fathers.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155"
+          href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שיעור קומה, היכלות, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Chambers (of Heaven)”</span> and the <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Measure of the Stature,”</span> mystical works in
+          which occasionally gross anthropomorphisms are to be found. Their
+          authorship is unknown.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156"
+          href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 55<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157"
+          href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span> (ed. C.
+          Taylor), v. 12-15. See also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 32 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>,
+          and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span> (ed. Friedman),
+          95<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Arachin</span></span>, 16<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158"
+          href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 25<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>,
+          32<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
+          Rabbah</span></span>, ch. 48, and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tossephta
+          Sotah</span></span>, iv. 7, and parallels.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159"
+          href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 21<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160"
+          href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, iv.
+          5.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161"
+          href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Baba Bathra</span></span>, 9<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162"
+          href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Yoma</span></span>, 39<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163"
+          href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 33<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164"
+          href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 13<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165"
+          href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 7<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166"
+          href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 68<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          parallels. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>, 112<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Pessikta</span></span> of R. Kahana,
+          167<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. Cp. <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, 44<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167"
+          href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Aboth</span></span> de R. Nathan,
+          40<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>, 59<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          62<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168"
+          href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Baba Bathra</span></span>, 10<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169"
+          href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Eccles. Rabbah</span></span>, ix. 7.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170"
+          href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">5<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171"
+          href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">7<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172"
+          href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 95<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          parallels.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173"
+          href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Kiddushin</span></span>, 40<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 63<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lev.
+          Rabbah</span></span>, iv.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174"
+          href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 54<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175"
+          href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Exodus Rabbah</span></span>, c. 35, and
+          parallels.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176"
+          href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Negaim</span></span>,
+          ii. 1.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177"
+          href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Exod. Rabbah</span></span>, c. 46.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178"
+          href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 11<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179"
+          href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 5<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180"
+          href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Tanchuma</span></span>, כי תצא, § 2. Cp.
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 72<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181"
+          href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, 73<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          parallels.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182"
+          href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 8<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183"
+          href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Arachin</span></span>, 16<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184"
+          href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, iv.
+          15.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185"
+          href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span>, 5<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186"
+          href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 55<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187"
+          href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Menachoth</span></span>, 29<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188"
+          href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 25<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189"
+          href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Gen. Rabbah</span></span>, xxvii.;
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Pessikta</span></span>, 136<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>;
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, vi. 5; <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 7<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190"
+          href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, i. 3, p.
+          27, ed. Taylor. See also note 8.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191"
+          href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Abodah Zarah</span></span>, 19<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>;
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, 79<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192"
+          href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 58<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193"
+          href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exod.
+          R.</span></span>, 30, and parallels.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194"
+          href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See ראשית חבמה, i. 9.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195"
+          href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See רמתים נמים, 33<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196"
+          href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 55<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>, 27<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197"
+          href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of the
+          Progress of Thought from Old Testament to New
+          Testament</span></span>, by C. H. Toy, Professor in Harvard
+          University. London, 1890.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198"
+          href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Pessikta</span></span> of R. Kahana,
+          61<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and parallels, and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Erubin</span></span>, 13<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199"
+          href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tal. Jer., <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 5<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200"
+          href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מטטרון, the name of an angel, already
+          found in the Talmud, but playing a more important part in the
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
+          Chambers</span></span>, where he is identified with Enoch. The
+          etymology of the word is doubtful, some authors considering it to
+          be of Persian origin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mithra</span></span>); others again deriving
+          it from the Greek μετὰ τύραννον, or μετὰ θρόνον.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201"
+          href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספירות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202"
+          href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מימרא, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
+          Word,”</span> sometimes substituted for God. See J. Levy's
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Chaldäisches Wörterbuch</span></span>,
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203"
+          href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בחר, אדם קדמון.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204"
+          href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 104<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205"
+          href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Tal. Jer., <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yoma</span></span>,
+          45<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. Cf. Maimonides, <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh
+          Torah</span></span>, הלבות שבת פב הג.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206"
+          href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Tosephta Berackoth</span></span>, iii. 7.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207"
+          href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 10<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>. The
+          name of the Rabbi is not given, but the fact that R. Simeon b.
+          Gamaliel (160 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>) already refers to
+          this interpretation makes it clear that its anonymous author must
+          have lived at least a generation before.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208"
+          href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">כום של קדוש.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209"
+          href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>
+          to the Psalms xcii. and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Deut. Rabbah</span></span> iii. The Rabbis
+          perceived in the words וקראת לשבת עננ (Isa. lviii. 13), a command
+          to make the Sabbath a day of pleasure, whilst the word הסצף was
+          understood by them to mean <span class="tei tei-q">“needs,”</span>
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“wants,”</span> or <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“business”</span> (<em class=
+          "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“pleasure”</span>). Cf. <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 113<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210"
+          href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
+          Rabbah</span></span>, xi. (and parallels), and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 119<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211"
+          href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maaseh
+          Torah</span></span> (ed. Schönblum) and <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deut.
+          Rabbah</span></span>, i.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212"
+          href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 25<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span> and
+          119<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213"
+          href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Betsah</span></span>, 16<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>. Cf.
+          Baer's notes in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Prayer-Book</span></span>, p. 203 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214"
+          href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 119<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
+          Rabbah</span></span>, xi.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215"
+          href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 10<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
+          Rabbah</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216"
+          href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תפלין.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217"
+          href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Nazir</span></span>, 23<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218"
+          href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אור זרוה by R. Isaac b. Moses of
+          Vienna (thirteenth century), mostly on legal subjects.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219"
+          href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">יוחסין, Yuchasin.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220"
+          href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מכלל, Miklal.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221"
+          href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זרעים, מועד, the former treating of
+          the agricultural laws of the Bible, the latter of those relating to
+          the Sabbath, Passover, and other festivals.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222"
+          href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מחזר, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Cycle,”</span> containing the liturgy for the
+          festivals.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223"
+          href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Since then edited by the Mekize
+          Nirdamim.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224"
+          href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eve of the last day of the Feast of
+          Tabernacles.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225"
+          href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ששח סדרים. ש֜֜ם.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226"
+          href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ברייתה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227"
+          href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פאה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228"
+          href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ילקות, Yalkut.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229"
+          href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חזית.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230"
+          href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ישוהר נשב.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231"
+          href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ויסען.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232"
+          href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ילמרנו והזחיר.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233"
+          href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">רעיא מחימנא.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234"
+          href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עמק המלך, משנה למלך, מגיד משנה, משנה
+          תורה, ששר המלך.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235"
+          href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ח֜֜ם שאל.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236"
+          href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חד גדיא לא ישראל.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237"
+          href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שני לוחות הכרית. ש֜֜לה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238"
+          href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The main authorities on the subjects
+          of this essay are <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Die Lebensalter</span></span>, by Dr. Leopold
+          Löw; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
+          Jewish Rite of Circumcision</span></span>, by Dr. Asher; an article
+          by Dr. Perles in the Graetz <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Jubelschrift</span></span>, p. 23 <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>;
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Merkwürdigkeiten der Juden</span></span>, by
+          Schudt; the מקורי המנהגים and other works on ritual customs;
+          Güdemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur
+          der Juden</span></span>; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der
+          Völker</span></span>, by Dr. Ploss.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239"
+          href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אמתי, אמת.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240"
+          href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">לילית, Is. xxxiv. 14.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241"
+          href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <a href="#Pg141" class=
+          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 39 to Nachmanides. [Transcriber's
+          Note: The footnote on <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
+          xml:lang="he"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Shema</span></span>.]</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242"
+          href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ברית מילה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Covenant of Circumcision.”</span> This is the usual
+          expression in Hebrew literature for the rite of circumcision.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243"
+          href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שלום זכר.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244"
+          href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">גוזר, מוהל.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245"
+          href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פדיון הבן.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246"
+          href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הקת תהורה, on educational
+          matters.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247"
+          href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סחורה, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“business,”</span> or <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“wares.”</span></dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248"
+          href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I am indebted for the English
+          adaptation to Mrs. Henry Lucas.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249"
+          href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Bereshith Rabbah</span></span>, chapter xx.
+          For another reading see ראשית הכמה (ed. Cracow), p. 374.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250"
+          href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Abodah Zarah</span></span>, 3<span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251"
+          href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the way in which Deut. xxxi.
+          10-12 was explained.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252"
+          href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סופרים, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Scribes”</span>; treating of the regulations
+          concerning the writing of the Law, but containing also much
+          liturgical matter.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253"
+          href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סשרדים, by which name the Jews of the
+          Spanish rite are designated.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254"
+          href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">נצראן ישן, a controversial work
+          published by Wagenseil. See above, p. <a href="#Pg203" class=
+          "tei tei-ref">203</a>, for another victory.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255"
+          href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סנדלפון, who is probably known to the
+          English reader from Longfellow's poem.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256"
+          href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בר מצוה.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257"
+          href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קידוש, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Sanctification”</span>—<span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“benediction”</span>—on the eve of Sabbath, which is
+          pronounced over a cup of wine.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258"
+          href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמכת תורה, or on the 23rd of Tishri,
+          when the last portion from the Pentateuch is read.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259"
+          href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלל, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Praise,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260"
+          href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קדִש, the name of a prayer commencing
+          יתגדל ויתקדש, <span class="tei tei-q">“Magnified and sanctified
+          be,”</span> etc.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261"
+          href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Prayer beginning ברכו, <span class=
+          "tei tei-q">“Bless ye,”</span> etc.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262"
+          href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ברוך שאמר, beginning of a prayer,
+          <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed be He,”</span> etc.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263"
+          href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Schürer's <span class=
+          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
+          Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom</span></span>, p. 24. Cf.
+          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
+          "font-style: italic">Hebräische Bibliographie</span></span>, xix.
+          p. 79.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264"
+          href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זבאת.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265"
+          href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תהנות.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266"
+          href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מעבר יכק.</dd>
+
+          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267"
+          href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt>
+
+          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">יעמוד. In olden times the weekly
+          lesson from the Law used to be read by seven members of the
+          congregation who were <span class="tei tei-q">“called up”</span>
+          for this purpose; the Priest and the Levite took precedence of
+          laymen for this honour. At the present day, the members of the
+          congregation are still called up, but the actual reading is
+          performed by an official.</dd>
+        </dl>
+      </div>
+      <hr class="doublepage" />
+
+      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+        <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style=
+        "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+          <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+</pre>
+          <hr class="doublepage" />
+
+          <div class="tei tei-div" style=
+          "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
+            <a name="rightpageheader37" id="rightpageheader37"></a><a name=
+            "pgtoc38" id="pgtoc38"></a><a name="pdf39" id="pdf39"></a>
+
+            <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
+            "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
+            <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1>
+
+            <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style=
+            "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+              <tbody>
+                <tr>
+                  <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">May
+                  2015&nbsp;&nbsp;</th>
+                </tr>
+
+                <tr>
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+<teiHeader>
+  <fileDesc>
+    <titleStmt>
+      <title>Studies in Judaism, First Series</title>
+      <author><name reg="Schechter, Solomon">Solomon Schechter</name></author>
+    </titleStmt>
+    <editionStmt>
+      <edition n="1">Edition 1</edition>
+    </editionStmt>
+    <publicationStmt>
+      <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher>
+      <date>May 6, 2015</date>
+      <idno type="etext-no">48890</idno>
+      <availability>
+        <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+        most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+        whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+        the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+        www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+        to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.</p>
+      </availability>
+    </publicationStmt>
+    <sourceDesc>
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+        Created electronically.
+      </bibl>
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+      <date value="2015-05">May 2015</date>
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+        <name>
+            Produced by Chuck Greif, David King, and the Online
+            Distributed Proofreading Team at &lt;http://www.pgdp.net/&gt;.
+            (This book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+            material from the Google Print project.)
+        </name>
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+<text lang="en">
+  <front>
+    <div>
+      <divGen type="pgheader" />
+    </div>
+    <div>
+      <divGen type="encodingDesc" />
+    </div>
+
+    <div rend="page-break-before: always">
+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">Studies in Judaism</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">First Series</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">by</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D.</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">Philadelphia</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">The Jewish Publication Society of America</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">1911</p>
+    </div>
+    <div rend="page-break-before: always">
+      <head>Contents</head>
+      <divGen type="toc" />
+    </div>
+
+  </front>
+<body>
+
+<div>
+<p rend='text-align: center'>
+ <figure url='images/cover.jpg' rend='width: 30%'>
+  <figDesc>Cover Art</figDesc>
+ </figure>
+</p>
+<p>
+[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at
+Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.]
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<pb n='v'/><anchor id='Pgv'/>
+
+<div>
+
+<p>TO</p>
+
+<p>
+THE EVER-CHERISHED MEMORY
+</p>
+
+<p>
+OF
+</p>
+
+<p>
+THE LATE DR. P. F. FRANKL, RABBI IN BERLIN
+</p>
+
+<p>
+THESE STUDIES ARE REVERENTLY
+</p>
+
+<p>
+DEDICATED
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='vii'/><anchor id='Pgvi'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>Preface</head>
+
+<p>
+These studies appeared originally in their first form in
+<hi rend='italic'>The Jewish Quarterly</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>The Jewish Chronicle</hi>. To the
+Editors of these periodicals my best thanks are due for their
+readiness in placing the articles at my disposal for the
+purposes of the present volume. The Introductory Essay
+is new. I desire to express my sincere gratitude to Mr.
+J. G. Frazer, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Dr.
+J. Sutherland Black, of London, for their great kindness in
+revising the proofs, and for many a valuable suggestion.
+To Mr. Claude G. Montefiore I am indebted for the English
+version of the Essay on <q>Chassidim</q>&mdash;my first literary
+effort in this country, written at his own suggestion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the transliteration of Hebrew names, I have given the
+familiar English forms of the authorised version. As
+regards post-Biblical names, I have with few exceptions
+followed Zedner's <hi rend='italic'>Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in the
+Library of the British Museum</hi>. A Hebrew word will be
+found here and there in the text; I have purposely avoided
+bewildering devices for representing the actual sound of the
+word, contenting myself with the ordinary Roman alphabet,
+in spite of its shortcomings.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='viii'/><anchor id='Pgviii'/>
+
+<p>
+The authorities used for the various Essays will be found
+indicated in the Notes at the end of the volume, where the
+reader will also find short biographical and bibliographical
+notices, together with brief explanations of technical terms
+for which no exact equivalent exists in English. The index
+will, it is hoped, facilitate reference.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>S. S.</hi>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>Cambridge</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>February 1896</hi>.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='xi'/><anchor id='Pgxi'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>Introduction</head>
+
+<p>
+The essays published in this volume under the title of
+<hi rend='italic'>Studies in Judaism</hi> have been written on various occasions
+and at long intervals. There is thus no necessary connection
+between them. If some sort of unity may be detected
+in the book, it can only be between the first three
+essays&mdash;on the Chassidim, Krochmal, and the Gaon&mdash;in
+which there is a certain unity of purpose. The purpose in
+view was, as may easily be gathered from the essays themselves,
+to bring under the notice of the English public
+a type of men produced by the Synagogue of the Eastern
+Jews. That Synagogue is widely different from ours. Its
+places of worship have no claims to <q>beauty of holiness,</q>
+being in their outward appearance rather bare and bald,
+if not repulsive; whilst those who frequent them are a
+noisy, excitable people, who actually dance on the <q>Season
+of Rejoicing</q> and cry bitterly on the <q>Days of
+Mourning.</q> But among all these vagaries&mdash;or perhaps
+because of them&mdash;this Synagogue has had its moments
+of grace, when enthusiasm wedded to inspiration gave
+birth to such beautiful souls as Baalshem, such fine sceptics
+as Krochmal, and such saintly scholars as Elijah
+Wilna. The Synagogue of the West is certainly of a
+more presentable character, and free from excesses;
+though it is not devoid of an enthusiasm of its own which
+<pb n='xii'/><anchor id='Pgxii'/>
+finds its outlet in an ardent and self-sacrificing philanthropic
+activity. But owing to its practical tendency
+there is too little room in it for that play of intellectual
+forces which finds its extravagant expression in the saint
+on the one hand, and the learned heretic on the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Eight of these essays are more or less of a theological
+nature. But in reading the proofs I have been struck by
+the fact that there is assumed in them a certain conception
+of the Synagogue which, familiar though it be to the
+Jewish student, may appear obscure and even strange to
+the general English reader. For brevity's sake I will call
+it the High Synagogue, though it does not correspond in
+all details to what one is accustomed to understand under
+the term of High Church. The High Synagogue has a
+history which is not altogether without its points of
+interest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some years ago when the waves of the Higher Criticism
+of the Old Testament reached the shores of this country,
+and such questions as the heterogeneous composition of
+the Pentateuch, the comparatively late date of the Levitical
+Legislation, and the post-exilic origin of certain Prophecies
+as well as of the Psalms began to be freely discussed
+by the press and even in the pulpit, the invidious remark
+was often made: What will now become of Judaism when
+its last stronghold, the Law, is being shaken to its very
+foundations?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Such a remark shows a very superficial acquaintance
+with the nature of an old historical religion like Judaism,
+and the richness of the resources it has to fall back upon
+in cases of emergency.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a fact, the emergency did not quite surprise Judaism.
+The alarm signal was given some 150 years ago by an
+<pb n='xiii'/><anchor id='Pgxiii'/>
+Italian Rabbi, Abiad Sar Shalom Bazilai, in his pamphlet
+<hi rend='italic'>The Faith of the Sages</hi>. The pamphlet is, as the title
+indicates, of a polemical character, reviewing the work
+of the Jewish rationalistic schools; and after warming up
+in his attacks against their heterodox views, Bazilai exclaims:
+<q>Nature and simple meaning, they are our misfortune.</q>
+By <q>nature and simple meaning</q> Bazilai, who
+wrote in Hebrew, understood what we would call Natural
+Science and Philology. With the right instinct of faith,
+Bazilai hit on the real sore points. For though he mostly
+argues against the philosophical systems of Aristotle and
+his commentators, he felt that it is not speculation that
+will ever seriously endanger religion. There is hardly any
+metaphysical system, old or new, which has not in course
+of time been adapted by able dialecticians to the creed
+which they happened to hold. In our own time we have
+seen the glorious, though not entirely novel spectacle, of
+Agnosticism itself becoming the rightful handmaid of
+Queen Theology. The real danger lies in <q>nature</q> (or
+Natural Science) with its stern demand of law and regularity
+in all phenomena, and in the <q>simple meaning</q>
+(or Philology) with its inconsiderate insistence on truth.
+Of the two, the <q>simple meaning</q> is the more objectionable.
+Not only is it very often at variance with Tradition,
+which has its own code of interpretation, but it is constantly
+increasing the difficulties raised by science. For
+if words could only have more than one meaning, there
+would be no objection to reading the first words of Genesis,
+<q>In <emph>a</emph> beginning God <emph>evolved</emph>.</q> The difficulties of
+science would then be disposed of easily enough. Maimonides,
+who was as bold an interpreter as he was a deep
+metaphysician, hinted plainly enough that were he as convinced
+<pb n='xiv'/><anchor id='Pgxiv'/>
+of the eternity of matter as he was satisfied of the
+impossibility of any corporeal quality in the deity, he
+would feel as little compunction in explaining (figuratively)
+the contents of the first chapter of Genesis as he did in
+allegorising the anthropomorphic passages of the Bible.
+Thus in the end all the difficulties resolve themselves into
+the one great difficulty of the <q>simple meaning.</q> The
+best way to meet this difficulty was found to be to shift
+the centre of gravity in Judaism and to place it in the
+secondary meaning, thus making religion independent of
+philology and all its dangerous consequences.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This shifting work was chiefly done, perhaps not quite
+consciously, by the historical school which followed upon
+that of Mendelssohn and his first successors. The historical
+school, which is still in the ascendant, comprises
+many of the best Jewish writers who either by their
+learning or by their ecclesiastical profession as Rabbis
+and preachers in great communities have acquired some
+important position among their brethren. The men who
+have inaugurated this movement were Krochmal (1785-1841),
+Rapoport (1790-1867), and Zunz (1794-1886).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is not a mere coincidence that the first representatives
+of the historical school were also the first Jewish
+scholars who proved themselves more or less ready to
+join the modern school of Bible Criticism, and even to
+contribute their share to it. The first two, Krochmal
+and Rapoport, early in the second quarter of this century
+accepted and defended the modern view about a second
+Isaiah, the post-exilic origin of many Psalms, and the late
+date of Ecclesiastes; whilst Zunz, who began (in 1832)
+with denying the authenticity of Ezekiel, concluded his
+literary career (1873) with a study on the Bible (<hi rend='italic'>Gesammelte
+<pb n='xv'/><anchor id='Pgxv'/>
+Schriften</hi>, i. pp. 217-290), in which he expressed
+his view <q>that the Book of Leviticus dates from a later
+period than the Book of Deuteronomy, later even than
+Ezekiel, having been composed during the age of the
+Second Temple, when there already existed a well-established
+priesthood which superintended the sacrificial worship.</q>
+But when Revelation or the Written Word is
+reduced to the level of history, there is no difficulty in
+elevating history in its aspect of Tradition to the rank of
+Scripture, for both have then the same human or divine
+origin (according to the student's predilection for the one
+or the other adjective), and emanate from the same
+authority. Tradition becomes thus the means whereby
+the modern divine seeks to compensate himself for the
+loss of the Bible, and the theological balance is to the
+satisfaction of all parties happily readjusted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jewish Tradition, or, as it is commonly called, the Oral
+Law, or, as we may term it (in consideration of its claims
+to represent an interpretation of the Bible), the Secondary
+Meaning of the Scriptures, is mainly embodied in the
+works of the Rabbis and their subsequent followers during
+the Middle Ages. Hence the zeal and energy with
+which the historical school applied itself to the Jewish
+post-biblical literature, not only elucidating its texts by
+means of new critical editions, dictionaries, and commentaries,
+but also trying to trace its origins and to pursue
+its history through its gradual development. To the work
+of Krochmal in this direction a special essay is devoted
+in this volume. The labours of Rapoport are more of a
+biographical and bibliographical nature, being occupied
+mostly with the minor details in the lives and writings of
+various famous Jewish Rabbis in the Middle Ages; thus
+<pb n='xvi'/><anchor id='Pgxvi'/>
+they offer but little opportunity for general theological
+comment. Of more importance in this respect are the
+hints thrown out in his various works by Zunz, who was
+just as emphatic in asserting the claims of Tradition as
+he was advanced in his views on Bible criticism. Zunz's
+greatest work is <hi rend='italic'>Die Gottesdienstlichen Vorträge</hi>&mdash;an awkward
+title, which in fact means <q>The History of the Interpretation
+of the Scriptures as forming a part of the divine
+service.</q> Now if a work displaying such wide learning
+and critical acumen, and written in such an impartial spirit
+can be said to have a bias, it was towards bridging over
+the seemingly wide gap between the Written Word (the
+Scriptures) and the Spoken Word (the Oral Law or Tradition),
+which was the more deeply felt, as most of Zunz's
+older contemporaries were men, grown up in the habits
+of thought of the eighteenth century&mdash;a century distinguished
+both for its ignorance of, and its power of ignoring,
+the teachings of history. Indeed it would seem that
+ages employed in making history have no time for studying
+it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Zunz accomplished the task he set himself, by showing,
+as already indicated, the late date of certain portions of
+the Bible, which by setting the early history of Israel in
+an ideal light betray the moralising tendency of their
+authors, and are, in fact, little more than a traditional
+interpretation of older portions of Scripture, adapted to
+the religious needs of the time. Placing thus the origin
+of Tradition in the Bible itself, it was a comparatively
+easy matter for Zunz to prove its further continuity.
+Prophecy and Interpretation are with him the natural
+expressions of the religious life of the nation; and though
+by the loss of Israel's political independence the voice of
+<pb n='xvii'/><anchor id='Pgxvii'/>
+the prophets gradually died away, the voice of God was
+still heard. Israel continues to consult God through the
+medium of the Scriptures, and He answers His people by
+the mouth of the Scribes, the Sages, the Interpreters of
+the Law; whilst the liturgy of the Synagogue, springing
+up at the time when Psalms were still being composed,
+expands in its later stages through the work of the Poets
+of the Synagogue into such a rich luxuriance <q>that it
+forms in itself a treasure of history, poetry, philosophy;
+and prophecy and psalms are again revived in the hymnology
+of the Middle Ages.</q> This is in brief the lesson
+to be learned from Zunz's <hi rend='italic'>Gottesdienstliche Vorträge</hi> as far
+as it deals with the significance of Tradition; and it is in
+the introduction to this work that Zunz expresses himself
+to the following effect: Indispensable is the free Spoken
+Word. Mankind has acquired all its ideal treasures only
+by Word of Mouth; an education continuing through all
+stages of life. In Israel, too, the Word of Instruction
+transmitted from mouth to mouth was never silenced.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The historical school has never, to my knowledge, offered
+to the world a theological programme of its own. By the
+nature of its task, its labours are mostly conducted in the
+field of philology and archæology, and it pays but little
+attention to purely dogmatic questions. On the whole, its
+attitude towards religion may be defined as an enlightened
+Scepticism combined with a staunch conservatism which
+is not even wholly devoid of a certain mystical touch.
+As far as we may gather from vague remarks and hints
+thrown out now and then, its theological position may
+perhaps be thus defined:&mdash;It is not the mere revealed
+Bible that is of first importance to the Jew, but the Bible
+as it repeats itself in history, in other words, as it is
+<pb n='xviii'/><anchor id='Pgxviii'/>
+interpreted by Tradition. The Talmud, that wonderful
+mine of religious ideas from which it would be just as
+easy to draw up a manual for the most orthodox as to
+extract a vade-mecum for the most sceptical, lends some
+countenance to this view by certain controversial passages&mdash;not
+to be taken seriously&mdash;in which <q>the words of the
+scribes</q> are placed almost above the words of the Torah.
+Since then the interpretation of Scripture or the Secondary
+Meaning is mainly a product of changing historical
+influences, it follows that the centre of authority is actually
+removed from the Bible and placed in some <emph>living
+body</emph>, which, by reason of its being in touch with the ideal
+aspirations and the religious needs of the age, is best able
+to determine the nature of the Secondary Meaning. This
+living body, however, is not represented by any section of
+the nation, or any corporate priesthood, or Rabbihood, but
+by the collective conscience of Catholic Israel as embodied
+in the Universal Synagogue. The Synagogue <q>with its
+long, continuous cry after God for more than twenty-three
+centuries,</q> with its unremittent activity in teaching and
+developing the word of God, with its uninterrupted succession
+of prophets, Psalmists, Scribes, Assideans, Rabbis,
+Patriarchs, Interpreters, Elucidators, Eminences, and
+Teachers, with its glorious record of Saints, martyrs,
+sages, philosophers, scholars, and mystics; this Synagogue,
+the only true witness to the past, and forming in
+all ages the sublimest expression of Israel's religious life,
+must also retain its authority as the sole true guide for
+the present and the future. And being in communion
+with this Synagogue, we may also look hopefully for
+a safe and rational solution of our present theological
+troubles. For was it not the Synagogue which even in
+<pb n='xix'/><anchor id='Pgxix'/>
+antiquity determined the fate of Scripture? On the one
+hand, for example, books like Ezekiel, the Song of Songs,
+and Ecclesiastes, were only declared to be Holy Writ
+in virtue of the interpretation put upon them by the
+Rabbis: and, on the other hand, it was the veto of the
+Rabbis which excluded from the canon the works that
+now pass under the name of Apocrypha. We may, therefore,
+safely trust that the Synagogue will again assert its
+divine right in passing judgment upon the Bible when it
+feels called upon to exercise that holy office. It is <q>God
+who has chosen the Torah, and Moses His servant, and
+Israel His people.</q> But indeed God's choice invariably
+coincides with the wishes of Israel; He <q>performeth all
+things</q> upon which the councils of Israel, meeting under
+promise of the Divine presence and communion, have previously
+agreed. As the Talmud somewhere expresses
+itself with regard to the Book of Esther, <q>They have
+confirmed above what Israel has accepted below.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another consequence of this conception of Tradition is
+that it is neither Scripture nor primitive Judaism, but general
+custom which forms the real rule of practice. Holy
+Writ as well as history, Zunz tells us, teaches that the law
+of Moses was never fully and absolutely put in practice.
+Liberty was always given to the great teachers of every
+generation to make modifications and innovations in harmony
+with the spirit of existing institutions. Hence a
+return to Mosaism would be illegal, pernicious, and indeed
+impossible. The norm as well as the sanction of Judaism
+is the practice actually in vogue. Its consecration is the
+consecration of general use,&mdash;or, in other words, of Catholic
+Israel. It was probably with a view to this communion
+that the later mystics introduced a short prayer to
+<pb n='xx'/><anchor id='Pgxx'/>
+be said before the performance of any religious ceremony,
+in which, among other things, the speaker professes his
+readiness to act <q>in the name of all Israel.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It would be out of place in an introductory essay
+to pursue any further this interesting subject with its
+far-reaching consequences upon Jewish life and Jewish
+thought. But the foregoing remarks may suffice to show
+that Judaism did not remain quite inactive at the approach
+of the great religious crisis which our generation has
+witnessed. Like so many other religious communities, it
+reviewed its forces, entrenched itself on the field of history,
+and what it lost of its old devotion to the Bible,
+it has sought to make up by a renewed reverence for
+institutions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this connection, a mere mention may suffice of the
+ultra-Orthodox party, led by the late Dr. S. R. Hirsch of
+Frankfort (1808-1889) whose defiance of reason and criticism
+even a Ward might have envied, and whose saintliness
+and sublimity even a Keble might have admired.
+And, to take an example from the opposite school, we
+must at least record the name of that devout Jew, Osias
+Schorr (1816-1895), in whom we have profound learning
+combined with an uncompromising disposition of mind
+productive of a typical champion of Radicalism in things
+religious. These men are, however, representative of two
+extremes, and their followers constitute mere minorities;
+the majority is with the historical school.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+How long the position of this school will prove tenable
+is another question. Being brought up in the old Low
+Synagogue, where, with all attachment to tradition, the
+Bible was looked upon as the crown and the climax of
+Judaism, the old Adam still asserts itself in me, and in
+<pb n='xxi'/><anchor id='Pgxxi'/>
+unguarded moments makes me rebel against this new
+rival of revelation in the shape of history. At times this
+now fashionable exaltation of Tradition at the expense of
+Scripture even impresses me as a sort of religious bimetallism
+in which bold speculators in theology try to keep up
+the market value of an inferior currency by denouncing
+loudly the bright shining gold which, they would have us
+believe, is less fitted to circulate in the vulgar use of daily
+life than the small cash of historical interpretation. Nor
+can I quite reconcile myself to this alliance of religion
+with history, which seems to me both unworthy and unnatural.
+The Jew, some writer aptly remarked, was the
+first and the fiercest Nonconformist of the East, and so
+Judaism was always a protesting religion. To break the
+idols, whether of the past or of the present, has always
+been a sacred mission of Judaism, and has indeed been
+esteemed by it as a necessary preliminary to the advent
+of the kingdom of God on earth. One of its daily prayers
+was and still is: <q>We therefore hope in Thee, O Lord
+our God, that we may speedily behold the glory of Thy
+might, when ... the idols will be cut off, when the world
+will be perfected under the kingdom of the Almighty.</q>
+It bowed before truth, but it had never made a covenant
+with facts only because they were facts. History had to
+be re-made and to sanctify itself before it found its way
+into its sacred annals. Nor did Judaism make a virtue of
+swallowing down institutions. Such institutions as crept
+into it in course of time had, when the Synagogue was
+conscious of their claims to form part of religion, to submit
+to the laborious process of a thorough adaptation to
+prophetic notions before they were formally sanctioned.
+But when this process was deemed impossible or impracticable,
+<pb n='xxii'/><anchor id='Pgxxii'/>
+Judaism boldly denounced the past in such fierce
+language as the prophets used and as still finds its echo
+in such passages of the liturgy as <q>First our ancestors
+were worshippers of idols and now God has brought us
+near to His service</q>; or <q>But of a truth, we and our ancestors
+have sinned.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, it would be unfair to argue any further
+against a theological system which, as already said, was
+never avowed distinctly by the historical school&mdash;a
+school, moreover, with which speculation is a matter of
+minor importance. The main strength of this school lies
+in its scientific work, for which Judaism will always be
+under a sense of deep gratitude. And living as we do in
+an age in which history reigns supreme in all departments
+of human thought, we may hope that even its theology,
+as far as it goes, will <q>do</q> for us, though I neither hope
+nor believe that it will do for those who come after us. I
+may, however, humbly confess that the sixth essay in this
+volume was written in a spirit of rebellion against this all-absorbing
+Catholic Israel, with its decently veiled scepticism
+on the one hand, and its unfortunate tendency with
+many people to degenerate into a soulless conformity on
+the other hand. There is, I am afraid, not much to be
+said in favour of this essay. It is deficient both in matter
+and in style. It proved to be a futile attempt to bring
+within the compass of an essay what a whole book could
+hardly do justice to. The Hebrew documents bearing
+upon the question of dogma which I have collected from
+various manuscripts and rare printed books, would alone
+make a fair-sized volume. I only venture to offer it to
+the public in the absence of anything better; since, so far
+as I know, no other attempt has ever been made to treat
+<pb n='xxiii'/><anchor id='Pgxxxiii'/>
+the subject even in its meagrest outlines. I even venture
+to hope that, with all its shortcomings, it will contribute
+something towards destroying the illusion, in which so
+many theologians indulge, that Judaism is a religion without
+dogmas. To declare that a religion has no dogmas is
+tantamount to saying that it was wise enough not to commit
+itself to any vital principles. But prudence, useful as
+it may be in worldly affairs, is quite unworthy of a great
+spiritual power.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jewish mysticism in the Middle Ages and in modern
+times is represented in this volume by two essays (<q>The
+Chassidim</q> and <q>Nachmanides</q>). But in order to avoid
+mistakes which might be implied by my silence, I think it
+desirable to state that there are also to be found many
+mystical elements in the old Rabbinic literature. Mysticism,
+not as a theosophic system or as an occult science, but
+as a manifestation of the spiritual and as an expression of
+man's agonies in his struggle after communion with God,
+as well as of his ineffable joy when he receives the assurance
+that he has found it, is not, as some maintain, foreign
+to the spirit of old Rabbinic Judaism. There was no need
+for the mediæval Rabbi to borrow the elements of such a
+mysticism from non-Jewish sources. The perusal of the
+old Homilies on the Song of Songs, and on the Lessons
+from the Prophets, or even a fair acquaintance with the
+Jewish liturgy would, in itself, suffice to refute such baseless
+assertions. Those who are at all familiar with old
+Rabbinic literature hardly need to be told that <q>the sea of
+the Talmud</q> has also its gulf stream of mysticism which,
+taking its origin in the moralising portions of the Bible,
+runs through the wide ocean of Jewish thought, constantly
+commingling with the icy waters of legalism, and
+<pb n='xxiv'/><anchor id='Pgxxiv'/>
+unceasingly washing the desolate shores of an apparently
+meaningless ceremonialism, communicating to it life,
+warmth, and spirituality. To draw attention to this fact a
+humble attempt has been made in the ninth essay, <q>The
+Law and Recent Criticism,</q> a subject which I have essayed
+to expound in a series of essays on <q>Some Aspects of
+Rabbinic Theology,</q> now appearing in <hi rend='italic'>The Jewish Quarterly
+Review</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The last five essays touch rather on certain social and
+familiar aspects of Judaism, and need no further comment.
+They are mere <emph>causeries</emph> and hardly deserve the name of
+studies. Perhaps it may be useful for those who judge of
+the heaviness of a work by its bulk to know that there is
+also a lighter side of Rabbinic literature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But I shall be better pleased if the more serious side of
+this volume&mdash;Jewish mysticism and Rabbinic theology&mdash;should
+attract the attention of students, and so draw some
+fellow-workers into a field which is utterly neglected.
+Notwithstanding the numerous Manuals and Introductions
+which all more or less touch on the subject of Rabbinic
+theology, there is, after nearly 250 years, not a single work
+among them which, either in knowledge of facts or in
+their interpretation, is a single step in advance of the
+Cambridge Platonist, John Smith, in his <hi rend='italic'>Select Discourses</hi>.
+But those who try so hard to determine the miraculous
+distance of Christianity by the eclipses in Rabbinism,
+should, if they wish to be just or prove themselves worthy
+scholars, also endeavour to make themselves acquainted
+with the numberless bright stars that move in the wide universe
+of Jewish thought. We are often told that no creed
+or theological system which has come down to us from
+antiquity can afford to be judged by any other standard
+<pb n='xxv'/><anchor id='Pgxxv'/>
+than by its spiritual and poetic <emph>possibilities</emph>: this indulgence
+Judaism is as justly entitled to claim as any other
+religion. The great and saintly Franz Delitzsch who, born
+with an intellect of admirable temper, was also endowed
+by Heaven with a soul&mdash;and a beautiful soul it was&mdash;was
+one of the few theologians who, partly at least, admitted
+this claim, and sought earnestly and diligently after
+these spiritual and poetic possibilities, and was amply rewarded
+for his labours.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='001'/><anchor id='Pg001'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>I. The Chassidim<note place='foot'><hi rend='smallcaps'>Subjoined is a List of selected Authorities on the Subject
+of the Chassidim.</hi>&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>Historical and Bibliographical Works</hi>:
+Graetz (xi. including the polemical literature quoted in the Appendix),
+Jost, Peter Beer, M. Bodek (סדר הרורות הנרש, Lemberg, 1865), A. Walden
+(שמ תגרוליב הנדש, Warschau, 1864), Finn (קרוה נאמנה, Wilna, 1860),
+D. Kahana (אצן אוסל in the periodical השחר, iv.), Zederbaum (כחר כדונה,
+Odessa, 1868). <hi rend='italic'>Essays and Satires</hi>: T. Erter (הצפה, Wien, 1858),
+S. Szantó (<hi rend='italic'>Jahrbuch für Israeliten</hi>, p. 108-178, 1867), A. Gottlober
+(in his periodical הברקר אור, iii.), L. Löw (Ben Chananjah, ii.), Rudermann
+(השחר, vi.), Rapoport (נחלת יחודה, Lemberg, 1873, p. 10), Fröhlich
+(המדרין, Warschau, 1876, p. 63 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>), S. Maimon (<hi rend='italic'>Autobiographie</hi>,
+Berlin, 1792). Compare also the Hebrew novels by P. Smolensky,
+L. Gordon, M. Brandstätter, A. Gottlober and B. Horowitz (German).
+<hi rend='italic'>Occasional references</hi> to the liturgy or the system of the Chassidim in
+the <q>Responses</q> of R. Ezechiel Landau, Moses Sopher, E. Flekeles
+and T. Steinhart, and in the works of Israel Samostsch, Salomon
+Chelma and Chayim Walosin. Compare also Zunz (<hi rend='italic'>Gottesdienstliche
+Vorträge</hi>, p. 477) and L. Löw (<hi rend='italic'>Mannheimer Album</hi>, Wien, 1874),
+Senior Sachs (התחיה, i. 61) and B. L. Zeitlin (הות קשה, Paris, 1846).
+The best book on the whole subject is E. Zweifel's work שלום צל ישראל
+(Zitomyr 1868, three parts), which I strongly recommend to students.
+The books written by the Chassidim would amount to more than 200.
+They are catalogued by Bodek and Walden. I shall only draw the
+attention of the student to the works of Beer, Salomon Ladier, and
+Mendel Witipsker on one side, who developed the theory of the
+Immanence, and those of Nachman Braslaw and Melech Liezensker,
+who, on the other hand, carried the theory of Zaddikism to its utmost
+consequences. The student will find a fair collection of sayings and
+sentences arranged according to theological subjects in the books ררך המידים
+and לשן חכמים (Anon., Lemberg, 1876).</note></head>
+
+<p>
+Throughout the whole of that interesting field of
+Theological Literature which deals with the genesis and
+course of religious movements, there is probably none
+whose history, even whose name, is so little known to
+English students, as that of the Chassidim. And yet it
+would be difficult to point, in comparatively recent times,
+to a Dissenting movement more strikingly complete in its
+development, more suggestive of analogy, more full of
+interest in its original purpose, more pregnant of warning
+in its decay.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Hebrew word <q>Chassidim</q><note place='foot'>חסידים, <q>pious ones</q> (Ps. xxxvii. 28, lxx. 2, etc.). The reader
+is probably acquainted with the term from the Maccabean history
+(1 Macc. ii. 42, vii. 13), in which the strict party, opposed to all
+Hellenistic influence, are called <q>Assideans</q> [R.V. <q>Hasidaeans</q>],
+Gr. Ἁσιδαῖοι.</note> merely means <q>the
+Pious,</q> and appears to have been complacently adopted
+by the early apostles of the sect. But the thing&mdash;Chassidism&mdash;was,
+in its inception at all events, a revolt among
+the Jews of Eastern Europe against the excessive casuistry
+of the contemporary Rabbis. It was in fact one
+more manifestation of the yearning of the human heart
+towards the Divine idea, and of its ceaseless craving for
+direct communion with God. It was the protest of an
+emotional but uneducated people against a one-sided
+expression of Judaism, presented to them in cold and
+over-subtle disquisitions which not only did they not
+understand, but which shut out the play of the feelings
+<pb n='002'/><anchor id='Pg002'/>
+and the affections, so that religion was made almost
+impossible to them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some account of the sect is the more necessary because,
+although the Chassidim have not been wholly ignored by
+historians or novelists, the references to them have generally,
+for perfectly intelligible reasons, been either biassed
+or inaccurate. The historians who have treated of them
+have been almost exclusively men saturated with Western
+culture and rationalism. To them the rude and uncouth
+manifestations of an undisciplined religious spirit could
+not be other than repellent; to them Chassidism was a
+movement to be dismissed as unæsthetic and irrational.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To the purposes of fiction the romantic side of Chassidism
+lends itself readily, but the novelists who have used
+this material have confined themselves to its externals.
+Indeed, to have done more would have involved a tedious
+and unremunerative study of difficult Hebrew texts, an
+undertaking not to be expected from the most conscientious
+writers of this class. Thus Franzos in his references
+to the Jews of Barnow describes faithfully the outer signs
+of the man, his long coat and tangled curls, but the inner
+life, the world in which the Chassid moved and had his
+being, was unknown to him and is therefore unrecorded.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to my treatment of the subject, I confess that there
+was a time when I loved the Chassidim as there was a
+time when I hated them. And even now I am not able
+to suppress these feelings. I have rather tried to guide
+my feelings in such a way as to love in Chassidism what
+is ideal and noble, and to hate in it what turned out bad
+and pernicious for Judaism. How far I have been successful
+is another question. At least I have endeavoured
+to write this paper in such a spirit. But of one thing I
+<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/>
+must warn the reader&mdash;the desire to give some clear
+notion of the leading ideas of Chassidism has compelled
+me to quote some passages in which the Chassidim have
+spoken in very offensive terms of their opponents. In
+justice to these I must remark that unfortunately religious
+struggles are usually conducted on the most irreligious
+principles. Thus the Chassidim imputed to their antagonists,
+the contemporary Rabbis, many vices from which
+they were free. Certainly, there was, as one can read in
+every history of Jewish religion, something wrong in the
+state of Judaism. But I know people who maintain that
+there is something very wrong in the present state of
+Judaism, and who despair of a regeneration. But surely
+this is a silly exaggeration. The Chassidim also exaggerated.
+It would be better to take but little notice of
+their accusations and dwell more on that which was
+spoken in a kind and loving spirit.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to the literature of the subject, I can only say here
+that I have made use of every book I could consult, both
+in English and in foreign libraries. But I cannot pledge
+myself to be what early Jewish writers called <q>a donkey
+which carries books.</q> I exercise my own choice and my
+own judgment on many points.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As an active force for good, Chassidism was short-lived.
+For, as I propose to show, there lurked among its central
+tenets the germs of the degeneracy which so speedily
+came upon it. But its early purposes were high, its doctrines
+fairly pure, its aspirations ideal and sublime.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The founder of the sect was one Israel Baalshem,<note place='foot'>בעל שם, <q>The Master of the Name,</q> a term usually applied to
+exorcists, who cast out devils and performed other miracles through
+adjuration by the name of God (or angels). The unbelieving Rabbis
+maintained indeed that in his exorcisms Baalshem employed <q>impure
+names</q> (of devils), whilst the Chassidim, on the other hand, declared
+that their Master never used <q>names</q> at all, his miracles being performed
+by the divine in Baalshem to which all nature owes obedience.
+Occasionally the Chassidim call him בעל שם תוב (The Man of Good
+Name), in allusion to Eccles. vii. 1, shortened by some into <hi rend='italic'>Besht</hi>.</note> and
+the story of his parentage, birth, and childhood, and the
+current anecdotes of his subsequent career play a considerable
+part in Chassidic literature. But the authentic
+<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/>
+materials for his biography are everywhere interwoven
+with much that is pure legend and with much more that
+is miraculous. This was, perhaps, inevitable, and is certainly
+not an unfamiliar feature in the personal histories
+of religious reformers as presented by their followers and
+devotees.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sayings and doings of Baalshem are an essential&mdash;perhaps
+the most essential&mdash;portion of any account
+of the sect. For Baalshem is the centre of the Chassidic
+world, and Chassidism is so intimately bound up with
+the personality of its founder that any separation between
+them is well nigh impossible. To the Chassidim
+Baalshem is not a man who established a theory or
+set forth a system; he himself was the incarnation of a
+theory and his whole life the revelation of a system.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Even those portions of his history which are plainly
+legendary have their uses in indicating the ideals and in
+illustrating the aspirations of the early Chassidim; while
+their circulation and the ready credence they received
+are valuable evidence of the real power and influence
+of Baalshem's personality.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the tale as told by the sect little is omitted of
+those biographical accessories which are proper to an
+Avatar. There is all the conventional heralding of a
+pre-ordained advent; all the usual signs and portents
+of a new dispensation may be recognised in the almost
+preternatural virtues of Baalshem's parents, in the miraculous
+annunciation and exceptional circumstances of his
+nativity, and in the early indication of a strong and fearless
+individuality. Everywhere it seems to be suggested
+that Baalshem from his infancy was conscious of a lofty
+mission. It is already in tender years that he is made
+<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/>
+to give evidence of an indifference to conventional restraints
+and accepted ideals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Rabbi Eliezer and his wife, the parents of Baalshem,
+dwelt, as the story goes, in Moldavia. They are described
+as a pious and God-fearing couple, who, when
+they had already reached old age, were still childless.
+They are accredited with a spotless rectitude, which was
+unimpaired by a long series of strange vicissitudes and
+misfortunes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ultimately, an angel of God appeared to Eliezer and
+announced that, as he had successfully withstood all the
+temptations and sufferings by which he had been tried,
+God was about to reward him with a son, who was destined
+to enlighten the eyes of all Israel. Therefore his
+name should be Israel, for in him the words of Scripture
+were to be fulfilled, <q>Thou art my servant, Israel, in
+whom I will be glorified.</q> In due course the promise
+was fulfilled, and to the aged couple a son was born, who
+was named Israel according to the angel's word. The
+date of Baalshem's birth is about 1700; his birthplace, in
+Bukowina, in a hitherto unidentified village which the
+authorities call Ukop, then still belonging to Roumania.
+The child's mother died soon after he was weaned, and
+his father did not long survive her. But before Eliezer
+died he took his child in his arms, and blessing him, bade
+him fear naught, for God would always be with him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As Eliezer had been greatly honoured in the community
+in which he lived, his orphan son was carefully tended
+and educated. He was early supplied with an instructor
+in the Holy Law. But though he learned with rare facility,
+he rejected the customary methods of instruction.
+One day, while still quite young, his teacher missed him,
+<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/>
+and on seeking found him sitting alone in the forest that
+skirted his native village, in happy and fearless solitude.
+He repeated this escapade so often that it was thought
+best to leave him to follow his own bent. A little later
+we find him engaged as assistant to a schoolmaster.
+His duty was not to teach, but to take the children from
+their homes to the synagogue and thence on to the school.
+It was his wont while accompanying the children to the
+synagogue to teach them solemn hymns which he sang
+with them. In the synagogue he encouraged them to
+sing the responses, so that the voices of the children
+penetrated through the heavens and moved the Divine
+father to compassion. Satan, fearing lest his power on
+earth should thereby be diminished, assumed the shape
+of a werewolf, and, appearing before the procession of
+children on their way to the synagogue, put them to
+flight. In consequence of this alarming incident the children's
+services were suspended. But Israel, recollecting
+his father's counsel to fear naught, besought the parents
+to be allowed to lead the children once more in the old
+way. His request was granted, and when the werewolf
+appeared a second time Israel attacked him with a club
+and routed him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In his fourteenth year Israel became a beadle at the
+Beth Hammidrash.<note place='foot'>בית המדרש&mdash;<q>House of Research</q> or of <q>study</q> (of the Law),
+but in which also divine service is held thrice a day.</note> Here he assiduously but secretly
+pursued the study of the Law. Yet, being anxious that
+none should know his design, he read and worked only
+at night, when the schoolroom was empty and the usual
+scholars had retired. During the daytime he slept, so
+that he was popularly believed to be both ignorant and
+lazy. Despite these precautions, however, his true
+character was revealed to one person. A certain holy
+<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/>
+man, the father of a young student at the college, had
+discovered some old manuscripts which contained the
+deepest secrets. Before his death he bade his son repair
+to Ukop, Israel's birthplace, telling him that he would
+find one Israel, son of Eliezer, to whom the precious
+documents were to be entrusted. They possessed, so the
+old man declared, a certain mystic and heavenly affinity
+with Israel's soul. The student carried out his father's
+instructions, and at last discovered the object of his
+search in the beadle of the Beth Hammidrash. Israel
+admitted him to his friendship and confidence on the
+condition of secrecy as to his real character. The student,
+however, paid dearly for this acquaintance with Israel.
+Contrary to Baalshem's advice, he entered upon a dangerous
+incantation in the course of which he made a mistake
+so serious that it cost him his life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Upon the death of his friend, Baalshem left his native
+village and settled as a teacher in a small town near
+Brody. Here, although his true mission and character
+were still unknown, he became much respected for his
+rigid probity, and was frequently chosen as umpire in
+disputes among Jews. On one of these occasions he
+arbitrated with so much learning and impartiality that
+not only did he satisfy both parties, but one of them,
+a learned man of Brody, named Abraham, offered him
+his own daughter in marriage. Israel, to whom it had
+been revealed that Abraham's daughter was his predestined
+wife, immediately accepted the offer and the act of
+betrothal was drawn up. But wishing his true character to
+remain unknown he stipulated that Abraham, although a
+<q>Talmid Chacham</q> (student)<note place='foot'>תלמיד הכם&mdash;<q>Disciple of the Wise,</q> the usual title of a scholar
+or student.</note> himself and therefore presumably
+desirous that his daughter should marry a scholar,
+<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/>
+should omit from the betrothal-deed all the titles of honour
+usually appended to the name of a learned bridegroom.
+While returning to Brody, Abraham died, and Gershon
+his son, a scholar still greater and more celebrated than
+his father, was surprised and shocked to find a deed of
+betrothal among his father's papers, from which it appeared
+that his sister was to wed a man with apparently no claim
+to scholarship or learning. He protested to his sister,
+but she declined to entertain any objections to a marriage
+which her father had arranged. When the time for the
+wedding was at hand, Israel gave up his post as teacher,
+and repaired to Brody. Disguised as a peasant he presented
+himself before his future brother-in-law, who was
+then fulfilling some high judicial function. Gershon taking
+him for a beggar offered him alms, but Israel, refusing
+the money, asked for a private interview, stating that he
+had an important secret to reveal. He then, to Gershon's
+surprise and disgust, explained who he was and that he
+had come to claim his bride. As the girl was determined
+to obey her father's will the affair was settled and the day
+fixed. On the morning of the wedding Israel revealed to
+his bride his real character and mission, at the same time
+enjoining secrecy. Evil fortunes would befall them, he
+said, but a better time would eventually follow.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the wedding, Gershon, having in vain attempted
+to instruct his seemingly ignorant brother-in-law, decided
+to rid himself of his presence. He gave his sister the
+choice of being separated from her husband, or of leaving
+the town in his company. She chose the latter, and thereupon
+the two left Brody and began a life of hardship and
+suffering. Israel chose for his new home a spot on one
+of the spurs of the Carpathian Mountains. No Jews lived
+<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/>
+there, and Israel and his wife were thus separated from
+the society of their fellows in a life of complete and unchanging
+solitude. Israel dug lime in the ravines among
+the mountains, and his wife conveyed it for sale to the
+nearest town. Their life at this period seems to have
+been one of great privation, but the harder Israel's outward
+lot, the more he increased in spiritual greatness. In
+his solitude he gave himself up entirely to devotion and
+religious contemplation. His habit was to climb to the
+summit of the mountains and wander about rapt in spiritual
+ecstasies. He fasted, prayed, made continual ablutions,
+and observed all the customary outward and inward
+exercises of piety and devotion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After seven years, Gershon, who was well aware of
+the bitter poverty which his sister endured, relented and
+brought her and her husband back to Brody. At first
+he employed Baalshem as his coachman, but as he proved
+wholly unfit for this work Gershon rented a small inn
+in a remote village, and there established his sister and
+her husband. The business of the inn was managed
+by the wife, while Baalshem passed most of his time
+in a hut in a neighbouring forest. Here he once more
+gave himself up to meditation and preparation for his
+future work, and here, a little later, when nearly forty-two
+years of age, to a few chosen spirits, afterwards his
+most fervent disciples, he first revealed his true character
+and mission.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From this point unfortunately the materials for a continuous
+biography are wanting; we next hear of Baalshem
+discharging the functions of an ordinary Rabbi at Miedziboz
+in Podolia, but for the remainder of his personal
+history we have to be content with detached anecdotes
+<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/>
+and fragmentary passages in his life, the sum total of
+which goes to show that he resided in Podolia and Wallachia,
+teaching his doctrines to his disciples and <q>working
+Wonders.</q> He does not seem to have figured as a public
+preacher, nor has he left behind him any written work.
+He appears rather to have used the method, familiar to
+students of Greek philosophy, of teaching by conversations
+with his friends and disciples. These conversations,
+and the parables with which they were largely interspersed,
+were remembered and stored up by his hearers.
+By his neighbours the country folk, Baalshem was regarded
+simply as <q>a man of God.</q> He was allowed to
+pursue his course undisturbed by persecution of the
+serious character which his more aggressive successors
+provoked. Such of the Rabbis as were aware of his
+existence despised him and his ways, but the Rabbinical
+world was at that time too much occupied in the
+controversy between Eybeschütz and Emden to concern
+itself with the vagaries of an obscure and apparently
+<q>unlearned</q> eccentric. Baalshem also took part in the
+disputes which were held in Lemberg, the capital of
+Galicia (1757?), between the Rabbis and the Frankists,<note place='foot'>A Jewish sect, so called after their founder Jacob Leibovicz
+Frank, who was himself one of the apostles of the pseudo-Messiah
+Shabbethai Tsebi of Smyrna in Turkey. Among his other doctrines
+he taught also a sort of Trinity, consisting of the Holy Ancient One,
+the Holy King or the Messiah, and a feminine person in the Godhead,
+in which he, like his master, represented the Second Person. The sect
+ultimately abolished the Law, and, after many controversies with the
+Rabbinic Jews, went over to Catholicism, the dominant religion in
+Poland, by which they were soon absorbed. Eybeschütz, chief Rabbi
+of Prague and Hamburg, was suspected by Emden to be a secret
+adherent of Shabbethai Tsebi, which was tantamount to apostasy from
+Judaism. Eybeschütz protested. The litigants excommunicated each
+other, and the Rabbis divided into two camps, taking sides either with
+Emden or with his antagonist.</note>
+who denounced the Talmud to the Polish Government
+and wanted to have all the Rabbinical books destroyed.
+Baalshem suffered from this excitement in a most terrible
+way. The abrogation of the Oral Law meant for
+him the ruin of Judaism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Baalshem, in forming the little band of devoted followers
+who were destined to spread a knowledge of his
+creed, travelled considerably about Wallachia. He at
+one time decided to make a pilgrimage to Palestine, but
+when he reached Constantinople he felt himself inspired
+<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/>
+to return and continue his work at home. He died at
+Miedziboz on the eve of Pentecost, 1761.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After his death his disciples, of whom one Beer of
+Mizriez was the most prominent, undertook the proselytising
+mission for which Baalshem had prepared them,
+but from which he himself appears to have abstained.
+They preached and taught in all the provinces of Russia
+where Jews may reside, and in Roumania, and Galicia.
+The number of the sect at the present day is probably
+about half a million.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Returning now to Baalshem the founder, it may be
+noted that his appearance as a teacher and reformer was
+accompanied and justified by a customary and adequate
+number of miracles. To one disciple he revealed secrets
+which could have become known to him only by divine
+revelation; to another he appeared with a nimbus round
+his head. On the evidence of the Chassidim we learn
+that Baalshem performed all the recognised signs and
+marvels which have ever been the customary minor characteristics
+of men of similar type in similar environment.
+When Baalshem desired to cross a stream, he spread
+forth his mantle upon the waters, and standing thereupon
+passed safely to the other side. Ghosts evacuated
+haunted houses at the mere mention of his name. Was
+he alone in the forest on a wintry night, he had but to
+touch a tree with his finger tips and flames burst forth.
+When his spirit wandered through the angelic spheres, as
+was frequently the case, he obtained access to Paradise
+for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited without
+through long thousands of mournful years. These
+and other miracles need not be examined. Here, as in the
+case of other such blissful seasons of grace, they were the
+<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/>
+ephemeral though important accessories in establishing
+the inspired character of his utterances and the authority
+of his injunctions. It is not as a worker of miracles, but
+as a religious teacher and reformer, that Baalshem is
+interesting.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Properly to understand the nature and special direction
+of his teaching, it is necessary in some measure to realise
+the character of the field in which he worked; to consider,
+in other words, the moral and religious condition of the
+Jews in those districts where Chassidism first took root.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a Hebrew Hymn, written about 1000 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>, and still
+recited in the synagogue on the Day of Atonement, the
+poet expresses the strange and bitter fortunes of his race
+in touching words of mingled sorrow and exultation.
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Destroyed lies Zion and profaned,</l>
+<l>Of splendour and renown bereft,</l>
+<l>Her ancient glories wholly waned,</l>
+<l>One deathless treasure only left;</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Still ours, O Lord,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Thy Holy Word.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+And this Divine Word it was, which a persecuted religion
+has sought to preserve intact through so many centuries
+of persecution, and for the sake of which no labour
+seemed too severe, no sacrifice too large. <q>Bethink
+Thee, O God,</q> exclaimed one of our Jewish sages who
+flourished about the same period, <q>bethink Thee of Thy
+faithful children who, amid their poverty and want, are
+busy in the study of Thy Law. Bethink Thee of the
+poor in Israel who are willing to suffer hunger and destitution
+if only they can secure for their children the knowledge
+of Thy Law.</q> And so indeed it was. Old and
+<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/>
+young, weak and strong, rich and poor, all pursued that
+single study, the Torah. The product of this prolonged
+study is that gigantic literature which, as a long unbroken
+chain of spiritual activity, connects together the various
+periods of the Jews' chequered and eventful history. All
+ages and all lands have contributed to the development
+of this supreme study. For under the word Torah
+was comprised not only the Law, but also the contributions
+of later times expressing either the thoughts or
+the emotions of holy and sincere men; and even their
+honest scepticism was not entirely excluded. As in the
+canon of the Bible, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon
+found place in the same volume that contains the Law
+and the Prophets, so at a later time people did not object
+to put the philosophical works of Maimonides and the
+songs of Judah Hallevi on the same level with the Code
+of the Law compiled by R. Isaac Alfasi, and the commentaries
+on the Bible by R. Solomon b. Isaac.<note place='foot'>The works of Maimonides or Moses b. Maimon (1135-1204) are
+too many to be enumerated here. The most important are the <hi rend='italic'>Guide
+of the Perplexed</hi> (מורה נבוכום) and his <hi rend='italic'>Compendium of the Law</hi> (משנה הורה).
+Judah Hallevi or Abul Hassan flourished in the first half of the
+twelfth century. He is well known as a poet by his <hi rend='italic'>Divan</hi> and as a
+deep religious thinker by his <hi rend='italic'>Cusari</hi>. The former contains also many
+songs of a secular nature. Isaac Alfasi (died 1103) is best known by
+his Compendium of the Talmud, which was so greatly admired by his
+contemporaries that they declared it could never have been composed
+<q>without the aid of the Holy Spirit.</q> R. Solomon b. Isaac, also
+called by his initials Rashi (1040-1105), is well known by his commentaries
+on the Bible and the Talmud.</note> None
+of them was declared infallible, but also to none of them,
+as soon as people were convinced of the author's sincerity,
+was denied the homage due to seekers after truth.
+Almost every author was called Rabbi (<q>my master</q>)
+or Rabbenu (<q>our master</q>),<note place='foot'>רבי רבינו.</note> and nearly every book was
+regarded more or less as a contribution to the great bulk
+of the Torah. It was called Writ,<note place='foot'>ספר, <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sepher</foreign>.</note> and was treated with
+a certain kind of piety. But, by a series of accidents too
+long to be related here, sincerity ceased and sport took
+its place. I refer to the casuistic schools commonly
+known by the name of Pilpulists<note place='foot'>The Hebrew word is פלפול, meaning subtle discussion and sharp
+distinction. The word is closely related to פלפל or פלפלא, which means
+<q>pepper</q> or <q>seasoning.</q></note> (the <q>seasoned</q> or the
+<q>sharp</q> ones), who flourished in the last two centuries
+preceding ours. To the authors of this unhappy period,
+a few glorious exceptions always allowed, the preceding
+<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/>
+Jewish literature did not mean a <q>fountain of living
+waters,</q> supplying men with truth and religious inspiration,
+but rather a kind of armoury providing them with
+juristic cases over which to fight, and to out-do each other
+in sophistry and subtlety. As a consequence they cared
+little or nothing for that part of the Jewish literature that
+appeals less to the intellect than to the feelings of men.
+In short, religion consisted only of complicated cases and
+innumerable ordinances, in which the wit of these men
+found delight. But the emotional part of it, whose root is
+the Faith and Love of men, was almost entirely neglected.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it was precisely these higher religious emotions
+that were Baalshem's peculiar province, and it was to
+them that he assigned in his religious system a place befitting
+their importance and their dignity. And the locality
+where his ministration lay was curiously adapted for
+such propaganda. To that universal study of the Law
+of which I have just spoken there was one exception.
+That exception was amongst the Jews in the territories
+which bordered on the Carpathian Mountains, and comprise
+the principalities of Moldavia, and Wallachia, Bukowina,
+and the Ukraine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is historically certain that the first arrival of the
+Jews in Roumania was at a very early date, but there is
+no trace of any intellectual productivity among the immigrants
+until recent times, and it is admitted that the study
+of the Law was almost entirely neglected. It was in
+these districts of mental, and perhaps we might add of
+even spiritual, darkness that Chassidism took its rise and
+achieved its first success. <q>The sect of the Chassidim,</q>
+says one of the bitterest but most trustworthy of their
+opponents, <q>first gained ground in the most uncivilised
+<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/>
+provinces; in the wild ravines of Wallachia and the
+dreary steppes of the Ukraine.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Apart from the genius of its founder, Chassidism owed
+its rapid growth to the intellectual barrenness of these
+districts as compared with the intellectual fertility of the
+other regions where Jews most thickly congregated. The
+Roumanian Jews were to some extent under the jurisdiction
+of the Rabbis of Poland. Now the Poles were celebrated
+even in Germany for the elaboration of their casuistry.
+These over-subtle Rabbis, delighting in the quibbles
+of their sophistry, and reducing religion to an unending
+number of juristic calculations and all sorts of possibilities
+and impossibilities, were but too apt to forget the claims
+of feeling in their eager desire to question and to settle
+everything. They may have been satisfactory guides in
+matters spiritual to the men of their own stamp, but they
+were of no avail to their Roumanian brethren who failed
+to recognise religion in the garb of casuistry. It was,
+therefore, not surprising that a revolt against the excess of
+intellectualism should have sprung up and flourished in
+those districts where the inhabitants were constitutionally
+incapable of appreciating the delights of argument. The
+field was ready, and in the fulness of time came the sower
+in the person of Baalshem.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the above estimate of the Polish Rabbis there
+undoubtedly lurks a touch of exaggeration. But it represents
+the view which the Chassidim took of their opponents.
+The whole life of Baalshem is a protest against
+the typical Rabbi thus conceived. The essential difference
+in the ideals of the two parties is perhaps best illustrated
+in those portions of their biographical literature
+where legend treads most closely upon the heels of fact.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/>
+
+<p>
+The hero of Polish Rabbinic biography at five years of
+age can recite by heart the most difficult tractates of the
+Talmud; at eight he is the disciple of the most celebrated
+teacher of the time, and perplexes him by the penetrative
+subtlety of his questions; while at thirteen he appears
+before the world as a full-fledged Doctor of the Law.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The hero of the Chassidim has a totally different education,
+and his distinctive glory is of another kind. The
+legendary stories about Baalshem's youth tell us little of
+his proficiency in Talmudic studies; instead of sitting in
+the Beth Hammidrash with the folios of some casuistic
+treatise spread out before him, Baalshem passes his time
+singing hymns out of doors, or under the green trees of
+the forest with the children. Satan, however, says the
+Chassid, is more afraid of these innocent exercises than
+of all the controversies in the Meheram Shiff.<note place='foot'>מחרם שיף = R. Meir Shiff, whose <foreign rend='italic'>novellæ</foreign> on the Talmud are of a
+very subtle kind, and were very popular with the students of this work.</note> It was
+through external nature, the woods of his childhood, the
+hills and wild ravines of the Carpathians where he passed
+many of his maturer years, that Baalshem, according to
+his disciples, reached his spiritual confirmation. The
+Chassidic hero had no celebrated Rabbi for his master.
+He was his own teacher. If not self-taught, it was from
+angelic lips, or even the Divine voice itself, that he learned
+the higher knowledge. From the source whence the
+Torah flowed Baalshem received heavenly lore. His
+method of self-education, his ways of life, his choice of associates
+were all instances of revolt; not only did he teach
+a wholly different theory and practice, but he and his disciples
+seem to have missed no opportunity of denouncing
+the old teachers as misleading and ungodly. Among the
+many anecdotes illustrating this feature, it is told how
+once, on the evening before the great Day of Atonement,
+<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/>
+Baalshem was noticed by his disciples to be, contrary to
+his usual custom, depressed and ill at ease. The whole
+subsequent day he passed in violent weeping and lamentations.
+At its close he once more resumed his wonted
+cheerfulness of manner. When asked for the explanation
+of his behaviour, he replied that the Holy Spirit had revealed
+to him that heavy accusations were being made
+against the Jewish people, and a heavy punishment had
+been ordained upon them. The anger of heaven was
+caused by the Rabbis, whose sole occupation was to invent
+lying premisses and to draw from them false conclusions.
+All the truly wise Rabbis of the olden time (such as the
+Tannaim, the Amoraim<note place='foot'>המוראים&mdash;תנאים, <q>The Repeaters,</q> and <q>The Interpreters.</q> The
+sayings and statements of the former are embodied in the Mishnah, a
+work compiled by R. Judah the Saint about 220 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>, and covering a
+period of about 250 years (30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>-220 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>). The latter occupied
+themselves mainly with the interpretation of the Mishnah, and their
+discussions and controversies are incorporated in the Talmud of Jerusalem
+and that of Babylon, and extend over the period from 220-500
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi> The Talmud of Jerusalem is mostly the product of the schools
+of Palestine. The Talmud of Babylon is a growth of that country.
+The authorities of this latter Talmud being far away from the place
+where the first great Rabbis lived and laboured, their traditions are
+naturally not so historically reliable as those of the Talmud of Jerusalem.
+The authorities of Palestine were also simpler in their method
+of interpretation. These again are followed by the Babylonian schools
+of new interpreters (of the Talmud).</note> and their followers, whom Baalshem
+regarded as so many saints and prophets) had now
+stood forth as the accusers of their modern successors by
+whom their words were so grossly perverted from their original
+meaning. On this account Baalshem's tears had been
+shed, and his prayers as usual had been successful. The
+impending judgment was annulled. On another occasion,
+when he overheard the sounds of eager, loud discussion
+issuing from a Rabbinical college, Baalshem, closing his
+ears with his hands, declared that it was such disputants
+who delayed the redemption of Israel from captivity.
+Satan, he said, incites the Rabbis to study those portions
+of Jewish literature only on which they can whet the sharpness
+of their intellects, but from all writings of which the
+reading would promote piety and the fear of God he
+keeps them away. <q>Where there is much study,</q> says
+a disciple of Baalshem, <q>there is little piety.</q> <q>Jewish
+Devils</q><note place='foot'>שדין יהודאין, an expression that goes back as far as to the <hi rend='italic'>Zohar</hi>.</note> is one of the numerous polite epithets applied
+to the Rabbis by the friends of Baalshem. <q>Even the
+worst sinners are better than they; so blind are they in
+<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/>
+the arrogance of their self-conceit that their very devotion
+to the Law becomes a vehicle for their sin.</q> It will be
+found when we deal with the most positive side of Baalshem's
+teaching that this antagonism to the attitude and
+methods of the contemporary Rabbis is further emphasised,
+and it will readily be seen that his whole scheme
+of religion and of conduct in relation to God and man
+rendered this acknowledged hostility inevitable. In approaching
+this part of our subject it should be remembered
+that, as stated above, Baalshem himself wrote nothing.
+For a knowledge of his sayings we are therefore dependent
+on the reports of his friends and disciples. And it is
+not unfrequently necessary to supplement these by the
+teaching of his followers, whom we may suppose in large
+measure to have caught the spirit of their master. Unfortunately
+the original authorities are in a difficult Hebrew
+patois which often obscures the precise meaning of
+whole passages.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The originality of Baalshem's teaching has been frequently
+impugned, chiefly by the suggestion that he drew
+largely from the Zohar (Book of Brightness).<note place='foot'>זוהר, <q>Brightness.</q> Cf. Dan. xii. 3,&mdash;the authors of <q>The
+Brightness</q> pretending to be the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Maskilim</foreign> or <q>Wise Ones</q> mentioned
+in this verse.</note> This
+mystical book, <q>the Bible of the Cabbalists,</q> whether we
+regard its subject-matter or its history and influence, is
+unique in literature. Its pretended author is Simeon ben
+Yochai, a great Rabbi of the second century, but the real
+writer is probably one Moses de Leon, a Spanish Jew, who
+lived eleven centuries later. The book is one of the most
+interesting literary forgeries, and is a marvellous mixture
+of good and evil. A passage of delicate religious fancy
+is succeeded by another of gross obscenity in illustration
+and suggestion; true piety and wild blasphemy are
+strangely mingled together. Baalshem undoubtedly had
+<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/>
+studied the Zohar, and he even is reported to have said
+that the reading of the Zohar had enabled him to see into
+the whole universe of things. But, for all that, Baalshem
+was no copyist; and the Zohar, although it may have
+suggested a hint to him here and there, was not the source
+whence his inspiration was drawn.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Its attraction for Baalshem is sufficiently explained by
+the fantastic, imaginative, and emotional nature of its
+contents. It lent itself more easily than the older Rabbinical
+literature to new explanations unthought of by its
+author. But even the Talmud and its early commentaries
+became apocalyptic to the heroes of Chassidism. Nay,
+the driest and most legal disquisitions about <foreign rend='italic'>meum</foreign> and
+<foreign rend='italic'>tuum</foreign> could be translated into parables and allegories
+and symbols full of the most exalted meanings. Baalshem,
+like every other religious reformer, was partially
+the product of his age. The influences of the past, the
+history and literature of his own people, helped to make
+him what he was. But they do not rob him of his
+originality. He was a religious revivalist in the best
+sense; full of burning faith in his God and his cause;
+convinced utterly of the value of his work and the
+truth of his teaching.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although there can be no real doubt of Baalshem's
+claim to originality, it should be borne in mind that his
+teaching is not only distinctively Jewish, but that for
+every part of it parallels and analogies could be found
+in the older Hebrew literature. Indeed it is not wonderful
+that in a literature, extending over 2000 years, of a
+people whose chief thoughts have been religion, and
+who have come in contact with so many external religious
+and philosophic influences, the germs can be discovered
+<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/>
+of almost every conceivable system, and the
+outline of almost every imaginable doctrine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The keynote of all Baalshem's teachings is the
+Omnipresence, or more strictly the Immanence, of God.
+This is the source from which flows naturally every
+article of his creed; the universality of the Divinity is
+the foundation of the entire Chassidic fabric. The
+idea of the constant living presence of God in all existence
+permeates the whole of Baalshem's scheme; it is
+insisted on in every relation; from it is deduced every
+important proposition and every rule in conduct of his
+school.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All created things and every product of human intelligence
+owe their being to God. All generation and all
+existence spring from the thought and will of God. It
+is incumbent upon man to believe that all things are
+pervaded by the divine life, and when he speaks he
+should remember that it is this divine life which is
+speaking through him. There is nothing which is void
+of God. If we imagine for a moment such a thing to
+be, it would instantly fall into nothingness. In every
+human thought God is present. If the thought be
+gross or evil, we should seek to raise and ennoble it by
+carrying it back to its origin. So, if a man be suddenly
+overwhelmed by the aspect of a beautiful woman, he
+should remember that this splendour of beauty is owing
+to the all-pervading emanation from the divine. When
+he remembers that the source of corporeal beauty is
+God, he will not be content to let his thought abide
+with the body when he can rise to the inward contemplation
+of the infinite soul of beauty, which is God. A
+disciple of Baalshem has said: Even as in the jewels
+<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/>
+of his beloved the lover sees only the beauty of her he
+loves, so does the true lover of God see in all the appearances
+of this world, the vitalising and generative
+power of his divine master. If you do not see the
+world in the light of God you separate the creation
+from its Creator. He who does not fully believe in
+this universality of God's presence has never properly
+acknowledged God's Sovereignty, for he excludes God
+from an existing portion of the actual world. The word
+of God (to Baalshem, a synonym for God himself), which
+<q>is settled in heaven</q> and <q>established on earth,</q>
+is still and always speaking, acting, and generating
+throughout heaven and earth in endless gradations and
+varieties. If the vitalising word were to cease, chaos
+would come again. The belief in a single creation after
+which the Master withdrew from his completed work, is
+erroneous and heretical. The vivifying power is never
+withdrawn from the world which it animates. Creation
+is continuous; an unending manifestation of the goodness
+of God. All things are an affluence from the two
+divine attributes of Power and Love, which express
+themselves in various images and reflections.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This is the doctrine of universality in Chassidism. God,
+the father of Israel, God the Merciful, God the All-powerful,
+the God of Love, not only created everything but is
+embodied in everything. The necessity of believing this
+doctrine is the cardinal Dogma. But as creation is continuous
+so also is revelation. This revelation is only to be
+grasped by faith. Faith, therefore, is more efficacious
+than learning. Thus it is that in times of persecution, the
+wise and the foolish, the sinner and the saint, are wont
+alike to give up their life for their faith. They who could
+<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/>
+render no answer to the questions of the casuist are yet
+willing to die the most cruel of deaths rather than deny
+their faith in the One and Supreme God. Their strength
+to face danger and death is owing to that divine illumination
+of the soul which is more exalted than knowledge.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We should thus regard all things in the light of so
+many manifestations of the Divinity. God is present in
+all things; therefore there is good, actual or potential, in
+all things. It is our duty everywhere to seek out and to
+honour the good, and not to arrogate to ourselves the
+right to judge that which may seem to be evil. In thinking
+therefore of a fellow-man, we should above all things
+realise in him the presence of the spirit of good. Whence
+we have the Doctrine that each of us, while thinking
+humbly of himself, should always be ready to think well,
+and always slow to think evil, of another. This explains
+the Chassidic attitude towards erring humanity. Baalshem
+viewed human sin and infirmity in a very different light
+from that of the ordinary Rabbi. Ever conscious of the
+Divine side of Humanity, he vigorously combated the
+gratuitous assumption of sinfulness in man which was
+a fertile subject with contemporary preachers. They,
+among the Roumanian Jews as in other communities,
+delighted chiefly to dwell on the dark side of things, and
+found their favourite theme in elaborate descriptions of
+the infernal punishments that were awaiting the sinner
+after death. It is related how on one occasion Baalshem
+rebuked one of these. The preacher had been denouncing
+woe to an audience of whom he knew nothing whether for
+evil or for good. Baalshem, indignant at this indiscriminative
+abuse and conceited arrogation of the divine office of
+judgment, turned on him in the following words: <q>Woe
+<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/>
+upon thee who darest to speak evil of Israel! Dost not
+know that every Jew, when he utters ever so short a
+prayer at the close of day, is performing a great work
+before which the angels in heaven bow down?</q> Great,
+as it would seem, was the value set by Baalshem upon the
+smallest evidence of the higher nature in man, and few
+there were, as he believed, who, if their spirit was not
+darkened by pride, did not now and again give proof of
+the divine stamp in which God had created them. No sin
+so separates us from God that we need despair of return.
+From every rung of the moral ladder, no matter how low,
+let man seek God. If he but fully believe that nothing is
+void of God, and that God is concealed in the midst of
+apparent ruin and degradation, he will not fear lest God
+be far from him. God is regained in a moment of repentance,
+for repentance <q>transcends the limits of space and
+time.</q> And he who leads the sinner to repentance causes
+a divine joy; it is as though a king's son had been in captivity
+and were now brought back to his father's gaze.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Baalshem refused to regard any one as wholly irredeemable.
+His was an optimistic faith. God was to be
+praised in gladness by the dwellers in this glorious world.
+The true believer, recognising the reflection of God in
+every man, should hopefully strive, when that reflection
+was obscured by sin, to restore the likeness of God in man.
+The peculiar detestability of sin lies in this, that man
+rejects the earthly manifestations of the Divinity and
+pollutes them. One of Baalshem's disciples delighted in
+the saying that the most hardened sinners were not to be
+despaired of, but prayed for. None knows the heart of
+man, and none should judge his neighbour. Let him who
+burns with zeal for God's sake, exercise his zeal on himself,
+<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/>
+not others. Baalshem said, <q>Let no one think himself
+better than his neighbour, for all serve God; each
+according to the measure of understanding which God
+has given him.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From this position it is a natural step to Baalshem's
+view of prayer. He is reputed to have said that all the
+greatness he had achieved was the issue not of study but
+of prayer. But true prayer <q>must move,</q> as Baalshem
+phrased it, <q>in the realms above,</q> and not be concerned
+with affairs sublunary. Your prayer should not be taken
+up with your wishes and needs, but should be the means
+to bring you nigh to God. In prayer man must lay aside
+his own individuality, and not even be conscious of his
+existence; for if, when he prays, Self is not absolutely
+quiescent, the object of prayer is unattainable. Indeed
+it is only through God's grace that after true prayer man
+is yet alive; to such a point has the annihilation of self
+proceeded.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may be necessary to caution the reader against
+ascribing to Baalshem any modern rationalistic notions
+on the subject of prayer. The power of prayer, in the
+old-fashioned sense, to produce an answer from God was
+never doubted by Baalshem for a moment. Baalshem's
+deity is not restricted towards any side by any philosophic
+considerations. All Baalshem meant was that any reference
+or regard to earthly requirements was unworthy
+and destructive of this communion of man with God.
+The wise man, says Baalshem, does not trouble the king
+with innumerable petitions about trifles. His desire is
+merely to gain admission into the king's presence and to
+speak with him without a go-between. To be with the
+king whom he loves so dearly is for him the highest good.
+<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/>
+But his love for the king has its reward; for the king
+loves him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has already been implied that, with regard to our
+duty towards our fellow-man, we must not only honour
+him for the good, and abstain from judging the evil that
+may be in him, but must pray for him. Furthermore we
+must work for his spiritual and moral reclamation. In
+giving practical effect in his own life to this doctrine,
+Baalshem's conduct was in striking contrast to that of
+his contemporaries. He habitually consorted with outcasts
+and sinners, with the poor and uneducated of both
+sexes, whom the other teachers ignored. He thus won
+for his doctrines a way to the heart of the people by
+adapting his life and language to their understanding and
+sympathies. In illustration of this, as well as of his
+hatred of vanity and display, it is told how, on the occasion
+of his being accorded a public reception by the Jews
+on his arrival at Brody, instead of addressing to them in
+the conventional fashion some subtle discourse upon a
+Talmudical difficulty, he contented himself with conversing
+upon trivial topics in the local dialect with some of
+the less important persons in the crowd.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This incident is perhaps the more noteworthy because
+it occurred in Brody, which was at that time a seat of
+learning and Rabbinic culture,&mdash;a place where, for that
+very reason, Chassidism was never able to gain a foothold.
+It is probable enough that Baalshem in his visits to this
+town kept aloof from the learned and the wise, and sought
+to gather round him the neglected and humbler elements
+of Jewish society. It is well known that Baalshem consorted
+a good deal with the innkeepers of the district, who
+were held in very low repute among their brethren. The
+<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/>
+following remark by one of his followers is very suggestive
+in this respect. Just as only superficial minds
+attach a certain holiness to special places, whilst with
+the deeper ones all places are alike holy, so that to them
+it makes no difference whether prayers be said in the
+synagogue or in the forest; so the latter believe that not
+only prophecies and visions come from heaven, but that
+every utterance of man, if properly understood, contains
+a message of God. Those who are absorbed in God will
+easily find the divine element in everything which they
+hear, even though the speaker himself be quite ignorant
+of it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This line of conduct gave a fair opening for attack to
+his opponents, an opportunity of which they were not
+slow to avail themselves. Baalshem was pointed at as
+the associate of the lowest classes. They avenged themselves
+for his neglect of and hostility to the learned by
+imputing the worst motives to his indifference to appearances.
+He was accused of idling about the streets with
+disreputable characters, and one polemical treatise draws
+the vilest inferences from his apparent familiarity with
+women. To this charge Baalshem's conduct, innocent in
+itself, gave some colour; for his views and habits in relation
+to women marked a strong divergence from current
+customs. The position of women in contemporary circles
+was neither debased nor inevitably unhappy, but it was
+distinctly subordinate. Their education was almost entirely
+neglected, and their very existence was practically
+ignored. According to the Chassidic doctrine of Universality,
+woman was necessarily to be honoured. <q>All
+Jews,</q> says one Chassid, <q>even the uneducated and the
+women, believe in God.</q> Baalshem frequently associated
+<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/>
+with women, assigning to them not only social equality,
+but a high degree of religious importance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His own wife he reverenced as a saint; when she died
+he abandoned the hope of rising to heaven while yet alive,
+like Elijah of old, saying mournfully that undivided such
+translation might have happened, but for him alone it
+was impossible. Then again in a form of religion utilising
+so largely the emotions of Faith and Love there was
+a strong appeal to the female mind. The effect of this
+was soon evident, and Baalshem did not neglect to profit
+by it. Among the most devoted of his early adherents
+were women. One of them was the heroine of a favourite
+anecdote concerning Baalshem's work of Love and Rescue.
+It is related that in a certain village there dwelt
+a woman whose life was so disgraceful that her brothers
+at last determined to kill her. With this object they
+enticed her into a neighbouring wood, but guided by the
+Holy Spirit Baalshem intervened at the critical moment,
+and dissuading the men from their purpose rescued the
+sinner. The woman afterwards became a sort of Magdalen
+in the new community.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Above I have endeavoured to throw together in some
+order of sequence the doctrines and practical rules of conduct
+which Baalshem and his early disciples seem to have
+deduced from their central idea of the omnipresence of
+God. This was necessary in order to give a connected
+idea of their creed, but it is right to say that nowhere in
+Chassidic literature have these deductions been logically
+co-ordinated. Perhaps their solitary attempt to formulate
+and condense their distinctive views is confined to a statement
+of their idea of piety or service of God, and an examination
+of three cardinal virtues, Humility, Cheerfulness,
+<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/>
+and Enthusiasm. What the Chassidim held as to true
+service brings into relief Baalshem's characteristic manner
+of regarding the Law.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By the service of God was generally understood a life
+which fulfilled the precepts of the written and oral law.
+Baalshem understood by it a certain attitude towards life
+as a whole. For, as God is realised in life, each activity
+of life when rightly conceived and executed is at once a
+manifestation and a service of the Divine. All things
+have been created for the glory and service of God. The
+smallest worm serves Him with all its power. Thus,
+while eating, drinking, sleeping, and the other ordinary
+functions of the body are regarded by the old Jewish moralists
+as mere means to an end, to Baalshem they are
+already a service of God in themselves. All pleasures are
+manifestations of God's attribute of love; and, so regarded,
+they are at once spiritualised and ennobled. Man should
+seek to reach a higher level of purity and holiness before
+partaking of food and drink, than even before the study
+of the Law. For when the Torah had once been given
+by God the whole world became instinct with its grace.
+He who speaks of worldly matters and religious matters
+as if they were separate and distinct, is a heretic.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Upon the continual and uninterrupted study of the
+Law, Baalshem lays but little stress. He accepted the
+ordinary belief that the Law (under which term are
+included not only the Pentateuch, but the whole Old Testament
+and the major portion of the old Rabbinic literature)
+was a revelation of God. But, as the world itself is
+equally a divine revelation, the Torah becomes little more
+than a part of a larger whole. To understand it aright
+one needs to penetrate to the inward reality&mdash;to the infinite
+<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/>
+light which is revealed in it. We should study the
+Law not as we study a science for the sake of acquiring
+knowledge (he who studies it so has in truth been concerning
+himself with its mere outward form), but we
+should learn from it the true service of God. Thus the
+study of the law is no end in itself. It is studied because,
+as the word of God, God is more easily discerned and
+absorbed in this revelation of Him than in any other.
+The Torah is eternal, but its explanation is to be made by
+the spiritual leaders of Judaism. It is to be interpreted
+by them in accordance with the Attribute of the age.
+For he regarded the world as governed in every age by a
+different Attribute of God&mdash;one age by the Attribute of
+Love, another by that of Power, a third again, by Beauty,
+and so on&mdash;and the explanation of the Torah must be
+brought into agreement with it. The object of the whole
+Torah is that man should become a Torah himself. Every
+man being a Torah in himself, said a disciple of Baalshem,
+has got not only his Abraham and Moses, but also his
+Balaam and Haman: he should try to expel the Balaam
+and develop the Abraham within him. Every action of
+man should be a pure manifestation of God.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The reason why we should do what the Law commands
+is not to gain grace thereby in the eyes of God, but to
+learn how to love God and to be united to Him. The
+important thing is not how many separate injunctions are
+obeyed, but how and in what spirit we obey them. The
+object of fulfilling these various ordinances is to put oneself,
+as it were, on the same plane with God, and thus, in
+the ordinary phrase of the religious mystic, to become one
+with Him, or to be absorbed in Him. People should get
+to know, says Baalshem, what the unity of God really
+<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/>
+means. To attain a part of this indivisible unity is to
+attain the whole. The Torah and all its ordinances are
+from God. If I therefore fulfil but one commandment in
+and through the love of God, it is as though I have fulfilled
+them all.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have now briefly to refer to the three virtues to which
+the Chassidim assigned the highest place of honour. Of
+these the first is called in Hebrew <q>Shiphluth,</q><note place='foot'>שפלות.</note> and is
+best rendered by our word <q>Humility,</q> but in Chassidic
+usage it includes the ideas of modesty, considerateness,
+and sympathy. The prominence given to these qualities
+is in sharp contrast to the faults of conceit, vanity, and
+self-satisfaction, against which Baalshem was never weary
+of protesting. He regarded these as the most seductive
+of all forms of sin. But a few minutes before his death
+he was heard to murmur, <q>O vanity, vanity! even in this
+hour of death thou darest to approach me with thy temptations:
+<q>Bethink thee, Israel, what a grand funeral procession
+will be thine because thou hast been so wise and
+good.</q> O vanity, vanity! beshrew thee.</q> <q>It should be
+indifferent to man,</q> says the master, <q>whether he be
+praised or blamed, loved or hated, reputed to be the wisest
+of mankind or the greatest of fools. The test of the real
+service of God is that it leaves behind it the feeling of
+humility. If a man after prayer be conscious of the least
+pride or self-satisfaction, if he think, for instance, that he
+has earned a reward by the ardour of his spiritual exercises,
+then let him know that he has prayed not to God
+but to himself. And what is this but disguised idolatry?
+Before you can find God you must lose yourself.</q> The
+Chassidim treated Shiphluth from two sides: a negative
+side in thinking humbly of oneself, a positive in thinking
+<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/>
+highly of one's neighbour, in other words the love for our
+fellow-man.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He who loves the father will also love his children.
+The true lover of God is also a lover of man. It is ignorance
+of one's own errors that makes one ready to see the
+errors of others. <q>There is no sphere in heaven where
+the soul remains a shorter time than in the sphere of
+merit, there is none where it abides longer than in the
+sphere of Love.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The second Cardinal Virtue is <q>Cheerfulness,</q> in Hebrew
+<q>Simchah.</q><note place='foot'>שמחה.</note> Baalshem insisted on cheerfulness of
+heart as a necessary attitude for the due service of God.
+Once believe that you are really the servant and the child
+of God and how can you fall again into a gloomy condition
+of mind? Nor should the inevitable sins which we all
+must commit disturb our glad serenity of soul. For is not
+repentance ready at hand by which we may climb back to
+God? Every penitent thought is a voice of God. Man
+should detect that voice in all the evidence of his senses,
+in every sight and sound of external nature. It is through
+his want of faith in the universality of God's presence that
+he is deaf to these subtle influences and can read only
+the lessons which are inscribed in books.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The reader will be prepared to learn that Baalshem,
+taking this cheerful view of things, was opposed to every
+kind of asceticism. Judaism, or rather Israelitism, it is
+true, was not originally much of an ascetic religion. But
+there can be little doubt that in the course of history there
+came in many ascetic doctrines and practices, quite enough
+at least to encourage such tender souls the bent of whose
+minds lay in this direction. To one of these, a former
+disciple, Baalshem wrote: <q>I hear that you think yourself
+<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/>
+compelled from religious motives to enter upon a course
+of fasts and penances. My soul is outraged at your determination.
+By the counsel of God I order you to abandon
+such dangerous practices, which are but the outcome of a
+disordered brain. Is it not written <q>Thou shalt not hide
+thyself from thine own flesh?</q> Fast then no more than
+is prescribed. Follow my command and God shall be
+with you.</q> On another occasion Baalshem was heard to
+observe that it is a machination of Satan to drive us into
+a condition of gloom and despondency in which the smallest
+error is regarded as a deadly sin. Satan's object is to
+keep us away from the true service of God, and God can
+only be truly served from a happy and confident disposition.
+Anxious scrupulosity in details is therefore to be
+avoided. It is the counsel of the Devil to persuade us
+that we never have done and shall never do our duty
+fully, and that moral progress is impossible. Such ideas
+beget melancholy and despair, which are of evil.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The third virtue is called in the Hebrew Chassidic
+literature <q>Hithlahabuth,</q><note place='foot'>התלהבות.</note> and is derived from a verb
+meaning <q>to kindle</q> or <q>set on fire.</q> The substantive
+<q>Hithlahabuth,</q> so far as I am aware, was first coined by
+Baalshem's followers. It is best rendered by our word
+<q>Enthusiasm.</q> Every religious action, to be of any
+avail, must be done with enthusiasm. A mere mechanical
+and lifeless performance of an ordinance is valueless. A
+man is no step nearer the goal if he thinks, forsooth, that
+he has done his duty when he has gone through the whole
+round of laws in every section of the code. This essential
+enthusiasm is only begotten of Love. The service of
+fear, if not wholly useless, is yet necessarily accompanied
+by a certain repulsion and heaviness, which effectually
+<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/>
+prevent the rush and ardour of enthusiasm. The inspiration
+of true service is its own end. There is no thought
+of this world, and there is none of the world to come.
+In the Talmud there is frequent reference to one Rabbi
+Elisha ben Abuyah, an apostate from Judaism, who, when
+urged to repent, replied that repentance was useless, and
+that for this mournful belief he had direct divine authority.
+For he had been told by a voice from heaven that even
+though he repented he would be excluded from sharing
+the happiness of the world to come. Of him it was said by
+one of the Chassidim, <q>This man indeed missed a golden
+opportunity. How purely could he have served God, knowing
+that for his service there could never be a reward!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the conception of Enthusiasm springs the quality
+of mobility, suggesting spiritual progress, and commonly
+opposed by Baalshem and his followers to the dull religious
+stagnation of self-satisfied contemporaries. Man
+should not imagine himself to have attained the level of
+the righteous; let him rather regard himself as a penitent
+who should make progress every day. Always to remain
+on the same religious plane, merely repeating to-day the
+religious routine of yesterday, is not true service. There
+must be a daily advance in the knowledge and love of the
+Divine Master. Mere freedom from active sin is not
+sufficient; such negative virtue may be but another word
+for the chance absence of temptation. What boots it
+never to have committed a sin if sin lies concealed in the
+heart? It is only the uninterrupted communion with
+God which will raise and ennoble your thoughts and
+designs, and cause the roots of sin to die. The patriarch
+Abraham, without any command from God, fulfilled the
+whole Torah, because he perceived that the Law was the
+<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/>
+life of all created things. In the Messianic age the law
+will no longer seem to man as something ordained for him
+from without; but the law will be within the hearts of
+men; it will seem natural and self-evident to them,
+because they will realise that God and life are manifested
+through the law.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Baalshem, who dealt largely in parable, has left the
+following, which we may fitly add to our somewhat
+inadequate presentation of his doctrine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There was once a king who built himself a glorious
+palace. By means of magical illusion it seemed as if the
+palace were full of devious corridors and mazes, preventing
+the approach to the royal presence. But as there was
+much gold and silver heaped up in the entrance halls,
+most people were content to go no further, but take their
+fill of treasure. The king himself they did not notice.
+At last the king's intimate had compassion upon them
+and exclaimed to them, <q>All these walls and mazes which
+you see before you do not in truth exist at all. They are
+mere illusions. Push forward bravely, and you shall find
+no obstacle.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We must not interpret the parable to mean that Baalshem
+denied the reality or even the importance of the
+actual phenomenal world. The very contrary is the truth.
+The world is for him full of God, penetrated through and
+through by the divine, and therefore as real as God himself.
+It was quite in Baalshem's manner when one of his
+disciples declared that only fools could speak of the
+world as vanity or emptiness. <q>It is in truth a glorious
+world. We must only learn how rightly to make use of
+it. Call nothing common or profane: by God's presence
+all things are holy.</q>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/>
+
+<p>
+Above we have reviewed the essential doctrines of
+Baalshem and his immediate followers; we have now to
+see how they fared at the hands of the sect which he
+founded. This is a sad part of our task, for the subsequent
+history of Chassidism is almost entirely a record
+of decay. As formulated by its founder the new creed
+amounted to a genuine Reformation, pure and lofty in
+ideal. After his death unhappily it was rapidly corrupted
+and perverted. This was due almost exclusively to the
+dangerous and exaggerated development of a single point
+in his teaching. That point, the honour due to the
+divine in man, was relatively a minor article in the original
+creed. But the later Chassidism has given it a distorted
+and almost exclusive importance wholly out of proportion
+to the grander and more essential features of Baalshem's
+teaching, until the distinctive feature of the Chassidism
+of to-day is an almost idolatrous service of their living
+leaders. What little there is to say of the history of the
+sect after Baalshem's death would be unintelligible without
+some explanation of the origin and growth of this
+unfortunate perversion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has been explained that Baalshem laid but little stress
+upon the study of the Law or the observance of its precepts
+in themselves, but regarded them only as means to
+an end. The end is union with God. Man has to discover
+the presence of God in the Divine word and will. Now
+this mystical service of God, although perhaps sufficing to
+sensitive and enthusiastic natures, is scarcely plain or definite
+enough for ordinary men. Few can realise abstractions:
+and yet fewer can delight in them and find in their
+contemplation sufficient nurture for their religious needs.
+What then had Chassidism to offer to the ordinary majority
+<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/>
+who could not recognise God in all the plenitude of
+His disguise? The want of something tangible whereon to
+fix the minds of the people, which has confronted the
+teachers of so many creeds, was also encountered by the
+Chassidim, and they unfortunately found their way out of
+the difficulty by relying on and developing their doctrine
+of man's position in the Universe. Man's ideal is to be a
+law himself; himself a clear and full manifestation of God.
+Now, not only is he God's servant and child, but in highest
+development he becomes himself a part of God, albeit
+in human shape, so that he may become wholly one with
+his divine Father. But if man may reach this highest
+level of holiness, he is virtually a kind of God-man, whom
+his fellow-men of lower levels perceive by reason of his
+manhood, but his essential office consists in raising them
+up to God by reason of his Divinity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The few chosen spirits who through the successful persistency
+with which they have sought God in all things have
+become, though yet on earth, absorbed in Him, are known
+in Chassidic literature by the name of the <q>Zaddikim.</q>
+The Hebrew word Zaddik<note place='foot'>צדיק, pl. צדיקים.</note> means <q>just</q> or <q>righteous,</q>
+and the term was probably chosen in conscious opposition
+to the title of Rabbinic heroes, <q>disciples of the wise.</q>
+For the Zaddik is not so much the product of learning
+as of intuition: his final consummation is reached by a
+sudden and direct illumination from God. The Zaddik
+not only resembles Moses, but, in virtue of his long
+communion with the Divine, he is also the true child of
+God. He is, moreover, a vivifying power in creation,
+for he is the connecting bond between God and his
+creatures. He is the source of blessing and the fount
+of grace. Man must therefore learn to love the Zaddik,
+<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/>
+so that through the Zaddik he may win God's grace.
+He who does not believe in the Zaddik is an apostate
+from God. Here then we have the fatal exaggeration
+to which I have alluded, and here its logical consequence.
+The step to man-worship is short.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This peculiar doctrine of the Intermediary soon became
+the distinguishing feature of Chassidism. By a Chassid
+was understood not a man who held such and such opinions
+in theology and religion, but a believer in the Zaddik,
+and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship
+of the Zaddik. Every other doctrine of Chassidism
+was rapidly pushed into the background and overlooked.
+Even the grand and fundamental doctrine of Omnipresence
+in the Creation was veiled by the special presence in
+the Zaddik. Chassidism became mere Zaddikism, and its
+subsequent history is identical with the downward development
+of that cult.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whether Baalshem named his successor is doubtful.
+But the lead after his death was assumed by his disciple
+Beer of Mizriez. This man's conversion to Chassidism
+was an important event for the new community; his piety
+and learning were beyond dispute, and, whereas during
+Baalshem's life Chassidism had found its chief adherents
+among the lower classes of society, Beer managed to
+gather round him many of the most learned among his
+contemporaries. It was to these new and ardent disciples
+of Beer that the expansion of Chassidism was chiefly due.
+They came together from many quarters, and after Beer's
+death separated and preached the new doctrine far and
+wide. Many even went forth during the lifetime of their
+master, and at his command, to found fresh branches of
+the new sect. Like Beer himself, they directed their efforts
+<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/>
+mainly to winning over the educated sections of
+the Jews. The elder men paid little heed to their word,
+but the youths, just fresh from their casuistic studies,
+which had sharpened their wits and starved their souls,
+lent a ready ear and an eager heart to the new doctrine.
+The uneducated were by no means excluded; to
+them Chassidism held out a deeper consolation and a
+grander hope than the current Rabbinism of the age;
+they therefore joined the young community in large numbers
+without any special effort being necessary to gain
+them over.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In their methods of Prayer the Chassidim most conspicuously
+differed from the older communities. Laying as
+they did supreme stress on the importance and efficacy of
+prayer, they soon found it necessary to secede from the existing
+synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves.
+The usual salaried Reader <q>with the beautiful
+voice and empty head,</q> who naturally regarded his function
+as a matter of business, was done away with and his
+place taken either by the Zaddik himself or by some other
+distinguished person in the community. The Chassidim
+also effected many changes in the liturgy. Instead of the
+German they adopted the Spanish ritual. They excised
+many prayers which, lacking the authority of antiquity,
+were cumbrous in form or objectionable in matter. They
+inserted new prayers and hymns of their own. They paid
+little regard to the prescribed hours at which public worship
+should be held. Prayer began when they had got
+themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind.
+Frequent ablutions, perusal of mystical writings, introspective
+meditation were the means by which they sought
+to gain the befitting mood. The prayers themselves were
+<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/>
+accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement.
+Some in the zeal of their devotion began to dance;
+others were rapt in a motionless ecstasy; some prayed
+aloud; others in solemn silence. They justified their
+abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that you
+cannot order a child when to speak with its father: such
+restraint were fit only for slaves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a rule the larger number of the younger Chassidim
+were able to devote their whole time to religious exercises.
+It was the custom among the Jews in Eastern Europe for
+the young men to live at the expense of their own or their
+wives' parents, in order that they might give themselves
+up entirely to religious study. According to the old
+notions, this meant the study of the Talmud and its Commentaries;
+the Chassidim who cared little for the legal
+side of Jewish literature betook themselves to the literature
+of edification and mysticism. No small part of their
+time was taken up with endless conversations about the
+Zaddik, his piety, goodness, and self-sacrifice and the wonderful
+miracles which he had wrought. If a Zaddik was
+living in his own town, the youthful Chassid spent as
+many hours as he could in the Zaddik's company, in order
+to observe and study this embodied Torah as constantly
+as possible. Where no Zaddik was at hand, periodical
+pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived, and
+endless were the tales which were afterwards repeated, to
+those who were obliged to stay at home, of the Zaddik's
+marvellous wisdom and extraordinary deeds. The last
+hours of the Sabbath day were looked upon as a special
+season of grace, and the Chassidim were therefore in the
+habit of collecting together in the waning of the Sabbath
+and celebrating the so-called <q>Supper of the Holy Queen.</q>
+<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/>
+The meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as
+well as by hymns and prayers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Chassidim were second to no other sect in their
+loyalty and affection for each other. No sacrifice for a
+brother Chassid was too great. They knew no difference
+of rich and poor, old and young, wise and ignorant; for
+they all, with one accord, worshipped one common ideal,
+the Zaddik, who in his exalted position was equally raised
+above them all. Before him all minor differences of rank
+disappeared. When a Chassid travelled, he had no scruple
+in asking for lodging or entertainment in the house of any
+Chassid who could afford to give them. If he was in
+money difficulties the purse of his host was at his disposal.
+If that was not sufficient, it was supplemented by
+a grant from the fund of the community. These gifts
+were not looked upon in the light of charity either by
+giver or receiver; they were made to the Zaddik, to whom
+all Chassidim alike were debtors. It sometimes even
+happened that a Zaddik said that the son of some rich
+merchant was to marry the daughter of a poor schoolmaster,
+and both parties were equally delighted to fulfil
+the wish of their beloved chief.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may easily be imagined that the innovations of the
+Chassidim provoked the wrath of the orthodox communities.
+But in their detestation of the Rabbis the Chassidim
+returned in full measure all the hatred they received.
+The Zaddik is the Moses of his age: the Rabbis its Korah
+and Abiram. Where the Chassidic party in any community
+gained the upper hand, the Rabbi was deposed and a
+Zaddik, if that was possible, elected in his place. The
+issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the
+Jewish race was a rigorous persecution. In many places
+<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/>
+the Chassidim were excommunicated, in others their
+leaders were publicly scourged and put into the stocks.
+Their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly
+closed. But persecution produced only the usual result of
+increasing the popularity and the numbers of the sect.
+The devotion of the Chassidim to each other and to their
+common cause was increased a hundred-fold by suffering.
+In one case a distinguished Zaddik was accused of treason,
+before the Russian authorities, and was thrown into
+prison. In Russia, however, the power of money is considerable,
+and on payment of a large ransom not only was
+the beloved Zaddik released but as an obvious consequence
+his reputation greatly profited: the day of his release was
+celebrated as a yearly festival, while his sufferings were
+regarded by his followers as a sin-offering that atoned for
+the iniquities of his age. From this time the government
+maintained a purely neutral attitude towards the new sect,
+and ere long the persecution by the orthodox ceased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cessation of persecution may possibly be accounted
+for by the fact that Chassidism as a secession soon ceased
+to be formidable. There were early divisions within the
+sect. Even Beer's disciples began to quarrel over theological
+differences and to found separate communities.
+When once the course of corruption and spiritual decay
+had begun, it was the interest of the false Zaddikim to
+accentuate these differences. Each Zaddik sought to have
+a whole little sect to himself, from which to draw an undivided
+revenue. And each deluded little sect as it arose
+boasted of the exclusive possession of the true Zaddik.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It must not be supposed that these strictures apply to
+the whole class of Zaddikim. The greater number of
+Baalshem's leading disciples as well as Beer's were beyond
+<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/>
+question men of pure, unalloyed piety, who would have
+rejected with scorn any idea of making a trade of their
+sacred profession. Their motives and their zeal were
+alike ideal. Many gave up highly paid posts as Rabbis
+when they joined the new sect. Some emigrated to Palestine
+to lead a holy life on holy ground, others sought to
+become religious specialists, following out practically,
+although with some exaggeration, a favourite doctrine of
+the Founder, that he who observes but one commandment
+devotedly and lovingly, may reach the goal desired: the
+union with God. Thus one Zaddik made it his business
+never to tell the smallest falsehood, whatever the cost or
+the inconvenience of truth might be. It is related that
+the Russian Government, suspecting the Jews of his town
+of smuggling, consented to withdraw the charge if he
+declared his brethren innocent. Having no alternative but
+either to bring misfortune on his brethren or to tell an untruth,
+he prayed to God to save him from this dilemma by
+sending death upon him. And lo! when the officials came
+to fetch him before the law court they found him dead.
+Another, thinking that the commandment in Exodus xxiii.
+3, relating to the help that should be given to a neighbour
+or enemy when <q>his ass is lying under its burden,</q> was
+practically unobserved, devoted himself to its fulfilment.
+He was continually to be seen in the streets, helping one
+man to load his waggon, and another to drag his cart out
+of the mire. A third made the service of the oppressed
+his religious specialty. It is said that one day his wife,
+having had a quarrel with her maid, was setting out to the
+magistrate of the town to obtain satisfaction. Noticing
+that her husband was about to accompany her, she asked
+him whither he was bound. He replied, <q>to the magistrate.</q>
+<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/>
+His wife declared that it was below his dignity to
+take any part in a quarrel with a servant. She could deal
+with the matter herself. The Zaddik replied, <q>That may
+be, but I intend to represent your maid, who when accused
+by my wife will find no one willing to take her
+part.</q> And then, bursting into a passion of tears, he
+quoted Job xxxi. 13: <q>If I did despise the cause of my
+man-servant or of my maid-servant, when they contended
+with me, what shall I do when God riseth up?</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several Zaddikim were learned men and thinkers of
+no ordinary kind. The works of Solomon Ladier or of
+Mendel Witipsker, read with attention and without Western
+preconceptions, certainly give the impression of both
+originality and depth of thought. But most characteristic
+of all is the passionate yearning of authors such as these
+towards the Divine. The reader is astonished and moved
+by the intense sincerity and ardour of their longing after
+God. But, despite the adherence of these worthy men,
+the fate of Chassidism, as a regenerative force, was sealed
+from the day when Zaddikism replaced the original doctrines
+of the sect.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For, apart from the obvious theological considerations
+already suggested, there are two points of inherent weakness
+in the cult of the Zaddik which naturally doomed it
+to perversion and failure. The necessary qualifications for
+<q>Zaddikship</q> are wholly undefined. We hear a great
+deal about what a Zaddik actually is, but we hear very
+little about what he should be. The Zaddik has many
+virtues, but we are nowhere told what are his indispensable
+qualifications. Moreover, the Zaddik is a being
+who can be comprehended by the understanding as little
+as an angel, or as God Himself. He is realised by faith,
+<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/>
+not conceived by thought. Hence there is no human test
+of a true Zaddik except the test of miracles; and every
+student of religious history knows the deceitful character
+of that test.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The second source of danger arose from the Chassidim
+holding it to be their sacred duty to provide for the Zaddik
+a life of comfort and ease. The Zaddik must pursue
+his divine avocations undisturbed by grosser cares. But
+what were the consequences? The Chassidim believed
+they could win the grace and blessing of the Zaddik
+by the richness and variety of their gifts. A Zaddik's
+career became a very profitable concern. The result of
+both defects was that not only was the opportunity given
+for every scheming charlatan to become a Zaddik, but
+inducements were offered to make the deception lucrative.
+Hence the anxiety of the false Zaddikim, already
+noticed, to found separate communities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Among the Chassidim of to-day there is not one in
+ten thousand who has the faintest conception of those
+sublime ideas which inspired Baalshem and his immediate
+disciples. It is still the interest of the wretched
+ringleaders of a widely spread delusion to crush and keep
+down every trace of reflection and thought so that they
+may play at will with the conscience and purses of their
+adherents. The new scientific movement, inaugurated by
+such men as Krochmal, Zunz, and others who came under
+the influence of the German critical spirit, found in them
+its hottest and most fanatical opponents. That the cult
+of the Zaddikim has not led to still more disastrous consequences
+is solely due to the fact that the Chassidim in
+general have remained faithful to the Law. It is the
+Law, against the excessive study of which the original
+<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/>
+Chassidim protested, that has put limits to the license of
+its modern false prophets.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Amid much that is bad, the Chassidim have preserved
+through the whole movement a warm heart, and an ardent,
+sincere faith. There is a certain openness of character
+and a ready friendliness about even the modern
+Chassidim which are very attractive. Religion is still to
+them a matter of life and death. Their faith is still real
+enough to satisfy the demands of a Luther, but it is diverted
+and wasted upon unworthy objects. If Chassidism
+is to be reformed, its worship must no longer be of man;
+it must be brought back again to the source of all Beauty,
+all Wisdom, and all Goodness; it must be restored to
+God.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>II. Nachman Krochmal and the <q>Perplexities
+Of The Time</q></head>
+
+<p>
+In her good-natured panegyric of mediocrity which is
+known under the title of <hi rend='italic'>Scenes of Clerical Life</hi>, George
+Eliot remarked: <q>Let us hope that there is a saving
+ignorance.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Strange as this demand may sound, the wish of the
+great novelist to see her favoured mediocrities <q>saved,</q>
+has been shared by the great majority of mankind. I
+know that I, at least, echo that desire with all my heart.
+And I am afraid that I am prompted by some rather selfish
+reasons. It would be somewhat hard, when one is
+born with small abilities, but a great desire for being
+saved, to be deprived of the hope held out by the author
+of <hi rend='italic'>Adam Bede</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But there are some, I am afraid, who are not satisfied
+with this dictum of George Eliot. They show a strong
+tendency to make salvation a monopoly of ignorance.
+This is a little too selfish. With all due respect to every
+form of ignorance, sacred as well as profane, we ought, I
+think, to believe that there is also such a thing as a saving
+knowledge. Nay, we might go even farther. There may
+be certain epochs in history when there is hardly any
+<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/>
+other path to salvation than knowledge, and the deep
+search after truth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We all know the words of the Psalmist, <q>The Lord
+preserveth the simple.</q> But as there are periods in the
+life of the individual when naïveté has to give way to
+sagacity and reflection, so there are times in history at
+which Providence does not choose to leave men in simplicity.
+At such times doubts arise, as though of themselves;
+questions suddenly become open when they had
+been supposed solved for centuries; and the human mind
+is stirred by a sceptical breeze of which no man can tell
+whence it came. One may under those circumstances be
+indifferent, but one can be simple no more.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Even in such cases, however, man has no cause to despair.
+When our dearest beliefs are shaken by all kinds
+of doubts, Providence sends us also great thinkers, earnest
+lovers of truth, who devote their lives to enlightening our
+puzzled minds. Not that these men try to answer all the
+questions by which we feel perplexed. They endeavour
+to satisfy us, partly by showing that many of our difficulties
+are not difficulties at all, but merely arise from superficiality,
+and partly by proving that the great cause about
+which we feel so much anxiety does not exactly depend
+on the solution of the questions that are troubling us.
+They give to the things which are dearer to us than our
+life a fresh aspect, which enables us to remain attached to
+them with the same devotion and love as before. To
+speak again in the words of the Psalmist: <q>Thou sendest
+forth Thy Spirit, and they are created, and Thou renewest
+the face of the earth.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This spirit that renews the face of things is what I
+understand by <q>saving knowledge.</q> As men of that
+<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/>
+saving knowledge we may regard Rabban Johanan ben
+Zaccai<note place='foot'>R. Johanan b. Zaccai was a contemporary of the Apostles, and
+died about 110 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> He belonged to the peace party in opposition to
+the Zealots, and obtained permission from the Roman government to
+establish the school of Jamnia, which, after the destruction of the
+Temple, became the centre of Jewish religious life. See also p.
+188.</note> and his disciples, who made it possible for Judaism
+to survive the destruction of the Temple, which
+some believed to involve the end of the religion. As such
+men we may look upon R. Saadiah Gaon and his followers,
+who worked at a time when Judaism was menaced
+in its inner life, namely in the tradition, by the attempts of
+the narrow-minded Caraites to convert it into a bookish
+religion.<note place='foot'>R. Saadiah Gaon was born in Egypt in 892, and died as the
+head of the school of Sura in Babylon in 942. He is known by his
+translations of and commentaries on the Bible, and many other works,
+especially his philosophical treatise <hi rend='italic'>Creeds and Opinions</hi>. He was
+also a great controversialist. Most of his polemical writings are directed
+against the Caraites (קראים) or <q>Scripturalists,</q> a Jewish sect
+founded by Anan in the eighth century. They protested against the
+Oral Law, and denied Tradition. On the title <q>Gaon,</q> see note 1 to
+Elijah Wilna.</note> Such men were Maimonides and his successors,
+who came to the aid of religion when it had got into dogmatic
+troubles by reason of its coming into contact with
+various philosophical systems. And in order to approach
+the subject of the present essay, I venture to say that a
+man of such saving knowledge was also Nachman Krochmal,
+who lived and laboured in the first half of the present
+century, when Judaism had been terribly shaken by the
+scepticism of Voltaire, and the platitudes of the so-called
+Mendelssohnian school.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nachman Krochmal was born on the 17th of February
+in the year 1785. His father, Solomon Krochmal, was a
+merchant of Brody, a commercial frontier town in the
+north-east of Galicia in Austria. In his early years Solomon
+often used to visit Berlin for business purposes. He
+is said to have seen Mendelssohn there on one occasion,
+and to have learned greatly to revere the Jewish sage.
+And it is not unlikely that Nachman's subsequent admiration
+for Mendelssohn was partly due to his father's influence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Solomon was a man of considerable wealth, and he,
+therefore, endeavoured to give his son the best possible
+education. But as a respectable member of a Polish community
+a hundred years ago, Solomon had to follow the
+<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/>
+fashion adopted by his neighbours, and the best possible
+education consisted in affording the child an opportunity
+to study the Talmud and other Rabbinical works. All
+other languages and their literatures were sealed books to
+the child&mdash;a very absurd and regrettable fashion indeed.
+But let us not be too hard on Polish Jews. I have been
+told that there are countries on our globe where people
+have been driven by the force of fashion into the opposite
+extreme; where, with few exceptions, they think that the
+Talmud, as well as the whole Hebrew literature, must
+needs be excluded from the programme of a gentleman's
+education.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Happily, or the reverse, Krochmal's childhood did not
+last long, for in the year 1798 we find that Nachman, a
+boy of fourteen, was already married to a Miss Haberman
+in Zolkiew. As a result of this foolish custom of marrying
+at so very early an age, Nachman was hardly ever a boy;
+we have at once to deal with him as a man.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was then customary in Poland, and perhaps is so still,
+for the father of the bride to provide for the support of the
+young couple for some years after their marriage. In
+order to reduce the expense of this arrangement, the
+bridegroom had to reside in the same house as his father-in-law.
+Thus we see Krochmal removing from Brody to
+Zolkiew, the native town of his wife. Here Krochmal
+lived in the house of her father for many years, entirely
+devoted to his studies; and he certainly needed all his
+time for them. For he now began to expand the sphere
+of his education, to embrace subjects quite new to him.
+By his marriage Nachman seems to have gained a certain
+amount of independence, and the first use he made of it
+was to study the <hi rend='italic'>Guide of the Perplexed</hi><note place='foot'>מורה נבוכים, <hi rend='italic'>Moreh Nebuchim</hi>, generally considered to be the
+greatest philosophical work by any Jewish thinker.</note> of Maimonides,
+<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/>
+the <hi rend='italic'>Commentaries</hi> of Ibn Ezra on the Bible,<note place='foot'>R. Abraham Ibn Ezra, who spent some time in London, died
+about 1161. He is best known by his commentaries on the Bible. He
+was the first writer who doubted the unity of the book of Isaiah.</note> and other
+more or less philosophical works written in the Hebrew
+language. His next step was to learn German; but, as
+his biographers inform us, he was not able to follow this
+course without undergoing many struggles, and overcoming
+many obstacles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It would lead us too far to give a full account of the
+difficulties which the young scholar had to conquer while
+pursuing his new studies. They will be sufficiently
+characterised by the following extract from a Hebrew
+letter of his disciple, Solomon Leb Rapoport, who,
+writing in 1841 concerning his master and friend, remarks:
+<q>Consider this, ye inhabitants of Germany</q>&mdash;and,
+I may add, ye inhabitants of England&mdash;<q>and you
+will be astounded. It is easy for you to avoid being one-sided,
+and to study different sciences, for you possess
+many schools and teachers from every branch of learning.
+It is not so in Poland and Russia even at present, much
+less was it so forty years ago. There is no teacher, no
+guide, no supporter, for the Jew who desires any sort of
+improvement. The Jew who wishes to enter on a new
+path of learning has to prepare the road for himself. And
+when he has entered on it, his friend will come to him and
+ask, <q>Is it true that you have got scientific books in your
+house? Mind you do not mention it to any one. There
+are enough bigots in the town to persecute you and all
+your family if they get scent of it.</q></q> It was under these
+conditions that Krochmal pursued his studies, which were
+by no means few or easy, for he was not content with a
+knowledge of only the lighter portions of German literature.
+He soon began to read the works of Lessing,
+Mendelssohn, and more especially of Kant, who always
+<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/>
+remained his favourite philosopher. In his later years
+he also became acquainted with the writings of Fichte,
+Schelling, and Hegel. But to the last he could not console
+himself for having missed the advantages of a systematic
+university education.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After having learned German, Krochmal proceeded to
+acquire a knowledge of Latin and French, and to read
+the best books written in those languages. To deepen
+his knowledge of Hebrew, he studied Arabic and Syraic,
+but we are unable to say how far he succeeded in mastering
+these languages. With these studies, which appear
+to have occupied our philosopher for an interval of ten
+years after his marriage, the first period of his life seems
+also to end. But the hard work of ten years did not pass
+over the delicate youth without undermining his health
+for ever. At the age of twenty-four, Krochmal fell sick
+of an illness which compelled him to interrupt his work.
+He was forced to go to Lemberg to consult the doctors of
+that town, and he had to remain there for a long time.
+And now began Krochmal's career as a teacher. For
+during his stay at Lemberg there gathered round him a
+band of young scholars whom Krochmal's fame had already
+reached. It is useless to enumerate the names of
+all these students. Among them figured Isaac Erter,
+Samson Bloch, A. Bodek, and many others. The most
+gifted of them was undoubtedly Rapoport, who afterwards
+became even more famous than his master Krochmal. It
+is not easy to define accurately the relation that subsisted
+between these two men. Graetz, in his history, calls
+Rapoport a disciple of Krochmal. Rapoport himself, in
+his memoir of Krochmal, describes the latter as a dear
+friend with whom he was wont to discuss literary topics.
+<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/>
+Zunz does not mention Rapoport at all in his account
+of our author. It seems to me that this relation may
+be most aptly defined by the Talmudic term <q>Talmid-Chaber,</q><note place='foot'>תלמיד חבר.</note>
+<q>disciple-colleague.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Indeed, Krochmal's whole method of teaching was rather
+that of a companion than of a professor. He gave no set
+lectures on particular subjects, but conveyed his instruction
+rather by means of suggestive conversations with his
+younger friends. His usual habit was to walk with his
+pupils in the neighbourhood of the town, and to try to
+influence their minds each in accordance with its bent.
+If any of his disciples showed an inclination for poetry,
+Krochmal sought to refine his taste by directing his attention
+to the best works in Hebrew and German literature.
+To another, whose fancy strayed into mysticism, he recommended
+the writings of Philo and Ibn Ezra, at the same
+time suggesting how the works of the latter should be interpreted.
+A third who, like Rapoport, was interested in
+historical researches, Krochmal instructed in the methods
+of critical inquiry.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There must have been some fascinating charm in
+Nachman's personality, which made him irresistible to all
+who came into contact with him. Rapoport has described
+his first interview with Krochmal. <q>It is more than
+thirty years since I first made his acquaintance, and beheld
+the glory of his presence. Though he was in weak
+health, still his soul was strong; and as soon as I conversed
+with him there came over me a spirit of judgment
+and knowledge. I felt almost transformed into another
+man.</q> Elsewhere the same writer says: <q>Oh, how sweet
+to me were these walks with Krochmal&mdash;sweeter than all
+the pleasures of this world. I could never have enough
+<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/>
+of his wisdom; with his every word he conveyed a new
+lesson.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After a lengthy stay at Lemberg, Krochmal partially,
+though not entirely, recovered from his severe illness; he
+remained weak and pale for the rest of his days. His
+antagonists, the Chassidim, believed him to be possessed
+by a demon who could find no better dwelling-place than
+in the person of this arch-heretic. Had it been in their
+power they would probably have dragged him to some exorcist
+for the purpose of driving out his German, French,
+Latin, and other symptoms of demoniacal heresy. Happily
+the orthodox were powerless to do this, so Krochmal was
+left unmolested, and was allowed to resume his walks and
+studies. It may be here remarked that Krochmal in general
+avoided giving the Chassidim any cause for reasonable
+complaint. Rapoport asserts that his master was <q>deeply
+religious and a strict observer of the law. He was zealously
+anxious to perform every ordinance, Biblical or
+Rabbinical.</q> The only liberty that Krochmal claimed for
+himself and his disciples was the right to study what they
+thought best and in the way they thought best. When
+this liberty was attacked, he showed a firmness and resolution
+which would hardly have been expected from this
+quiet and gentle man. To one of his pupils, who made
+concessions to the Chassidim and their Zaddikim worship,
+Krochmal wrote: <q>Be firm in this matter unless you wish
+to earn the contempt of every honest man. One who is
+afraid of these people, and debases himself before them
+bears a mean soul that was born to slavery. The man that
+wishes to rise above the mob, with its confused notions
+and corrupt morality, must be courageous as a lion in conquering
+the obstacles that beset his path. Consideration
+<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/>
+of what people will say, what bigots will whisper, what
+crafty enemies will scheme&mdash;questions such as these can
+have but one effect,&mdash;to darken the intellect and confuse
+the faculty of judgment.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So Krochmal continued his studies without interruption
+till 1814, when the death of his wife's mother brought his
+period of ease and comfort to an end. His father-in-law
+seems to have died some time before, and Krochmal was
+forced to seek his own living. He became a merchant,
+but it is to be regretted that he did not prove as successful
+a man of business as he was a man of letters. He found
+it a hard struggle to earn a living. But the severest
+trial which he had to undergo was the death of his
+wife in 1826. In a letter, dating from about this time,
+to a friend who had asked him for assistance in his philosophical
+inquiries, Krochmal wrote&mdash;<q>How can I help
+you now? I am already an old man; my head is gray,
+and my health is broken. In the last three years I have
+met with many misfortunes. My beloved wife died after
+a long illness. My daughter will soon leave me to get
+married, my elder son will depart to seek his livelihood,
+and I shall be left alone with only a child of ten years, the
+son of my old age. I will lift up mine eyes unto the
+hills: From whence shall my help come?</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nachman was evidently in very low spirits at this time,
+but he was in too true a sense a philosopher to despair.
+He turned for comfort to his studies, and at this dark
+epoch of his life he first became acquainted with the
+Philosophy of Hegel, whose system he was wont to call
+the <q>Philosophy of Philosophies.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For the next ten years the works of Hegel and inquiries
+into Jewish history appear to have absorbed all the
+<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/>
+leisure that his mercantile occupation left him. We shall
+presently see what the result of these studies was. No
+fresh subjects were undertaken by Krochmal in the last
+years of his life; he had already acquired a fund of
+knowledge vast enough to engage all his thoughts. There
+are, however, some remaining points in his private circumstances
+which it may not be uninteresting to mention.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Krochmal, as has been already related, was not prosperous
+in his business. Things went from bad to worse, and
+he was compelled in 1836 to seek a situation. <q>There
+ought to be literary men poor,</q> some writer has maintained,
+<q>to show whether they are genuine or not.</q> This
+test Krochmal successfully passed through. Even as a
+young man Nachman's strength of character was admired
+by his contemporaries not less than his rare learning. In
+his subsequent distress, he gave evidence of the truth of
+this judgment. Despite his poverty, his friends could not
+prevail upon him to accept the post of Rabbi in any Jewish
+community. <q>I am unwilling,</q> he wrote to a friend, <q>to
+be the cause of dissensions in any Jewish congregation.
+I should prefer to die of hunger rather than become a
+Rabbi under present circumstances.</q> He expressed his
+views on this subject even more decidedly on a later occasion
+when the Berlin congregation offered him the post of
+Chief Rabbi in that town. In a letter, conveying his refusal
+of this honourable office, he says: <q>I never thought
+of becoming the Conscience-counsellor (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Gewissensrath</foreign>) of
+men. My line of studies was not directed to that end,
+nor would it accord with my disposition and sentiments.
+The only post that I should care to accept would be that
+of teacher in the Jewish Theological Seminary, which,
+as I was informed, you were thinking of establishing in
+<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/>
+Berlin.</q> The plan to found such an institution was not
+realised till forty years later, and in the interval Nachman
+had to look for his living in other regions than Jewish theology.
+Being in poor circumstances, and as his children
+and friends had left him, he felt very lonely at Zolkiew.
+<q>Nobody cares for me here,</q> he writes, <q>and I am equally
+indifferent.</q> His one desire was to obtain a situation at
+Brody, possibly as book-keeper with a salary of some thirty
+pounds a year, on condition that he would be expected to
+devote only half the day to his business duties, thus securing
+for himself leisure for philosophical studies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His terms were accepted, and he obtained the humble
+post he sought. He remained in Brody for the next two
+years, 1836-8, but at the end of 1838 he fell so dangerously
+ill that he could no longer resist the pressing request
+of his daughter to live with her at Tarnopol. She had
+urged him to take this step even previous to his removal to
+Brody, but he had declined on the plea that he preferred
+to live by the labour of his hands. Now, however, he
+yielded to her wish, and betook himself to Tarnopol, where
+for two years longer he lived affectionately tended by his
+children and respected by all who knew him. In May
+1840, Krochmal's illness began to develop fatal symptoms,
+and he died in the arms of his daughter on the 31st of
+July (the first of Ab), at the age of fifty-five. As Zunz
+happily remarked: <q>This great man was born on the 7th
+of Adar, the birthday of Moses (according to Jewish tradition),
+and died on the first of Ab, the anniversary of the
+death of Aaron, the High Priest.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have tried in the foregoing remarks to give a short
+sketch of our Rabbi's life according to the accounts of
+Zunz, Rapoport, and Letteris. There is one other point
+<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/>
+to which I must allude, as it involves a consideration on
+which Letteris seems to lay much stress. This biographer
+appears to think that Krochmal was in his youth greatly
+influenced by the society in which he moved, consisting as
+it did of many learned and enlightened men. There is,
+too, the oft-quoted saying of Goethe:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Wer den Dichter will verstehen</l>
+<l>Muss in Dichters Lande gehen.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+And I am probably expected to give some account of the
+state of society in which Nachman grew up. I regret
+that I must ask to be excused from doing so. I cannot
+consent to take the reader to Krochmal's land. And if I
+might venture to give him my humble advice, I should
+only say, <q>By all means stop at home.</q> Goethe may be
+right about the poet, but his remark does not apply to the
+case of the scholar. It may be true, as some think, that
+every great man is the product of his time, but it certainly
+does not follow that he is the product of his country.
+Nor could I name any other country of which Krochmal
+was the product. Many a city no doubt boasted itself
+a town full of <q><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Chakhamim</foreign> and <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sopherim</foreign></q><note place='foot'>עיר מלאת הכמים וסופרים, meaning <q>sages</q> and <q>scribes,</q> but used
+by later writers in the sense given in the text.</note> as the Hebrew
+phrase is, or, as we would express it, <q>a seat of learning,</q>
+full of scholars of the ancient and modern schools.
+But neither these ancient scholars nor the modern were
+of a kind to produce a real scholar and an enlightened
+thinker like Krochmal. There were many men who knew
+by heart the whole of the Halachic works of Maimonides,
+the Mishnah, and even the whole of the Babylonian Talmud.
+This is very imposing. But if you look a little
+closer, you will find that with a few exceptions&mdash;such as
+the school of R. Elijah Wilna&mdash;these men, generally
+<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/>
+speaking, hardly deserve the name of scholars at all.
+They were rather a sort of studying engines. The steam-engine
+passes over a continent, here through romantic
+scenery, there in the midst of arid deserts, by stream and
+mountain and valley, always with the same monotonous
+hum and shriek. So these scholars went through the
+Talmud with never changing feelings. They did not
+rejoice at the description which is given in tractate <hi rend='italic'>Biccurim</hi><note place='foot'>בכורים, dealing with the laws relating to the firstfruits which were
+brought to the temple (Ex. xxiii. 19). The processions formed by the
+pilgrims are very vividly described after the said tractate by Delitzsch
+in his <hi rend='italic'>Iris</hi>, p. 190 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (English ed.). See also by the same author,
+<hi rend='italic'>Jüdisches Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu</hi>, p. 66 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi></note>
+of the procession formed when the first-fruits were
+brought into the Holy Temple. They were not much
+saddened when reading in tractate <hi rend='italic'>Taanith</hi><note place='foot'>תענית, <q>Fast,</q> or תעניות, <q>Fasts.</q></note> of the unhappy
+days so recurrent in Jewish history. They were
+not delighted by the wisdom of <hi rend='italic'>Seder Nezikin</hi>,<note place='foot'>סדר נזיקין, <q>Order of Damages,</q> treating of the civil law of the
+Jews, the procedure of courts of justice, and kindred subjects. This
+Order also includes the tractate אבות, <hi rend='italic'>Aboth</hi> or <q>Sayings of the
+Fathers,</q> which is very important for the study of Rabbinic doctrine
+and ethics.</note> which
+deals with civil law; nor were they vexed of <hi rend='italic'>Seder Taharoth</hi>,<note place='foot'>סדר תהרות, <q>Order of Purities,</q> dealing with the laws regarding
+Levitical purity.</note>
+which treats of the laws of cleanliness and uncleanliness,
+that by their exaggeration gave cause to much
+dissension in the time of the Temple. The pre-Talmudic
+literature, such as the <hi rend='italic'>Siphra</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Siphré</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi><note place='foot'>ספרא (or הורת כהנים), ספרי, מכילתא. These three works form the
+oldest Rabbinic commentary on Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
+The authorities cited in these commentaries all belong to
+the period of the Tannaim. See above, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+Constituting as they do, to a certain extent, one of the sources used by
+the <hi rend='italic'>Gemara</hi>, they are naturally indispensable for a scientific study of
+the Talmud.</note>&mdash;the
+only existing means of obtaining an insight into the
+Talmud&mdash;were altogether neglected. All that these
+readers cared for was to push on to the end, and the
+prayer recited at the close was of more importance to
+them than the treatise they had perused.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Not less melancholy was the spectacle presented by the
+so-called men of <q>Enlightenment</q> (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Aufklärung</foreign>). They
+belonged chiefly to the rationalistic school of Mendelssohn,
+but they equalled their master neither in knowledge nor
+in moral character. It was an enlightenment without
+foundation in real scholarship, and did not lead to an ideal
+life, though again I must add that there were exceptions.
+These men were rather what Germans would term <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Schöngeister</foreign>,
+a set of dilettanti who cared to study as little as
+<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/>
+possible, and to write as much as possible. They wrote
+bad grammars, superficial commentaries on the Bible,
+and terribly dull poems. Of this literature, with the
+exception of Erter's <hi rend='italic'>Watchman</hi>,<note place='foot'>הצפה, <q><hi rend='italic'>Hatsophe</hi>,</q> a spirited satire against the orthodox and
+especially against the then prevailing belief in the transmigration of
+souls taught by the mystical schools. The book is written in the
+purest biblical Hebrew.</note> there is scarcely a work
+that one would care to read twice. Most of them
+despised Rabbinism, but without understanding its noblest
+forms as they are to be traced in the Talmud and later
+Hebrew literature. They did not dislike Judaism, but
+the only Judaism they affected was one <q>which does not
+oppose itself to anything in particular</q>; or, as Heine
+would have described it, <q>Eine reinliche Religion.</q> In
+one respect these little men were great: in mutual
+admiration, which reached such a pitch that such titles
+as <q>Great Luminary,</q> <q>World-famed Sage,</q> were considered
+altogether too insignificant and commonplace.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will now pass to the writings of Krochmal. It must
+be premised that Krochmal was not a voluminous author.
+All his writings, including a few letters which were published
+in various Hebrew periodicals, would scarcely
+occupy four hundred pages. Krochmal used to call himself
+<q>der ewige Student</q> (the perpetual pupil). He did
+not read books, nor study philosophical systems, with the
+object of writing books of his own on them. He read
+and studied in order that he might become a better and a
+wiser man. Besides, he did not think himself competent
+to judge on grave subjects, nor did he consider his judgment,
+even if he formed one, worthy of publication. He
+counselled his friends to be equally slow in publishing
+their views to the world. <q>Be not,</q> he wrote to a correspondent,&mdash;<q>be
+not hasty in forming your opinions before
+you have studied the literature of the subject with care
+and devotion. This is no easy matter, for no man can
+<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/>
+obtain any real knowledge of the Torah and philosophy
+unless he is prepared to give himself up in single-hearted
+devotion to his studies.</q> Severe though he was to his
+friends, he was still more severe to himself. Though he
+had been collecting materials on subjects of Jewish history
+and philosophy from his early youth, it was not until he
+had endured much persuasion and pressure from his
+friends that he began to write down his thoughts in a
+connected form. We thus possess only one work from
+the pen of this author; but that work is the <hi rend='italic'>Guide of the
+Perplexed of the Time</hi>,<note place='foot'>מורה נבוכי הזמן.</note> a posthumous book published
+in 1851, eleven years after Krochmal's death. His work
+had been much interrupted by illness during the last years
+of his life, and as a necessary consequence many parts of
+his treatise finally remained in an unfinished state. Krochmal
+commissioned his children to hand over his papers to
+Zunz, who was to arrange and edit them as best he might.
+Zunz, who in his reverence for Krochmal went so far as
+to call him the man of God, gladly accepted the task, in
+which he was aided by Steinschneider. Unfortunately,
+the work was published in Lemberg, a place famous for
+spoiling books. Even the skill of these two great masters
+did not suffice to save Krochmal's work from the fate to
+which all the books printed in Lemberg seem inevitably
+doomed. Thus Krochmal's work is printed on bad paper,
+and with faint ink; it is full of misprints and the text is
+sometimes confused with the notes. A second edition
+appeared in Lemberg in 1863; but, it is scarcely necessary
+to add, the reprint is even worse than the original issue.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The work occupies some 350 pages, and is divided into
+seventeen chapters. The opening six treat of Religion
+in general. The author first indicates the opposite dangers
+<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/>
+to which men are liable. On the one hand, men
+are exposed to extravagant phantasy (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Schwärmerei</foreign>), superstition
+and ceremonialism (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Werkheiligkeit</foreign>). Some, on
+the other hand, in their endeavour to avoid this danger,
+fall into the opposite extreme, materialism, unbelief, and
+moral degeneracy as a consequence of their neglect of
+all law. He proceeds to say: Even in the ritual part
+of religion, such as the regulations of the Sabbath, the
+dietary laws and so forth, we find abstract definitions
+necessary, and differences of opinions prevalent. In the
+dogmatic aspects of religion, dealing as they do with the
+grave subjects of metaphysics, the mystery of life and
+death, the destiny of man, his relation to God, reward
+and punishment, the inner meaning of the laws,&mdash;in
+these spiritual matters, the difficulty of accurate definition
+must be far greater and the opportunities for difference
+of opinion more frequent and important. What
+guide are we to follow, seeing that every error involves
+the most dangerous consequences? Shall we abandon
+altogether the effort of thinking on these grave subjects?
+Such a course is impossible. Do not believe, says Krochmal,
+that there ever was a time when the religious man
+was entirely satisfied by deeds of righteousness, as some
+people maintain. On the contrary, every man, whether
+an independent thinker or a simple believer, always feels
+the weight of these questions upon him. Every man
+desires to have some ideal basis for his actions which
+must constitute his real life in its noblest moments.
+Krochmal here quotes a famous passage from the Midrash.<note place='foot'>מדרש, pl. מדרשים (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Midrashim</foreign>), <q>Research,</q> <q>Researches,</q> a
+name usually applied to the homiletical part of the Rabbinic literature.
+The most important collection of this kind is the <hi rend='italic'>Midrash Rabbah</hi> to
+the Pentateuch. The usual way of quoting it is <hi rend='italic'>Genesis Rabbah</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Exodus
+Rabbah</hi>, and so on.</note>
+The Torah, according to one of our ancient sages,
+may be compared to two paths, the one burning with fire,
+the other covered with snow. If a man enters on the
+<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/>
+former path he will die by the heat; if he walks by the
+latter path he will be frozen by the snow. What, then,
+must he do? He must walk in the middle, or, as we
+should say, he must choose the golden mean. But, as
+Krochmal suggests, the middle way in historical and
+philosophical doubts does not consist, as some idle heads
+suppose, in a kind of compromise between two opposing
+views. If one of two contending parties declares that
+twice two make six, while his opponent asserts that twice
+two make eight, a sort of compromise might be arrived
+at by conceding that twice two make seven. But such
+a compromise would be as false as either extreme; and
+the seeker after the truth must revert to that mean
+which is the heart of all things, independently of all
+factions, placing himself above them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having dealt with the arguments relating to the existence
+of God as elaborated in the philosophical systems
+of his time, Krochmal leads up to his treatment of the
+History of Israel by a chapter on the ideal gifts bestowed
+upon the various ancient nations, which, possessed
+by them through many centuries, were lost when their
+nationality ceased. We next come, in Chapter VII., to
+the ideal gifts of Israel. These are the religious gift
+and the faculty and desire for seeking the ideal of all
+ideals, namely, God. But Israel, whose mission it was
+to propagate this ideal, was, even as other nations, subject
+to natural laws; and its history presents progress
+and reaction, rise and decline. Krochmal devotes his
+next three chapters to showing how, in the history of
+Israel, as in other histories, may be detected a triple
+process. These three stages are the budding, the period
+of maturity, and the decay. As the history of Israel is
+<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/>
+more a history of religion than of politics and battles,
+its rise and decline correspond more or less with Israel's
+attachment to God, and its falling away from Him. The
+decay would be associated with the adoption of either of
+the extremes, the dangerous effects of which have been
+already mentioned. But <q>through progress and backsliding,
+amid infectious contact with idolatry, amid survival
+of old growths of superstition, of the crude practices
+of the past; amid the solicitation of new aspects of life;
+in material prosperity and in material ruin,</q> Israel was
+never wholly detached from God. In the worst times it
+had its judges or its prophets, its heroes or its sages, its
+Rabbis or its philosophers, who strove to bring Israel
+back to its mission, and who succeeded in their efforts
+to do so. Even in its decay traces of the Divine spirit
+made themselves felt, and revived the nation, which entered
+again on a triple course and repeated its three
+phases. The first of these three-fold epochs began, according
+to Krochmal's eighth chapter, with the times of
+the Patriarchs, and ended with the death of Gedaliah after
+the destruction of the first Temple. Next, in the following
+two chapters, Krochmal finds the second triple movement
+in the interval between the prophets of the exile
+in Babylon and the death of Bar-Cochba about 135 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>
+The author also hints at the existence of a third such
+epoch beginning with R. Judah the Patriarch, the compiler
+of the Mishnah (220 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>),<note place='foot'>See <ref target='Pg017'>above</ref>, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</note> and ending with the
+expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492). This idea is
+not further developed by Krochmal; but it would be
+interesting to ask, by the way, in which phase of the
+three-fold process&mdash;rise, maturity, or decay&mdash;are we at
+the present time?
+</p>
+
+<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/>
+
+<p>
+The next five chapters may be regarded as an excursus
+on the preceding two. Krochmal discusses the Biblical
+books which belong to the period of the Exile and of the
+Second Temple, such as the Second Isaiah, certain Exilic
+and Maccabean psalms, Ecclesiastes, certain Apocryphal
+books, and the work of the Men of the Great Synagogue.
+They contain, again, researches on the various sects, such
+as the Assideans, Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, the Gnostics,
+the Cabbalists and their relation to the latter, and
+the Minim,<note place='foot'>מינים, <q>Heretics,</q> applied to the first Christians, and more so to
+certain Gnostic sects.</note> who are mentioned in the Talmud. In another
+part of this excursus Krochmal describes the systems
+of the Alexandrian Jewish philosophers, such as
+Philo and Aristobulus, and discusses their relation to
+certain theosophic ideas in various Midrash-collections.
+The author also attempts to prove the necessity of Tradition;
+he shows its first traces in the Bible, and explains
+the term Sopherim (scribes); and he points out the
+meaning of the phrase <q>A law unto Moses from Mount
+Sinai,</q><note place='foot'>הלכה למשה מפיני, see below, p. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> and <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>. [Transcriber's Note: The footnote on <q>laws given to Moses on Sinai.</q>]</note> and similar expressions. He gives a summary
+of the development of the Halachah in its different stages,
+the criteria by which the older Halachahs may be discriminated;
+he seeks to arrive at the origin of the Mishnah,
+and deals with various cognate topics. In another
+discourse Krochmal endeavours to explain the term Agadah,<note place='foot'>הגדה or אגדה&mdash;הלכה, <q>rule,</q> <q>method,</q>&mdash;<q>narrative.</q> The former
+deals with the legal side of the Scriptures, and is thus more of a
+juristic nature; the latter represents a collection of homilies having
+mostly as their text the historical and exhortatory parts of the Bible,
+and is thus more of an edifying character. The theological side of
+Judaism, as well as its ideal aspirations and Messianic hopes, find their
+expression in the Agadah. The two words are also used as adjectives,
+as <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Halachic</foreign> (legalistic, juristic, and obligatory) and <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Agadic</foreign> (poetic, edifying,
+and hyperbolic).</note>
+its origin and development; the different kinds of
+Agadah and their relative value. Chapter XVI. contains
+the Prolegomena to a philosophy of the Jewish religion in
+accordance with the principles laid down by Hegel. In
+the seventeenth and last chapter the author gives a general
+introduction to the Philosophy of Ibn Ezra, and quotes
+illustrative extracts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The space of an essay does not permit me to give
+<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/>
+further details of Krochmal's book. I am conscious that
+the preceding outline is deficient in quality as well as in
+quantity. Yet, even from this meagre abstract, the reader
+will gather that Krochmal reviews many of the great
+problems which concern religion in general and Judaism
+in particular. Zunz somewhere remarks that Krochmal
+was inspired in his work by the study of Hegel, just as
+Maimonides had been by the study of Aristotle. I give
+this statement solely on the authority of Zunz, as I myself
+have never made a study of the works of the German
+philosopher, and am therefore unable to express an opinion
+on the question.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now there is no doubt that Krochmal's book is not
+without defects. The materials are not always well
+arranged, there is at times a want of proportion in the
+length at which the various points are treated, and the
+author occasionally seems to wander from the subject
+in hand. But we shall be better able to account for these
+and similar technical faults, as well as to appreciate the
+real value of the author's work, if we consider the following
+fact. Nachman Krochmal's object was to elaborate
+a philosophy of Jewish history, to trace the leading
+ideas that ran through it, and the ultimate causes that led
+to its various phases. But, unfortunately, at the time
+when Krochmal began to write, there did not exist a
+Jewish history at all. The labours of Zunz were conducted
+in an altogether different field. Not to mention
+the names of the younger scholars then unborn, Graetz,
+the author of the <hi rend='italic'>History of the Jews</hi>, and Weiss, who
+wrote a history of the Tradition, were still studying at
+college. Frankel's masterly essays on the Essenes and
+the Septuagint, his well-known work, <hi rend='italic'>Introduction to the
+<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/>
+Mishnah</hi>, and the results of Geiger's most interesting and
+suggestive researches on the older and later Halachah,
+and on the Pharisees and Sadducees, had yet to be written.
+Rapoport's great treatise, <hi rend='italic'>Erech Millin</hi>,<note place='foot'>ערך מלין, a sort of encyclopædia to the Talmud, of which only
+the first letter appeared.</note> had not been
+published at that time, and Steinschneider was not yet
+working at his historical sketch of Jewish literature. It
+was not till six years after Krochmal's death (viz. in 1846)
+that Landauer's memorable studies on the Jewish mystics
+were given to the world. Even the bad books of Julius
+Fürst, such as his <hi rend='italic'>History of the Canon</hi>, and his still worse
+<hi rend='italic'>History of Jewish Literature in Babylon</hi>, were then unwritten.
+Neither the most charlatanic <hi rend='italic'>History of the
+Opinions and Teachings of All the Jewish Sects</hi>, by Peter
+Beer, the universal provider, nor Jost's most honest but
+narrow-minded and superficial <hi rend='italic'>History of the Jews</hi>, was
+of much use to Krochmal. Jost's more scholarly works
+were not published till long afterwards. Krochmal was
+thus without the guidance of those authorities to which
+we are now accustomed to turn for information. Excepting
+the aid that he derived from the writings of Azariah
+de Rossi,<note place='foot'>Menahem Azariah de Rossi, an Italian Jew who flourished in
+the first half of the sixteenth century. His great work, מאור עינים, <hi rend='italic'>Meor
+Enayim</hi>, <q>Light of the Eyes,</q> is the first attempt made by a Jew to
+submit the statements of the Talmud to a critical examination, and to
+question the value of tradition in its historical records.</note> Krochmal was therefore compelled to prosecute
+all the necessary research for himself; he had to
+establish the facts of Jewish history as well as to philosophise
+upon them. Hence, in the very midst of his philosophical
+analysis, the author was bound to introduce
+digressions on historical subjects, in order to justify as
+well as to form the basis of that analysis. He had to
+survey the ground and to collect the materials, besides
+constructing the plan of the edifice and working at its
+erection. Nevertheless, it is precisely for these historical
+excursuses that Krochmal has deserved the gratitude of
+posterity. He it was who taught Jewish scholars how to
+<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/>
+submit the ancient Rabbinic records to the test of criticism
+and the way in which they might be utilised for the
+purpose of historical studies; he it was who enabled them
+to trace the genesis of the tradition, and to watch the
+inner germination of that vast organism. He even indicated
+to them how they might continue to connect their
+own lives with it, how they might derive nourishment from
+it, and in their turn further its growth. I may assert with
+the utmost confidence that there is scarcely a single page
+in Krochmal's book that did not afterwards give birth
+to some essay or monograph or even elaborate treatise,
+though their authors were not always very careful about
+mentioning the source of their inspiration. Thus Krochmal
+justly deserves the honourable title assigned to him
+by one of our greatest historians, who terms him the
+Father of Jewish Science.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So far, I have been speaking of the importance of
+Krochmal's treatise and of its significance in the region
+of Jewish Science. It is necessary, I think, to add a
+few words with regard to the general tendency of his
+whole work. I have already alluded to the characteristic
+modesty of Krochmal; I have pointed out how little he
+cared for publicity, how dearly he loved retirement. The
+question accordingly presents itself&mdash;What can have
+been the real and sufficient causes that prevailed upon
+him to yield to the solicitations of his friends and to write
+upon what the Talmud would term <q>matters standing on
+the heights of the world</q>?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The answer to this question may, I think, be found in
+the title of Krochmal's book, the <hi rend='italic'>Guide of the Perplexed
+of the Time</hi>. It is indeed a rather unusual coincidence
+for the title of a Hebrew book to have any connection
+<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/>
+with its subject matter. The same merit is possessed
+by the <hi rend='italic'>Guide of the Perplexed</hi> of Maimonides, the title
+of which undoubtedly suggested that of Krochmal's
+treatise. There is, however, one little addition in
+Krochmal's title that contains a most important lesson
+for us. I mean the words <q>of the Time.</q> By these
+words Krochmal reminds us that, great as are the merits
+of the immortal work of Maimonides&mdash;and it would be
+difficult to exaggerate its value and importance&mdash;still it
+will no longer suffice for us. For, as Krochmal himself
+remarks, every time has its own perplexities, and therefore
+needs its own guide. In order to show that these
+words are no idle phrase, I shall endeavour to illustrate
+them by one example at least. In the <hi rend='italic'>Guide of the
+Perplexed</hi> of Maimonides, Part II., Chapter XXVI.,
+occurs a passage which runs thus: <q>In the famous
+chapters known as the <q>Chapters of R. Eliezer the
+Great,</q><note place='foot'>פרקי דריי אליעזר.</note> I find R. Eliezer the Great saying something
+more extraordinary than I have ever seen in the utterances
+of any believer in the Law of Moses. I refer
+to the following passage: <q>Whence were the heavens
+created? He (God) took part of the light of His garment,
+He stretched it like a cloth, and thus the heavens
+were extending continually, as it is said (Ps. civ. 2):
+He covereth Himself with light as with a garment, He
+stretcheth the heavens like a curtain. Whence was
+the earth created? He took of the snow under the
+throne of glory, and threw it; according to the words
+(in Job xxxvii. 6), He said to the snow be thou earth.</q>
+These are the words given there (in the <q>Chapters of
+R. Eliezer the Great</q>), and I, in my surprise, ask, What
+was the belief of this sage? Did he think it impossible
+<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/>
+that something be produced from nothing?... If the
+terms <q>the light of His garment</q> and the <q>snow of
+glory</q> mean something eternal (as matter) they <emph>must</emph>
+be rejected.... In short, it is a passage that greatly
+confuses the notions of all intelligent and religious persons.
+I am unable to explain it sufficiently.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So far Maimonides; and we are quite able to conceive
+his perplexity in dealing with this passage. On one side,
+Maimonides himself believed that Judaism is a dogmatic
+religion, and that one of its dogmas is the principle of
+<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign>. On the other side, he found R. Eliezer&mdash;one
+of the greatest authorities of the early part of the
+second century&mdash;apparently denying this dogma. The
+perplexity was indeed a serious one for Maimonides, but
+we find no difficulty whatever in extricating ourselves from
+it. In the first place, there are many who cling to the
+theory which holds that there are no dogmas in Judaism
+at all, and to them Maimonides' difficulty would have no
+relevance. Secondly, those who believe that there are
+dogmas in Judaism may regard such expressions as those
+quoted above from the <q>Chapters of R. Eliezer</q> in the
+light of mere poetical metaphors, or may call them fairy
+tales or legends, or include them in some other section of
+literature, known under the name of folklore, which is an
+excuse for every absurdity, the fortunate authors of which
+are responsible neither to philosophy nor to religion, and
+sometimes not even to common sense. But there is a
+third consideration that affords the best solution of the
+difficulty. The <q>Chapters of R. Eliezer,</q> despite their
+pompous title, are not the work of R. Eliezer at all.
+Criticism has taught us to attach no importance to the
+heading of a chapter or the title-page of a book. We are
+<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/>
+now in a position to judge from the tone, style, and contents
+of the work, that the <q>Chapters of R. Eliezer</q> is a
+later compilation of the eighth century, and that its author
+could not have been R. Eliezer, the teacher of R. Akiba,
+in the second century. In this way, these particular difficulties
+of Maimonides solve themselves for us in a sufficiently
+easy way. But it is just these solutions that open
+up new difficulties and perplexities which did not exist for
+the generation of the great Spanish philosopher. Suppose
+that we accept the view that Judaism is not a dogmatic
+religion. But how are we to conceive a religion
+without dogmas, or, if you prefer the expression, without
+principles or bases of belief? Or is Judaism, as some
+platitudinarians think, a mere national institute with some
+useful dietary and sanitary laws, but with nothing that
+makes for the sanctification of man, with no guidance to
+offer us in the great problems of our life, and in the greatest
+anxieties of the human soul? On the other hand,
+granted that we may consider certain things as mere legend,
+how are we to discriminate between these and the
+things that must be taken seriously? Does it depend on
+the nature of the subject, or on the position of the book in
+the canon of Hebrew literature? In the thirteenth century
+symbolical meanings were given to certain difficult
+passages in the Talmud; but the process was carried
+further, and the Biblical narratives were subjected by philosophers
+to a like treatment. R. Solomon ben Adereth
+and his colleagues (in the thirteenth century) settled the
+question by indiscriminately excommunicating all young
+men who should study philosophy; but this method is
+scarcely one to be commended for present use.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The third, or the philological solution of difficulties,
+<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/>
+leads to fresh troubles. A hundred years ago men were
+in that happy state of mind in which they knew everything.
+They knew the exact author and date of every
+Psalm; they knew the author of each and every ancient
+Midrash; they knew the originator of every law and ordinance;
+they even knew the writer of the Zohar, and of
+other mystical books. There were certainly a few who
+did not know all these things, among them Ibn Ezra,
+Azariah de Rossi, and the two Delmedigos.<note place='foot'>Italian Jews of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The
+one, Elijah Delmedigo, wrote an Examination of Religion, whilst his
+grandson, Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, wrote various pamphlets of a
+deeply sceptical character. See Geiger's Introduction to his <hi rend='italic'>Melo
+Chofnayim</hi> (Berlin, 1840).</note> But they were
+merely a miserable historical blunder, men who had no
+right to be born when they were. But the philological
+method has swept away all this knowingness as by a
+deluge from heaven, and men find that they know nothing.
+True, there linger on a few who still know all these things,
+but it is they who are now the anachronism. These, and
+such as these, are the perplexities of our time, to the resolution
+of which the labours of Krochmal and of a noble
+band of scholars have been directed in this century.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Have these perplexities, we must ask, and these puzzles
+been solved by Krochmal and his coadjutors? We
+may with all certainty answer: They have only pointed out
+the way, it is for ourselves to proceed by it. It would be
+unreasonable to expect that difficulties which have been
+accumulating during the course of thousands of years
+should be solved by the men of one or two generations.
+Again, we live in a century in which excavations and discoveries
+in other fields have added at once to our knowledge
+and to our uncertainty. Each country, we might
+almost say, over and above the perplexities that trouble
+mankind in general, has its own special difficulties which
+are entirely unknown to those who dwell outside its
+frontiers. I am not disposed to discuss these difficulties
+<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/>
+in this place. Nor have I the ability to do so. But of
+two things I am perfectly certain: the first is, that for a
+solution of these difficulties which, in the language of
+Maimonides, <q>confuse the notions of all intelligent and
+religious persons,</q> the only hope is in true knowledge and
+not in ignorance; and secondly, this knowledge can only
+be obtained by a combination of the utmost reverence for
+religion and the deepest devotion to truth. The poor old
+Rabbis who have been so foully decried by their calumniators
+as hedonists, and so foolishly praised by sorry apologists
+as materialistic optimists, strongly insisted that when
+a man woos the truth, his suit can only prosper if he is
+influenced by the purest and most single-hearted affection.
+<q>A man,</q> says the Siphré, <q>must not say: <q>I will study
+the Torah in order that I may attain the title of Rabbi or
+savant, or that I may become rich by it, or that I may be
+rewarded for it in the world to come.</q> He must study for
+love's sake.</q> Such a knowledge, which is free from all
+taint of worldliness and of other-worldliness, a knowledge
+sought simply and solely for pure love of God, who is
+Truth,&mdash;such a knowledge is in the highest sense a saving
+knowledge, and Nachman Krochmal was in possession
+of it.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna, Gaon</head>
+
+<p>
+The three great stars of German literature are usually
+characterised by German scholars in the following way:
+Goethe they say represents the beautiful, Schiller the
+ideal, while Lessing represents truth. I think that we
+may apply the same characteristics to the three great
+luminaries, with which the Jewish middle ages ceased&mdash;for
+as Zunz somewhere remarked, the Jewish middle ages
+lasted till the beginning of the eighteenth century&mdash;and
+the modern age of Judaism opened. I am thinking of
+Mendelssohn in Germany, Israel Baalshem, the founder of
+the sect of the Chassidim in Podolia, and Elijah Wilna, or
+as he is more frequently called, the Gaon,<note place='foot'>גאון, <q>The Great One.</q> The authorities of the Babylonian
+schools after the sixth century were also called the Gaonim (גאונים),
+<q>[their] Eminences.</q> The title was also given afterwards to great
+Rabbis distinguished for their learning.</note> the Great One,
+in Lithuania.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to Mendelssohn, enough, and perhaps more than
+enough, has already been written and spoken about his
+merits in awakening the sense for the beautiful and the
+harmonious which was almost entirely dormant among the
+Jews of his age. In regard to the second, namely, Israel
+Baalshem, I have only to refer the reader to the first essay
+in this volume. The subject of the present essay will be
+R. Elijah Wilna, who, among the Jews, as Lessing among
+the Germans, represented truth, both by his life and by
+his literary activity.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/>
+
+<p>
+I say that the Gaon represented truth, but these words
+must be taken <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>cum grano salis</foreign>. For I do not mean at all to
+say that he was in possession of the whole truth, still less
+in <emph>exclusive</emph> possession of it. It is true as we shall learn
+in the course of this essay, that the Gaon was a genius of
+the first order. But there are matters of truth, the obtaining
+of which cannot be accomplished by genius alone.
+R. Elijah Wilna did not know any other language than
+Hebrew. Truths, therefore, which are only to be reached
+through the medium of other languages, remained a secret
+to him. Again, records of ancient times which are buried
+in the shelves of remote libraries or under the ruins of
+past civilisations are not always a matter of intuition.
+Even the most gifted of men have to wait patiently till
+these are brought to light by the aid of spade and shovel,
+or the pen of some obscure copyist. But R. Elijah lived
+at a time when excavation had as yet done very little for
+Semitic studies, and when a Jew scarcely got admittance
+into the great libraries of Europe. Thus much truth
+which we get now in a very easy way was beyond this
+seer's eye.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But even if all the libraries on earth had been at his disposal,
+even if he had read all the cuneiform writings which
+ornament the British Museum, and had deciphered all the
+Hieroglyphics which the Louvre possesses, even in that
+case we should not be justified in terming him a representative
+of the truth, without qualifying our words.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q>Truth,</q> said the old Rabbis, <q>is the Seal of the Holy
+One, praised be He.</q> But Heaven has no Lord Chancellor.
+Neither men nor angels are trusted with the great
+Seal. They are only allowed to catch a glimpse of it, or
+rather to long after this glimpse. However, even the
+<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/>
+longing and effort for this glimpse will bring man into
+communion with God, and make his life divine. And the
+life of the Gaon was, as we shall see, one long effort and
+unceasing longing after the truth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Again, if I say that the Gaon represented truth, you
+must not think that he lacked the two other qualities. A
+life entirely devoted to such a great cause as that of seeking
+the truth is, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>ipso facto</foreign>, ideal and harmonious. It is
+only in his influence on Judaism&mdash;more particularly on
+the Jews in the North of Europe&mdash;that this feature in his
+life becomes more prominent than his other admirable
+qualities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In what this truth consisted, how the Gaon arrived at it,
+and by what means he conveyed it to others, we shall see
+in the course of this essay.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+R. Elijah was born at Wilna in the year 1720. His
+father, Solomon Wilna, is called by his biographers the
+great Rabbi Solomon, and is said to have been the descendant
+of R. Moses Rivkas, the author of a learned
+work, containing notes to the Code of the Law by R.
+Joseph Caro.<note place='foot'>R. Joseph Caro (1488-1575) lived in Safed. The title of his
+code is שלחן ערוך, <hi rend='italic'>Prepared Table</hi>. This is a code of the Oral Law
+compiled from the Rabbinic literature.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having quoted the biographers, I must point out that
+there are only two biographies of the Gaon: the one by
+Finn, in his book <hi rend='italic'>Faithful City</hi>,<note place='foot'>קדיה נאמנה, containing an account of the Jewish worthies of that
+city.</note> on the celebrities of
+Wilna, the other by Nachman of Horodna, in his book
+<hi rend='italic'>Ascension of Elijah</hi>.<note place='foot'>עלית אלירו.</note> The former is a very honest account
+of the Gaon's life, but a little too short. The latter is too
+long, or rather too much intermixed with that sort of
+absurd legend, the authors of which are incapable of marking
+the line which separates the monster from the hero.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Even in the region of imagination we must not for a
+moment forget the good advice given to us by one of our
+<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/>
+greatest scholars who had to deal with a kindred subject:
+<q>He,</q> says this scholar, <q>who banishes the thought of
+higher and lower from his study, degrades it into a mere
+means of gratifying his curiosity, and disqualifies it for the
+lofty task which it is called upon to perform for modern
+society.</q> We shall thus cling to the higher and stop at
+the hero.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our hero was the first-born of five brothers. They
+were all famous men in their little world. According to
+the tradition in Wilna, Elijah was a lovely child, with
+beautiful eyes, and goodly to look at, or as it is expressed
+in another place, <q>as beautiful as an angel!</q> The tradition,
+or rather the legend, relates that as a child of six
+years he was already the pupil of R. Moses Margalith, the
+famous author of a commentary on the Talmud of Jerusalem.
+At the age of seven years he is said to have already
+perplexed the Chief Rabbi of his native town by his controversial
+skill in Talmudical subjects. At the early age
+of nine he was acquainted with the contents of the Bible,
+the Mishnah, the Talmud and its ancient commentaries;
+and even the Cabbalistic works of R. Isaac Loria were no
+secret to the youthful scholar.<note place='foot'>A famous mystic of the sixteenth century, from Safed, who was
+the more admired the less his pupils understood him.</note> At the age of twelve years
+he is said to have acquired the seven liberal arts, and to
+have puzzled the scholars of Wilna by his astronomical
+knowledge. At thirteen, when according to Jewish law he
+attained his majority, he was already the accomplished or
+<q>the great one</q> (Gaon); so far tradition. I am afraid that
+tradition is here, against all experience, too exact in its
+dates. But we may learn from it that the child Elijah
+showed many signs of the future Gaon, and was therefore
+considered as the prodigy of his age. Again it is likewise
+pretty certain that no man could boast of having been the
+<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/>
+master of Elijah. He was not the product of any school,
+nor was he biassed by the many prejudices of his time.
+He was allowed to walk his own way in his struggle after
+truth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is rather an unfortunate thing that history is so much
+made up of parallels and contrasts that the historian or
+even the biographer cannot possibly point out the greatness
+of some men without touching, however slightly, on
+the smallness of others. It is only natural that every
+strong shining object should push the minor lights of its
+surroundings into the background and darken them.
+Thus, when we are speaking of the superiority of the
+Gaon, we cannot escape hinting at least at the shortcomings
+of his contemporaries, as well as of his predecessors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To indicate briefly in what this superiority consisted, I
+will premise here a few words from a <foreign rend='italic'>Responsum</foreign> by one
+of his great predecessors, the Gaon Rabbi Hai.<note place='foot'>Hai was the last of the authorities called Gaon. With his death
+(1038) the schools of Babylon fell into decay and soon disappeared.</note> Consulted
+by a student as to the meaning of certain mystical
+passages in the tractate <hi rend='italic'>Chagigah</hi>,<note place='foot'>חגיגה, treating of the voluntary offerings brought by the pilgrims
+to Jerusalem.</note> Rabbi Hai, in warning
+his correspondent not to expect from him a long philosophical
+dissertation, writes as follows: <q>Know that it never
+was our business to palliate matters and explain them in a
+way of which the author never could have thought. This
+is fashionable with other people, but our method is to
+explain the words of this or that authority in accordance
+with his own meaning. We do not pledge ourselves that
+this meaning is <q>right rule</q> in itself, for there <emph>do</emph> exist
+statements made by the old authorities that cannot be accepted
+as norm.</q> Thus far the words of the Gaon of the
+tenth century, which speak volumes. The Gaon of the
+eighteenth century followed the same course. All his
+<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/>
+efforts were directed to this point; namely, to find out
+the true meaning of the Mishnah, the true meaning of
+the Gemara,<note place='foot'>גמרה, <q>Perfection or Supplementary Explanations.</q> By this is
+understood the interpretation given to the Mishnah by the schools in
+Palestine and Babylon. See <ref target='Pg017'>above</ref>, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</note> the true meaning of the Gaonim, the true
+meaning of the great codifiers, and the true meaning of
+the commentators on the ancient Rabbinical literature.
+Whether this meaning would be acceptable to us mattered
+very little to him. His only object was to understand
+the words of his predecessors, and this he obtained, as
+we shall soon see, by the best critical means. This was
+the method of the Gaon; that of other scholars (at least
+of the great majority) was dictated by entirely different
+considerations. They would not suffer the idea that
+the great man could be wrong at times. To them, all that
+he said was <q>right rule.</q> Now suppose a great author
+like Maimonides had overlooked an important passage in
+the Talmud or any other statement by a great authority,
+the alternative remaining to them was either to explain
+away the passage of the Talmud or to give the words of
+Maimonides a strange meaning. This led originally to
+the famous method of the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Pilpul</foreign> (casuistry), a kind of
+spiritual gymnastic, which R. Liva of Prague in the sixteenth
+century, and many others condemned as most pernicious
+to Judaism and leading to the decay of the study
+of the Torah.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now it is beyond doubt that the method of the two
+Gaonim is the only right one. But, in justice to the
+casuistic school, which includes many a great name, it is
+only right to remember that this impartiality towards acknowledged
+authorities as maintained by our hero is not at
+all such an easy matter as we imagine. We quote often
+with great satisfaction the famous saying, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Amicus Plato,
+amicus Socrates, sed magis amica veritas</foreign>, <q>Plato is our
+<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/>
+friend, so is Socrates, but Truth is, or rather ought to be,
+our greatest friend.</q> This sounds very nicely, but let us
+only realise what difficulties it involves. To be a friend of
+Socrates or Plato means to know them, or in other words
+to have a thorough knowledge of the writings of the one
+and the recorded utterances of the other. But such a
+knowledge can with most men only be obtained by devoting
+one's <emph>whole</emph> life to the study of their works, so that
+there is not left much time for new friendships. And
+the few who are able to save a few years after long wanderings
+with these Greek philosophers, seldom see the
+necessity of new friendships. For what else did those
+long courtships of Plato or Aristotle mean except that
+those who conducted them thought that thereby they
+would wed Truth?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This impartiality is the more difficult when these friends
+are invested with a kind of religious authority where
+humility and submission are most important factors. The
+history of Lanfranc, the predecessor of Anselm of Canterbury,
+gives a striking example of what this submission
+meant in the Middle Ages. One day, we are told, when
+he was still an ordinary monk, he was reading at the
+table and pronounced a word as it ought to be pronounced,
+but not as seemed right to the person presiding, who bade
+him say it differently; <q>as if he had said <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>docēre</foreign>, with the
+middle syllable long, as is right, and the other had corrected
+it into <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>docĕre</foreign>, with the middle short, which is
+wrong; for that Prior was not a scholar. But the wise
+man, knowing that he owed obedience rather to Christ
+than to Donatus, the grammarian, gave up his pronunciation,
+and said what he was wrongly told to say; for to
+make a short syllable long, or a long one short, he knew
+<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/>
+to be no deadly sin, but not to obey one set over him in
+God's behalf was no light transgression.</q><note place='foot'>See Dean Church's <hi rend='italic'>St. Anselm</hi>, from which this story is taken.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But this admiration&mdash;and here we turn again to the
+Gaon&mdash;must not prevent us from believing that Providence
+is not confined to such ungrammatical Priors, and
+that the men who are really working on behalf of God
+are those who teach us to pronounce rightly, and to think
+rightly, and to take matters as they are, not as we desire
+them to be on account of our friends.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As for the critical means to which I have alluded, the
+Gaon himself said somewhere that simplicity is the best
+criterion of truth, and this is the most characteristic feature
+of all his literary career. The Gaon studied Hebrew
+grammar in order to obtain a clear notion of the language
+in which the Scriptures are written. He tried to attain
+to the knowledge of the Bible by reading the Bible itself;
+and was not satisfied to become acquainted with its contents
+from the numerous quotations which are made from
+it in Rabbinical literature. Again, he studied mathematics,
+astronomy, and philosophy, as far as they could be
+found in Hebrew books. Certainly the Gaon did not
+study these subjects for their own sake, and they were
+considered by him only as a means to the end, or as the
+phrase goes, as the <q>hand-maidens</q> of Theology, the
+queen of all sciences. But it may be looked upon as a
+mark of great progress in an age when Queen Theology
+had become rather sulky, continually finding fault with
+her hand-maidens, and stigmatising every attention paid
+to them as conducive to disloyalty. To these accusations
+the Gaon answered that Queen Theology does not
+study her own interests. Knowledge of all arts and
+sciences, the Gaon maintained, is necessary for the real
+<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/>
+understanding of the Torah which embraces the whole of
+them. From his own writings it is evident that he himself
+was familiar with Euclid, and his <hi rend='italic'>Ayil Meshulash</hi>
+contains several original developments of Euclid. It was
+at his suggestion that a certain Baruch of Sclow translated
+Euclid into the Hebrew language.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another way which led the Gaon to the discovery of
+many truths was his study of the pre-Talmudic literature,
+and of the Jerusalem Talmud. By some accident or other
+it came to pass that only the Babylonian Talmud was
+recognised as a guide <emph>in the practices of religious life</emph>.
+As the great teachers and their pupils cared more for
+satisfying the religious wants of their flocks than for
+theoretic researches, the consequence was that a most
+important part of the ancient Rabbinic literature was
+almost entirely neglected by them for many centuries.
+And it was certainly no exaggeration, when R. Elijah
+said that even the Gaonim and Maimonides, occupied as
+they were with the practical part of the law, did not pay
+sufficient attention to the Talmud of Jerusalem and the
+Tosephta.<note place='foot'>תוספתה, <q>Addition</q> (to the Mishnah), but also containing only
+the sayings and discussions of the period of the Tannaim.</note> The Gaon was no official head of any Jewish
+community, and was but little troubled by decisions
+of questions which concern daily life. He was thus in
+a position to leave for a little while the Babylonian Talmud
+and to become acquainted with the guides of the
+guide. I refer to Siphra, Siphré, Mechilta, Tosephta,
+the Seder Olam,<note place='foot'>סדר עולם, <q>Order of the World,</q> dealing with the Chronology of
+the Bible, and dating from about the end of the second century.</note> the Minor Tractates,<note place='foot'>These <q>Minor Tractates</q> include, among others, treatises on
+proselytes, on the laws concerning funerals, the writing of the Law,
+and the like. Others are more of an edifying nature, treating of good
+manners, conduct, etc.</note> and above all
+the Talmud of Jerusalem, which, regarded from an historical
+and critical point of view, is even of more importance
+than its Babylonian twin-brother. But by this means
+there came a new light upon the whole of ancient Rabbinic
+literature. The words of the Torah, the Midrash
+<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/>
+says, are poor in one place, but we shall find them rich
+in another place. The Gaon by his acquaintance with
+the <emph>whole</emph> of the Torah had no difficulty whatever in
+discovering the rich places. If there was a difficult passage
+in this or that Tractate, he showed, by giving a
+reference to some other place, that it was wanting in
+some words or lines. Obscure passages in the Mishnah
+he tried to elucidate by parallel passages in the Tosephta.
+The too complicated controversies of the Babylonian Talmud
+he tried to explain by comparing them with the
+more ancient and more simple Talmud of Jerusalem.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is little to be told of the Gaon's private affairs.
+Even the date of his marriage with a certain Miss Anna
+of Kaidon is not mentioned by his biographers. But it
+may be taken for granted that, in accordance with the
+custom in Poland, he married at a very early age, say
+about eighteen years. It was also when a young man
+that he travelled for some years through Poland and
+Germany. It is rather difficult to say what his object
+may have been in making these travels&mdash;for the Gaon
+was not the man to travel for pleasure's sake. Perhaps
+it was to become acquainted with the great Rabbis of
+these countries. It is also possible, as others maintain,
+that the Gaon considered the many privations which a
+traveller had to endure a hundred and fifty years ago,
+as an atonement for his imaginary sins. Indeed we find
+in many ascetic books that travelling, or as they term it
+<q>receiving upon oneself to be banished into the exile,</q><note place='foot'>פבלת נלות.</note>
+is recommended as a very successful substitute for penance.
+At least it seems that the coachmen whom the
+Gaon employed on his journeys looked at it from this
+point of view. One of them went so far in adding to
+<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/>
+the privations of the Gaon as to run away with his carriage
+when the Rabbi alighted from it in order to read
+his prayers. But the reading of the Eighteen Benedictions<note place='foot'>שמונה עשרה, <q>Eighteen.</q> They are recited thrice a day, and
+form the original germ of the prayers, from which a very rich liturgy
+developed in the course of time.</note>
+must not be interrupted excepting in the case of
+danger; and the Gaon did not consider it very dangerous
+to be left without money and without luggage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These travels ended in the year 1745. The Gaon left
+Wilna again at a later date with the purpose of going to
+Palestine and settling there. But he found so many obstacles
+on his way that he was soon compelled to give up
+his favourite plan and to return to his native town. It is
+not known whether he left Wilna again.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The position which the Gaon occupied in Wilna was, as
+already hinted, that of a private man. He could never be
+prevailed upon to accept the post of Rabbi or any other
+office in a Jewish community. I am unable to give the
+reason for his declining all the offers made to him in this
+direction. But it may be suggested here that it was in
+the time of the Gaon that there arose a bitter struggle
+between the Rabbi and the Jewish wardens of his native
+town, which ended in the abolition of the office of Rabbi.
+The history of the struggle is the more irritating, as it
+arose from the pettiest reasons imaginable. People actually
+discovered that there was no light in the house of
+the Rabbi after the middle of the night, which fact might
+lead to the conclusion that he did not study later than
+12 o'clock <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi> What an idle man! And this idleness
+was the less pardonable in the eyes of the community, as
+the Rabbi's wife was so unfortunate as not to have been
+polite enough to some Mrs. Warden. Under such circumstances
+we must not wonder if the Gaon did not find it
+very desirable to meddle with congregational affairs in an
+<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/>
+official capacity. The relation of the Gaon to his contemporaries
+resembles rather the position in the olden times
+of a Tanna or Amora,<note place='foot'>The titles of the old authorities from 70 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> to 500 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi> See
+<ref target='Pg017'>above</ref>, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</note> who neither enjoyed the title of
+Nasin or that of Ab Beth Din.<note place='foot'>אב בית דין, נשיא, <q>Prince,</q> or <q>Patriarch,</q> religious head, of the
+Jews (not political), and <q>Father (or president) of the Court of
+Justice.</q></note> Like R. Akiba, or Mar
+Samuel, the Gaon became influential among his contemporaries
+only by his teaching and his exemplary life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It must be said in praise of the Jews of Wilna that, notwithstanding
+their petty behaviour towards their ecclesiastical
+chief, they willingly submitted to the authority of the
+Gaon (who was devoid of all official authority). They
+revered him as a saint. To converse with the Gaon was
+considered as a happy event in the life of a Jew in Wilna,
+to be of any use to him as the greatest distinction a man
+could attain on earth. But what is remarkable is the
+readiness with which even scholars acknowledged the
+authority of the Gaon. Scholars are usually more slow
+in recognising greatness than simple mortals. Every
+new luminary does not only outshine their minor lights
+and thus hurt their personal vanity, but it threatens also
+sometimes to obscure certain traditions which they wish to
+keep prominently in view. But the literary genius of the
+Gaon was too great to be opposed with success, and his
+piety and devotion to religion far above suspicion. Thus
+the Gaon was very soon recognised by his contemporaries
+as their master and guide; not only in literary questions,
+but also in matters of belief and conduct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It would lead me too far to name here all the Gaon's
+disciples. It seems as if all the great scholars in his country
+considered themselves to be more or less his pupils.
+The Gaon used to give in the Beth Hammidrash, which he
+founded, public lectures on various subjects, and the students
+who attended these lectures also claimed the honour
+<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/>
+of being called his pupils. I shall mention here only his
+greatest disciple, R. Chayim Walosin, who, after the Gaon,
+influenced his countrymen more than any other scholar of
+that time. This R. Chayim also did not occupy any official
+post among his brethren. He was a cloth manufacturer
+by profession, and was very prosperous in his business.
+But it did not prevent him from being devoted to Hebrew
+literature, and he enjoyed a wide-spread fame as a great
+scholar. But as soon as the fame of the Gaon reached
+him, he left cloth manufactory and scholarship behind,
+and went to Wilna to <q>learn Torah</q> from the mouth of
+the great master. It must be noticed that even the giving
+up of his claim to scholarship was no little sacrifice.
+All our learning, said some scholar in Wilna, disappeared
+as soon as we crossed the threshold of the Gaon's house.
+He made every disciple who came into close contact with
+him begin at the beginning. He taught them Hebrew
+grammar, Bible, Mishnah, and many other subjects, which
+were, as already mentioned, very often neglected by the
+Talmudists of that time. R. Chayim had also to go
+through all this course. Some would have considered such
+treatment a degradation. R. Chayim, however, became
+the more attached to his master for it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In such a way the life of the Gaon was spent, studying
+by himself or teaching his pupils. It must be understood
+that to learn Torah meant for the Gaon more than mere
+brain work for the purpose of gaining knowledge. To
+him it was a kind of service to God. Contemporaries who
+watched him when he was studying the Torah observed
+that the effect wrought on the personality of the Gaon was
+the same as when he was praying. With every word his
+countenance flushed with joy; with every line he was gaining
+<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/>
+strength for proceeding further. Only by looking at
+matters from this point of view shall we be able to understand
+the devotion and the love of the Gaon for study.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There has been, no doubt, among the Russian Jews a
+strong tendency to exaggerate the intellectual qualities of
+the Gaon. But one can readily excuse such a tendency.
+He was gifted by nature with such a wonderful memory
+that, having read a book once, he was able to recite it
+by heart for the rest of his life. Not less admirable
+was his sure grasp. The most complicated controversies
+in the Talmud, into which other scholars would require
+whole days and weeks to find their way, the Gaon was
+able to read by a glance at the pages. Already as a
+boy he is said to have gone through in a single night
+the tractates <hi rend='italic'>Zebachim</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Menachoth</hi>,<note place='foot'>מנחות, זבחים, <q>Sacrifices,</q> <q>Offerings.</q> They treat of the laws
+relating to sacrifices and meal-offerings.</note> containing not
+less than two hundred and thirty pages, the contents of
+which are sometimes so difficult as to make even an aged
+scholar despair of understanding them. Again, he possessed
+so much common-sense that all the intellectual
+tricks of the casuistic schools did not exist for him. And
+nevertheless his biographers tell us that he was so much
+occupied by his studies, that he could not spare more
+than one hour and a half for sleep out of twenty-four
+hours. This is, no doubt, an exaggeration. But let us
+say five hours a day. He had not time to take his meals
+regularly. He used also, according to tradition, to repeat
+every chapter in the Bible, every passage in the Talmud,
+hundreds of times, even if they presented no difficulty
+at all. But it was, as already said, a matter of love for
+the Gaon; of love, not of passing affection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nothing on earth could be more despicable to the Gaon
+than amateurs who dabble with ancient literature. To
+<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/>
+understand a thing clearly made him happy. He is said
+to have spent more than six months on a single Mishnah
+in the tractate <hi rend='italic'>Kilayim</hi>,<note place='foot'>בלאים, the laws relating to diverse seeds and garments of diverse
+sorts. Cf. Deut. xxii. 9-11.</note> and felt himself the happiest
+man when he succeeded in grasping its real meaning.
+Not to be able to go into the depth of a subject, to miss
+the truth embedded in a single passage, caused him the
+most bitter grief. A story told by his pupil, R. Chayim,
+may illustrate this fact. One Friday, narrates R. Chayim,
+the servant of the Gaon came to him with the message
+that his master wanted to see him as soon as possible.
+R. Chayim went instantly. When he came into the house,
+he found the Gaon lying in bed with a bandage on his
+head and looking very ill. The wife of the Gaon also
+reported to him that it was more than three days since
+her husband had taken any food, and that he had hardly
+enjoyed any sleep all this time. All this misery was
+caused by reason of not having been able to understand
+some difficult passages in the Talmud of Jerusalem. The
+Gaon now asked his disciples to resume with him their
+researches. Heaven, he said, might have mercy upon
+them and open their eyes, for it is written, <q>Two are
+better than one</q>: and lo! Heaven did have mercy on
+them; they succeeded in getting the true meaning of
+the passage. The Gaon recovered instantly, and master
+and disciple had a very joyful Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He is also reported to have said on one occasion, he
+would not like to have an angel for his teacher who would
+reveal to him all the mysteries of the Torah. Such a condition
+is only befitting the world to come, but in <emph>this</emph> world
+only things which are acquired by hard labour and great
+struggle are of any value. The German representative of
+truth expressed the same thought in other words, which
+<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/>
+are well worth repeating here: <q>Did the Almighty,</q> says
+Lessing, <q>holding in His right hand Truth and in His left
+Search after Truth, deign to tender me the one I might
+prefer, in all humility and without hesitation I should
+select Search after Truth.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This absorption of all his being in the study of the
+Torah may also, I think, account for the fact that his
+biographers have so little to say about the family of the
+Gaon. Of his wife, we know only that she died in the
+year 1783. Not much fuller is our knowledge about his
+children. The biographers speak of them as of the family
+<q>which the Lord has blessed,</q> referring to his two sons,
+Rabbi Aryeh Leb and Rabbi Abraham, who were known
+as great scholars and very pious men. The latter one is
+best known by his edition of a collection of smaller Midrashim.
+Mention is also made of the Gaon's sons-in-law,
+especially one Rabbi Moses of Pinsk. But this is all, and
+we are told nothing either about their lives or their callings.
+From his famous letter which he sent to his family
+when on his way to Palestine, we see that he was rather
+what one may call a severe father. He bids his wife punish
+his children most severely for swearing, scolding, and
+speaking untruth. He also advises her to live as retired
+a life as possible. Retirement he considers as a condition
+<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>sine qua non</foreign> for a religious life. He even advises his
+daughter to read her prayers at home, for in the synagogue
+she may get envious of the finer dresses of her
+friends, which is a most terrible sin. The only tender
+feature in this letter is perhaps where he implores his
+wife to be kind to his mother on account of her being a
+widow, and it were a great sin to cause her the least annoyance.
+From other passages we may gather that his
+<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/>
+family had at times to suffer hunger and cold by the excessive
+occupation of their father with the study of the
+Torah and other religious works. In short, the Gaon was
+a one-sided, severe ascetic, and would never have deserved
+the title of a good father, a good husband, an amiable man
+or any other appellation derived from those ordinary
+<q>household decencies</q> which, as Macaulay informs us,
+half of the tombstones claim for those who lie behind
+them. But I am very much afraid that many a great man
+who has made his mark in history could never claim these
+household virtues as his own. I do not want to enter here
+into the question whether Judaism be an ascetic religion
+or not. But even those who think Judaism identical with
+what is called <q>making the best of this life,</q> will not dispute
+the fact that Jewish literature contains within it
+enough ascetic elements to justify the conduct of our
+greatest men whose lives were one long-continued self-denial
+and privation. <q>The Torah,</q> says the Talmud,
+<q>cannot be obtained unless a man is prepared to give his
+life for it,</q> or as the Talmud puts it, in another place, <q>if
+it be thy desire not to die, cease to live before thou diest.</q>
+This was the principle by which the Gaon's life was actuated.
+And as he did not spare himself, he could not spare
+others. We could not expect him to act differently. The
+Scriptures tell us: <q>Thou shalt love thy neighbour as
+thyself.</q> But how is it with the man who never loved
+himself, who never gave a thought to himself, who never
+lived for himself, but only for what he considered to be
+his duty and his mission from God on earth? Such a
+man we cannot expect to spend his time on coaxing and
+caressing us. As to the charge of one-sidedness at which
+I have hinted, if the giving up of everything else for the
+<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/>
+purpose of devoting oneself to a scholarly and saintly life
+is one-sidedness, the Gaon must certainly bear this charge;
+but in a world where there are so many on the other side,
+we ought, I think, to be only too grateful to Providence for
+sending us from time to time great and strong one-sided
+men, who, by their counterbalancing influence, bring God's
+spoilt world to a certain equilibrium again. To appease my
+more tender readers, I should like only to say that there is
+no occasion at all for pitying Mrs. Gaon. It would be a
+miserable world indeed if a good digestion and stupidity
+were, as a certain author maintained, the only conditions
+of happiness. Saints are happy in their sufferings, and
+noble souls find their happiness in sacrificing themselves
+for these sufferers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another severe feature in the life of the Gaon showed
+itself in his dispute with the Chassidim. I regret not to
+be able to enter here even into a brief account of the history
+of this struggle. I shall only take leave to say that I
+am afraid each party was right, the Gaon as well as the
+Chassidim; the latter, in attacking the Rabbis of their
+time, who mostly belonged to the casuistic schools, and in
+their intellectual pursuits almost entirely neglected the
+emotional side of religion; but none the less was the
+Gaon right in opposing a system which, as I have shown
+above, involved the danger of leading to a worship of
+men.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Excepting this incident, the Gaon never meddled with
+public affairs. He lived in retirement, always occupied
+with his own education and that of his disciples and
+friends. It is most remarkable that, in spite of his hard
+work and the many privations he had to endure, he
+enjoyed good health almost all his life. He never consulted
+<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/>
+a doctor. It was not until the year 1791, in the
+seventieth year of his life, that he began to feel the
+decline of his health. But he was not much interrupted
+by the failure of his powers. As a means of recovery, he
+esteemed very highly the conversation of the preacher
+Jacob of Dubna, better known as the Dubna Maggid,<note place='foot'>מגיד, <q>Teller,</q> a sort of travelling preacher.</note>
+whose parables and sallies of wit the Gaon used to enjoy
+very much. On the eve of the Day of Atonement in the
+year 1797, he fell very ill and gave his blessing to his
+children. He died on the third day of the Feast of Tabernacles,
+with the branch of the Lulab<note place='foot'>לולב, <q>palm branch.</q> Cf. Lev. xxiii. 40.</note> in his hands.
+The Feast of Joy, relates a contemporary, was turned into
+days of mourning. In all the streets of Wilna were heard
+only lamenting and crying voices. The funeral orations
+delivered on this occasion in Wilna, as well as in other
+Jewish communities, would form a small library. His disciples
+wept for their master, the people of Wilna for the
+ornament of their native town, and the feeling of the Jews
+in general was that <q>the Ark of God was taken away.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the foregoing sketch, the reader will hardly
+expect me to give an account of the Gaon's literary productions.
+The results of so long a life and such powers
+of mind devoted to one cause with such zeal and fervour,
+would furnish by themselves the subject of a whole series
+of essays. The tombstone set on his grave by his pious
+admirers bears the inscription, <q>The Gaon gave heed and
+sought and set in order</q>&mdash;that is to say, he wrote commentaries
+or notes on&mdash;<q>the Bible, the Mishnah, both
+Talmuds, the Siphré, Siphra, the Zohar, and many other
+works.</q> Inscriptions on tombstones are proverbial for
+exaggeration, and we all know the saying, <q>as mendacious
+as an epitaph.</q> But a glance at the catalogue of the
+<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/>
+British Museum under the heading of Elijah Wilna, will
+show that this inscription makes a praiseworthy exception.
+We will find that this list might be lengthened by many
+other works of great importance for Jewish life and
+thought. His commentary to the Code of R. Joseph
+Caro, in which one will find that in many cases he knew
+the sources of the religious customs and usages, put
+together in this work, better than its compiler himself,
+would have been sufficient to place him at the head of
+Halachic scholarship, whilst his notes and textual emendations
+to the Tosephta and Seder Olam, to the restoration
+of which he contributed so much, would have sufficed to
+establish his fame as a critic of the first order. And this
+is the more astonishing when we consider that all this was
+done without manuscripts or any other aid, and by mere
+intuition. We cannot wonder that scholars who had
+the opportunity of visiting great libraries and saw how
+the emendations of the Gaon agreed sometimes with the
+readings given in the best manuscripts exclaimed very
+often: <q>Only by inspiration could he have found out
+these secrets.</q> We have no need to go so far; we shall
+simply say with the Talmud, <q>The powers of the real
+sage surpass those of the prophet.</q> Nay, even had we
+possessed only his <hi rend='italic'>Gleanings</hi>, which form a kind of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>obiter
+dicta</foreign> on various topics of Jewish literature, the Gaon
+would have remained a model of clear thinking and real
+ingenuity for all future generations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, a real appreciation of the Gaon's greatness as
+a scholar would only be possible either by a thorough
+study of his works, to which I have alluded, or by giving
+many specimens of them. The short space I am limited
+to makes such an undertaking impossible. I shall therefore
+<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/>
+use what remains to me to say a few words on the
+salutary influence the Gaon had on his countrymen, the
+Russian Jews.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Russian Jew is still a riddle to us. We know this
+strange being only from the Reports of the Board of
+Guardians or from bombastic phrases in public speeches;
+for he has always been the victim of platform orators,
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>So over violent or over civil,</l>
+<l>That every man with them is God or Devil.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+From all, however, that I can gather from the best Jewish
+writers in Russia, I can only judge that the Russian Jew,
+when transplanted to a foreign soil, where he is cut off
+from the past and uncertain of his future, is for the time
+at least in a position in which his true character cannot be
+truly estimated. His real life is to be sought in his own
+country. There, amidst his friends and kinsmen who are
+all animated by the same ideals, attached to the same traditions,
+and proud of the same religious and charitable
+institutions, everything is full of life and meaning to him.
+Thus, a certain Russian writer addresses his younger colleagues
+who find so much fault with the bygone world:
+<q>Go and see how rich we always were in excellent men.
+In every town and every village you would find scholars,
+saints, and philanthropists. Their merits could sustain
+worlds, and each of them was an ornament of Israel.</q>
+And he proceeds to give dozens of names of such excellent
+men, who are not all indeed known to us, but with
+whom the Russian Jew connects many noble and pious
+reminiscences of real greatness and heroic self-denial, and
+of whom he is justly proud.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/>
+
+<p>
+The focus, however, of all this spiritual life is the Yeshibah
+(Talmudical College)<note place='foot'>ישיבה, <q>High School,</q> or <q>Academy,</q> in which the Rabbinic
+literature is studied.</note> in Walosin. I hope that a
+glance at its history and constitution will not be found
+uninteresting. The intellectual originator of this institution
+which bears the name <hi rend='italic'>Yeshibah Ets Chayim</hi> (Tree of
+Life College),<note place='foot'>ישיבה עץ חיים.</note> was the Gaon himself. Being convinced
+that the study of the Torah is the very life of Judaism, but
+that this study must be conducted in a scientific, not in a
+scholastic way, he bade his chief disciple, the R. Chayim
+already mentioned, to found a college in which Rabbinical
+literature should be taught according to his own true
+method. It would seem that, as long as the Gaon was
+alive, R. Chayim preferred to be a pupil rather than a
+teacher. When, however, the Gaon died, R. Chayim did
+not rest till he had carried out the command of his master,
+and in the year 1803 the College was opened in Walosin.
+The cloth manufacturer and disciple now became Rabbi
+and master. He began on a small scale, teaching at first
+only a few pupils. But even for the sustenance of a small
+number he had not sufficient means, and his pious wife
+sold her jewellery to help him in accomplishing his favourite
+plan. This is the best refutation of the French proverb
+<foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>Avare comme une Rabbine</foreign>. The number, however,
+increased daily, and before he died (1828), he was fortunate
+enough to lecture to a hundred students. The number of
+students in the year 1888 amounted to 400, and the Russian
+Jews are thus right in asserting that they have the
+greatest Talmudical College in the world. It is evident
+that no private charity by a single man, however great,
+could suffice to maintain such large numbers. Thus R.
+Chayim was already compelled to appeal to the liberality
+of his Russian brethren. The name of R. Chayim, and
+<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/>
+the still greater name of his master, were recommendation
+enough, and besides private offerings, many communities
+promised large sums towards supporting the students in
+Walosin. From time to time also messengers are sent out
+by the committee to promote the interests of the Yeshibah.
+The writers to whom I owe these data tell us that
+these messengers travel to all parts of the world to collect
+offerings for Walosin: so that it is a standing joke with
+the students that the existence of the mythical river
+Sambatyon<note place='foot'>סמבטיון, a mythical river which is supposed to stop its course on
+Sabbath.</note> may be questioned after all, otherwise it
+must long have been discovered by these messengers who
+explore the whole world in their journeys. But it would
+seem that this world is only a very small one. For the
+whole income of the Yeshibah has never exceeded the
+sum of about £1800. Of this a certain part is spent in
+providing the salaries of the teaching staff and proctors,
+and on the repairs of the building; whilst the rest is
+distributed amongst the students. Considering that no
+scholarship exceeds £13&mdash;it is only the forty immortals
+of Walosin who receive such high stipends&mdash;considering
+again that the great majority of the students belong to the
+poorer classes and thus receive no remittance from their
+parents, we may be sure that the words of the Talmud:
+<q>This is the way to study the Torah; eat bread and salt,
+drink water by measure, sleep on the earth, and live a
+life of care,</q> are carried out by them literally. But it
+would seem that the less they eat and the less they sleep,
+the more they work. Indeed the industry and the enthusiasm
+of these Bachurim (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>alumni</foreign>)<note place='foot'>בחורים, sing. בחור, <q>Young man,</q> by which term the Jews usually
+understand the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>alumni</foreign> of their Talmudical schools.</note> in the study of the
+Torah is almost unsurpassable. The official hours alone
+extend from nine in the morning until ten in the evening,
+while many of the students volunteer to continue their
+<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/>
+studies till the middle of the night, or to begin the day at
+three in the morning.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to the subject of these studies, it is confined, as may
+be imagined, to the exploration of the old Rabbinic literature
+in all its branches. But it would be a mistake to think
+that the modern spirit has left Walosin quite untouched.
+It would be impossible that among 400 thinking heads
+there should not be a few who are interested in mathematics,
+others again in philosophy or history, while yet others
+would conjugate the irregular verbs of some classical language
+when moving to and fro over their Talmud folios
+and pretending to <q><emph>learn</emph>.</q> Indeed, almost all the writers
+who demand that these subjects should be introduced as
+obligatory into the programme of Walosin, belonged themselves
+to this Yeshibah. And it is these writers who
+betray the secret how secular knowledge is now invading
+the precincts of Walosin, as well as of other Talmudical
+Colleges in spite of all obstacles and prohibitions. In
+conquering these difficulties seem to consist the pleasures
+of life of many Bachurim at Walosin. Look only at that
+undergraduate, how, after a heavy day's work he is standing
+there in the street reading Buckle's <hi rend='italic'>History of Civilisation</hi>
+in the moonlight! Poor man, he is not so romantic
+as to prefer the moonlight to a cheerful, warm room, with
+the more prosaic light of a candle, but he has got tired of
+knocking at the door, for his landlady, to whom he has
+neglected to pay rent for the last three terms, made up
+her mind to let him freeze to-night. But still more cruel
+to him is his fellow-sufferer, who is also wandering in the
+streets with an overloaded brain and empty stomach; he
+roughly shakes him out of his dreams by telling him that
+Buckle is long ago antiquated, and that he had better
+<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/>
+study the works of Herbert Spencer, who has spoken the
+last word on every vital subject in the world. Still these
+two starving and freezing representatives of English
+thought in Walosin form only an exception. The general
+favourites are the representatives of Jewish thought.
+That such books as the <hi rend='italic'>Guide of the Perplexed</hi>, by Maimonides,
+the Metaphysical Researches of Levi b. Gershom,<note place='foot'>Levi b. Gershom (1286-1344) is generally regarded as the
+greatest successor of Maimonides. Besides his rationalistic commentaries
+on the Bible, he wrote various treatises on metaphysics, mathematics,
+astronomy, medicine, etc.</note>
+and other philosophical works of the Spanish
+school are read by the Walosin students it is needless to
+say. These books now form a part of the Rabbinic literature,
+and it would be almost unorthodox to suspect their
+readers. But is worth noticing that even the productions
+of the modern historico-critical school, such as the works
+of Zunz, Frankel, Graetz, Weiss, are very popular with
+the Bachurim, being much read and discussed by them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus Walosin deserves rightly to be considered as the
+centre of Jewish thought in Russia, in which the spirit of
+the Gaon is still working.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have very often, however, heard doubts expressed as
+to the continuance of this spirit when, as it is to be hoped,
+better times come for the Jews in Russia. Is it not to be
+feared that liberty and emancipation will render untenable
+ideas and notions which arose under entirely different circumstances?
+There is no need of entertaining such fears.
+Rabbi Jedaiah of Bedres<note place='foot'>בחינת עולם.</note> concludes his philosophical
+work <hi rend='italic'>Examination of the World</hi>, with the following words:
+<q>The conclusion of the whole matter is, go either to the
+right, my heart, or go to the left, but believe all that R.
+Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides) has believed, the last of
+the Gaonim by time, but the first in rank.</q> About five
+hundred years have passed away since these lines were
+written. Time, as we have seen, has brought another
+<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/>
+Gaon, and probably Time will favour us in future with
+still another. But times have also altered. The rebellious
+hearts of a liberal age are not likely to obey always
+the command, <q>believe all that the Gaon said.</q> But the
+heart of man will in all ages retain idealism enough to
+love and revere the greatest of men and to follow what
+was best in them.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>IV. Nachmanides<note place='foot'>In Steinschneider's <hi rend='italic'>Catalogue of the Bodleian Library</hi>, under the
+name of Moses Nachmanides, pp. 1947-1965, all the works which are
+ascribed to this author are put together, and also discussed as to their
+authenticity. There are only to be added the new edition of the
+<hi rend='italic'>Derasha</hi> by Jellinek (Vienna, 1872), in which the variants from
+Schorr's MS. (החלוץ, viii. 162) are already incorporated; a new edition
+of the זיכות, and the commentary to Is. lii.-liii. by Steinschneider
+(Berlin, 1860); a <hi rend='italic'>Sermon</hi> for the New Year, ed. by H. Berliner (<hi rend='italic'>Libanon</hi>,
+v. 564); and another Sermon at a wedding (?), ed. by Schorr
+(<hi rend='italic'>Hechalus</hi>, xii. 3). For the literature on Nachmanides, besides the
+references given by Steinschneider, in his <hi rend='italic'>Catalogue</hi>, and the Addenda,
+p. cxviii. (cf. also the pedigree in the <hi rend='italic'>Catalogue</hi> 2305), see also Graetz,
+<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte</hi>, vii., pp. 112-143, and p. 147 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>; Michael, אור החיים,
+No. 1125, and Weiss, דור דור ודערקיו, v. 4 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>; Perles' <hi rend='italic'>Monatsschrift</hi>,
+1860, p. 175; Zomber, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> 421; and Z. Frankel, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> 1868, p. 449,
+and <hi rend='italic'>The Jewish Quarterly Review</hi>, iv. 245 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi> For Nachmanides'
+disputation we have to add M. Loeb in the <hi rend='italic'>Révue des Études Juives</hi>,
+xv. 1 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>, and xviii. 52 (about Abner), and Dr. Neubauer's Essay on
+Jewish Controversy in the <hi rend='italic'>Expositor</hi>, vol. vii. (third series), p. 98 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>,
+with the references given there. See also his article on the Bahir and
+the Zohar in <hi rend='italic'>The Jewish Quarterly Review</hi>, iv. 357. With regard to
+Nachmanides' mystical system see the references to S. Sachs (whose
+remarks are most suggestive), Krochmal, and Jellinek in Steinschneider,
+col. 1949 and 1964, Perles' <hi rend='italic'>Monatsschrift</hi>, 1858, p. 83 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>, and
+Steinschneider in the Heb. <hi rend='italic'>Bibliographie</hi>, i. 34. See also Professor
+Kaufmann's <hi rend='italic'>Die Geschichte der Attributenlehre</hi>, and the references
+given in the index under this name. The <hi rend='italic'>Novellæ</hi> by his son R.
+Nachman, alluded to in the text, are in the University Library, Cambridge
+(Add. 1187, 2). The פץ הנאולה is extant in the British Museum,
+MS. Add. 26,894, and the passage quoted by De Rossi is to be found
+on p. 163<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, but a few words are erased by the censor. As to the poem
+given at the end of this paper, see Zunz, <hi rend='italic'>Synagogale Poesie</hi>, p. 478;
+Landshut, <hi rend='italic'>Amude ha-Abodah</hi> <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi>, the references in Sachs' <hi rend='italic'>Religiöse
+Poesie der Juden</hi>, and Luzzatto in the <hi rend='italic'>Ozar Nechmad</hi>, ii. 27. Compare
+also Professor Cheyne's <hi rend='italic'>The Origin of the Psalter</hi>, p. 421.</note></head>
+
+<p>
+R. Chayim Vital, in his <hi rend='italic'>Book of the Transmigrations of
+Souls</hi>, gives the following bold characteristic of the two
+great teachers of Judaism, Maimonides and Nachmanides.
+Their souls both sprang forth from the head of Adam&mdash;it
+is a favourite idea of the Cabbalists to evolve the whole
+of ideal humanity from the archetype Adam&mdash;but the
+former, Maimonides, had his genius placed on the left
+curl of Adam, which is all judgment and severity, whilst
+that of the latter, Nachmanides, had its place on the right
+curl, which represents rather mercy and tenderness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I start from these words in order to avoid disappointment.
+For Nachmanides was a great Talmudist, a great
+Bible student, a great philosopher, a great controversialist,
+and, perhaps, also a great physician; in one word, great
+in every respect, possessed of all the culture of his age.
+But, as I have already indicated by the passage quoted by
+way of introduction, it is not of Nachmanides in any of
+these excellent qualities that I wish to write here. For
+these aspects of his life and mind I must refer the reader
+to the works of Graetz, Weiss, Steinschneider, Perles, and
+others. I shall mostly confine myself to those features
+and peculiarities in his career and works which will illustrate
+Nachmanides the tender and compassionate, the
+<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/>
+Nachmanides who represented Judaism from the side of
+emotion and feeling, as Maimonides did from the side of
+reason and logic.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+R. Moses ben Nachman, or Bonastruc de Portas, as he
+was called by his fellow-countrymen, or Nachmanides, as
+he is commonly called now, was born in Gerona about the
+year 1195. Gerona is a little town in the province of Catalonia
+in Spain. But though in Spain, Gerona was not
+distinguished for its philosophers or poets like Granada,
+Barcelona, or Toledo. Situated as it was in the North of
+Spain, Gerona was under the influence of Franco-Jewish
+sympathies, and thus its boast lay in the great Talmudists
+that it produced. I shall only mention the name of
+R. Zerahiah Hallevi Gerundi&mdash;so-called after his native
+place&mdash;whose strictures on the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi,
+which he began as a youth of nineteen years, will always
+remain a marvel of critical insight and independent research.
+Nachmanides is supposed by some authors to
+have been a descendant of R. Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona,
+whose hymns are still to be found in certain rituals.
+The evidence for this is insufficient, but we know that he
+was a cousin of R. Jonah Gerundi, not less famous for his
+Talmudic learning than for his saintliness and piety.
+Nachmanides thus belonged to the best Jewish families
+of Gerona. Various great men are mentioned as his
+teachers, but we have certainty only about two, namely
+R. Judah ben Yakar, the commentator of the prayers,
+and R. Meir ben Nathan of Trinquintaines. The mystic,
+R. Ezra (or Azriel), is indeed alleged to have been his
+instructor in the Cabbalah, and this is not impossible, as
+he also was an inhabitant of Gerona; but it is more probable
+that Nachmanides was initiated into the Cabbalah by
+<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/>
+the R. Judah just mentioned, who also belonged to the
+mystical school.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whoever his masters were, they must have been well
+satisfied with their promising pupil, for he undertook, at
+the age of fifteen, to write supplements to the Code of
+R. Isaac Alfasi. Nor was it at a much later date that he
+began to compose his work, <hi rend='italic'>The Wars of the Lord</hi>, in
+which he defends this great codifier against the strictures
+of R. Zerahiah, to which we have referred above. I shall
+in the course of this essay have further occasion to speak
+of this latter work; for the present we will follow the
+career of its author.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Concerning the private life of Nachmanides very little
+has come down to us. We only know that he had a
+family of sons and daughters. He was not spared the
+greatest grief that can befall a father, for he lost a son;
+it was on the day of the New Year.<note place='foot'>New Year's Day, on the first of Tishri. It is in autumn.</note> On the other hand,
+it must have been a great source of joy to him when he
+married his son Solomon to the daughter of R. Jonah,
+whom he revered as a saint and a man of God. As a
+token of the admiration in which he held his friend, the
+following incident may be mentioned. It seems that it
+was the custom in Spain to name the first child in a
+family after his paternal grandfather; but Nachmanides
+ceded his right in behalf of his friend, and thus his
+daughter-in-law's first son was named Jonah. Another
+son of Nachmanides whom we know of was Nachman, to
+whom his father addressed his letters from Palestine, and
+who also wrote Novellæ to the Talmud, still extant in MS.
+But the later posterity of Nachmanides is better known
+to fame. R. Levi ben Gershom was one of his descendants;
+so was also R. Simeon Duran;<note place='foot'>A famous Rabbi of the fifteenth century, known by his various
+casuistical and philosophical works.</note> whilst R. Jacob
+<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/>
+Sasportas, in the eighteenth century,<note place='foot'>Chiefly known through his controversial writings against the
+adherents of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai Tsebi. He was for some
+time the Rabbi of the Portuguese congregation in London.</note> derived his pedigree
+from Nachmanides in the eleventh generation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to his calling, he was occupied as Rabbi and teacher,
+first in Gerona and afterwards in Barcelona. But this
+meant as much as if we should say of a man that he is
+a philanthropist by profession, with the only difference
+that the treasures of which Nachmanides disposed were
+more of a spiritual kind. For his livelihood he probably
+depended upon his medical practice.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I need hardly say that the life of Nachmanides, <q>whose
+words were held in Catalonia in almost as high authority
+as the Scriptures,</q> was not without its great public events.
+At least we know of two.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The one was about the year 1232, on the occasion of
+the great struggle about Maimonides' <hi rend='italic'>Guide of the Perplexed</hi>,
+and the first book of his great Compendium of
+the Law. The Maimonists looked upon these works
+almost as a new revelation, whilst the Anti-Maimonists
+condemned both as heretical, or at least conducive to
+heresy.<note place='foot'>The main objections of the opponents of Maimonides were directed
+against his rationalistic notions of Revelation, and his allegorising
+interpretation of the Scriptures, which amounted in some places to
+a denial of miracles. He was also suspected of having denied bodily
+resurrection. A history of Jewish rationalism is still a desideratum.
+I am certain that it would prove at least as interesting as Reuter's
+<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte der religiösen Aufklärung im Mittelalter</hi> (Berlin, 1845-60).</note> It would be profitless to reproduce the details
+of this sad affair. The motives may have been pure and
+good, but the actions were decidedly bad. People denounced
+each other, excommunicated each other, and did
+not (from either side) spare even the dead from the most
+bitter calumnies. Nachmanides stood between two fires.
+The French Rabbis, from whom most of the Anti-Maimonists
+were recruited, he held in very high esteem
+and considered himself as their pupil. Some of the
+leaders of this party were also his relatives. He, too,
+had, as we shall see later on, a theory of his own about
+God and the world little in agreement with that of Maimonides.
+It is worth noting that Nachmanides objected
+<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/>
+to calling Maimonides <q>our teacher Moses</q> (Rabbenu
+Mosheh),<note place='foot'>רבינו משה.</note> thinking it improper to confer upon him the
+title by which the Rabbis honoured the Master of the
+Prophets. The very fact, however, that he had some
+theory of the Universe shows that he had a problem to
+solve, whilst the real French Rabbis were hardly troubled
+by difficulties of a metaphysical character. Indeed,
+Nachmanides pays them the rather doubtful compliment
+that Maimonides' work was not intended for them, who
+were barricaded by their faith and happy in their belief,
+wanting no protection against the works of Aristotle and
+Galen, by whose philosophy others might be led astray.
+In other words, their strength lay in an ignorance of
+Greek philosophy, to which the cultivated Jews of Spain
+would not aspire. Nachmanides was also a great admirer
+of Maimonides, whose virtues and great merits in the
+service of Judaism he describes in his letter to the French
+Rabbis. Thus, the only way left open to him was to play
+the part of the conciliator. The course of this struggle
+is fully described in every Jewish history. It is sufficient
+to say that, in spite of his great authority, Nachmanides
+was not successful in his effort to moderate the violence
+of either party, and that the controversy was at last settled
+through the harsh interference of outsiders who well-nigh
+crushed Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists alike.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The second public event in the life of Nachmanides
+was his Disputation, held in Barcelona, at the Court and
+in the presence of King Jayme I., of Aragon, in the year
+1263. It was the usual story. A convert to Christianity,
+named Pablo Christiani, who burned with zealous anxiety
+to see his former co-religionists saved, after many vain
+attempts in this direction, applied to the King of Aragon
+<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/>
+to order Nachmanides to take part in a public disputation.
+Pablo maintained that he could prove the justice of the
+Messianic claims of Jesus from the Talmud and other
+Rabbinic writings. If he could only succeed in convincing
+the great Rabbi of Spain of the truth of his argument,
+the bulk of the Jews was sure to follow. By the way,
+it was the same Talmud which some twenty years previously
+was, at the instance of another Jewish convert,
+burned in Paris, for containing passages against Christianity.
+Nachmanides had to conform with the command
+of the king, and, on the 21st of July, 1263, was begun
+the controversy, which lasted for four or five days.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I do not think that there is in the whole domain of
+literature less profitable reading than that of the controversies
+between Jews and Christians. These public disputations
+occasionally forced the Jews themselves to
+review their position towards their own literature, and
+led them to draw clearer distinctions between what they
+regarded as religion and what as folklore. But beyond
+this, the polemics between Jews and Christians were
+barren of good results. If you have read one you have
+read enough for all time. The same casuistry and the
+same disregard of history turn up again and again.
+Nervousness and humility are always on the side of the
+Jews, who know that, whatever the result may be, the
+end will be persecution; arrogance is always on the side
+of their antagonists, who are supported by a band of
+Knights of the Holy Cross, prepared to prove the soundness
+of their cause at the point of their daggers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Besides, was there enough common ground between
+Judaism and thirteenth century Christianity to have justified
+the hope of a mutual understanding? The Old
+<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/>
+Testament was almost forgotten in the Church. The
+First Person in the Trinity was leading a sort of shadowy
+existence in art, which could only be the more repulsive
+to a Jew on that account. The largest part of Church
+worship was monopolised by devotion to the Virgin
+Mother, prayers to the saints, and kneeling before their
+relics. And a Jew may well be pardoned if he did not
+entertain higher views of this form of worship than Luther
+and Knox did at a later period. It will thus not be
+worth our while to dwell much on the matter of this
+controversy, in which the essence of the real dispute is
+scarcely touched. There are only two points in it which
+are worth noticing. The first is that Nachmanides declared
+the Agadoth<note place='foot'>אגדות, <q>Homilies.</q> See above, p. <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref> and <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>.</note> in the Talmud to be only a series
+of sermons (he uses this very word), expressing the individual
+opinions of the preacher, and thus possessing no
+authoritative weight. The convert Pablo is quite aghast
+at this statement, and accuses Nachmanides of heterodoxy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Secondly,&mdash;and here I take leave to complete the
+rather obscure passage in the controversy by a parallel
+in his book, <hi rend='italic'>The Date of Redemption</hi>,<note place='foot'>קץ הנאולה, <q>The end of the Redemption,</q> that is the time when
+the advent of the Messiah is to be expected.</note> quoted by Azariah
+de Rossi&mdash;that the question of the Messiah is not of that
+dogmatic importance to the Jews that Christians imagine.
+For even if Jews supposed their sins to be so great that
+they forfeited all the promises made to them in the Scriptures,
+or that, on some hidden ground, it would please the
+Almighty never to restore their national independence,
+this would in no way alter the obligations of Jews towards
+the Torah. Nor is the coming of the Messiah desired by
+Jews as an end in itself. For it is not the goal of their
+hopes that they shall be able again to eat of the fruit of
+<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/>
+Palestine, or enjoy other pleasures there; not even the
+chance of the restoration of sacrifices and the worship of
+the Temple is the greatest of Jewish expectations (connected
+with the appearance of the Messiah). What
+makes them long for his coming is the hope that they
+will then witness, in the company of the prophets and
+priests, a greater spread of purity and holiness than is
+now possible. In other words, the possibility for them
+to live a holy life after the will of God will be greater
+than now. But, on the other hand, considering that such
+a godly life under a Christian government requires greater
+sacrifices than it would under a Jewish king; and, considering
+again that the merits and rewards of a good act
+increase with the obstacles that are in the way of executing
+it&mdash;considering this, a Jew might even prefer to live
+under the King of Aragon than under the Messiah, where
+he would perforce act in accordance with the precepts of
+the Torah.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now there is in this statement much that has only to
+be looked upon as a compliment to the government of
+Spain. I am inclined to think that if the alternative laid
+before Nachmanides had been a really practical one, he
+would have decided in favour of the clement rule of the
+Messiah in preference to that of the most cruel king
+on earth. But the fact that he repeats this statement
+in another place, where there was no occasion to be over
+polite to the Government, tends to show, as we have said,
+that the belief in the Messiah was not the basis on which
+Nachmanides' religion was built up.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The result of the controversy is contested by the different
+parties; the Christian writers claim the victory
+for Pablo, whilst the Jewish documents maintain that
+<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/>
+the issue was with Nachmanides. In any case, <q><foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Der
+Jude wird verbrannt</foreign>.</q> For in the next year (1264) all
+the books of the Jews in Aragon were confiscated and
+submitted to the censorship of a commission, of which
+the well-known author of the <hi rend='italic'>Pugio Fidei</hi>, Raymund
+Martini, was, perhaps, the most important member. The
+books were not burned this time, but had to suffer a
+severe mutilation; the anti-Christian passages, or such as
+were supposed to be so, were struck out or obliterated.
+Nachmanides' account of the controversy, which he
+probably published from a sense of duty towards those
+whom he represented, was declared to contain blasphemies
+against the dominant religion. The pamphlet was condemned
+to be burned publicly, whilst the author was, as
+it seems, punished with expulsion from his country. It
+is not reported where Nachmanides found a home during
+the next three years; probably he had to accept the
+hospitality of his friends, either in Castile or in the
+south of France; but we know that in the year 1267 he
+left Europe and emigrated to Palestine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nachmanides was, at this juncture of his life, already
+a man of about seventy. But it would seem as if the
+seven decades which he had spent in the Spanish Peninsula
+were only meant as a preparation for the three years
+which he was destined to live in the Holy Land, for it
+was during this stage of his life that the greatest part of
+his <hi rend='italic'>Commentary on the Pentateuch</hi> was written. In this
+work, as is agreed on all sides, his finest thoughts and
+noblest sentiments were put down.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before proceeding to speak of his works, let us first
+cast a glance at his letters from Palestine, forming as
+they do a certain link between his former life and that
+<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/>
+which was to occupy him exclusively for the rest of his
+days. We have three letters, the first of which I shall
+translate here <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>in extenso</foreign>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The letter was written soon after his arrival at
+Jerusalem in the year 1267. It was addressed to his
+son Nachman, and runs as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<p>
+<q>The Lord shall bless thee, my son Nachman, and thou shalt
+see the good of Jerusalem. Yea, thou shalt see thy children's
+children (Ps. cxxviii.), and thy table shall be like that of our
+father Abraham!<note place='foot'>This patriarch is famous in Jewish legend for his hospitality.
+See Beer's <hi rend='italic'>Leben Abrahams</hi>, pp. 37 and 56.</note> In Jerusalem, the Holy City, I write this
+letter. For, thanks and praise unto the rock of my salvation,
+I was thought worthy by God to arrive here safely on the 9th
+of the month of Elul, and I remained there till the day after the
+Day of Atonement. Now I intend going to Hebron, to the
+sepulchre of our ancestors, to prostrate myself, and there to dig
+my grave. But what am I to say to you with regard to the
+country? Great is the solitude and great the wastes, and, to
+characterise it in short, the more sacred the places, the greater
+their desolation! Jerusalem is more desolate than the rest
+of the country: Judæa more than Galilee. But even in this
+destruction it is a blessed land. It has about 2000 inhabitants,
+about 300 Christians live there who escaped the sword of the
+Sultan. There are no Jews. For since the arrival of the Tartars,
+some fled, others died by the sword. There are only two
+brothers, dyers by trade, who have to buy their ingredients
+from the government. There the Ten Men<note place='foot'>This is the quorum necessary to form a congregation (עדת) for
+the purpose of holding divine service.</note> meet, and on
+Sabbaths they hold service at their house. But we encouraged
+them, and we succeeded in finding a vacant house, built on pillars
+of marble with a beautiful arch. That we took for a synagogue.
+For the town is without a master, and whoever will take possession
+of the ruins can do so. We gave our offerings towards the repairs
+of the house. We have sent already to Shechem to fetch some
+scrolls of the Law from there which had been brought thither
+from Jerusalem at the invasion of the Tartars. Thus they will
+organise a synagogue and worship there. For continually people
+crowd to Jerusalem, men and women, from Damascus, Zobah
+<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/>
+(Aleppo),<note place='foot'>By <hi rend='italic'>Zobah</hi>, or <hi rend='italic'>Aram Zobah</hi>, the Jews of the Middle Ages usually
+understood Aleppo. See Benjamin of Tudela's <hi rend='italic'>Itinerary</hi>, i. 88, ii. 124
+(London and Berlin, 1840-41).</note> and from all parts of the country to see the Sanctuary
+and to mourn over it. He who thought us worthy to let us
+see Jerusalem in her desertion, he shall bless us to behold her
+again, built and restored, when the glory of the Lord will return
+unto her. But you, my son, and your brothers and the whole of
+our family, you all shall live to see the salvation of Jerusalem and
+the comfort of Zion. These are the words of your father who
+is yearning and forgetting, who is seeing and enjoying, Moses
+ben Nachman. Give also my peace to my pupil Moses, the son
+of Solomon, the nephew of your mother. I wish to tell him ...
+that there, facing the holy temple, I have read his verses, weeping
+bitterly over them. May he who caused his name to rest in the
+Holy Temple increase your peace together with the peace of the
+whole community.</q>
+</p>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+This letter may be illustrated by a few parallels taken
+from the appendix to Nachmanides' <hi rend='italic'>Commentary to the
+Pentateuch</hi>, which contains some rather incoherent notes
+which the author seems to have jotted down when he
+arrived in Jerusalem. After a lengthy account of the
+material as well as the spiritual glories of the holy city
+in the past, he proceeds to say:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<p>
+<q>A mournful sight I have perceived in thee (Jerusalem); only
+one Jew is here, a dyer, persecuted, oppressed and despised. At
+his house gather great and small when they can get the Ten Men.
+They are wretched folk, without occupation and trade, consisting
+of a few pilgrims and beggars, though the fruit of the land is still
+magnificent and the harvests rich. Indeed, it is still a blessed
+country, flowing with milk and honey.... Oh! I am the man who
+saw affliction. I am banished from my table, far removed from
+friend and kinsman, and too long is the distance to meet again....
+I left my family, I forsook my house. There with my
+sons and daughters, and with the sweet and dear children whom I
+have brought up on my knees, I left also my soul. My heart and
+my eyes will dwell with them for ever.... But the loss of all
+this and of every other glory my eyes saw is compensated by having
+<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/>
+now the joy of being a day in thy courts (O Jerusalem), visiting
+the ruins of the Temple and crying over the ruined Sanctuary;
+where I am permitted to caress thy stones, to fondle thy dust, and
+to weep over thy ruins. I wept bitterly, but I found joy in my
+tears. I tore my garments, but I felt relieved by it.</q>
+</p>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Of some later date is his letter from Acra, which may
+be considered as a sort of ethical will, and which has been
+justly characterised as a eulogy of humility. Here is an
+extract from it:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<p>
+<q>Accustom yourself to speak gently to all men at all times, and
+thus you will avoid anger, which leads to so much sin.... Humility
+is the first of virtues; for if you think how lowly is man, how
+great is God, you will fear Him and avoid sinfulness. On the
+humble man rests the divine glory; the man that is haughty to
+others denies God. Look not boldly at one whom you address....
+Regard every one as greater than thyself.... Remember
+always that you stand before God, both when you pray and when
+you converse with others.... Think before you speak....
+Act as I have bidden you, and your words, and deeds, and thoughts,
+will be honest, and your prayers pure and acceptable before God.</q>
+</p>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The third letter is addressed to his son (R. Solomon?)
+who was staying (in the service of the king) in Castile. It
+is in its chief content a eulogy of chastity.<note place='foot'>See below, p. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, where a full translation of the letter is given.</note> Probably
+Nachmanides had some dread of the dangerous allurements
+of the court, and he begs his son never to do anything
+of which he knows that his father would not approve,
+and to keep his father's image always before his eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to his works, we may divide them into two classes.
+The one would contain those of a strictly legalistic (Halachic),
+whilst the other those of a more homiletic-exegetical
+and devotional character (Agadic). As already indicated
+in the preliminary lines of this paper, I cannot dwell long
+<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/>
+on the former class of our author's writings. It consists
+either of Glosses or Novellæ to the Talmud, in the style
+and manner of the French Rabbis, or of Compendia of
+certain parts of the Law after the model set by R. Isaac
+Alfasi or Maimonides, or in defences of the <q>Earlier Authorities</q>
+against the strictures made on them by a later
+generation. A few words must be said with regard to these
+defences; for they reveal that deep respect for authority
+which forms a special feature of Nachmanides' writings.
+His <hi rend='italic'>Wars of the Lord</hi>, in which he defends Alfasi against
+R. Zerahiah of Gerona, was undertaken when he was very
+young, whilst his defence of the author of the <hi rend='italic'>Halachoth
+Gedoloth</hi><note place='foot'>הלכות גדולות, a compendium of the Law, dating from the ninth
+century, by R. Simon Caro.</note> against the attacks of Maimonides, which he
+began at a much more mature age, shows the same deference
+<q>to the great ones of the past.</q> Indeed, he says in
+one place, <q>We bow before them (the earlier authorities),
+and though their words are not quite evident to us we
+submit to them</q>; or, as he expresses himself elsewhere,
+<q>Only he who dips (deeply enough) in the wisdom of the
+<q>ancient ones</q> will drink the pure (old) wine.</q> But it
+would be unjust to the genius of Nachmanides to represent
+him as a blind worshipper of authority. Humble and
+generous in disposition, he certainly would bow before
+every recognised authority, and he would also think it his
+duty to take up the cudgels for him as long as there was
+even the least chance of making an honourable defence.
+But when this chance had gone, when Nachmanides was
+fully convinced that his hero was in the wrong, he followed
+no guide but truth. <q>Notwithstanding,</q> he says in his
+introduction to the defences of the <hi rend='italic'>Halachoth Gedoloth</hi>,
+<q>my desire and delight to be the disciple of the Earlier
+Authorities, to maintain their views and to assert them, I
+<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/>
+do not consider myself a <q>donkey carrying books.</q> I will
+explain their way and appreciate their value, but when
+their views are inconceivable to my thoughts, I will plead
+in all modesty, but shall judge according to the sight of
+my eyes. And when the meaning is clear I shall flatter
+none, for the Lord gives wisdom in all times and ages.</q>
+But, on the other hand, there seems to have been a certain
+sort of literary agnosticism about Nachmanides which
+made it very difficult for him to find the <q>clear meaning.</q>
+The passage in the <hi rend='italic'>Wars of the Lord</hi> to the effect <q>that
+there is in the art (of commenting) no such certain demonstration
+as in mathematics or astronomy,</q> is well known
+and has often been quoted; but still more characteristic of
+this literary agnosticism is the first paragraph of the
+above-mentioned defences of the <hi rend='italic'>Halachoth Gedoloth</hi>.
+Whilst all his predecessors accepted, on the authority of
+R. Simlai,<note place='foot'>R. Simlai flourished in Palestine in the third century. He is
+best known as an Agadic teacher and a great controversialist. According
+to him, 613 commandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai,
+of which 365 are prohibitive laws, whilst the remaining 248 are positive
+injunctions.</note> the number (613) of the commandments as
+an uncontested fact, and based their compositions on it,
+Nachmanides questions the whole matter, and shows that
+the passages relating to this enumeration of laws are only
+of a homiletical nature, and thus of little consequence.
+Nay, he goes so far as to say, <q>Indeed the system how to
+number the commandments is a matter in which I suspect
+all of us (are mistaken) and the truth must be left to him
+who will solve all doubts.</q> We should thus be inclined to
+think that this adherence to the words of the earlier Authorities
+was at least as much due to this critical scepticism
+as to his conservative tendencies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The space left to me I shall devote to the second class
+of his writings, in which Nachmanides worked less after
+given types. These reveal to us more of his inner being,
+and offer us some insight into his theological system.
+<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/>
+The great problem which seems to have presented
+itself to Nachmanides' mind was less how to reconcile
+religion with reason than how to reconcile man with
+religion. What is man? The usual answer is not flattering.
+He is an animal that owes its existence to the
+same instinct that produces even the lower creatures, and
+he is condemned, like them, to go to a place of worm and
+maggot. But, may not one ask, why should a creature
+so lowly born, and doomed to so hapless a future, be
+burdened with the awful responsibility of knowing that
+he is destined <q>to give reckoning and judgment before
+the King of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He</q>? It
+is true that man is also endowed with a heavenly soul,
+but this only brings us back again to the antithesis of flesh
+and spirit which was the stumbling-block of many a theological
+system. Nor does it help us much towards the solution
+of the indicated difficulty; for what relation can there
+be between this <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>materia impura</foreign> of body and the pure intellect
+of soul? And again, must not the unfavourable
+condition in which the latter is placed through this uncongenial
+society heavily clog and suppress all aspiration for
+perfection? It is <q>a house divided against itself,</q> doomed
+to an everlasting contest, without hope for co-operation or
+even of harmony.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The works <hi rend='italic'>The Sacred Letter</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>The Law of Man</hi>
+may be considered as an attempt by Nachmanides, if not
+to remove, at least to relieve the harshness of this antithesis.
+The former, in which he blames Maimonides for following
+Aristotle in denouncing certain desires implanted
+in us by nature as ignominious and unworthy of man,
+may, perhaps, be characterised as a vindication of the
+flesh from a religious point of view. The contempt in
+<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/>
+which <q>that Greek,</q> as Nachmanides terms Aristotle,
+held the flesh is inconsistent with the theory of the
+religious man, who believes that everything (including
+the body, with all its functions) is created by God, whose
+work is perfect and good, without impure or inharmonious
+parts. It is only sin and neglect that disfigure God's creations.
+I cannot enter into any further details of this work,
+but I may be permitted to remark that there is a very
+strong similarity between the tendency of the <hi rend='italic'>Sacred
+Letter</hi> and certain leading ideas of Milton. Indeed, if
+the first two chapters of the former were a little condensed
+and put into English, they could not be better
+summarised than by the famous lines in the <hi rend='italic'>Paradise
+Lost</hi>:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Whatever hypocrites austerely talk</l>
+<l>Of purity, and place, and innocence,</l>
+<l>Defaming as impure what God declares</l>
+<l>Pure, and commands to some, leaves free to all,</l>
+<l>Our Maker bids increase; who bids abstain</l>
+<l>But our destroyer, foe to God and man?</l>
+<l>Hail, wedded love, mysterious law!...</l>
+<l>Far be it that I should write thee sin or blame</l>
+<l>Or think thee unbefitting holiest place,</l>
+<l>Perpetual fountain of domestic sweets.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The second of these two works, the <hi rend='italic'>Law of Man</hi>, may
+be regarded as a sanctification of grief, and particularly
+of the grief of griefs, death. The bulk of the book is
+legalistic, treating of mourning rites, burial customs, and
+similar topics; but there is much in the preface which
+bears on our subject. For here again Nachmanides takes
+the opportunity of combating a chilling philosophy, which
+tries to arm us against suffering by stifling our emotions.
+<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/>
+<q>My son,</q> he says, <q>be not persuaded by certain propositions
+of the great philosophers who endeavour to
+harden our hearts and to deaden our sensations by their
+idle comfort, which consists in denying the past and despairing
+of the future. One of them has even declared
+that there is nothing in the world over the loss of which
+it is worth crying, and the possession of which would
+justify joy. This is an heretical view. Our perfect
+Torah bids us to be joyful in the day of prosperity and
+to shed tears in the day of misfortune. It in no way
+forbids crying or demands of us to suppress our grief. On
+the contrary, the Torah suggests to us that to mourn over
+heavy losses is equivalent to a service of God, leading
+us, as it does, to reflect on our end and ponder over our
+destiny.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This destiny, as well as Reward and Punishment in
+general, is treated in the concluding chapter of the <hi rend='italic'>Law
+of Man</hi>, which is known under the title of <hi rend='italic'>The Gate of
+Reward</hi>.<note place='foot'>שער הנמול, <q>Treatise on Reward (and Punishment).</q></note> Nachmanides does not conceal from himself
+the difficulties besetting inquiries of this description.
+He knows well enough that in the last instance we must
+appeal to that implicit faith in the inscrutable justice of
+God with which the believer begins. Nevertheless he
+thinks that only the <q>despisers of wisdom</q> would fail
+to bring to this faith as full a conviction as possible, which
+latter is only to be gained by speculation. I shall have
+by and by occasion to refer to the results of this speculation.
+Here we must only notice the fact of Nachmanides
+insisting on the <emph>bodily</emph> resurrection which will take place
+after the coming of the Messiah, and will be followed by
+the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Olam Habba</foreign><note place='foot'>עלם הבא.</note> (the life in the world to come) of which
+the Rabbis spoke.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/>
+
+<p>
+Irrational as this belief may look, it is only a consequence
+of his theory, which, as we have seen, assigns even
+to the flesh an almost spiritual importance. Indeed, he
+thinks that the soul may have such an influence on the
+body as to transform the latter into so pure an essence
+that it will become safe for eternity. For, as he hints in
+another place, by the continual practising of a thing the
+whole man, the body included, becomes so identified with
+the thing that we call him after it, just as the Holy Singer
+said: I am prayer,<note place='foot'>Ps. cix. 4; ואנ תפלה.</note> so that&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend='margin-left: 6'>Oft converse with heavenly habitants</l>
+<l>Begins to cast a beam on the outward shape,</l>
+<l>The unpolluted temple of the mind,</l>
+<l>And turns it by degrees to the soul's essence,</l>
+<l>Till all be made immortal.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+But if even the body holds such a high position as to
+make all its instincts and functions, if properly regulated,
+a service of God, and to destine it for a glorious future of
+eternal bliss and rejoicing in God, we can easily imagine
+what a high place the soul must occupy in the system of
+Nachmanides. To be sure it is a much higher one than
+that to which philosophy would fain admit her. A beautiful
+parable of the Persian poet Yellaladeen (quoted by
+the late Mr. Lowell) narrates that <q>One knocked at the
+beloved's door, and a voice asked from within, <q>Who is
+there?</q> and he answered, <q>It is I.</q> Then the voice said,
+<q>This house will not hold me and thee,</q> and the door was
+not opened. Then went the lover into the desert and
+fasted and prayed in solitude, and after a year he returned
+and knocked again at the door, and again the voice asked
+<q>Who is there?</q> and he said <q>It is thyself</q>; and the door
+<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/>
+was opened to him.</q> This is also the difference between
+the two schools&mdash;the mystical and the philosophical&mdash;with
+regard to the soul. With the rationalist the soul is
+indeed a superior abstract intelligence created by God, but,
+like all His creations, has an existence of its own, and is
+thus separated from God. With the mystic, however, the
+soul is God, or a direct emanation from God. <q>For he
+who breathes into another thing (Gen. ii. 7) gives unto it
+something of his own breath (or soul),</q> and as it is said in
+Job xxxii. 8, <q>And the soul of the Almighty giveth them
+understanding.</q> This emanation, or rather immanence&mdash;for
+Nachmanides insists in another place that the Hebrew
+term employed for it, <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Aziluth</foreign>,<note place='foot'>אצילות.</note> means a permanent
+dwelling with the thing emanating&mdash;which became manifest
+with the creation of man, must not be confounded
+with the moving soul (or the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Nephesh Chayah</foreign>),<note place='foot'>נפש חיח.</note> which is
+common to man with all creatures.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may be remarked here that Nachmanides endows all
+animals with a soul which is derived from the <q>Superior
+Powers,</q> and its presence is proved by certain marks of
+intelligence which they show. By this fact he tries to
+account for the law prohibiting cruelty to animals, <q>all
+souls belonging to God.</q> Their original disposition was,
+it would seem, according to Nachmanides, peaceful and
+harmless.
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend='margin-left: 16'>About them frisking played</l>
+<l>All beasts of earth, since wild, and of all chase</l>
+<l>In wood or wilderness, forest or den.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+It was only after man had sinned that war entered into
+creation, but with the coming of the Messiah, when sin
+will disappear, all the living beings will regain their
+<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/>
+primæval gentleness, and be reinstituted in their first
+rights.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The special soul of man, however, or rather the <q>over-soul,</q>
+was pre-existent to the creation of the world,
+treasured up as a wave in the sea or fountain of souls&mdash;dwelling
+in the eternal light and holiness of God. There,
+in God, the soul abides in its ideal existence before it
+enters into its material life through the medium of man;
+though it must be noted that, according to Nachmanides'
+belief in the Transmigration of souls, it is not necessary
+to perceive in the soul of every new-born child, <q>a fresh
+message from heaven</q> coming directly from the fountain-head.
+Nachmanides finds this belief indicated in the commandment
+of levirate marriage, where the child born of
+the deceased brother's wife inherits not only the name of
+the brother of his actual father, but also his soul, and thus
+perpetuates his existence on earth. The fourth verse of
+Ecclesiastes ii. Nachmanides seems to interpret to mean
+that the very generation which passes away comes up
+again, by which he tries to explain the difficulty of God's
+visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their children; the
+latter being the very fathers who committed the sins.
+However, whatever trials and changes the soul may have
+to pass through during its bodily existence, its origin is in
+God and thither it will return in the end, <q>just as the
+waters rise always to the same high level from which their
+source sprang forth.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is for this man, with a body so superior, and a soul so
+sublime&mdash;more sublime than the angels&mdash;that the world
+was <emph>created</emph>. I emphasise the last word, for the belief in
+the creation of the world by God from nothing forms,
+according to Nachmanides, the first of the three fundamental
+<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/>
+dogmas of Judaism. The other two also refer to
+God's relation to the world and man. They are the belief
+in God's Providence and his <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Yediah</foreign>.<note place='foot'>ידיעה, <q>Knowledge,</q> <q>Foreknowledge,</q> <q>Omniscience.</q></note> Creation from
+nothing is for Nachmanides the keynote to his whole
+religion, since it is only by this fact, as he points out in
+many places, that God gains real dominion over nature.
+For, as he says, as soon as we admit the eternity of
+matter, we must (logically) deny God even <q>the power of
+enlarging the wing of a fly, or shortening the leg of an
+ant.</q> But the whole Torah is nothing if not a record of
+God's mastery in and over the world, and of His miraculous
+deeds. One of the first proclamations of Abraham
+to his generation was that God is the Lord (or Master) of
+the world (Gen. xviii. 33). The injunction given to Abraham,
+and repeated afterwards to the whole of Israel (Gen.
+xvii. 2, and Deut. xviii. 13), to be perfect with God, Nachmanides
+numbers as one of the 613 commandments, and
+explains it to mean that man must have a whole belief
+in God without blemish or reservation, and acknowledge
+Him possessed of power over nature and the world, man
+and beast, devil and angel, power being attributable to
+Him alone. Indeed, when the angel said to Jacob, <q>Why
+dost thou ask after my name</q> (Gen. xxxii. 29), he meant
+to indicate by his question the impotence of the heavenly
+host, so that there is no use in knowing their name, the
+power and might belonging only to God.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may venture even a step further, and maintain that
+in Nachmanides' system there is hardly room left for such
+a thing as nature or <q>the order of the world.</q> There are
+only two categories of miracles by which the world is
+governed, or in which God's Providence is seen. The
+one is the category of the manifest miracles, as the ten
+<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/>
+plagues in Egypt, or the crossing of the Red Sea; the
+other is that of the hidden miracles, which we do not perceive
+as such, because of their frequency and continuity.
+<q>No man,</q> he declares, <q>can share in the Torah of our
+Teacher, Moses (that is, can be considered a follower of
+the Jewish religion), unless he believes that all our affairs
+and events, whether they concern the masses or the individual,
+are all miracles (worked by the direct will of
+God), attributing nothing to nature or to the order of the
+world.</q> Under this second order he classes all the promises
+the Torah makes to the righteous, and the punishments
+with which evil-doers are threatened. For, as he
+points out in many places, there is nothing in the nature
+of the commandments themselves that would make their
+fulfilment necessarily prolong the life of man, and cause
+the skies to pour down rain, or, on the other hand, would
+associate disobedience to them with famine and death.
+All these results can, therefore, only be accomplished in
+a supernatural way by the direct workings of God.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus miracles are raised to a place in the regular
+scheme of things, and the difficulty regarding the possibility
+of God's interferences with nature disappears by
+their very multiplication. But a still more important
+point is, that, by this unbroken chain of miracles, which
+unconditionally implies God's presence to perform them,
+Nachmanides arrives at a theory establishing a closer
+contact between the Deity and the world than that set
+forth by other thinkers. Thus, he insists that the term
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Shechinah</foreign>, or <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Cabod</foreign><note place='foot'>בכוד, שבינה.</note> (Glory of God), must not be understood,
+with some Jewish philosophers, as something separate
+from God, or as <emph>glory created</emph> by God. <q>Were this
+the case,</q> he proceeds to say, <q>we could not possibly
+<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/>
+say, <q>Blessed be the glory of the Lord from his place,</q>
+since every mark of worship to anything <emph>created</emph> involves
+the sin of idolatry.</q> Such terms as <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Shechinah</foreign>, or <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Cabod</foreign>,
+can therefore only mean the immediate divine presence.
+This proves, as may be noted in passing, how unphilosophical
+the idea of those writers is who maintain that the
+rigid monotheism of the Jews makes God so transcendental
+that He is banished from the world. As we see,
+it is just this assertion of His absolute Unity which not
+only suffers no substitute for God, but also removes every
+separation between Him and the world. Hence also
+Nachmanides insists that the prophecy even of the successors
+of Moses was a direct communion of God with
+the prophet, and not, as others maintained, furnished
+through the medium of an angel.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The third fundamental dogma, <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Yediah</foreign>, includes, according
+to Nachmanides, not only the omniscience of God&mdash;as
+the term is usually translated&mdash;but also His recognition
+of mankind and His special concern in them. Thus, he
+explains the words in the Bible with regard to Abraham,
+<q>For I know him</q> (Gen. xviii. 19), to indicate the special
+attachment of God's Providence to the patriarch, which, on
+account of his righteousness, was to be uninterrupted for
+ever; whilst in other places we have to understand, under
+God's knowledge of a thing, his determination to deal with
+it compassionately, as, for instance, when Scripture says
+that God knew (Exod. ii. 25), it means that His relation to
+Israel emanated from His attribute of mercy and love.
+But just as God knows (which means loves) the world, He
+requires also to be recognised and known by it. <q>For this
+was the purpose of the whole creation, that man should
+recognise and know Him and give praise to His name,</q> as
+<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/>
+it is said, <q>Everything that is called by my name (meaning,
+chosen to promulgate God's name), for my glory have
+I created it.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is this fact which gives Israel their high prerogative,
+for by receiving the Torah they were the first to know
+God's name, to which they remained true in spite of all
+adversities; and thus accomplished God's intention in
+creating the world. It is, again, by this Torah that the
+whole of Israel not only succeeded in being real prophets
+(at the moment of the Revelation), but also became <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Segulah</foreign>,<note place='foot'>סגולה. See Exod. xix. 5.</note>
+which indicates the inseparable attachment between
+God and His people, whilst the righteous who never disobey
+His will become the seat of His throne.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The position of the rest of humanity is also determined
+by their relation to the Torah. <q>It is,</q> Nachmanides tells
+us, <q>a main principle to know that all that man contrives
+to possess of knowledge and wisdom is only the fruits of
+the Torah or the fruits of its fruits. But for this knowledge
+there would be no difference between man and the
+lower animated species. The existence of the civilised
+nations of the world does not disprove this rule both
+Christians and Mahometans being also the heirs of the
+Torah. For when the Romans gained strength over
+Israel they made them translate the Torah which they
+studied, and they even accommodated some of their laws
+and institutions to those of the Bible.</q> Those nations,
+however, who live far away from the centre of the world
+(the Holy Land) and never come into contact with Israel
+are outside the pale of civilisation, and can hardly be
+ranked together with the human species. <q>They are the
+isles afar off, that have not heard my fame, neither have
+seen my glory.</q>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/>
+
+<p>
+What Nachmanides meant by maintaining that all knowledge
+and wisdom were <q>the fruits of the Torah, or the
+fruits of these fruits,</q> will be best seen from his <hi rend='italic'>Commentary
+on the Pentateuch</hi>. I have already made use of this
+Commentary in the preceding quotations, but, being the
+greatest of the works of Nachmanides, it calls for some
+special attention by itself. Its general purpose is edification,
+or as he says, <q>to appease the mind of the students
+(labouring under persecution and troubles) when they read
+the portion on Sabbaths and festivals, and to attract their
+heart by simple explanations and sweet words.</q> The explanations
+occupy a considerable space. As Dr. Perles
+has shown in his able essay on this work of Nachmanides,
+our author neglected no resource of philology or archæology
+accessible in his age which could contribute to establish
+the <q>simple explanations</q> on a sound scientific
+basis. The prominent feature of this Commentary, however,
+is the <q>sweet words.</q> Indeed, how sweet and soothing
+to his contemporaries must have been such words as
+we read at the end of the <q>Song of Moses</q> (Deut. xxxii.):
+<q>And behold there is nothing conditional in this Song. It
+is a charter testifying that we shall have to suffer heavily
+for our sins, but that, nevertheless, God will not destroy
+us, being reconciled to us (though we shall have no merits),
+and forgiving our sins for his name's sake alone.... And
+so our Rabbis said, Great is this song, embracing as it
+does both the past (of Israel) and the future, this world
+and the world to come.... And if this song were the
+composition of a mere astrologer we should be constrained
+to believe in it, considering that all its words were fulfilled.
+How much more have we to hope with all our
+hearts and to trust to the word of God, through the mouth
+<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/>
+of his prophet Moses, the faithful in all his house, like unto
+whom there was none, whether before him or after him.</q>
+A part of these sweet words may also be seen in the numerous
+passages in which he attempts to account for
+various laws, and to detect their underlying principles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For though <q>the Torah is the expression of God's simple
+and absolute will, which man has to follow without any
+consideration of reward,</q> still this will is not arbitrary, and
+even that class of laws which are called <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>chukkim</foreign><note place='foot'>חקים.</note> (which
+means, according to some Jewish commentators, motiveless
+decrees) have their good reasons, notwithstanding that
+they are unfathomable to us. <q>They are all meant for the
+good of man, either to keep aloof from us something hurtful,
+or to educate us in goodness, or to remove from us an
+evil belief and to make us know his name. This is what
+they (the Rabbis) meant by saying that commandments
+have a purifying purpose, namely, that man being purified
+and tried by them becomes as one without alloy of bad
+thoughts and unworthy qualities.</q> Indeed, the soul of
+man is so sensitive to every impurity that it suffers a sort
+of infection even by an unintentional sin. Hence the injunction
+to bring a <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Korban</foreign> (sacrifice) even in this case;
+the effect of the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Korban</foreign>, as its etymology (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Karab</foreign>)<note place='foot'>קרב, קרבן.</note> indicates,
+is to bring man back to God, or rather to facilitate
+this approach. All this again is, as Nachmanides points
+out, only an affluence from God's mercy and love to mankind.
+God derives no benefit from it. <q>If he be righteous
+what can he give thee?</q> And even those laws and
+institutions which are intended to commemorate God's
+wonders and the creation of the world (for instance, the
+Passover festival and the Sabbath) are not meant for His
+glorification, or, as Heine maliciously expressed it:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Der Weltkapellenmeister hier oben</l>
+<l>Er selbst sogar hört gerne loben</l>
+<l>Gleichfalls seine Werke....</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+<q>For all the honour (we give to Him), and the praising of
+His work are counted by Him less than nothing and as
+vanity to Him.</q> What He desires is that we may know
+the truth, and be confirmed in it, for this makes us worthy
+of finding in Him <q>our Protector and King.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The lessons which Nachmanides draws from the various
+Biblical narratives also belong to these <q>sweet words.</q>
+They are mostly of a typical character. For, true as all
+the stories in the Scriptures are, <q>the whole Torah is,</q> as
+he tells us (with allusion to Gen. v. 1.), <q>the book of the
+generations of Adam,</q> or, as we should say, a history of
+humanity written in advance. Thus the account of the
+six days of the creation is turned into a prophecy of the
+most important events which would occur during the succeeding
+six thousand years, whilst the Sabbath is a forecast
+of the millennium in the seventh thousand, which will
+be the day of the Lord. Jacob and Esau are, as in the
+old Rabbinic homilies generally, the prototypes of Israel
+and Rome; and so is the battle of Moses and Joshua with
+Amalek indicative of the war which Elijah and the
+Messiah the son of Joseph will wage against Edom (the
+prototype of Rome), before the Redeemer from the house
+of David will appear.<note place='foot'>According to a Jewish tradition (the date of which is uncertain)
+the advent of the Messiah, the Son of David, will be preceded by that
+of the Messiah, the Son of Joseph. The latter will perish in the battle
+against Gog and Magog (the Antichrist of Jewish literature), but will
+soon be brought back to life on the appearance of the former. Cf. G.
+H. Dalman's <hi rend='italic'>Der leidende und der sterbende Messias der Synagoge</hi>
+(Berlin, 1881).</note> Sometimes these stories convey
+both a moral and a pre-justification of what was destined to
+happen to Israel. So Nachmanides' remarks with reference
+to Sarah's treatment of Hagar (Gen. xvi. 6): <q>Our
+mother Sarah sinned greatly by inflicting this pain on
+Hagar, as did also Abraham, who allowed such a thing to
+pass; but God saw her affliction and rewarded her by a
+<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/>
+son (the ancestor of a wild race), who would inflict on
+the seed of Abraham and Sarah every sort of oppression.</q>
+In this he alluded to the Islamic empires. Nor
+does he approve of Abraham's conduct on the occasion of
+his coming to Egypt, when he asked Sarah to pass as his
+sister (Gen. xii.). <q>Unintentionally,</q> Nachmanides says,
+<q>Abraham, under the fear of being murdered, committed
+a great sin when he exposed his virtuous wife to such a
+temptation. For he ought to have trusted that God would
+save both him and his wife.... It is on account of this
+deed that his children had to suffer exile under the rule of
+Pharaoh. There, where the sin was committed, also the
+judgment took place.</q> It is also worth noticing that, in
+opposition to Maimonides, he allows no apology for the
+attack of Simeon and Levi on the population of Shechem
+(Gen. xxxiv. 25). It is true that they were idolaters, immoral,
+and steeped in every abomination; but Jacob and
+his sons were not commissioned with executing justice on
+them. The people of Shechem trusted their word, therefore
+they ought to have spared them. Hence Jacob's protest,
+and his curse against their wrath, which would have
+been quite unjustified had he looked on the action of his
+sons as a good work.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Besides these typical meanings, the matters of the
+Torah have also their symbolical importance, which places
+them almost above the sphere of human conception; they
+are neither exactly what they seem to be nor entirely what
+their name implies, but a reflex from things unseen, which
+makes any human interference both preposterous and dangerous.
+Of <q>the things <emph>called</emph> Tree of Life and Tree of
+Knowledge,</q> Nachmanides tells us that their mystery is
+very great, reaching into higher worlds. Otherwise, why
+<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/>
+should God, who is good and the dispenser of good, have
+prevented Adam from eating the fruit (of the latter), whilst
+in another place he says: <q>And if thou wilt be worthy, and
+understand the mystery of the word <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Bereshith</foreign><note place='foot'>בראשית, <q>In the beginning,</q> Gen. i. 1.</note> (with
+which the Torah begins), thou wilt see that in truth the
+Scripture, though apparently speaking of matters here below
+(on earth), is always pointing to things above (heaven);</q> for
+<q>every glory and every wonder, and every deep mystery,
+and all beautiful wisdom are hidden in the Torah, sealed
+up in her treasures.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is very characteristic of the bent of Nachmanides'
+mind, that he is perhaps the first Jewish writer who mentions
+the apocryphal book <hi rend='italic'>The Wisdom of Solomon</hi>, which
+he knew from a Syriac version, and which he believed to
+be genuine. And when we read there (vii. 7-25), <q>Wherefore
+I prayed and understanding was given to me. I called
+upon God and the spirit of wisdom came upon me....
+For God has given me unmistakable knowledge to know
+how the world was made, and the operations of the planets.
+The beginning, ending, and midst of the times, the alterations
+and the turnings of the sun, the changes of the
+seasons, the natures of the living creatures and the furies
+of the wild beasts, the force of the spirits and the reasonings
+of men, the diversities of plants and the virtues of the
+roots. All such things that are either secret or manifest,
+them I knew</q>&mdash;the wise king was, according to Nachmanides
+(who quotes the passages which I have just cited),
+speaking of the Torah, which is identical with this wisdom,
+a wisdom which existed before the creation, and by
+which God planned the world. Hence it bears the impression
+of all the universe, whilst on the other hand when
+it is said, <q>The king brought me into his chambers,</q>
+<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/>
+those secret recesses of the Torah are meant in which all
+the great mysteries relating to Creation and to the Chariot
+(Ezekiel i.) are hidden.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We must content ourselves with these few sparks
+struck from the glowing fires of these inner compartments,
+which, imperfectly luminous as my treatment has
+left them, may yet shed some light on the personality of
+Nachmanides, which is the main object of this essay.
+But I do not propose to accompany the mystic into the
+<q>chambers of the king,</q> lest we may soon get into a
+labyrinth of obscure terms and strange ways of thinking
+for which the Ariadne thread is still wanting. We might
+also be confronted by the Fifty Gates of Understanding,
+the Thirty-Two Paths of Wisdom, and the Two Hundred
+and Thirty-One Permutations or Ciphers of the Alphabet,
+the key to which I do not hold. It is also questionable
+whether it would always be worth while to seek for it.
+When one, for instance, sees such a heaping on of nouns
+(with some Cabbalists) as the Land of Life, the Land of
+Promise, the Lord of the World, the Foundation Stone,
+Zion, Mother, Daughter, Sister, the Congregation of
+Israel, the Twin Roes, the Bride, Blue, End, Oral Law,
+Sea, Wisdom, etc., meant to represent the same thing or
+attribute, and to pass one into another, one cannot possibly
+help feeling some suspicion that one stands before
+a conglomerate of words run riot, over which the writer
+had lost all control.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Indeed Nachmanides himself, in the preface to the
+above-mentioned Commentary, gives us the kind advice
+not to meditate, or rather brood, over the mystical hints
+which are scattered over this work, <q>speculation being
+(in such matters) folly, and reasoning over them fraught
+<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/>
+with danger.</q> Indeed, the danger is obvious. I have,
+to give one or two instances, already alluded to the theory
+which accepts the Torah or the Wisdom as an agent in
+the creation of the world. But the mystic pushes further,
+and asks for the Primal Being to which this Wisdom owes
+its origin. The answer given is from the great Nothing,
+as it is written, And the Wisdom shall be found from
+Nothing.<note place='foot'>מאין; Job xxvii. 12.</note> What is intended by this, if it means anything,
+is probably to divest the first cause of every possible
+quality which by its very qualifying nature must be limiting
+and exclusive. Hence, God becomes the Unknowable.
+But suppose a metaphysical Hamlet, who, handling words
+indelicately, should impetuously exclaim, To be or not to
+be, that is the question?&mdash;into what abyss of utter negations
+would he drag all those who despair, by his terrible
+Nothing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand, into what gross anthropomorphisms
+may we be drawn by roughly handling certain metaphors
+which some Cabbalists have employed in their struggling
+after an adequate expression of God's manifestations in
+His attribute of love, if we forget for a single moment
+that they are only figures of speech, but liable to get
+defiled by the slightest touch of an unchaste thought.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the greater the dangers that beset the path of
+mysticism, the deeper the interest which we feel in the
+mystic. In connection with the above-mentioned warning,
+Nachmanides cites the words from the Scriptures, <q>But
+let not the priests and the people break through to come
+up unto the Lord, lest he break forth upon them</q> (Exod.
+xix. 24). Nevertheless, when we read in the Talmud the
+famous story of the four Rabbis<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Chagigah</hi> 14<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. The activity of these four Rabbis falls chiefly
+in the second century. R. Akiba died as a martyr in the Hadrianic
+persecution (about 130). Elisha b. Abuyah, the apostate, was usually
+called אחר, <hi rend='italic'>Acher</hi>, <q>the other one.</q></note> who went up into the
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Pardes</foreign>, or Garden of Mystical Contemplation, we do not
+<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/>
+withhold our sympathy, either from Ben Azzai, who shot
+a glance and died, or from Ben Zoma, who shot a glance
+and was struck (in his mind). Nay, we feel the greatest
+admiration for these daring spirits, who, in their passionate
+attempt to <q>break through</q> the veil before the
+Infinite, hazarded their lives, and even that which is
+dearer than life, their minds, for a single glance. And
+did R. Meir deny his sympathies even to Other One
+or Elisha ben Abuyah, who <q>cut down the plants</q>?
+He is said to have heard a voice from heaven, <q>Return,
+oh backsliding children, except Other One,</q> which prevented
+his repentance. Poor fallen Acher, he mistook
+hell for heaven. But do not the struggle and despair
+which led to this unfortunate confusion rather plead for
+our commiseration?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nachmanides, however, in his gentle way, did not mean
+to storm heaven. Like R. Akiba, <q>he entered in peace,
+and departed in peace.</q> And it was by this peacefulness
+of his nature that he gained an influence over posterity
+which is equalled only by that of Maimonides. <q>If he
+was not a profound thinker,</q> like the author of the <hi rend='italic'>Guide
+of the Perplexed</hi>, he had that which is next best&mdash;<q>he
+felt profoundly.</q> Some writers of a rather reactionary
+character even went so far as to assign to him a higher
+place than to Maimonides. This is unjust. What a
+blank would there have been in Jewish thought but for
+Maimonides' great work, on which the noblest thinkers of
+Israel fed for centuries! As long as Job and Ecclesiastes
+hold their proper place in the Bible, and the Talmud
+contains hundreds of passages suggesting difficulties relating
+to such problems as the creation of the world, God's
+exact relation to it, the origin of evil, free will and predestination,
+<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/>
+none will persuade me that philosophy does
+not form an integral part of Jewish tradition, which, in its
+historical developments, took the shape which Maimonides
+and his successors gave to it. If Maimonides' <hi rend='italic'>Guide</hi>,
+which he considered as an interpretation of the Bible and
+of many strange sayings in the old Rabbinic homilies
+in the Talmud, is Aristotelian in its tone, so is tradition
+too; even the Talmud in many places betrays all sorts
+of foreign influences, and none would think of declaring
+it un-Jewish on this ground. I may also remark in passing
+that the certainty with which some writers deprecate
+the aids which religion may receive from philosophy is
+a little too hasty. For the question will always remain,
+What religion? The religion of R. Moses of Tachau or
+R. Joseph Jabez<note place='foot'>The former lived in the twelfth, the latter in the sixteenth,
+century. They are both known for their hostility to philosophy.</note> would certainly have been greatly
+endangered by the slightest touch of speculation, while
+that of Bachya,<note place='foot'>Bachya wrote in the eleventh century a famous book called
+חובות חלבבות, <hi rend='italic'>The Duties of the Heart</hi>. For the others see above, p. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>
+and <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, p. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> and <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, p. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> and <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, p. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> and <hi rend='italic'>note</hi>, p. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref> and
+<hi rend='italic'>note</hi>. They all belong to the rationalistic school.</note> Maimonides, Jedaiah of Bedres, and
+Delmedigo undoubtedly received from philosophy its
+noblest support, and became intensified by the union.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But apart from that consideration, the sphere of the activity
+of these two leaders seems to have been so widely
+different that it is hardly just to consider them as antagonists,
+or at least to emphasise the antagonism too much.
+Maimonides wrote his chief work, the <hi rend='italic'>Guide</hi>, for the few
+elect, who, like Ibn Tibbon<note place='foot'>A younger contemporary of Maimonides, who translated the
+<hi rend='italic'>Guide</hi> from Arabic into Hebrew.</note> for instance, would traverse
+whole continents if a single syllogism went wrong. And
+if he could be of use to one wise man of this stamp,
+Maimonides would do so at the risk of <q>saying things
+unsuitable for ten thousand fools.</q> But with Nachmanides,
+it would seem, it was these ten thousand who
+formed the main object of his tender care. They are, as
+we have seen, cultivated men, indeed <q>students,</q> having
+<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/>
+enjoyed a proper education; but the happy times of
+abstract thinking have gone, and being under a perpetual
+strain of persecutions and cares, they long for the Sabbath
+and Festivals, which would bring them both bodily and
+spiritual recreation. They find no fault with religion, a
+false syllogism does not jar on their ears; what they are
+afraid of is that, being engaged as they are, all the six
+days of work, in their domestic affairs, religion may be
+too good a thing for them. <q>To appease their minds,</q>
+to edify them, to make life more sweet and death less
+terrible to them, and to show them that even their weaknesses,
+as far as they are conditioned by nature, are not
+irreconcilable with a holy life, was what Nachmanides
+strove after. Now and then he permits them a glance
+into the mystical world in which he himself loved to move,
+but he does not care to stifle their senses into an idle
+contemplation, and passes quickly to some more practical
+application. To be sure, the tabernacle is nothing but a
+complete map of the superlunar world; but nevertheless
+its rather minute description is meant to teach us <q>that
+God desires us to work.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This tendency toward being useful to the great majority
+of mankind may account for the want of consistency of
+which Nachmanides was so often accused. It is only the
+logician who can afford to be thoroughgoing in his theory,
+and even he would become most absurd and even dangerous
+but for the redeeming fact <q>that men are better than
+their principles.</q> But with Nachmanides these <q>principles</q>
+would have proved even more fatal. Could he,
+for instance, have upset authority in the face of the ten
+thousand? They need to be guided rather than to guide.
+But he does not want them to follow either the Gaon or
+<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/>
+anybody else slavishly, <q>the gates of wisdom never having
+been shut,</q> whilst on the other hand he hints to them that
+there is something divine in every man, which places him
+at least on the same high level with any authority. Take
+another instance&mdash;his wavering attitude between the
+Maimonists and the Anti-Maimonists, for which he was
+often censured. Apart from other reasons, to which I
+have pointed above, might he not have felt that, in spite
+of his personal admiration for Maimonides' genius, he had
+no right to put himself entirely on the side where there
+was little room for the ten thousand who were entrusted
+to his guidance, whilst the French Rabbis, with all their
+prejudices and intolerance, would never deny their sympathies
+to simple emotional folk?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This tender and absorbing care for the people in general
+may also account for the fact that we do not know
+of a single treatise by Nachmanides of a purely Cabbalistic
+character in the style of the <hi rend='italic'>Book of Weight</hi>, by
+Moses de Leon, or the <hi rend='italic'>Orchard</hi>, by R. Moses Cordovora,
+or the <hi rend='italic'>Tree of Life</hi> by R. Isaac Loria.<note place='foot'>ספר המשקל. See above, p. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>. R. Moses Cordovora, the author
+of the סררם, lived in Safed in the sixteenth century. For R. Isaac
+Loria, the author of the עץ החיים, see <ref target='Pg076'>above</ref>, note 5 to Elijah Wilna.</note> The story that
+attributes to him the discovery of the <hi rend='italic'>Zohar</hi> in a cave in
+Palestine, from whence he sent it to Catalonia, needs as
+little refutation as the other story connected with his
+conversion to the Cabbalah, which is even more silly and
+of such a nature as not to bear repetition. The <hi rend='italic'>Lilac of
+Mysteries</hi><note place='foot'>שושן סודות.</note> and other mystical works passed also for a
+long time under his name, but their claim to this honour
+has been entirely disproved by the bibliographers, and
+they rank now among the <hi rend='italic'>pseudepigraphica</hi>. It is true
+that R. Nissim, of Gerona, said of Nachmanides that he
+was too much addicted to the belief in the Cabbalah, and
+as a fellow-countryman he may have had some personal
+<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/>
+knowledge about the matter. But as far as his writings
+go, this belief finds expression only in incidental remarks
+and occasional citations from the Bahir,<note place='foot'>סשר הבהיר, a forgery by a Provençal Jew of the thirteenth century,
+who attributed it to a Rabbi of the first century.</note> which he never
+thrusts upon the reader. It was chiefly when philosophy
+called in question his deep sympathies with even lower
+humanity, and threatened to withdraw them from those
+ennobling influences under which he wanted to keep them,
+that he asserted his mystical theories.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nachmanides' inconsistency has also proved beneficial
+in another respect. For mysticism has, by its over-emphasising
+of the divine in man, shown a strong tendency
+to remove God altogether and replace Him by the
+creature of His hands. Witness only the theological
+bubble of Shabbethai Tsebi&mdash;happily it burst quickly
+enough&mdash;which resulted in mere idolatry (in more polite
+language, Hero Worship) on the one side, and in the
+grossest antinomianism on the other. Nachmanides,
+however, with a happy inconsistency, combined with the
+belief of man's origin in God, a not less strong conviction
+of man's liability to sin, of the fact that he <emph>does</emph> sin&mdash;even
+the patriarchs were not free from it, as we have seen
+above&mdash;and that this sin <emph>does</emph> alienate man from God.
+This healthy control over man's extravagant idea of his
+own species was with Nachmanides also a fruit of the
+Torah, within the limits of which everything must move,
+the mystic and his aspirations included, whilst its fair
+admixture of 365 <emph>Do not's</emph> with 248 <emph>Do's</emph> preserved him
+from that <q>holy doing nothing</q> which so many mystics
+indulged in, and made his a most active life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Much of this activity was displayed in Palestine, <q>the
+land to which the providence of God is especially attached,</q>
+and which was, as with R. Judah Hallevi, always
+<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/>
+<q>his ideal home.</q> There he not only completed his
+<hi rend='italic'>Commentary on the Pentateuch</hi>, but also erected synagogues,
+and engaged in organising communities, whose
+tone he tried to elevate both by his lectures and by his
+sermons. His career in Palestine was not a long one,
+for he lived there only about three years, and in 1270
+he must already have been dead. A pretty legend narrates
+that when he emigrated to Palestine his pupils asked
+him to give them a sign enabling them to ascertain the
+day of his death. He answered them that on that day
+a rift in the shape of a lamp would be seen in the tombstone
+of his mother. After three years a pupil suddenly
+noticed this rift, when the mourning over the Rabbi began.
+Thus, stone, or anything else earthly, breaks finally, and
+the life of the master passes into light.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What life meant to him, how deeply he was convinced
+that there is no other life but that originating in God, how
+deeply stirred his soul was by the consciousness of sin,
+what agonies the thought of the alienation from God
+caused him, how he felt that there is nothing left to him
+but to throw himself upon the mercy of God, and how he
+rejoiced in the hope of a final reunion with Him&mdash;of all
+these sentiments we find the best expression in the following
+religious poem, with which this paper may conclude.
+Nachmanides composed it in Hebrew, and it is still preserved
+in some rituals as a hymn, recited on the Day of
+Atonement. It is here given in the English translation of
+Mrs. Henry Lucas.<note place='foot'>This hymn is now incorporated in her excellent little book,
+<hi rend='italic'>Songs of Zion</hi>, pp. 13-15.</note>
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ere time began, ere age to age had thrilled,</l>
+<l>I waited in his storehouse, as he willed;</l>
+<l>He gave me being, but, my years fulfilled,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>I shall be summoned back before the King.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/>
+
+<lg>
+<l>He called the hidden to the light of day,</l>
+<l>To right and left, each side the fountain lay,</l>
+<l>From out the stream and down the steps, the way</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>That led me to the garden of the King.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Thou gavest me a light my path to guide,</l>
+<l>To prove my heart's recesses still untried;</l>
+<l>And as I went, thy voice in warning cried:</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>"Child! fear thou him who is thy God and King!"</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>True weight and measure learned my heart from thee;</l>
+<l>If blessings follow, then what joy for me!</l>
+<l>If nought but sin, all mine the shame must be,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>For that was not determined by the King.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>I hasten, trembling, to confess the whole</l>
+<l>Of my transgressions, ere I reach the goal</l>
+<l>Where mine own words must witness 'gainst my soul,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>And who dares doubt the writing of the King?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Erring, I wandered in the wilderness,</l>
+<l>In passion's grave nigh sinking powerless;</l>
+<l>Now deeply I repent, in sore distress,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>That I kept not the statutes of the King!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>With worldly longings was my bosom fraught,</l>
+<l>Earth's idle toys and follies all I sought;</l>
+<l>Ah! when he judges joys so dearly bought,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>How greatly shall I fear my Lord and King!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Now conscience-stricken, humbled to the dust,</l>
+<l>Doubting himself, in thee alone his trust,</l>
+<l>He shrinks in terror back, for God is just&mdash;</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>How can a sinner hope to reach the King?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Oh, be thy mercy in the balance laid,</l>
+<l>To hold thy servant's sins more lightly weighed,</l>
+<l>When, his confession penitently made,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>He answers for his guilt before the King.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Thine is the love, O God, and thine the grace,</l>
+<l>That folds the sinner in its mild embrace;</l>
+<l>Thine the forgiveness, bridging o'er the space</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>'Twixt man's works and the task set by the King.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Unheeding all my sins, I cling to thee;</l>
+<l>I know that mercy shall thy footstool be:</l>
+<l>Before I call, oh, do thou answer me,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>For nothing dare I claim of thee, my King!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>O thou, who makest guilt to disappear,</l>
+<l>My help, my hope, my rock, I will not fear;</l>
+<l>Though thou the body hold in dungeon drear,</l>
+<l rend='margin-left: 4'>The soul has found the palace of the King!</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>Postscript</hi>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The third letter of Nachmanides to which I have
+alluded above, is embodied in the following will by R.
+Solomon, son of the martyr Isaac. Neither the date
+nor the country of the testator is known, but style and
+language make it probable that he was a Spanish Jew,
+and lived in the fourteenth century. I give here a translation
+from the whole document as it is to be found in the
+Manuscripts.
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<p>
+These are the regulations which I, Solomon, the son of the martyr,
+Rabbi Isaac, the son of R. Zadok, of blessed memory, draw
+up for myself. That as long as I am in good health, and free
+from accident, and think of it, I shall not eat before I have studied
+one page of the Talmud or of its commentaries. Should I transgress
+this rule intentionally, I must not drink wine on that day, or
+I shall pay half a <foreign rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign><note place='foot'>זהוב, a gold piece. The country and the date of the writer not
+being certain, it is impossible to determine the value of this coin.</note> to charity. Again, that I shall every
+week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and once in the
+Aramaic version. Should I intentionally omit completing the
+Lesson as above, then I must pay two <foreign rend='italic'>Zehubs</foreign> to charity. Again,
+that I shall every Sabbath take three meals, consisting of bread or
+fruit. Should I omit to do so, I must give in charity half a <foreign rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign>.
+<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/>
+Again, in order to subdue my appetites, and not to enjoy in this
+world more than is necessary for the maintenance of my body, I
+must not eat at one meal more than one course of meat, and not
+more than two courses altogether; nor must I drink more than
+two cups of wine at one meal, apart from the blessing-cup (over
+which grace is said), except on Sabbath, Festivals, Chanukah (the
+Maccabean Dedication Feast), New Moon, and at other religious
+meals (for instance, wedding-dinners and similar festive occasions).
+Again, I must not have any regular meal on the day preceding
+Sabbath or Festivals. I must not have during the day
+more than one course, so that I shall enter upon the holy day with
+a good appetite. Should I transgress this resolve intentionally
+I shall have to fast a day, or to pay two <foreign rend='italic'>Zehubs</foreign>. Again, that I
+shall not eat the fish called <foreign rend='italic'>burbot</foreign>,<note place='foot'>The lawfulness of eating this fish (= sturgeon?) was contested
+for many centuries, and the controversy still continues.</note> if I think of it. Again, even
+on the above-mentioned days, I must not eat more than three
+courses at a meal, nor drink more than three cups of wine, exclusive
+of the blessing-cup. Again, ... I must not swear by God,
+nor mention the name of Heaven without a purpose, nor curse
+any man in the name of God. Should I, God forbid, transgress
+it, I must not drink more than one cup of wine on that day exclusive
+of the blessing-cup. Should I, however, transgress this
+after dinner, I must abstain from wine the following day. Should
+I transgress it, I have to pay half a <foreign rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign>. Again, that I shall
+get up every night to praise God, to supplicate for His mercy, and
+to confess. On those nights when confession is not to be said
+(Sabbaths and Festivals), I shall say hymns and psalms. This I
+shall do when I am in my house, and in good health, free from
+any accident. Should I transgress it, I shall drink not more than
+one cup of wine the following day, except the blessing-cup. I
+again take upon myself to give in charity the following proportion
+of my expenditure&mdash;from each dress which I shall have made for
+myself or for one member of my family, costing more than ten
+<foreign rend='italic'>Zehubs</foreign>, I must pay one <foreign rend='italic'>Pashut</foreign><note place='foot'>פשוט, a smaller coin than the Zehub.</note> for each ten <foreign rend='italic'>Zehubs</foreign>. Again, if
+I should buy an animal, or a slave, or a female slave, or ground,
+that I shall also pay at the same rate. And if I shall buy clothes
+for sale, called <foreign rend='italic'>fashas</foreign>, I shall pay two <foreign rend='italic'>Pashuts</foreign> for each garment.
+As often as I have occasion to say the benediction of thanksgivings
+<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/>
+for having escaped danger I shall pay a <foreign rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign>, except when
+I am travelling [also involving danger in those times!], in which
+case I shall have to pay a <foreign rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign> on my arrival, and two <foreign rend='italic'>Pashuts</foreign>
+daily during the journey. Again, from every kind of fish bought
+for me, costing more than a <foreign rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign>, I shall pay a <foreign rend='italic'>Pashut</foreign> for each
+<foreign rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign>. And also, if I shall be deemed worthy by God to marry
+my children, and to be present at their wedding, to cause them to
+give to the poor from the dowry brought to them by their wives,
+whether in money or in kind, at the rate of one per cent. If God
+will find me worthy of having sons, I must give in charity according
+to my means at the time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I shall also, between New Year and the Day of Atonement in
+each year, calculate my profits during the past year and (after deducting
+expenses) give a tithe thereof to the poor. Should I be
+unable to make an accurate calculation, then I shall give approximately.
+This tithe I shall put aside, together with the other
+money for religious (charitable) purpose, to dispose of it as I
+shall deem best. I also propose to have the liberty of employing
+the money in any profitable speculation with a view to augmenting
+it. But in respect of all I have written above I shall not hold
+myself guilty if I transgress, if such transgression be the result of
+forgetfulness; but in order to guard against it, I shall read this
+through weekly.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I also command my children to take upon themselves as many of
+the above regulations as may be in their power to observe, and also
+to bind them (<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> the regulations), from generation to generation,
+upon their children. And he who carries them out, and even
+adds to them, at pain of discomfort to himself, shall merit a special
+blessing. And this is the text of the will which I, the above-mentioned
+Solomon, draw up for my children, may God preserve
+them. That they shall pray thrice daily, and endeavour always
+to utter their prayers with devotion. Again, that this prayer
+shall be said in the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Beth Hammidrash</foreign>, or in the synagogue together
+with the congregation. Again, that they shall apply all their
+powers to maintain the synagogues and the houses of study, which
+our ancestors have built, as well as to continue the endowments
+established by my ancestors and myself. They must always endeavour
+<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/>
+to imitate them, so that goodness shall never cease from
+among them. Again, that they shall always have a chair on
+which a volume of the Talmud, or some other Talmudical work,
+shall lie; so that they shall always open a book when they come
+home. At least, they shall read in any book they like four lines
+before taking their meal. Again, that they shall every week read
+the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and once in the Aramaic
+version. Again, to take three meals on the Sabbath....
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Again, that they shall be always modest, merciful, and charitable,
+for these are the qualities by which the children of Israel are
+known. Let also all their thoughts and meditations be always directed
+to the service of the Lord, and be as charitable and benevolent
+as possible, for this is all that remains to man of his labour.
+They shall also endeavour to regulate their diet according to the
+rules laid down by Rabbi Moses (b. Maimon, or Maimonides), so
+as to fulfil the words of Scripture: <q>The righteous eateth to the
+satisfying of his soul.</q> And let them always be careful not to take
+the name of God in vain, to be honest in all business transactions,
+and let their yea be always yea. They shall always be under the
+obligation to train their children to the Study of the Torah, but
+one shall devote his life exclusively to the study thereof. And
+it shall be incumbent upon his brothers to support this one, and to
+invest his moneys, and to provide for him that he and his family
+may live respectably, so that he be not distracted by worldly cares
+from his studies. Let also the elder love the younger brothers as
+their own children, and the younger respect the elder as a parent.
+Thus they may always bear in mind that they are of a God-fearing
+family. Let them love and honour scholars, thus to merit the
+honour of having scholars for their sons and sons-in-law. This
+will they shall themselves read weekly, and shall also make it incumbent
+upon their children, from generation to generation, to
+read weekly, in order to fulfil what is written (Gen. xviii. 19),
+<q>For I know him that he will command his children,</q> etc., and
+also the words of Isaiah (lix. 21), <q>And this is my covenant,</q> etc.
+But as often as they shall read this will, they shall also read the
+two letters below written, which Rabbi Moses ben Nachman sent
+to his sons, with a view of being serviceable to them in many respects.
+<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/>
+Should, heaven forbid, they be by any sad accident prevented
+from fulfilling the injunctions above laid down, they must
+fine themselves by not drinking wine on that day, or by eating one
+course less at the dinner, or by giving some fine in charity....
+</p>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+And this is the letter which the above-mentioned Rabbi
+sent from the Holy Land to Castile, when his son was
+staying before the king (in his service):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<p>
+<q>... May God bless you and preserve you from sin and punishment.
+Behold, our master, King David, had a son, wise and
+of an understanding heart, like unto whom there was never one
+before or after. Nevertheless he said to him (1 Kings ii. 2): <q>And
+keep the charge of the Lord thy God,</q> etc. He also said to him:
+<q>And thou, my son, know the God of thy father</q> (1 Chron.
+xxviii. 9). Now, my son, if thou wilt measure thyself with Solomon,
+thou wilt find thyself a worm&mdash;not a man, merely an insect;
+nevertheless, if thou wilt seek God, he will make thee great; and if
+thou wilt forsake him, thou wilt be turned out and forsaken. My
+son, be careful that thou read the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Shema</foreign><note place='foot'>שמע, <q>Hear,</q> the verses from Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, and
+Num. xv. 37-41, recited twice a day by the Jews.</note> morning and evening,
+as well as that thou say the daily prayers. Have always with thee
+a Pentateuch written correctly, and read therein the Lesson for
+each Sabbath.... <q>Cast thy burden upon the Lord,</q> for the
+thing which thou believest far from thee is often very near unto thee.
+Know, again, that thou art not master over thy words, nor hast
+power over thy hand; but everything is in the hand of the Lord,
+who formeth thy heart.... Be especially careful to keep aloof
+from the women [of the court?]. Know that our God hates immorality,
+and Balaam could in no other way injure Israel than by
+inciting them to unchastity. [Here come many quotations from
+Malachi and Ezra.]... My son, remember me always, and let
+the image of my countenance be never absent from before thine
+eyes. Love not that which I hate.... Let the words of the
+Psalmist be always upon thy lips, <q>I am a stranger in the earth:
+hide not thy commandments from me</q> (Ps. cxix. 19); and God,
+who is good and the dispenser of good, shall increase thy peace
+and prolong thy life in peace and happiness, and promote thy honour
+according to thy wish and the wish of thy father who begat thee,
+Moses ben Nachman.</q>
+</p>
+
+</quote>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>V. A Jewish Boswell</head>
+
+<p>
+There is a saying in the Talmud <q>Nothing exists of
+which there is not some indication in the Torah.</q> These
+words are often quoted, and some modern authors have
+pressed them so far as to find even the discoveries of
+Columbus and the inventions of Watt and Stephenson
+indicated in the Law. This is certainly misapplied ingenuity.
+But it is hardly an exaggeration to maintain
+that there is no noble manifestation of real religion, no
+expression of real piety, reverence, and devotion, to which
+Jewish literature would not offer a fair parallel.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus it will hardly be astonishing to hear that Jewish
+literature has its Boswell to show, more than three centuries
+before the Scottish gentleman came to London to
+admire his Johnson, and more than four centuries before
+the Sage of Chelsea delivered his lectures on Hero Worship.
+And this Jewish Boswell was guided only by the
+motives suggested to him in the old Rabbinic literature.
+In this literature the reverence for the great man, and
+the absorption of one's whole self in him, went so far
+that one Rabbi declared that the whole world was only
+created to serve such a man as company.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 30<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Again, the fact that, in the language of the Rabbis,
+the term for studying the Law and discussing it is <q>to
+<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/>
+attend</q> or rather <q>to serve the disciples of the Wise</q>
+may also have led people to the important truth that the
+great man is not a lecturing machine, but a sort of living
+Law himself. <q>When the man,</q> said one Rabbi, <q>has
+wholly devoted himself to the Torah, and thoroughly
+identified himself with it, it becomes almost his own
+Torah.</q> Thus people have not only to listen to his
+words but to observe his whole life, and to profit from
+all his actions and movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This was what the Jewish Boswell sought to do. His
+name was Rabbi Solomon, of St. Goar, a small town on
+the Rhine, while the name of the master whom he served
+was R. Jacob, the Levite, better known by his initials
+Maharil, who filled the office of Chief Rabbi in Mayence
+and Worms successively. The main activity of Maharil
+falls in the first three decades of the fifteenth century.
+Those were troublous times for a Rabbi. For the preceding
+century with its persecution and sufferings&mdash;one
+has only to think of the Black Death and its terrible consequences
+for the Jews&mdash;led to the destruction of the
+great Schools, the decay of the study of the Law, and
+to the dissolution of many congregations. Those which
+remained lost all touch with each other, so that almost
+every larger Jewish community had its own <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Minhag</foreign> or
+ritual custom.<note place='foot'>מנהג, pl. מנהגים (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Minhagim</foreign>), applied usually to those ritual customs
+and ceremonies for which there is no distinct authority in the
+Scriptures or even in the Talmud.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was Maharil who brought some order into this chaos,
+and in the course of time his influence asserted itself
+so strongly that the rules observed by him in the performing
+of religious ceremonies were accepted by the
+great majority of the Jewish communities. Thus the personality
+of Maharil himself became a standing Minhag,
+suppressing all the other Minhagim (customs).
+</p>
+
+<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/>
+
+<p>
+But there must have been something very strong and very
+great about the personality of the man who could succeed
+in such an arduous task. For we must not forget that
+the Minhag or custom in its decay degenerates into a kind
+of religious fashion, the worst disease to which religion
+is liable, and the most difficult to cure. It is therefore
+an irreparable loss both for Jewish literature and for Jewish
+history, that the greatest part of Maharil's posthumous
+writings are no longer extant, so that our knowledge about
+him is very small. But the little we know of him we owe
+chiefly to the communicativeness of his servant, the Solomon
+of St. Goar whom I mentioned above.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Solomon not only gave us the <q>Customs</q> of his master,
+but also observed him closely in all his movements, and
+conscientiously wrote down all that he saw and heard,
+under the name of <hi rend='italic'>Collectanea</hi>. It seems that the bulk
+of these <hi rend='italic'>Collectanea</hi> was also lost. But in the fragments
+that we still possess we are informed, among other things,
+how Maharil addressed his wife, how he treated his pupils,
+how careful he was in the use of his books, and even how
+clean his linen was. Is this not out-Boswelling Boswell?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The most striking point of agreement between the
+Boswell of the fifteenth and him of the eighteenth century,
+is that they both use the same passage from the
+Talmud to excuse the interest in trifles which their labours
+of love betrayed. Thus Solomon prefaces his <hi rend='italic'>Collectanea</hi>
+with the following words: <q>It is written, His leaf shall
+not wither. These words were explained by our Sages
+to mean that even the idle talk of the disciples of the wise
+deserves a study. Upon this interpretation I have relied.
+In my love to R. Jacob the Levite, I collected everything
+about him. I did not refuse even small things, though many
+<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/>
+derided me. Everything I wrote down, for such was the
+desire of my heart.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus far Solomon. Now, if we turn to the introduction
+to Boswell's <hi rend='italic'>Life of Johnson</hi>, we read the following sentence:
+<q>For this almost superstitious reverence, I have
+found very old and venerable authority quoted by our
+great modern prelate, Secker, in whose tenth sermon
+there is the following passage: <q>Rabbi Kimchi, a noted
+Jewish commentator who lived about five hundred years
+ago, explains that passage in the first Psalm, <q>His leaf
+also shall not wither</q> from Rabbins yet older than himself,
+that even the idle talk, so he expressed it, of a good
+man ought to be regarded.</q></q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Croker's note to this passage sounds rather strange.
+This editor says: <q>Kimchi was a Spanish Rabbi, who
+died in 1240. One wonders that Secker's good sense
+should have condescended to quote this far-fetched and
+futile interpretation of the simple and beautiful metaphor,
+by which the Psalmist illustrates the prosperity of the
+righteous man.</q> Now Kimchi died at least five years
+earlier than Croker states, but dates, we know from
+Macaulay's essay on the subject, were not Croker's strong
+point. But one can hardly forgive the editor of Boswell
+this lack of sympathy. Had he known what strong
+affinity there was between his most Christian author and
+the humble Jew Solomon, he would have less resented
+this condescension of Archbishop Secker.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As for the Jewish Boswell himself, we know very little
+about him. The only place in which he speaks about his
+own person is that in which he derives his pedigree from
+R. Eleazar ben Samuel Hallevi (died 1357), and says that
+he was generally called <q>Der gute (the good) R. Salman.</q>
+<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/>
+He well deserved this appellation. In his Will we find
+the following injunction to his children: <q>Be honest, and
+conscientious in your dealing with men, with Jews as well
+as Gentiles, be kind and obliging to them; do not speak
+what is superfluous.</q> And wisdom is surely rare enough
+to render inappropriate a charge of superfluousness
+against the work of those who in bygone times spent
+their energies in gathering the crumbs that fell from the
+tables of the wise.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism</head>
+
+<p>
+The object of this essay is to say about the dogmas of
+Judaism a word which I think ought not to be left unsaid.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In speaking of dogmas it must be understood that
+Judaism does not ascribe to them any saving power. The
+belief in a dogma or a doctrine without abiding by its real
+or supposed consequences (<hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi> the belief in <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>creatio ex
+nihilo</foreign> without keeping the Sabbath) is of no value. And
+the question about certain doctrines is not whether they
+possess or do not possess the desired charm against certain
+diseases of the soul, but whether they ought to be
+considered as characteristics of Judaism or not.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It must again be premised that the subject, which occupied
+the thoughts of the greatest and noblest Jewish
+minds for so many centuries, has been neglected for a
+comparatively long time. And this for various reasons.
+First, there is Mendelssohn's assertion, or supposed assertion,
+in his <hi rend='italic'>Jerusalem</hi>, that Judaism has no dogmas&mdash;an
+assertion which has been accepted by the majority of
+modern Jewish theologians as the only dogma Judaism
+possesses. You can hear it pronounced in scores of
+Jewish pulpits; you can read it written in scores of Jewish
+books. To admit the possibility that Mendelssohn was in
+error was hardly permissible, especially for those with
+<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/>
+whom he enjoys a certain infallibility. Nay, even the fact
+that he himself was not consistent in his theory, and on
+another occasion declared that Judaism <emph>has</emph> dogmas, only
+that they are purer and more in harmony with reason than
+those of other religions; or even the more important fact
+that he published a school-book for children, in which the
+so-called Thirteen Articles were embodied, only that
+instead of the formula <q>I believe,</q> he substituted <q>I am
+convinced,</q>&mdash;even such patent facts did not produce
+much effect upon many of our modern theologians.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Jerusalem</hi>, in Mendelssohn's <hi rend='italic'>Sämmtliche Werke</hi> (Vienna, 1838),
+especially from p. 264 onwards, and a letter by him published in
+Frankel-Graetz's <hi rend='italic'>Monatsschrift</hi>, 1859, p. 173. For Mendelssohn's
+position, see Graetz's <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte</hi>, xi. 86 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>, especially p. 88 and
+note 1; Kayserling, <hi rend='italic'>Leben und Werke</hi> of M., 2d ed., p. 394; Steinheim,
+<hi rend='italic'>Moses Mendelssohn</hi> (Hamburg, 1840), p. 30 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>; Holdheim,
+<hi rend='italic'>Moses Mendelssohn</hi> (Berlin, 1859), p. 18 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>; Leopold Löw's pamphlet,
+<hi rend='italic'>Jüdische Dogmen</hi> (Pesth, 1871).</note>
+They were either overlooked or explained away so as to
+make them harmonise with the great dogma of dogmalessness.
+For it is one of the attributes of infallibility
+that the words of its happy possessor must always be
+reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the
+unbeliever as gross contradictions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another cause of the neglect into which the subject has
+fallen is that our century is an <emph>historical</emph> one. It is not
+only books that have their fate, but also whole sciences
+and literatures. In past times it was religious speculation
+that formed the favourite study of scholars, in our time it
+is history with its critical foundation on a sound philology.
+Now as these two most important branches of Jewish
+science were so long neglected&mdash;were perhaps never cultivated
+in the true meaning of the word, and as Jewish literature
+is so vast and Jewish history so far-reaching and
+eventful, we cannot wonder that these studies have absorbed
+the time and the labour of the greatest and best
+Jewish writers in this century.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is, besides, a certain tendency in historical studies
+that is hostile to mere theological speculation. The historian
+deals with realities, the theologian with abstractions.
+<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/>
+The latter likes to shape the universe after his
+system, and tells us how things <emph>ought to be</emph>, the former
+teaches us how they <emph>are</emph> or <emph>have been</emph>, and the explanation
+he gives for their being so and not otherwise includes in
+most cases also a kind of justification for their existence.
+There is also the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>odium theologicum</foreign>, which has been the
+cause of so much misfortune that it is hated by the historian,
+whilst the superficial, rationalistic way in which
+the theologian manages to explain everything which
+does not suit his system is most repulsive to the critical
+spirit.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it cannot be denied that this neglect has caused
+much confusion. Especially is this noticeable in England,
+which is essentially a theological country, and where
+people are but little prone to give up speculation about
+things which concern their most sacred interest and
+greatest happiness. Thus whilst we are exceedingly poor
+in all other branches of Jewish learning, we are comparatively
+rich in productions of a theological character. We
+have a superfluity of essays on such delicate subjects as
+eternal punishment, immortality of the soul, the day of
+judgment, etc., and many treatises on the definition of
+Judaism. But knowing little or nothing of the progress
+recently made in Jewish theology, of the many protests
+against all kinds of infallibility, whether canonised in this
+century or in olden times, we in England still maintain
+that Judaism has no dogmas as if nothing to the contrary
+had ever been said. We seek the foundation of Judaism
+in political economy, in hygiene, in everything except religion.
+Following the fashion of the day to esteem religion
+in proportion to its ability to adapt itself to every possible
+and impossible metaphysical and social system, we are
+<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/>
+anxious to squeeze out of Judaism the last drop of faith
+and hope, and strive to make it so flexible that we can
+turn it in every direction which it is our pleasure to follow.
+But alas! the flexibility has progressed so far as
+to classify Judaism among the invertebrate species, the
+lowest order of living things. It strongly resembles a certain
+Christian school which addresses itself to the world in
+general and claims to satisfy everybody alike. It claims
+to be socialism for the adherents of Karl Marx and
+Lassalle, worship of man for the followers of Comte and
+St. Simon; it carefully avoids the word <q>God</q> for the
+comfort of agnostics and sceptics, whilst on the other hand
+it pretends to hold sway over paradise, hell, and immortality
+for the edification of believers. In such illusions many
+of our theologians delight. For illusions they are; you
+cannot be everything if you want to be anything. Moreover,
+illusions in themselves are bad enough, but we are
+menaced with what is still worse. Judaism, divested of
+every higher religious motive, is in danger of falling into
+gross materialism. For what else is the meaning of such
+declarations as <q>Believe what you like, but conform to
+this or that mode of life</q>; what else does it mean but
+<q>We cannot expect you to believe that the things you are
+bidden to do are commanded by a higher authority; there
+is not such a thing as belief, but you ought to do them
+for conventionalism or for your own convenience.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But both these motives&mdash;the good opinion of our
+neighbours, as well as our bodily health&mdash;have nothing to
+do with our nobler and higher sentiments, and degrade
+Judaism to a matter of expediency or diplomacy. Indeed,
+things have advanced so far that well-meaning but ill-advised
+writers even think to render a service to Judaism
+<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/>
+by declaring it to be a kind of enlightened Hedonism, or
+rather a moderate Epicureanism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have no intention of here answering the question,
+What is Judaism? This question is not less perplexing
+than the problem, What is God's world? Judaism is also
+a great Infinite, composed of as many endless Units, the
+Jews. And these Unit-Jews have been, and are still,
+scattered through all the world, and have passed under an
+immensity of influences, good and bad. If so, how can
+we give an exact definition of the Infinite, called Judaism?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But if there is anything sure, it is that the highest motives
+which worked through the history of Judaism are the
+strong belief in God and the unshaken confidence that at
+last this God, the God of Israel, will be the God of the
+whole world; or, in other words, Faith and Hope are the
+two most prominent characteristics of Judaism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the following pages I shall try to give a short
+account of the manner in which these two principles of
+Judaism found expression, from the earliest times down to
+the age of Mendelssohn; that is, to present an outline of
+the history of Jewish Dogmas. First, a few observations
+on the position of the Bible and the Talmud in relation to
+our theme. Insufficient and poor as they may be in proportion
+to the importance of these two fundamental documents
+of Judaism, these remarks may nevertheless suggest
+a connecting link between the teachings of Jewish antiquity
+and those of Maimonides and his successors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I begin with the Scriptures.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Bible itself hardly contains a command bidding us
+<emph>to believe</emph>. We are hardly ordered, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, to believe in the
+existence of God. I say hardly, but I do not altogether
+deny the existence of such a command. It is true that we
+<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/>
+do not find in the Scripture such words as: <q>You are
+commanded to believe in the existence of God.</q> Nor is
+any punishment assigned as awaiting him who denies it.
+Notwithstanding these facts, many Jewish authorities&mdash;among
+them such important men as Maimonides, R.
+Judah Hallevi, Nachmanides&mdash;perceive, in the first words
+of the Ten Commandments, <q>I am the Lord thy God,</q>
+the command to believe in His existence.<note place='foot'>See the Commentaries on Maimonides' סשר המצות, especially R.
+Simeon Duran's זוהר הרקיע; cf. also ancient and modern commentaries
+on Exod. xx. 2.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Be this as it may, there cannot be the shadow of a
+doubt that the Bible, in which every command is dictated
+by God, and in which all its heroes are the servants, the
+friends, or the ambassadors of God, presumes such a
+belief in every one to whom those laws are dictated, and
+these heroes address themselves. Nay, I think that the
+word <q>belief</q> is not even adequate. In a world with so
+many visible facts and invisible causes, as life and death,
+growth and decay, light and darkness; in a world where
+the sun rises and sets; where the stars appear regularly;
+where heavy rains pour down from the sky, often accompanied
+by such grand phenomena as thunder and lightning;
+in a world full of such marvels, but into which no
+notion has entered of all our modern true or false explanations&mdash;who
+but God is behind all these things? <q>Have
+the gates,</q> asks God, <q>have the gates of death been open
+to thee? or hast thou seen the doors of the shadow of
+death?... Where is the way where light dwelleth?
+and as for darkness, where is the place thereof?...
+Hath the rain a father? or who hath begotten the drops
+of dew?... Canst thou bind the sweet influences of
+Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?... Canst thou
+send lightnings, that they may go, and say unto thee,
+Here we are?</q> (Job xxxviii.). Of all these wonders, God
+<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/>
+was not merely the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>prima causa</foreign>; they were the result of
+His direct action, without any intermediary causes. And
+it is as absurd to say that the ancient world believed in
+God, as for a future historian to assert of the nineteenth
+century that it believed in the effects of electricity. We
+<emph>see</emph> them, and so antiquity <emph>saw</emph> God. If there was any
+danger, it lay not in the denial of the existence of a God,
+but in having a wrong belief. Belief in as many gods
+as there are manifestations in nature, the investing of
+them with false attributes, the misunderstanding of God's
+relation to men, lead to immorality. Thus the greater
+part of the laws and teachings of the Bible are either
+directed against polytheism, with all its low ideas of God,
+or rather of gods; or they are directed towards regulating
+God's relation to men. Man is a servant of God, or His
+prophet, or even His friend. But this relationship man
+obtains only by his conduct. Nay, all man's actions are
+carefully regulated by God, and connected with His holiness.
+The 19th chapter of Leviticus, which is considered
+by the Rabbis as the portion of the Law in which the
+most important articles of the Torah are embodied, is
+headed, <q>Ye shall be holy, for I the Lord your own God
+am holy.</q> And each law therein occurring, even those
+which concern our relations to each other, is <emph>not</emph> founded
+on utilitarian reasons, but is ordained because the opposite
+of it is an offence to the holiness of God, and profanes
+His creatures, whom He desired to be as holy as He is.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Siphra</hi> (ed. Weiss), pp. 86<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, 93<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus the whole structure of the Bible is built upon the
+visible fact of the existence of a God, and upon the belief
+in the relation of God to men, especially to Israel. In
+spite of all that has been said to the contrary, the Bible
+<emph>does</emph> lay stress upon belief, where belief is required. The
+<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/>
+unbelievers are rebuked again and again. <q>For all this
+they sinned still, and believed not for His wondrous
+work,</q> complains Asaph (Ps. lxxviii. 32). And belief is
+praised in such exalted words as, <q>Thus saith the Lord,
+I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of
+thine espousals, when thou wentest after me in the wilderness,
+in a land that was not sown</q> (Jer. ii. 2). The Bible,
+especially the books of the prophets, consists, in great
+part, of promises for the future, which the Rabbis justly
+termed the <q>Consolations.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Baba Bathra</hi>, 14<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>; cf. Fürst's <hi rend='italic'>Kanon</hi>, p. 15.</note> For our purpose, it is of
+no great consequence to examine what future the prophets
+had in view, whether an immediate future or one more
+remote, at the end of days. At any rate, they inculcated
+hope and confidence that God would bring to pass a
+better time. I think that even the most advanced Bible
+critic&mdash;provided he is not guided by some modern Aryan
+reasons&mdash;must perceive in such passages as, <q>The Lord
+shall reign for ever and ever,</q> <q>The Lord shall rejoice
+in his works,</q> and many others, a hope for more than
+the establishment of the <q>national Deity among his
+votaries in Palestine.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have now to pass over an interval of many centuries,
+the length of which depends upon the views held
+as to the date of the close of the canon, and examine
+what the Rabbis, the representatives of the prophets,
+thought on this subject. Not that the views of the
+author of the <hi rend='italic'>Wisdom of Solomon</hi>, of Philo and Aristobulus,
+and many others of the Judæo-Alexandrian school
+would be uninteresting for us. But somehow their influence
+on Judaism was only a passing one, and their doctrines
+never became authoritative in the Synagogue. We
+must here confine ourselves to those who, even by the
+<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/>
+testimony of their bitterest enemies, occupied the seat of
+Moses.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The successors of the prophets had to deal with new
+circumstances, and accordingly their teachings were
+adapted to the wants of their times. As the result of
+manifold foreign influences, the visible fact of the existence
+of God as manifested in the Bible had been somewhat
+obscured. Prophecy ceased, and the Holy Spirit
+which inspired a few chosen ones took its place. Afterwards
+this influence was reduced to the hearing of a
+Voice from Heaven, which was audible to still fewer.
+On the other hand the Rabbis had this advantage that
+they were not called upon to fight against idolatry as
+their predecessors the prophets had been. The evil inclination
+to worship idols was, as the Talmud expresses
+it allegorically, killed by the Men of the Great Synagogue,
+or, as we should put it, it was suppressed by the
+sufferings of the captivity in Babylon. This change of
+circumstances is marked by the following fact:&mdash;Whilst
+the prophets mostly considered idolatry as the cause of all
+sin, the Rabbis show a strong tendency to ascribe sin to
+a defect in, or a want of, belief on the part of the sinner.
+They teach that Adam would not have sinned unless he
+had first denied the <q>Root of all</q> (or the main principle),
+namely, the belief in the Omnipresence of God. Of Cain
+they say that before murdering his brother he declared:
+<q>There is no judgment, there is no judge, there is no
+world to come, and there is no reward for the just, and
+no punishment for the wicked.</q><note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Sanhedrin</hi>, 38<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Pseudo-Jonathan</hi> to Gen. iv. 8.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In another place we read that the commission of a sin
+in secret is an impertinent attempt by the doer to oust
+God from the world. But if unbelief is considered as
+<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/>
+the root of all evil, we may expect that the reverse of
+it, a perfect faith, would be praised in the most exalted
+terms. So we read: Faith is so great that the man who
+possesses it may hope to become a worthy vessel of the
+Holy Spirit, or, as we should express it, that he may hope
+to obtain by this power the highest degree of communion
+with his Maker. The Patriarch Abraham, notwithstanding
+all his other virtues, only became <q>the possessor of both
+worlds</q> by the merit of his strong faith. Nay, even the
+fulfilment of a single law when accompanied by true faith
+is, according to the Rabbis, sufficient to bring man nigh
+to God. And the future redemption is also conditional
+on the degree of faith shown by Israel.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi>, 33<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has often been asked what the Rabbis would have
+thought of a man who fulfils every commandment of the
+Torah, but does not believe that this Torah was given by
+God, or that there exists a God at all. It is indeed very
+difficult to answer this question with any degree of certainty.
+In the time of the Rabbis people were still too
+simple for such a diplomatic religion, and conformity
+in the modern sense was quite an unknown thing. But
+from the foregoing remarks it would seem that the
+Rabbis could not conceive such a monstrosity as atheistic
+orthodoxy. For, as we have seen, the Rabbis thought
+that unbelief must needs end in sin, for faith is the origin
+of all good. Accordingly, in the case just supposed
+they would have either suspected the man's orthodoxy,
+or would have denied that his views were really what he
+professed them to be.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Still more important than the above cited Agadic passages
+is one which we are about to quote from the tractate
+Sanhedrin. This tractate deals with the constitution,
+<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/>
+of the supreme law-court, the examination of the witnesses,
+the functions of the judges, and the different
+punishment to be inflicted on the transgressors of the
+law. After having enumerated various kinds of capital
+punishment, the Mishnah adds the following words:
+<q>These are (the men) who are excluded from the life
+to come: He who says there is no resurrection from
+death; he who says there is no Torah given from
+heaven, and the Epikurus.</q><note place='foot'>אפיקורוס, Lat. Epicurus.</note> This passage was considered
+by the Rabbis of the Middle Ages, as well as
+by modern scholars, the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>locus classicus</foreign> for the dogma
+question. There are many passages in the Rabbinic
+literature which exclude man from the world to come
+for this or that sin. But these are more or less of an
+Agadic (legendary) character, and thus lend themselves
+to exaggeration and hyperbolic language. They cannot,
+therefore, be considered as serious legal dicta, or as the
+general opinion of the Rabbis.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Mishnah in Sanhedrin, however, has, if only by
+its position in a legal tractate, a certain <foreign rend='italic'>Halachic</foreign> (obligatory)
+character. And the fact that so early an authority
+as R. Akiba made additions to it guarantees its high
+antiquity. The first two sentences of this Mishnah are
+clear enough. In modern language, and positively speaking,
+they would represent articles of belief in Resurrection
+and Revelation. Great difficulty is found in defining what
+was meant by the word <foreign rend='italic'>Epikurus</foreign>. The authorities of the
+Middle Ages, to whom I shall again have to refer, explain
+the Epikurus to be a man who denies the belief in reward
+and punishment; others identify him with one who denies
+the belief in Providence; while others again consider the
+Epikurus to be one who denies Tradition. But the parallel
+<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/>
+passages in which it occurs incline one rather to think
+that this word cannot be defined by one kind of heresy.
+It implies rather a frivolous treatment of the words of
+Scripture or of Tradition. In the case of the latter (Tradition)
+it is certainly not honest difference of opinion that
+is condemned; for the Rabbis themselves differed very
+often from each other, and even Mediæval authorities
+did not feel any compunction about explaining Scripture
+in variance with the Rabbinic interpretation, and sometimes
+they even went so far as to declare that the view
+of this or that great authority was only to be considered
+as an isolated opinion not deserving particular attention.
+What they did blame was, as already said, scoffing and
+impiety. We may thus safely assert that reverence for
+the teachers of Israel formed the third essential principle
+of Judaism.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Mishnah</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Sanhedrin</hi>, x. e, § 1, and Talmud, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> 90<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>b</hi>,
+and Rabbinowicz's <hi rend='italic'>Variae Lectiones</hi>, ix. p. 247 notes. Besides the
+ordinary commentaries on the Talmud, account must also be taken of
+the remarks of Crescas, Duran, Albo, and Abarbanel on the subject.
+Cf. also Kämpf in the <hi rend='italic'>Monatsschrift</hi> (1863), p. 144 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>; Oppenheim,
+<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> (1864), p. 144; Friedmann in the <hi rend='italic'>Beth Talmud</hi>, i. p. 210 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>
+See also Talmudical Dictionaries, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> אפיקורום. The explanation I
+have adopted agrees partly with Friedmann's and partly with Oppenheim's
+views.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have still to remark that there occur in the Talmud
+such passages as <q>the Jew, even if he has sinned, is still a
+Jew,</q> or <q>He who denies idolatry is called a Jew.</q> These
+and similar passages have been used to prove that Judaism
+was not a positive religion, but only involved the negation
+of idolatry. But it has been overlooked that the statements
+quoted have more a legal than a theological character.
+The Jew belonged to his nationality even after having
+committed the greatest sin, just as the Englishman does
+not cease to be an Englishman&mdash;in regard to treason and
+the like&mdash;by having committed a heinous crime. But he
+has certainly acted in a very un-English way, and having
+outraged the feelings of the whole nation will have to suffer
+for his misconduct. The Rabbis in a similar manner
+did not maintain that he who gave up the belief in Revelation
+and Resurrection, and treated irreverently the teachers
+<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/>
+of Israel, severed his connection with the Jewish nation,
+but that, for his crime, he was going to suffer the heaviest
+punishment. He was to be excluded from the world to
+come.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Still, important as is the passage quoted from Sanhedrin,
+it would be erroneous to think that it exhausted the
+creed of the Rabbis. The liturgy and innumerable passages
+in the Midrashim show that they ardently clung to
+the belief in the advent of the Messiah. All their hope
+was turned to the future redemption and the final establishment
+of the Kingdom of Heaven on earth. Judaism,
+stripped of this belief, would have been for them devoid of
+meaning. The belief in reward and punishment is also
+repeated again and again in the old Rabbinic literature.
+A more emphatic declaration of the belief in Providence
+than is conveyed by the following passages is hardly conceivable.
+<q>Everything is foreseen, and free will is given.
+And the world is judged by grace.</q> Or, <q>the born are to
+die, and the dead to revive, and the living to be judged.
+For to know and to notify, and that it may be known
+that He (God) is the Framer and He the Creator, and
+He the Discerner, and He the Judge, and He the Witness,</q>
+etc.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi>, iii. § 9, and iv. § 22.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it must not be forgotten that it was not the habit of
+the Rabbis to lay down, either for conduct or for doctrine,
+rules which were commonly known. When they urged
+the three points stated above there must have been some
+historical reason for it. Probably these principles were
+controverted by some heretics. Indeed, the whole tone
+of the passage cited from Sanhedrin is a protest against
+certain unbelievers who are threatened with punishment.
+Other beliefs, not less essential, but less disputed, remain
+<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/>
+unmentioned, because there was no necessity to assert
+them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was not till a much later time, when the Jews came
+into closer contact with new philosophical schools, and
+also new creeds which were more liable than heathenism
+was to be confused with Judaism, that this necessity was
+felt. And thus we are led at once to the period when the
+Jews became acquainted with the teachings of the Mohammedan
+schools. The Caraites came very early into contact
+with non-Jewish systems. And so we find that they
+were also the first to formulate Jewish dogmas in a fixed
+number, and in a systematic order. It is also possible that
+their separation from the Tradition, and their early division
+into little sects among themselves, compelled them to take
+this step, in order to avoid further sectarianism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The number of their dogmas amounts to ten. According
+to Judah Hadasi (1150), who would appear to have
+derived them from his predecessors, their dogmas include
+the following articles:&mdash;1. <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign>; 2. The existence
+of a Creator, God; 3. This God is an absolute unity
+as well as incorporeal; 4. Moses and the other prophets
+were sent by God; 5. God has given to us the Torah,
+which is true and complete in every respect, not wanting
+the addition of the so-called Oral Law; 6. The Torah
+must be studied by every Jew in the original (Hebrew)
+language; 7. The Holy Temple was a place elected by
+God for His manifestation; 8. Resurrection of the dead;
+9. Punishment and reward after death; 10. The Coming
+of the Messiah, the son of David.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+How far the predecessors of Hadasi were influenced by
+a certain Joseph Albashir (about 950), of whom there exists
+a manuscript work, <q>Rudiments of Faith,</q> I am unable to
+<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/>
+say. The little we know of him reveals more of his intimacy
+with Arabic thoughts than of his importance for his
+sect in particular and for Judaism in general. After Hadasi
+I shall mention here Elijah Bashazi, a Caraite writer
+of the end of the fifteenth century. This author, who was
+much influenced by Maimonides, omits the second and the
+seventh articles. In order to make up the ten he numbers
+the belief in the eternity of God as an article, and divides
+the fourth article into two. In the fifth article Bashazi
+does not emphasise so strongly the completeness of the
+Torah as Hadasi, and omits the portion which is directed
+against Tradition. It is interesting to see the distinction
+which Bashazi draws between the Pentateuch and the
+Prophets. While he thinks that the five books of Moses
+can never be altered, he regards the words of the Prophets
+as only relating to their contemporaries, and thus subject
+to changes. As I do not want to anticipate Maimonides'
+system, I must refrain from giving here the articles laid
+down by Solomon Troki in the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. For the articles of Maimonides are copied by
+this writer with a few slight alterations so as to dress them
+in a Caraite garb.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I must dismiss the Caraites with these few remarks, my
+object being chiefly to discuss the dogmas of the Synagogue
+from which they had separated themselves. Besides,
+as in everything Caraitic, there is no further development
+of the question. As Bashazi laid them down, they are
+still taught by the Caraites of to-day. I return to the Rabbanites.<note place='foot'>See אדרת אליהו (Jovslow, 1835), p. 48. In my exposition of the
+dogmas of the Caraites I have mainly followed the late Dr. Frankl's
+article <q>Karaiten</q> in Ersch u. Gruber's <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopädie</hi> (sec. ii.
+vol. xxxvi. pp. 12-18). See also his <hi rend='italic'>Ein mutazilitischer Kalam</hi>
+and his <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Literaturgeschichte der Karäer</hi> (Berlin, 1887)
+on Bashazi. Cf. also Jost's <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte</hi>, ii. c. 13.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As is well known, Maimonides (1130-1205), was the first
+Rabbanite who formulated the dogmas of the Synagogue.
+But there are indications of earlier attempts. R. Saadiah
+<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/>
+Gaon's (892-942) work, <hi rend='italic'>Creeds and Opinions</hi>, shows such
+traces. He says in his preface, <q>My heart sickens to
+see that the belief of my co-religionists is impure and
+that their theological views are confused.</q> The subjects
+he treats in this book, such as creation, unity of God,
+resurrection of the dead, the future redemption of Israel,
+reward and punishment, and other kindred theological
+subjects might thus, perhaps, be considered as the essentials
+of the creed that the Gaon desired to present in a
+pure and rational form. R. Hannaneel, of Kairowan,<note place='foot'>Kairowan was one of the greatest centres of Jewish learning in
+North Africa during that period.</note> in
+the first half of the eleventh century, says in one of his
+commentaries that to deserve eternal life one must believe
+in <emph>four</emph> things: in God, in the prophets, in a future world
+where the just will be rewarded, and in the advent of the
+Redeemer. From R. Judah Hallevi's <hi rend='italic'>Cusari</hi>, written in
+the beginning of the twelfth century, we might argue that
+the belief in the election of Israel by God was the cardinal
+dogma of the author.<note place='foot'>See, however, Professor D. Kaufmann's note in the <hi rend='italic'>Jewish
+Quarterly Review</hi>, i. p. 441. From this it would seem that the creed of
+R. Judah Hallevi may be formulated in the following articles:&mdash;The
+conviction of the existence of God, of His eternity, of His guidance of
+our fathers, of the Divine Origin of the Law, and of the proof of all
+this, the pledge or token of its truth, the exodus from Egypt.</note> Abraham Ibn Daud, a contemporary
+of Maimonides, in his book <hi rend='italic'>The High Belief</hi>,<note place='foot'>אמונה רמה, <hi rend='italic'>Emunah Ramah</hi>, pp. 44 and 69; cf. Gulmann,
+<hi rend='italic'>Monatsschrift</hi>, 1878, p. 304.</note>
+speaks of <emph>rudiments</emph>, among which, besides such metaphysical
+principles as unity, rational conception of God's
+attributes, etc., the belief in the immutability of the Law,
+etc., is included. Still, all these works are intended to furnish
+evidence from philosophy or history for the truth of
+religion rather than to give a definition of this truth. The
+latter task was undertaken by Maimonides.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I refer to the thirteen articles embodied in his first work,
+<hi rend='italic'>The Commentary to the Mishnah</hi>. They are appended
+to the Mishnah in Sanhedrin, with which I dealt above.
+But though they do not form an independent treatise,
+Maimonides' remarks must not be considered as merely
+incidental.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/>
+
+<p>
+That Maimonides was quite conscious of the importance
+of this exposition can be gathered from the concluding
+words addressed to the reader: <q>Know these (words)
+and repeat them many times, and think them over in the
+proper way. God knows that thou wouldst be deceiving
+thyself if thou thinkest thou hast understood them by having
+read them once or even ten times. Be not, therefore,
+hasty in perusing them. I have not composed them without
+deep study and earnest reflection.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The result of this deep study was that the following
+Thirteen Articles constitute the creed of Judaism. They
+are:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. The belief in the existence of a Creator; 2. The
+belief in His Unity; 3. The belief in His Incorporeality;
+4. The belief in His Eternity; 5. The belief that all worship
+and adoration are due to Him alone; 6. The belief in
+Prophecy; 7. The belief that Moses was the greatest of
+all Prophets, both before and after him; 8. The belief that
+the Torah was revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai; 9. The
+belief in the Immutability of this revealed Torah; 10. The
+belief that God knows the actions of men; 11. The belief
+in Reward and Punishment; 12. The belief in the coming
+of the Messiah; 13. The belief in the Resurrection of the
+dead.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The impulse given by the great philosopher and still
+greater Jew was eagerly followed by succeeding generations,
+and Judaism thus came into possession of a dogmatic
+literature such as it never knew before Maimonides. Maimonides
+is the centre of this literature, and I shall accordingly
+speak in the remainder of this essay of Maimonists
+and Anti-Maimonists. These terms really apply to the
+great controversy that raged round Maimonides' <hi rend='italic'>Guide of
+<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/>
+the Perplexed</hi>, but I shall, chiefly for brevity's sake, employ
+them in these pages in a restricted sense to refer to
+the dispute concerning the Thirteen Articles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Among the Maimonists we may probably include the
+great majority of Jews, who accepted the Thirteen Articles
+without further question. Maimonides must indeed have
+filled up a great gap in Jewish theology, a gap, moreover,
+the existence of which was very generally perceived. A
+century had hardly elapsed before the Thirteen Articles
+had become a theme for the poets of the Synagogue. And
+almost every country where Jews lived can show a poem
+or a prayer founded on these Articles. R. Jacob Molin
+(1420) of Germany speaks of metrical and rhymed songs
+in the German language, the burden of which was the
+Thirteen Articles, and which were read by the common
+people with great devotion. The numerous commentaries
+and homilies written on the same topic would form a small
+library in themselves.<note place='foot'>For the various translations of the Thirteen Articles which were
+originally composed in Arabic, see Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1887.
+Cf. Rosin, <hi rend='italic'>Ethik des Maimonides</hi>, p. 30; Weiss, <hi rend='italic'>Beth Talmud</hi>, i. p. 330,
+and <hi rend='italic'>Ben Chananjah</hi>, 1863, p. 942, and 1864, pp. 648 and 697, and
+Landshut, עמודי העבודה, p. 231.</note> But on the other hand it must
+not be denied that the Anti-Maimonists, that is to say
+those Jewish writers who did not agree with the creed
+formulated by Maimonides, or agreed only in part with
+him, form also a very strong and respectable minority.
+They deserve our attention the more as it is their works
+which brought life into the subject and deepened it. It
+is not by a perpetual Amen to every utterance of a great
+authority that truth or literature gains anything.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Anti-Maimonists can be divided into two classes.
+The one class categorically denies that Judaism has dogmas.
+I shall have occasion to touch on this view when I
+come to speak of Abarbanel. Here I pass at once to the
+second class of Anti-Maimonists. This consists of those
+who agree with Maimonides as to the existence of dogmas
+<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/>
+in Judaism, but who differ from him as to what these
+dogmas are, or who give a different enumeration of
+them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the first of these Anti-Maimonists we may regard
+Nachmanides, who, in his famous <hi rend='italic'>Sermon in the Presence
+of the King</hi>, speaks of three fundamental principles: Creation
+(that is, non-eternity of matter), Omniscience of God,
+and Providence. Next comes R. Abba Mari ben Moses,
+of Montpellier. He wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth
+century, and is famous in Jewish history for his
+zeal against the study of philosophy. We possess a small
+pamphlet by him dealing with our subject, and it forms
+a kind of prologue to his collection of controversial letters
+against the rationalists of his time.<note place='foot'>מנחת קנאות. See pp. 1-16.</note> He lays down
+three articles as the fundamental teachings of Religion:
+1. Metaphysical: The existence of God, including His Unity
+and Incorporeality; 2. Mosaic: <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign> by God&mdash;a
+consequence of this principle is the belief that God
+is capable of altering the laws of nature at His pleasure;
+3. Ethical: Special Providence&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> God knows all our
+actions in all their details. Abba Mari does not mention
+Maimonides' Thirteen Articles. But it would be false to
+conclude that he rejected the belief in the coming of the
+Messiah, or any other article of Maimonides. The whole
+tone and tendency of this pamphlet is polemical, and it is
+therefore probable that he only urged those points which
+were either doubted or explained in an unorthodox way by
+the sceptics of his time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another scholar, of Provence, who wrote but twenty
+years later than Abba Mari&mdash;R. David ben Samuel
+d'Estella (1320)&mdash;speaks of the seven pillars of religion.
+They are: Revelation, Providence, Reward and Punishment,
+<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/>
+the Coming of the Messiah, Resurrection of the
+Dead, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign>, and Free Will.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Hammaskir</hi>, viii. pp. 63 and 103.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of authors living in other countries, I have to mention
+here R. Shemariah, of Crete, who flourished at about the
+same time as R. David d'Estella, and is known from his
+efforts to reconcile the Caraites with the Rabbanites.
+This author wrote a book for the purpose of furnishing
+Jewish students with evidence for what he considered the
+five fundamental teachings of Judaism, viz.: 1. The Existence
+of God; 2. The Incorporeality of God; 3. His
+Absolute Unity; 4. That God created heaven and earth;
+5. That God created the world after His will 5106 years
+ago&mdash;5106 (1346 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>), being the year in which Shemariah
+wrote these words.<note place='foot'>See Steinschneider, <hi rend='italic'>Cat. München</hi>, No. 210.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Portugal, at about the same time, we find R. David
+ben Yom-Tob Bilia adding to the articles of Maimonides
+thirteen of his own, which he calls the <q>Fundamentals of
+the Thinking Man.</q> Five of these articles relate to the
+functions of the human soul, that, according to him,
+emanated from God, and to the way in which this divine
+soul receives its punishment and reward. The other eight
+articles are as follows: 1. The belief in the existence of
+spiritual beings&mdash;angels; 2. <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign>; 3. The
+belief in the existence of another world, and that this
+other world is only a spiritual one; 4. The Torah is above
+philosophy; 5. The Torah has an outward (literal) meaning
+and an inward (allegorical) meaning; 6. The text of
+the Torah is not subject to any emendation; 7. The
+reward of a good action is the good work itself, and the
+doer must not expect any other reward; 8. It is only by
+the <q>commands relating to the heart,</q> for instance, the
+belief in one eternal God, the loving and fearing Him, and
+<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/>
+not through good actions, that man attains the highest
+degree of perfection.<note place='foot'>See the Collection דברי הבמימ, by Ashkenazi, pp. 56<hi rend='italic'>b</hi> <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi></note> Perhaps it would be suitable to
+mention here another contemporaneous writer, who also
+enumerates twenty-six articles. The name of this writer
+is unknown, and his articles are only gathered from quotations
+by later authors. It would seem from these quotations
+that the articles of this unknown author consisted
+mostly of statements emphasising the belief in the attributes
+of God: as, His Eternity, His Wisdom and Omnipotence,
+and the like.<note place='foot'>See Albo, c. iii. Probably identical with the author mentioned
+by Duran, 13<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+More important for our subject are the productions of
+the fifteenth century, especially those of Spanish authors.
+The fifteen articles of R. Lipman Muhlhausen, in the preface
+to his well-known <hi rend='italic'>Book of Victory</hi><note place='foot'>ספר נצחון, <q>Sepher Nizzachon.</q></note> (1410), differ but
+slightly from those of Maimonides. In accordance with
+the anti-Christian tendency of his polemical book, he lays
+more stress on the two articles of Unity and Incorporeality,
+and makes of them four. We can therefore dismiss
+him with this short remark, and pass at once to the
+Spanish Rabbis.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The first of these is R. Chasdai Ibn Crescas, who composed
+his famous treatise, <hi rend='italic'>The Light of God</hi>, about 1405.
+Chasdai's book is well known for its attacks on Aristotle,
+and also for its influence on Spinoza. But Chasdai deals
+also with Maimonides' Thirteen Articles, to which he was
+very strongly opposed. Already in his preface he attacks
+Maimonides for speaking, in his <hi rend='italic'>Book of the Commandments</hi>,
+of the belief in the existence of God as an <q>affirmative
+precept.</q> Chasdai thinks it absurd; for every commandment
+must be dictated by some authority, but on
+whose authority can we dictate the acceptance of this
+authority? His general objection to the Thirteen Articles
+<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/>
+is that Maimonides confounded dogmas or <emph>fundamental
+beliefs</emph> of Judaism, without which Judaism is inconceivable,
+with beliefs or <emph>doctrines</emph> which Judaism inculcates, but the
+denial of which, though involving a strong heresy, does
+not make Judaism impossible. He maintains that if
+Maimonides meant only to count fundamental teachings,
+there are not more than seven; but that if he intended
+also to include doctrines, he ought to have enumerated
+sixteen. As beliefs of the first class&mdash;namely, fundamental
+beliefs&mdash;he considers the following articles: 1. God's
+knowledge of our actions; 2. Providence; 3. God's omnipotence&mdash;even
+to act against the laws of nature;
+4. Prophecy; 5. Free will; 6. The aim of the Torah is
+to make man long after the closest communion with God.
+The belief in the existence of God, Chasdai thinks, is an
+axiom with which every religion must begin, and he is
+therefore uncertain whether to include it as a dogma or
+not. As to the doctrines which every Jew is bound to
+believe, but without which Judaism is not impossible,
+Chasdai divides them into two sections: (<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) 1. <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex
+nihilo</foreign>; 2. Immortality of the soul; 3. Reward and Punishment;
+4. Resurrection of the dead; 5. Immutability
+of the Torah; 6. Superiority of the prophecy of Moses;
+7. That the High Priest received from God the instructions
+sought for, when he put his questions through the medium
+of the Urim and Thummim; 8. The coming of the Messiah.
+(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) Doctrines which are expressed by certain religious
+ceremonies, and on belief in which these ceremonies
+are conditioned: 1. The belief in the efficacy of prayer&mdash;as
+well as in the power of the benediction of the priests to
+convey to us the blessing of God; 2. God is merciful to
+the penitent; 3. Certain days in the year&mdash;for instance,
+<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/>
+the Day of Atonement&mdash;are especially qualified to bring
+us near to God, if we keep them in the way we are commanded.
+That Chasdai is a little arbitrary in the choice
+of his <q>doctrines,</q> I need hardly say. Indeed, Chasdai's
+importance for the dogma-question consists more in his
+critical suggestions than in his positive results. He was,
+as we have seen, the first to make the distinction between
+fundamental teachings which form the basis of Judaism,
+and those other simple Jewish doctrines without which
+Judaism is not impossible. Very daring is his remark,
+when proving that Reward and Punishment, Immortality
+of the soul, and Resurrection of the dead must not be considered
+as the basis of Judaism, since the highest ideal of
+religion is to serve God without any hope of reward. Even
+more daring are his words concerning the Immutability
+of the Law. He says: <q>Some have argued that, since
+God is perfection, so must also His law be perfect, and
+thus unsusceptible of improvement.</q> But he does not
+think this argument conclusive, though the fact in itself
+(the Immutability of the Law) is true. For one might
+answer that this perfection of the Torah could only be in
+accordance with the intelligence of those for whom it was
+meant; but as soon as the recipients of the Torah have
+advanced to a higher state of perfection, the Torah must
+also be altered to suit their advanced intelligence. A
+pupil of Chasdai illustrates the words of his master by a
+medical parallel. The physician has to adapt his medicaments
+to the various stages through which his patient has
+to pass. That he changes his prescription does not, however,
+imply that his medical knowledge is imperfect, or
+that his earlier remedies were ignorantly chosen; the varying
+condition of the invalid was the cause of the variation
+<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/>
+in the doctor's treatment. Similarly, were not the Immutability
+of the Torah a <q>doctrine,</q> one might maintain
+that the perfection of the Torah would not be inconsistent
+with the assumption that it was susceptible of modification,
+in accordance with our changing and progressive
+circumstances. But all these arguments are purely of a
+theoretic character; for, practically, every Jew, according
+to Chasdai, has to accept all these beliefs, whether he
+terms them fundamental teachings or only Jewish doctrines.<note place='foot'>See אור ה (ed. Johannisburg), preface, and pp. 20<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, 44<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, 59<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>,
+and elsewhere. The style of this author is very obscure. Cf. Joel's
+pamphlet on this author (Breslau, 1874).</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some years later, though he finished his work in the
+same year as Chasdai, R. Simeon Duran (1366-1444,) a
+younger contemporary of the former, made his researches
+on dogmas. His studies on this subject form a kind of
+introduction to his commentary on Job, which he finished
+in the year 1405. Duran is not so strongly opposed to
+the Thirteen Articles as Chasdai, or as another <q>thinker
+of our people,</q> who thought them an arbitrary imitation
+of the thirteen attributes of God. Duran tries to justify
+Maimonides; but nevertheless he agrees with <q>earlier
+authorities,</q> who formulated the Jewish creed in Three
+Articles&mdash;The Existence of God, Revelation, and Reward
+and Punishment&mdash;under which Duran thinks the Thirteen
+Articles of Maimonides may be easily classed. Most
+interesting are his remarks concerning the validity of dogmas.
+He tells us that only those are to be considered
+as heretics who abide by their own opinions, though they
+know that they are contradictory to the views of the
+Torah. Those who accept the fundamental teachings of
+Judaism, but are led by their deep studies and earnest
+reflection to differ in details from the opinions current
+among their co-religionists, and explain certain passages
+<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/>
+in the Scripture in their own way, must by no means be
+considered as heretics. We must, therefore, Duran proceeds
+to say, not blame such men as Maimonides, who
+gave an allegorical interpretation to certain passages in
+the Bible about miracles, or R. Levi ben Gershom, who
+followed certain un-Jewish views in relation to the belief
+in <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign>. Only the views are condemnable,
+not those who cherish them. God forbid, says Duran,
+that such a thing should happen in Israel as to condemn
+honest inquirers on account of their differing opinions.
+It would be interesting to know of how many divines as
+tolerant as this persecuted Jew the fifteenth century can
+boast.<note place='foot'>See the first pages of the מגן (Leghorn, 1758), and his
+משסם, pp. 13 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi></note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We can now pass to a more popular but less original
+writer on our theme. I refer to R. Joseph Albo, the
+author of the <hi rend='italic'>Roots</hi>,<note place='foot'>עקרים, <hi rend='italic'>Ikkarim</hi>, <q>Fundamentals.</q></note> who was the pupil of Chasdai, a
+younger contemporary of Duran, and wrote at a much
+later period than these authors. Graetz has justly denied
+him much originality. The chief merit of Albo consists
+in popularising other people's thoughts, though he does
+not always take care to mention their names. And the
+student who is a little familiar with the contents of the
+<hi rend='italic'>Roots</hi> will easily find that Albo has taken his best ideas
+either from Chasdai or from Duran. As it is of little
+consequence to us whether an article of faith is called
+<q>stem,</q> or <q>root,</q> or <q>branch,</q> there is scarcely anything
+fresh left to quote in the name of Albo. The late Dr.
+Löw, of Szegedin, was indeed right, when he answered
+an adversary who challenged him&mdash;<q>Who would dare to
+declare me a heretic as long as I confess the Three Articles
+laid down by Albo?</q> with the words <q>Albo himself.</q>
+For, after all the subtle distinctions Albo makes between
+<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/>
+different classes of dogmas, he declares that every one
+who denies even the immutability of the Law or the coming
+of the Messiah, which are, according to him, articles
+of minor importance, is a heretic who will be excluded
+from the world to come. But there is one point in his
+book which is worth noticing. It was suggested to him
+by Maimonides, indeed; still Albo has the merit of having
+emphasised it as it deserves. Among the articles which
+he calls <q>branches</q> Albo counts the belief that the perfection
+of man, which leads to eternal life, can be obtained
+by the fulfilling of <emph>one</emph> commandment. But this command
+must, as Maimonides points out, be done without any
+worldly regard, and only for the love of God. When one
+considers how many platitudes are repeated year by year
+by certain theologians on the subject of Jewish legalism,
+we cannot lay enough stress on this article of Albo, and
+we ought to make it better known than it has hitherto
+been.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Ikkarim</hi>, i. c. 23, and Maimonides' <hi rend='italic'>Commentary on the
+Mishnah</hi> (end of tractate Maccoth). On Albo compare Schlesinger's
+Introduction and notes to the <hi rend='italic'>Ikkarim</hi>, Joel's pamphlet, p. 82; Paulus,
+<hi rend='italic'>Monatsschrift</hi>, 1874, p. 463, and Brüll's <hi rend='italic'>Jahrb.</hi> iv. p. 52.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Though I cannot enter here into the enumeration of the
+Maimonists, I must not leave unmentioned the name of
+R. Nissim ben Moses of Marseilles, the first great Maimonist,
+who flourished about the end of the thirteenth
+century, and was considered as one of the most enlightened
+thinkers of his age.<note place='foot'>I know his work from a MS. in the British Museum, Orient. 39.</note> Another great Maimonist
+deserving special attention is R. Abraham ben Shem-Tob
+Bibago, who may perhaps be regarded as the most prominent
+among those who undertook to defend Maimonides
+against the attacks of Chasdai and others. Bibago wrote
+<hi rend='italic'>The Path of Belief</hi><note place='foot'>דרך אמונה, <hi rend='italic'>Derech Emunah</hi>. Cf. Steinschneider, <hi rend='italic'>Monatsschrift</hi>,
+1883, p. 79 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi></note> in the second half of the fifteenth
+century, and was, as Dr. Steinschneider aptly describes
+him, a <foreign rend='italic'>Denkgläubiger</foreign>. But, above all, he was a believing
+Jew. When he was once asked, at the table of King
+<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/>
+John II., of Aragon, by a Christian scholar, <q>Are you the
+Jewish philosopher?</q> he answered, <q>I am a Jew who
+believes in the Law given to us by our teacher Moses,
+though I have studied philosophy.</q> Bibago was such a
+devoted admirer of Maimonides that he could not tolerate
+any opposition to him. He speaks in one passage of the
+prudent people of his time who, in desiring to be looked
+upon as orthodox by the great mob, calumniated the
+Teacher (Maimonides), and depreciated his merits. Bibago's
+book is very interesting, especially in its controversial
+parts; but in respect to dogmas he is, as already
+said, a Maimonist, and does not contribute any new point
+on our subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To return to the Anti-Maimonists of the second half
+of the fifteenth century. As such may be considered
+R. Isaac Aramah, who speaks of three foundations of
+religion: <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign>, Revelation (?), and the belief
+in a world to come.<note place='foot'>See עקידת יצחק, gate 55.</note> Next to be mentioned is R. Joseph
+Jabez, who also accepts only three articles: <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex
+nihilo</foreign>, Individual Providence, and the Unity of God.<note place='foot'>See his ימוד האמונה and מאמר האחרות.</note>
+Under these three heads he tries to classify the Thirteen
+Articles of Maimonides.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The last Spanish writer on our subject is R. Isaac
+Abarbanel. His treatise on the subject is known under
+the title <hi rend='italic'>Top of Amanah</hi>,<note place='foot'>ראש אמנה.</note> and was finished in the year
+1495. The greatest part of this treatise forms a defence
+of Maimonides, many points in which are taken from
+Bibago. But, in spite of this fact, Abarbanel must not
+be considered a Maimonist. It is only a feeling of piety
+towards Maimonides, or perhaps rather a fondness for
+argument, that made him defend Maimonides against
+Chasdai and others. His own view is that it is a mistake
+<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/>
+to formulate dogmas of Judaism, since every word in the
+Torah has to be considered as a dogma for itself. It was
+only, says Abarbanel, by following the example of non-Jewish
+scholars that Maimonides and others were induced
+to lay down dogmas. The non-Jewish philosophers are
+in the habit of accepting in every science certain indisputable
+axioms from which they deduce the propositions
+which are less evident. The Jewish philosophers in a
+similar way sought for first principles in religion from
+which the whole of the Torah ought to be considered as
+a deduction. But, thinks Abarbanel, the Torah as a
+revealed code is under no necessity of deducing things
+from each other, for all the commands came from the
+same divine authority, and, therefore, all are alike evident,
+and have the same certainty. On this and similar grounds
+Abarbanel refused to accept dogmatic articles for Judaism,
+and he thus became the head of the school that forms
+a class by itself among the Anti-Maimonists to which
+many of the greatest Cabbalists also belong. But it is
+idle talk to cite this school in aid of the modern theory
+that Judaism has no dogmas. As we have seen, it was
+rather an <foreign rend='italic'>embarras de richesse</foreign> that prevented Abarbanel
+from accepting the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. To
+him and to the Cabbalists the Torah consists of at least
+613 Articles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Abarbanel wrote his book with which we have just
+dealt, at Naples. And it is Italy to which, after the
+expulsion of the Jews from Spain, we have to look chiefly
+for religious speculation. But the philosophers of Italy
+are still less independent of Maimonides than their predecessors
+in Spain. Thus we find that R. David Messer
+Leon, R. David Vital, and others were Maimonists.
+<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/>
+Even the otherwise refined and original thinker, R. Elijah
+Delmedigo (who died about the end of the fifteenth
+century) becomes almost impolite when he speaks of the
+adversaries of Maimonides in respect to dogmas. <q>It
+was only,</q> he says, <q>the would-be philosopher that dared
+to question the articles of Maimonides. Our people have
+always the bad habit of thinking themselves competent
+to attack the greatest authorities as soon as they have got
+some knowledge of the subject. Genuine thinkers, however,
+attach very little importance to their objections.</q><note place='foot'>See בהיגת הדת, ed. Reggio, p. 28.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Indeed, it seems as if the energetic protests of Delmedigo
+scared away the Anti-Maimonists for more than
+a century. Even in the following seventeenth century
+we have to notice only two Anti-Maimonists. The one
+is R. Tobijah, the Priest (1652), who was of Polish descent,
+studied in Italy, and lived as a medical man in
+France. He seems to refuse to accept the belief in the
+Immutability of the Torah, and in the coming of the Messiah,
+as fundamental teachings of Judaism.<note place='foot'>See מעשה מבית (Venice, 1707), 16<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> and 23<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>. His language is
+very vague.</note> The other,
+at the end of the seventeenth century (1695), is R. Abraham
+Chayim Viterbo, of Italy. He accepts only six
+articles: 1. Existence of God; 2. Unity; 3. Incorporeality;
+4. That God was revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai,
+and that the prophecy of Moses is true; 5. Revelation
+(including the historical parts of the Torah); 6. Reward
+and Punishment. As to the other articles of Maimonides,
+Viterbo, in opposition to other half-hearted Anti-Maimonists,
+declares that the man who denies them is <emph>not</emph> to be
+considered as a heretic; though he ought to believe
+them.<note place='foot'>See the Collection by Ashkenazi (as above, note 18), p. 29<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have now arrived at the limit I set to myself at the
+beginning of this essay. For, between the times of
+<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/>
+Viterbo and those of Mendelssohn, there is hardly to be
+found any serious opposition to Maimonides worth noticing
+here. Still I must mention the name of R. Saul
+Berlin (died 1794); there is much in his opinions on
+dogmas which will help us the better to understand the
+Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. As the reader has
+seen, I have refrained so far from reproducing here the
+apologies which were made by many Maimonists in behalf
+of the Thirteen Articles. For, after all their elaborate
+pleas, none of them was able to clear Maimonides of the
+charge of having confounded dogmas or fundamental
+teachings with doctrines. It is also true that the Fifth
+Article&mdash;that prayer and worship must only be offered
+to God&mdash;cannot be considered even as a doctrine, but
+as a simple precept. And there are other difficulties
+which all the distinctions of the Maimonists will never
+be able to solve. The only possible justification is, I
+think, that suggested by a remark of R. Saul. This
+author, who was himself&mdash;like his friend and older
+contemporary Mendelssohn&mdash;a strong Anti-Maimonist,
+among other remarks, maintains that dogmas must never
+be laid down but with regard to the necessities of the
+time.<note place='foot'>See his בשמים ראש, p. 331.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now R. Saul certainly did not doubt that Judaism is
+based on eternal truths which can in no way be shaken
+by new modes of thinking or changed circumstances.
+What he meant was that there are in every age certain
+beliefs which ought to be asserted more emphatically
+than others, without regard to their theological or rather
+logical importance. It is by this maxim that we shall
+be able to explain the articles of Maimonides. He asserted
+them, because they were necessary for his time.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/>
+
+<p>
+We know, for instance, from a letter of his son and from
+other contemporaries, that it was just at his time that
+the belief in the incorporeality of God was, in the opinion
+of Maimonides, a little relaxed. Maimonides, who
+thought such low notions of the Deity dangerous to
+Judaism, therefore laid down an article against them.
+He tells us in his <hi rend='italic'>Guide</hi> that it was far from him to
+condemn any one who was not able to demonstrate the
+Incorporeality of God, but he stigmatised as a heretic
+one who refused to believe it. This position might be
+paralleled by that of a modern astronomer who, while
+considering it unreasonable to expect a mathematical
+demonstration of the movements of the earth from an
+ordinary unscientific man, would yet regard the person
+who refused to believe in such movements as an ignorant
+faddist.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Again, Maimonides undoubtedly knew that there may
+be found in the Talmud&mdash;that bottomless sea with its
+innumerable undercurrents&mdash;passages that are not quite
+in harmony with his articles; for instance, the well-known
+dictum of R. Hillel, who said, there is no Messiah for
+Israel&mdash;a passage which has already been quoted <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>ad
+nauseam</foreign> by every opponent of Maimonides from the
+earliest times down to the year of grace 1896. Maimonides
+was well aware of the existence of this and similar
+passages. But, being deeply convinced of the necessity
+of the belief in a future redemption of <emph>Israel</emph>&mdash;in opposition
+to other creeds which claim this redemption exclusively
+for their own adherents&mdash;Maimonides simply
+ignored the saying of R. Hillel, as an isolated opinion
+which contradicts all the consciousness and traditions of
+the Jew as expressed in thousands of other passages, and
+<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/>
+especially in the liturgy. Most interesting is Maimonides'
+view about such isolated opinions in a letter to the wise
+men of Marseilles. He deals there with the question of
+free will and other theological subjects. After having
+stated his own view he goes on to say: <q>I know that
+it is possible to find in the Talmud or in the Midrash
+this or that saying in contradiction to the views you have
+heard from me. But you must not be troubled by them.
+One must not refuse to accept a doctrine, the truth of
+which has been proved, on account of its being in opposition
+to some isolated opinion held by this or that great
+authority. Is it not possible that he overlooked some
+important considerations when he uttered this strange
+opinion? It is also possible that his words must not be
+taken literally, and have to be explained in an allegorical
+way. We can also think that his words were only to be
+applied with regard to certain circumstances of his time,
+but never intended as permanent truths.... No man
+must surrender his private judgment. The eyes are not
+directed backwards but forwards.</q> In another place
+Maimonides calls the suppression of one's own opinions&mdash;for
+the reason of their being irreconcilable with the isolated
+views of some great authority&mdash;a moral suicide.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By such motives Maimonides was guided when he left
+certain views hazarded in the Rabbinic literature unheeded,
+and followed what we may perhaps call the
+religious instinct, trusting to his own conscience. We
+may again be certain that Maimonides was clear-headed
+enough to see that the words of the Torah: <q>And there
+arose no prophet since in Israel like unto Moses</q> (Deut.
+xxxiv. 10), were as little intended to imply a doctrine as
+the passage relating to the king Josiah, <q>And like unto
+<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/>
+him was there no king before him that turned to the Lord
+with all his heart ... neither after him arose there any
+like him</q> (2 Kings xxiii. 25). And none would think of
+declaring the man a heretic who should believe another
+king to be as pious as Josiah. But living among followers
+of the <q>imitating creeds</q> (as he calls Christianity and
+Mohammedism), who claimed that their religion had superseded
+the law of Moses, Maimonides, consciously or unconsciously,
+felt himself compelled to assert the superiority
+of the prophecy of Moses. And so we may guess
+that every article of Maimonides which seems to offer
+difficulties to us contains an assertion of some relaxed
+belief, or a protest against the pretensions of other creeds,
+though we are not always able to discover the exact necessity
+for them. On the other hand, Maimonides did not
+assert the belief in free will, for which he argued so earnestly
+in his <hi rend='italic'>Guide</hi>. The common <q>man,</q> with his simple
+unspeculative mind, for whom these Thirteen Articles were
+intended, <q>never dreamed that the will was not free,</q> and
+there was no necessity of impressing on his mind things
+which he had never doubted.<note place='foot'>See Weiss's admirable monograph on Maimonides, published
+in the <hi rend='italic'>Beth Talmud</hi>, i.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So much about Maimonides. As to the Anti-Maimonists,
+it could hardly escape the reader that in some of the
+quoted systems the difference from the view of Maimonides
+is only a logical one, not a theological. Of some authors
+again, especially those of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
+it is not at all certain whether they intended to oppose
+Maimonides. Others again, as for instance R. Abba
+Mari, R. Lipman, and R. Joseph Jabez, acted on the
+same principle as Maimonides, urging only those teachings
+of Judaism which they thought endangered. One
+could now, indeed, animated by the praiseworthy example
+<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/>
+given to us by Maimonides, also propose some articles
+of faith which are suggested to us by the necessities
+of our own time. One might, for instance, insert the
+article, <q>I believe that Judaism is, in the first instance,
+a divine religion, <emph>not</emph> a mere complex of racial peculiarities
+and tribal customs.</q> One might again propose
+an article to the effect that Judaism is a proselytising
+religion, having the mission to bring about God's kingdom
+on earth, and to include in that kingdom all mankind.
+One might also submit for consideration whether
+it would not be advisable to urge a little more the principle
+that religion means chiefly a <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Weltanschauung</foreign> and
+worship of God by means of holiness both in thought
+and in action. One would even not object to accept the
+article laid down by R. Saul, that we have to look upon
+ourselves as sinners. Morbid as such a belief may be, it
+would, if properly impressed on our mind, have perhaps
+the wholesome effect of cooling down a little our self-importance
+and our mutual admiration that makes all
+progress among us almost impossible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it was not my purpose to ventilate here the question
+whether Maimonides' articles are sufficient for us, or
+whether we ought not to add new ones to them. Nor do
+I attempt to decide what system we ought to prefer for
+recitation in the Synagogue&mdash;that of Maimonides or that
+of Chasdai, or of any other writer. I do not think that
+such a recital is of much use. My object in this sketch
+has been rather to make the reader <emph>think</emph> about Judaism,
+by proving that it regulates not only our actions, but also
+our thoughts. We usually urge that in Judaism religion
+means life; but we forget that a life without guiding
+principles and thoughts is a life not worth living. At
+<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/>
+least it was so considered by the greatest Jewish thinkers,
+and hence their efforts to formulate the creed of Judaism,
+so that men should not only be able to do the right thing,
+but also to think the right thing. Whether they succeeded
+in their attempts towards formulating the creed
+of Judaism or not will always remain a question. This
+concerns the logician more than the theologian. But
+surely Maimonides and his successors <emph>did</emph> succeed in
+having a religion depending directly on God, with the
+most ideal and lofty aspirations for the future; whilst the
+Judaism of a great part of our modern theologians reminds
+one very much of the words with which the author of
+<hi rend='italic'>Marius the Epicurean</hi> characterises the Roman religion
+in the days of her decline: a religion which had been
+always something to be done rather than something to
+be thought, or believed, or loved.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Political economy, hygiene, statistics, are very fine
+things. But no sane man would for them make those
+sacrifices which Judaism requires from us. It is only for
+God's sake, to fulfil His commands and to accomplish His
+purpose, that religion becomes worth living and dying for.
+And this can only be possible with a religion which
+possesses dogmas.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is true that every great religion is <q>a concentration
+of many ideas and ideals,</q> which make this religion able
+to adapt itself to various modes of thinking and living.
+But there must always be a point round which all these
+ideas concentrate themselves. This centre is Dogma.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>VII. The History of Jewish Tradition</head>
+
+<p>
+There is an anecdote about a famous theologian to the
+effect that he used to tell his pupils, <q>Should I ever
+grow old and weak&mdash;which usually drives people to embrace
+the safer side&mdash;and alter my opinions, then pray
+do not believe me.</q> The concluding volume of Weiss's
+<hi rend='italic'>History of Jewish Tradition</hi><note place='foot'>The Hebrew title of the work is דור דור ורורשיו.</note> shows that there was no
+need for our author to warn his pupils against the dangers
+accompanying old age. For though Weiss had, when
+he began to write this last volume, already exceeded his
+three-score and ten, and, as we read in the preface, had
+some misgivings as to whether he should continue his
+work, there is no trace in it of any abatement of the
+great powers of the author. It is marked by the same
+freshness in diction, the same marvellous scholarship, the
+same display of astonishing critical powers, and the same
+impartial and straightforward way of judging persons and
+things, for which the preceding volumes were so much
+distinguished and admired.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This book, which is recognised as a standard work
+abroad, is, I fear, owing to the fact of its being written
+in the Hebrew language, not sufficiently known in this
+country. Weiss does not want <emph>our</emph> recognition; we are
+rather in need of his instruction. Some general view
+<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/>
+of his estimate of Jewish Tradition may, therefore, be
+of service to the student. It is, indeed, the only work of
+its kind. Zunz has confined himself to the history of the
+Agadah. Graetz gave most of his attention to the political
+side of Jewish history. But comparatively little has
+been done for the Halachah, though Frankel, Geiger,
+Herzfeld, and others have treated some single points
+in various monographs. Thus it was left for Weiss to
+write the <hi rend='italic'>History of Tradition</hi>, which includes both the
+Agadah and the Halachah. The treatment of this latter
+must have proved, in consequence of the intricate and
+intractable nature of its materials, by far the more difficult
+portion of his task.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In speaking of the <emph>History</emph> of Tradition, a term which
+suggests the fluctuating character of a thing, its origin,
+development, progress, and retrogression, we have already
+indicated that Weiss does not consider even the Halachah
+as having come down from heaven, ready-made, and definitely
+fixed for all time. To define it more clearly, Tradition
+is, apart from the few ordinances and certain usages
+for which there is no precedent in the Bible, the history
+of interpretation of the Scriptures, which was constantly
+liable to variation, not on grounds of philology, but
+through the subjective notions of successive generations
+regarding religion and the method and scope of its
+application.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Weiss's standpoint with reference to the Pentateuch is
+the conservative one, maintaining both its unity and its
+Mosaic authorship. Those passages and accounts in the
+Bible in which the modern critic discerns traces of different
+traditional sources, are for Weiss only indicative
+of the various stages of interpretation through which the
+<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/>
+Pentateuch had to pass. The earliest stage was a very
+crude one, as may be seen from the case of Jephthah's
+vow, for which only a misinterpretation of certain passages
+in the Pentateuch (Gen. xxii. 2; Num. xxv. 4) could
+be made responsible. Nor was Jephthah, who felt himself
+bound to carry out his vow, acquainted with the provision
+for dissolving vows<note place='foot'>That is, vows of an ascetic nature (not vows or oaths enforced
+by a court of justice), which the tribunal could annul when there was
+sufficient reason for it.</note> that was sufficiently familiar to later
+ages. When, on the other hand, Jeremiah declared sacrifices
+to be altogether superfluous, and said that God did
+not command Israel, when he brought them from the
+land of Egypt, concerning burnt offerings or sacrifices
+(vii. 22), he was not in contradiction with Leviticus, but
+interpreted the laws contained in this book as a concession
+to popular custom, though not desirable on their
+own account. This concession, whenever it was of a
+harmless nature, the prophets carried so far as to permit
+altars outside the Tabernacle or Temple, though
+this was against the plain sense of Deuteronomy. Elijah
+even bewailed their destruction (1 Kings xix. 10). He
+and other prophets probably interpreted the law in question
+as directed against the construction and maintenance
+of several chief sanctuaries, but not against sacrificing in
+different places on minor occasions. This is evidently a
+free interpretation, or rather application, of the Law.
+Occasionally the conception as to when and how a law
+should be applied took a completely negative form. In
+this manner is to be explained the action of Solomon in
+suspending the Fast of the Day of Atonement before
+the festival he was going to celebrate in honour of the
+consecration of the Temple (1 Kings viii. 65), the king
+being convinced that on this unique occasion the latter
+was of more religious importance than the former. Weiss
+<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/>
+thinks that the later custom of holding public dances in
+the vineyards on the 10th of Tishri might have had its
+origin in this solemn, but also joyful, festival. Ezekiel,
+again, though alluding more frequently than any other
+prophet to the laws in the Pentateuch, is exceedingly
+bold in his interpretation of them, as, for instance, when
+he says that <emph>priests</emph> shall not eat anything that is dead
+or torn (xliv. 31), which shows that he took the verses
+in Exod. xxii. 30, and Deut. xiv. 20, to have been meant
+only as a good advice to the laymen to refrain from eating
+these unclean things, but not as having for them the
+force of a real commandment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Starting from this proposition, that there existed always
+some sort of interpretation running side by side with the
+recognised Scriptures, which from the very looseness of
+its connection with the letter of the Scripture could claim
+to be considered a thing independent in itself, and might
+therefore be regarded as the <hi rend='italic'>Oral Law</hi>, in contradistinction
+to the <hi rend='italic'>Written Law</hi>, the author passes to the age of
+the Second Temple, the period to which the rest of the
+first volume is devoted. In these pages Weiss reviews the
+activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, the ordinances of the Men
+of the Great Synagogue, the institutions of the Scribes, the
+Lives of the so-called Pairs,<note place='foot'>The ten Rabbis who are named as the bearers of tradition during
+the period between 170 and 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> The <q>pair</q> in each case is supposed
+to have consisted of the president and the vice-president of the
+Sanhedrin for the time being. See, however, Kuenen, <hi rend='italic'>Gesammelte
+Schriften</hi>, p. 49 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi></note> the characteristics of the
+three sects, the Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes, and
+the differences between the schools of Shammai and Hillel.
+To each of these subjects Weiss gives his fullest attention,
+and his discussions of them would form perfect monographs
+in themselves. To reproduce all the interesting
+matter would mean to translate the whole of this portion
+of his work into English. I shall only draw attention to
+one or two points.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/>
+
+<p>
+First, this liberal interpretation was active during the
+whole period referred to. Otherwise no authority could
+have abolished the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>lex talionis</foreign>, or have permitted war on
+Sabbath, or made the condition that no crime should be
+punished without a preceding warning (which was chiefly
+owing to the aversion of the Rabbis to the infliction of
+capital punishment), or have sanctioned the sacrificing of
+the Passover when the 14th of Nisan fell on Sabbath.
+Indeed Shemaiah and Abtalyon, in whose name Hillel
+communicated this last law, were called the Great Interpreters.<note place='foot'>דרשנים גדולים.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Secondly, as to the so-called <hi rend='italic'>laws given to Moses on
+Sinai</hi>.<note place='foot'>הלכות למשה מסיני. They amount, in the whole of Rabbinic literature,
+to about forty, of which more than ten concern the preparation of
+the phylacteries, whilst others relate to the libations of water at the
+Feast of Tabernacles and similar subjects.</note> Much has been said about these. The distinction
+claimed for them by some scholars, viz. that they were
+never contested, is not tenable, considering that there prevailed
+much difference of opinion about some of them.
+Nor is the theory that they were ancient religious usages,
+dating from time immemorial, entirely satisfactory. For
+though the fact may be true in itself, this could not have
+justified the Rabbis in calling them all Sinaitic laws, especially
+when they were aware that not a few of them were
+contested by certain of their colleagues, a thing that would
+have been quite impossible if they had a genuine claim to
+Mosaic authority. But if we understand Weiss rightly
+these laws are only to be considered as a specimen of the
+whole of the Oral Law, which was believed to emanate,
+both in its institutional and in its expository part, from the
+same authority. The conviction was firmly held that
+everything wise and good, be it ethical or ceremonial in
+its character, whose effect would be to strengthen the
+cause of religion, was at least potentially contained in the
+Torah, and that it only required an earnest religious mind
+<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/>
+to find it there. Hence the famous adage that <q>everything
+which any student will teach at any future time was already
+communicated to Moses on Mount Sinai</q>; or the injunction
+that any acceptable truth, even if discovered by an
+insignificant man in Israel, should be considered as having
+the authority of a great sage or prophet, or even of Moses
+himself. The principle was that the words of the Torah
+are <q>fruitful and multiply.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It will probably be said that the laws of clean and unclean,
+and such like, have proved rather too prolific; but
+if we read Weiss carefully, we shall be reminded that it
+was by the same process of propagation that the Rabbis
+developed from Deut. xxii. 8, a whole code of sanitary and
+police-laws which could even now be studied with profit;
+from the few scanty civil laws in Exod. xxi., a whole <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>corpus
+juris</foreign>, which might well excite the interest and the admiration
+of any lawyer; and from the words <q>And thou shalt
+teach them diligently unto thy children,</q> a complete school-system
+on the one hand, and on the other the <foreign rend='italic'>résumé</foreign> of a
+liturgy that appears to have sufficed for the spiritual needs
+of more than fifty generations of Israelites.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Before we pass to the age of the Tannaim,<note place='foot'>This is the time when the school of R. Johanan b. Zaccai began
+its activity. Others place the Tannaitic age in Hillel's time (30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>).</note> the subject
+of Weiss's second volume, we must take account of two
+important events which have greatly influenced the further
+development of Tradition. I refer to the destruction of
+the Temple and the rise of Christianity. With the former
+event Judaism ceased to be a political commonwealth, and
+if <q>the nation was already in the times of Ezra converted
+into a church,</q>&mdash;an assertion, by the way, which has not
+the least basis in fact,&mdash;it became the more so after it had
+lost the last remains of its independence. But it was a
+church without priests, or, since such a thing, as far as
+<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/>
+history teaches us, has never existed, let us rather call it a
+Synagogue.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From this fact diverse results flowed. A Synagogue
+can exist not only without priests, but also without sacrifices,
+for which prayer and charity were a sufficient substitute.
+With the progress of time also many agricultural
+laws, as well as others relating to sacerdotal purity,
+gradually became obsolete, though they lingered on for
+some generations, and, as a venerable reminiscence of a
+glorious time, entered largely into Jewish literature. This
+disappearance of so many laws and the weakening of the
+national element, however, required, if Judaism was to continue
+to exist, the strengthening of religion from another
+side. The first thing needed was the creation of a new
+religious centre which would not only replace the Temple
+to a certain degree, but also bring about a greater solidarity
+of views, such as would render impossible the ancient
+differences that divided the schools of Hillel and Shammai.
+The creator of this centre was R. Johanan ben Zaccai,
+who founded the school of Jamnia, and invested it with
+the same authority and importance as the Sanhedrin had
+enjoyed during Temple times. The consciousness that
+they were standing before a new starting-point in history,
+with a large religious inheritance from the past, actuated
+them not only to collect the old traditional laws and to
+take stock of their religious institutions, but also to give
+them more definite shape and greater stability. As many
+of these traditions were by no means undisputed, the best
+thing was to bring them under one or other heading of
+the Scriptures. This desire gave the impulse to the famous
+hermeneutic schools of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The next cause that contributed to give a more determinate
+<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/>
+expression to the Law was the rise of Christianity.
+This is not the place to give an account of the views which
+the Rabbis entertained of Christianity. Suffice it to say
+they could not see in the destruction of the Law its fulfilment.
+They also thought that under certain conditions
+it is not only the letter that killeth, but also the spirit, or
+rather that the spirit may sometimes be clothed in a letter,
+which, in its turn, will slay more victims than the letter
+against which the loudest denunciations have been levelled.
+Spirit without letter, let theologians say what they will, is
+a mere phantasm. However, the new sect made claims to
+the gift of prophecy, which, as they thought, placed them
+above the Law. It would seem that this was a time of
+special excitement. The student of the Talmud finds that
+such marvels as predicting the future, reviving the dead,
+casting out demons, crossing rivers dry-shod, curing the
+sick by a touch or prayer, were the order of the day, and
+performed by scores of Rabbis. Voices from heaven were
+often heard, and strange visions were frequently beheld.
+Napoleon I. is said to have forbidden the holy coat of
+Treves to work miracles. The Jewish legislature, however,
+had no means of preventing these supernatural
+workings; but when the Rabbis saw their dangerous consequences,
+they insisted that miracles should have no influence
+on the interpretation and development of the Law.
+Hence the saying with regard to Lev. xxvii. 34, that no
+prophet is authorised to add a new law. And when R.
+Eliezer b. Hyrkanos (about 120 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>) thought to prove the
+justice of his case by the intervention of miracles, the
+majority answered that the fact of this or that variation,
+effected at his bidding, in the established order of nature,
+proved nothing for the soundness of his argument. Nay,
+<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/>
+they even ignored the <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Bath-Kol</foreign><note place='foot'>בת קרל.</note> (the celestial voice),
+which declared itself in favour of R. Eliezer, maintaining
+that the Torah having once been given to mankind, it is
+only the opinion of the majority that should decide on its
+interpretation and application. Very characteristic is the
+legend connected with this fact. When one of the Rabbis
+afterwards met Elijah and asked him what they thought
+in heaven of the audacity of his colleagues, the prophet
+answered, <q>God rejoiced and said, my children have conquered
+me.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Into such discredit did miracles fall at that period, whilst
+the opinion of the interpreting body, or the Sanhedrin, became
+more powerful than ever. These were merely dogmatical
+consequences. But new laws were enacted and
+old ones revived, with the object of resisting Christian influences
+over the Jews. To expand the Oral Law, and
+give it a firm basis in the Scriptures, were considered the
+best means of preserving Judaism intact. <q>Moses desired,</q>
+an old legend narrates, <q>that the Mishnah also
+(that is Tradition) should be written down;</q> but foreseeing
+the time when the nations of the world would translate
+the Torah into Greek, and would assert their title to rank
+as the Children of God, the Lord refused to permit tradition
+to be recorded otherwise than by word of mouth.
+The claim of the Gentiles might then be refuted by asking
+them whether they were also in possession of <q>the
+Mystery.</q> The Rabbis therefore concentrated their attention
+upon <q>the Mystery,</q> and this contributed largely
+towards making the expository methods of R. Akiba and R.
+Ishmael, to which I have above referred, the main object
+of their study in the schools.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It would, however, be a mistake to think that the Sanhedrin
+<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/>
+now spent their powers in <q>enforcing retrograde
+measures and creating a strange exegesis.</q> I especially
+advise the student to read carefully that admirable chapter
+(VII., of Vol. II.) in which Weiss classifies all the Ordinances,
+<q>Fences,</q> Decrees, and Institutions, dating both
+from this and from earlier ages, under ten headings, and
+also shows their underlying principles. The main object
+was to preserve the Jewish religion by strengthening the
+principle of Jewish nationality, and to preserve the nationality
+by the aid of religion. But sometimes the Rabbis
+also considered it necessary to preserve religion against
+itself, so to speak, or, as they expressed it, <q>When there
+is time to work for the Lord, they make void thy Torah.</q>
+This authorised the <hi rend='italic'>Beth Din</hi><note place='foot'>בית דין, lit. <q>Court of Justice,</q> as above, note 16 to Elijah Wilna,
+but it means also a sort of permanent Synod, in which of course justice
+was also administered as a part of religion.</note> to act in certain cases
+against the letter of the Torah. <q>The welfare of the
+World</q> was another great consideration. By <q>World</q>
+they understood both the religious and the secular world.
+From a regard to the former resulted such <q>Fences</q> and
+Ordinances as were directed against <q>the transgressors,</q>
+as well as the general injunction to <q>keep aloof from what
+is morally unseemly, and from whatever bears any likeness
+thereto.</q> In the interests of the latter&mdash;the welfare
+of the secular world&mdash;they enacted such laws as either
+tended to elevate the position of women, or to promote
+the peace and welfare of members of their own community,
+or to improve the relations between Jews and their
+Gentile neighbours. They also held the great principle
+that nothing is so injurious to the cause of religion as
+increasing the number of sinners by needless severity.
+Hence the introduction of many laws <q>for the benefit of
+penitents,</q> and the maxim not to issue any decree which
+may prove too heavy a burden to the majority of the community.
+<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/>
+The relaxation of certain traditional laws was also
+permitted when they involved a serious loss of property, or
+the sacrifice of a man's dignity. Some old decrees were
+even permitted to fall into oblivion when public opinion
+was too strong against them, the Rabbis holding that it
+was often better for Israelites to be unconscious sinners
+than wilful transgressors. The <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Minhag</foreign>, or religious custom,
+also played an important part, it being assumed that
+it must have been first introduced by some eminent authority;
+but, if there was reason to believe that the custom
+owed its origin to some fancy of the populace, and that it
+had a pernicious effect on the multitude, no compunction
+was felt in abolishing it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Very important it is to note that the Oral Law had not
+at this period assumed a character of such rigidity that all
+its ordinances, etc., had to be looked upon as irremovable
+for all times. With those who think otherwise, a favourite
+quotation is the administratory measure laid dawn in Tractate
+<hi rend='italic'>Evidences</hi>,<note place='foot'>עדיות, <q>Evidences given by Witnesses.</q> The tractate consists
+mostly of a number of laws attested by various Rabbis as having come
+down to them as old traditions.</note> I. 5, where we read that no <hi rend='italic'>Beth Din</hi> has
+the right of annulling the dicta of another <hi rend='italic'>Beth Din</hi>, unless
+it is stronger in numbers (having a larger majority) and
+greater in wisdom than its fellow tribunal. Confess with
+becoming modesty that the world is always going downhill,
+decreasing both in numbers and in wisdom, and the result
+follows that any decision by the earlier Rabbis is fixed law
+for all eternity. Weiss refutes such an idea not only as
+inconsistent with the nature of Tradition, but also as contradictory
+to the facts. He proves by numerous instances
+that the Rabbis did abolish ordinances and decrees introduced
+by preceding authorities, and that the whole conception
+is based on a misunderstanding. For the rule in
+question, as Weiss clearly points out, originally only meant
+<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/>
+that a <hi rend='italic'>Beth Din</hi> has no right to undo the decrees of
+another <hi rend='italic'>contemporary Beth Din</hi>, unless it was justified in
+doing so by the weight of its greater authority. This was
+necessary if a central authority was to exist at all. Weiss
+is indeed of opinion that the whole passage is a later interpolation
+from the age of R. Simeon b. Gamaliel II., when
+certain Rabbis tried to emancipate themselves from the
+authority of the Patriarch. But it was not meant that the
+decision of a <hi rend='italic'>Beth Din</hi> should have perpetual binding
+power for all posterity. This was left to the discretion of
+the legislature of each generation, who had to examine
+whether the original cause for maintaining such decision
+still existed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The rest of this volume is for the greater part taken up
+with complete monographs of the Patriarchs and the heads
+of the schools of that age, whilst the concluding chapters
+give us the history of the literature, the Midrash, Mechilta,
+Siphra, Siphré, Mishnah, etc., which contain both the
+Halachic and the Agadic sayings emanating from these
+authorities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With regard to these Patriarchs, I should like only to
+remark that Weiss defends them against the charge made
+by Schorr and others, who accuse them of having assumed
+too much authority on account of their noble descent, and
+who describe their opponents as the true friends of the
+people. Weiss is no lover of such specious phrases. The
+qualifications required for the leadership of the people
+were a right instinct for the necessities of their time, a fair
+amount of secular knowledge, and, what is of chief importance,
+an unbounded love and devotion to those over whose
+interests they were called to watch. These distinctions, as
+Weiss proves, the descendants of Hillel possessed in the
+<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/>
+highest degree. It is true that occasionally, as for instance
+in the famous controversy of R. Gamaliel II. with R.
+Joshua b. Hananiah, or that of R. Simeon b. Gamaliel II.
+with R. Nathan and R. Meir, they made their authority
+too heavily felt;<note place='foot'>The family of Hillel, which was supposed to be descended from
+the house of David, supplied the Jews with patriarchs for many generations.
+Gamaliel II. flourished about 120 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>, whilst Simon b.
+Gamaliel's activity as Patriarch falls about 160 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi></note> but this was again another necessity of
+those troubled times, when only real unity could save
+Israel.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, Weiss is no partisan, and the love he lavishes
+on his favourite heroes does not exhaust his resources of
+sympathy and appreciation for members of the other
+schools. Weiss is no apologist either, and does not make
+the slightest attempt towards explaining away even the
+defects of R. Akiba in his somewhat arbitrary method of
+interpretation, which our author thinks much inferior to
+the expository rules of R. Ishmael; but this does not prevent
+him from admiring his excellences.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Altogether it would seem that Weiss thinks R. Akiba
+more happy in his quality as a great saint than in that of
+a great exegete. What is most admirable is the instinct
+with which Weiss understands how to emphasise the right
+thing in its right place. As an indication of the literary
+honesty and marvellous industry of our author, I would
+draw attention to the fact that the sketch of R. Akiba
+and his school alone is based on more than two thousand
+quotations scattered over the whole area of the Rabbinic
+literature; but he points in a special note to a sentence
+attributed to R. Akiba, which presents the whole man
+and his generation in a single stroke. I refer to that passage
+in Tractate <hi rend='italic'>Joys</hi>,<note place='foot'>שמכות, <hi rend='italic'>Semachoth</hi>. It is a euphemistic title, the tractate dealing
+with the laws relating to funeral ceremonies and mourning.</note> in which R. Akiba speaks of the
+four types of sufferers. He draws the comparison of a
+king chastising his children; the first son maintains stubborn
+silence, the second simply rebels, the third supplicates
+<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/>
+for mercy, and the fourth (the best of sons) says:
+<q>Father, proceed with thy chastisement, as David said,
+Wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity and cleanse me
+from my sin</q> (Ps. li. 4). This absolute submission to
+the will of God, which perceives in suffering only an expression
+of His fatherly love and mercy, was the ideal of
+R. Akiba.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The great literary production of this period was the
+Mishnah, which, through the high authority of its compiler,
+R. Judah the Patriarch, his saintliness and popularity,
+soon superseded all the collections of a similar
+kind, and became the official text-book of the Oral Law.
+But a text requires interpretation, whilst other collections
+also demanded some attention. This brings us to the two
+<hi rend='italic'>Talmuds</hi>, namely, the Talmud of Jerusalem and the Talmud
+of Babylon, the origin and history of which form
+the subject of Weiss's third volume.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Here again the first chapters are more of a preliminary
+character, giving the student some insight into the labyrinth
+of the Talmud. The two chapters entitled <q>The
+instruments employed in erecting the great Edifice,</q> and
+the <q>Workmanship displayed by the Builders,</q> give evidence
+of almost unrivalled familiarity with the Rabbinical
+literature, and of critical powers of the rarest kind. Now
+these instruments were by no means new, for, as Weiss
+shows, the Amoraim employed in interpreting the Mishnah
+the same explanatory rules that are known to us
+from the School of R. Ishmael as <q>the Thirteen Rules
+by which the Torah is explained,</q> though they appear
+in the Talmud under other names, and are in reality only
+a species of Midrash. Besides this there comes another
+element into play. It was the exaggerated awe of all
+<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/>
+earlier authorities that endeavoured to reconcile the most
+contradictory statements by means of a subtle dialectic
+for which the schools in Babylon were especially famous.
+There were certainly many opponents of this system, and
+from the monographs which Weiss gives on the various
+heads of the western and eastern schools we see that not
+all followed this method, and some among them even condemned
+it in the strongest words. However, it cannot be
+denied that there is a strong scholastic feature in the Talmud,
+which is very far from what we should look for in
+a trustworthy exegesis. Thus we must not always expect
+to find in the Talmud the true meaning of the sayings
+of their predecessors, and it is certain that a more
+scientific method in many cases has led to results the
+very opposite of those at which the later Rabbis have
+arrived. This fact was already recognised in the sixteenth
+century, though only in part, by R. Yom-Tob
+Heller and others. Only he insisted that in this matter
+a line must be drawn between theory and practice. But
+Weiss gives irrefragable proofs that even this line was
+often overstepped by the greatest authorities, though they
+remained always within the limits of Tradition. Indeed,
+as Weiss points out, not every saying to be found in the
+Talmud is to be looked upon as representing Tradition;
+for there is much in it which only gives the individual
+opinion or is merely an interpolation of later hands; nor
+does the Talmud contain the <emph>whole</emph> of Tradition, this
+latter proceeding and advancing with the time, and corresponding
+to its conditions and notions. As we read
+Weiss, the conviction is borne in upon us that there was
+a Talmud before, and another after <hi rend='italic'>The Talmud</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Much space in this volume is given to the Agadah and
+<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/>
+the so-called <q>Teachers of the Agadah.</q> Weiss makes
+no attempt at apology for that which seems to us strange,
+or even repugnant in this part of the Rabbinic literature.
+The greatest fault to be found with those who wrote down
+such passages as appear objectionable to us is, perhaps,
+that they did not observe the wise rule of Johnson, who
+said to Boswell on a certain occasion, <q>Let us get serious,
+for there comes a fool.</q> And the fools unfortunately
+did come in the shape of certain Jewish commentators
+and Christian controversialists, who took as serious things
+which were only the expression of a momentary impulse,
+or represented the opinion of some isolated individual, or
+were meant simply as a piece of humorous by-play, calculated
+to enliven the interest of a languid audience. But
+on the other hand, as Weiss proves, the Agadah contains
+also many elements of real edification and eternal truths
+as well as abundant material for building up the edifice
+of dogmatic Judaism. Talmudical quotations of such a
+nature are scattered by thousands over Weiss's work, particularly
+in those chapters in which he describes the lives
+of the greatest Rabbinical heroes. But the author lays the
+student under special obligations by putting together in
+the concluding pages of this volume some of these sentences,
+and classifying them under various headings. I give
+here a few extracts. For the references to authorities I
+must direct the reader to the original:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>The unity of God is the keystone of dogmatic Judaism.
+The Rabbis give Israel the credit of having proclaimed to
+the world the unity of God. They also say that Israel
+took an oath never to change Him for another God. This
+only God is eternal, incorporeal, and immutable. And
+though the prophets saw Him in different aspects, He
+<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/>
+warned them that they must not infer from the visions
+vouchsafed to them that there are different Gods. <q>I
+am the first,</q> He tells them, which implies that he had no
+father, and the words, <q>There is no God besides me,</q> mean
+that he has no son. Now, this God, the God of Israel, is
+holy in every thinkable way of holiness. He is merciful
+and gracious, as it is said, <q>And I will be gracious to whom
+I will be gracious,</q> even though he who is the recipient of
+God's grace has no merit of his own. <q>And I will show
+mercy to whom I will show mercy,</q> that is, even to those
+who do not deserve it. His attributes are righteousness,
+loving-kindness, and truth. God speaks words of eternal
+truth, even as He himself is the eternal life. All that the
+Merciful One does is only for good, and even in the time
+of His anger He remembers His graciousness, and often
+suppresses His attribute of judgment before His attribute
+of mercy. But with the righteous God is more
+severe than with the rest of the world, and when His hand
+falls in chastening on His saints His name becomes awful,
+revered, and exalted. This God of Israel, again, extends
+His providence over all mankind, and especially over Israel.
+By His eye everything is foreseen, yet freedom of choice
+is given, and the world is judged by grace, yet all according
+to the works wrought. Hence, know what is above
+thee, a seeing eye and a hearing ear, and that all thy deeds
+are written in a book.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>They [the Rabbis] believed that God created the world
+out of nothing, without toil and without weariness. This
+world was created by the combination of His two attributes,
+mercy and justice. He rejoices in His creation, and
+if the Maker praises it, who dares to blame it? And if
+He exults in it, who shall find a blemish in it? Nay, it is
+<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/>
+a glorious and a beautiful world. It is created for man,
+and its other denizens were all meant but to serve him.
+Though all mankind are formed after the type of Adam, no
+one is like his fellow-man (each one having an individuality
+of his own). Thus he is able to say, <q>For my sake, also,
+was the world created</q>; and with this thought his responsibilities
+increase. But the greatest love shown to man is
+that he was created in the image of God. Man is a being
+possessed of free will, and, though everything is given on
+pledge, whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow.
+Everything is in the gift of Heaven except the fear of
+God. In man's heart abide both the evil inclination and
+the good inclination; and the words of Scripture, <q>Thou
+shalt not bow down before a strange god,</q> point to the
+strange god who is within man himself, who entices him
+to sin in this world, and gives evidence against him in
+the next. But the Holy One&mdash;blessed be He!&mdash;said, <q>I
+have created the evil inclination, but I have also created
+its antidote, the Torah.</q> And when man is occupied with
+the Torah and in works of charity, he becomes the master
+of the evil inclination; otherwise, he is its slave. When
+man reflects the image of God, he is the lord of creation,
+and is feared by all creatures; but this image is defaced
+by sin, and then he has no power over the universe, and is
+in fear of all things.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>Another principle of Judaism is the belief in reward
+and punishment. <q>I am the Lord, your God,</q> means,
+<q>it is I who am prepared to recompense you for your
+good actions, and to bring retribution upon you for your
+evil deeds.</q> God does not allow to pass unrewarded even
+the merit of a kind and considerate word. By the same
+measure which man metes out, it shall be meted out to
+<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/>
+him. Because thou drownedst others, they have drowned
+thee, and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves
+be drowned. Though it is not in our power to
+explain either the prosperity of the wicked or the affliction
+of the righteous, nevertheless know before whom thou
+toilest, and who thy employer is, who will pay thee the
+reward of thy labour. Here at thy door is a poor man
+standing, and at his right hand standeth God. If thou
+grantest his request, be certain of thy reward; but if
+thou refusest, think of him who is by the side of the
+poor, and will avenge it on thee. <q>God seeketh the
+persecuted</q> to defend him, even though it be the wicked
+who is persecuted by the righteous. The soul of man
+is immortal, the souls of the righteous being treasured
+up under the throne of God. Know that everything is
+according to the reckoning, and let not thy imagination
+give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge
+for thee, for perforce thou wast formed, and perforce thou
+wast born, and thou livest perforce, and perforce thou wilt
+die, and perforce thou wilt in the future have to give
+account and reckoning before the Supreme King of kings,
+the Holy One, blessed be He.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>The advent of the Messiah is another article of the
+belief of the Rabbis. But if a man tell thee that he
+knows when the redemption of Israel will take place,
+believe him not, for this is one of the unrevealed secrets
+of the Almighty. The mission of Elijah is to bring peace
+into the world, while the Messiah, in whose days Israel
+will regain his national independence, will lead the whole
+world in repentance to God. On this, it is believed, will
+follow the resurrection of the dead.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>Another main principle in the belief of the Rabbis
+<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/>
+is the election of Israel, which imposes on them special
+duties, and gives them a peculiar mission. Beloved are
+Israel, for they are called the children of God, and His
+firstborn. <q>They shall endure for ever</q> through the merit
+of their fathers. There is an especial covenant established
+between God and the tribes of Israel. God is their father,
+and He said to them, My children, even as I have no
+contact with the profanity of the world, so also withdraw
+yourselves from it. And as I am holy, be ye also holy.
+Nay, sanctify thyself by refraining even from that which is
+not forbidden thee. There is no holiness without chastity.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>The main duty of Israel is to sanctify the name of God,
+for the Torah was only given that His great name might
+be glorified. Better is it that a single letter of the law
+be cast out than that the name of Heaven be profaned.
+And this also is the mission of Israel in this world: to
+sanctify the name of God, as it is written, <q>This people
+have I formed for myself, that they may show forth my
+praise.</q> Or, <q>And thou shalt love the Lord thy God,</q>
+which means, Thou shalt make God beloved by all creatures,
+even as Abraham did. Israel is the light of the
+world; as it is said, <q>And nations shall walk by thy light.</q>
+But he who profanes the name of Heaven in secret will
+suffer the penalty thereof in public; and this whether the
+Heavenly Name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>Another duty towards God is to love Him and to fear
+Him. God's only representative on earth is the God-fearing
+man. Woe unto those who are occupied in the study
+of the Torah, but who have no fear of God. But a still
+higher duty it is to perform the commandments of God
+from love. For greater is he who submits to the will of
+God from love than he who does so from fear.</q>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>Now, how shall man love God? This is answered in
+the words of Scripture, <q>And these words shall be upon
+thy heart.</q> For by them thou wilt recognise Him
+whose word called the world into existence, and follow
+His divine attributes.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>God is righteous; be ye also righteous, O Israel.
+By righteousness the Rabbis understand love of truth,
+hatred of lying and backbiting. The seal of the Holy
+One, blessed be He, is Truth, of which the actions of man
+should also bear the impress. Hence, let thy yea be
+yea, and thy nay, nay. He who is honest in money transactions,
+unto him this is reckoned as if he had fulfilled
+the whole of the Torah. Greater is he who earns his livelihood
+by the labour of his hands than even the God-fearing
+man; whilst the righteous judge is, as it were, the companion
+of God in the government of the world. For upon
+three things the world stands: upon truth, upon judgment,
+upon peace; as it is said, <q>Judge ye the truth and
+the judgment of peace in your gates.</q> But he who breaks
+his word, his sin is as great as if he worshipped idols;
+and God, who punished the people of the time of the Flood,
+will also punish him who does not stand by his word.
+Such a one belongs to one of the four classes who are
+not admitted into the presence of the Shechinah; these
+are the scoffers, the hypocrites (who bring the wrath of
+God into the world), the liars, and the slanderers. The
+sin of the slanderer is like that of one who would deny
+the root (the root of all religion, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> the existence of God).
+The greatest of liars, however, is he who perjures himself,
+which also involves the sin of profanation of the name of
+God. The hypocrite, who insinuates himself into people's
+good opinions, who wears his phylacteries and is enwrapped
+<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/>
+in his gown with the fringes, and secretly commits
+sins, equally transgresses the command, <q>Thou shalt
+not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.</q></q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>God is gracious and merciful; therefore man also
+should be gracious and merciful. Hence, <q>Thou shalt
+love thy neighbour as thyself,</q> which is a main principle
+in the Torah. What is unpleasant to thyself, do not unto
+thy neighbour. This is the whole Torah, to which the
+rest is only to be considered as a commentary. And this
+love is also extended to the stranger, for as it is said with
+regard to Israel, <q>And thou shalt love thy neighbour as
+thyself,</q> so is it also said, <q>And thou shalt love him (the
+stranger) as thyself.</q> And thus said God to Israel, <q>My
+beloved children, Am I in want of anything that I should
+request it of you? But what I ask of you is that you
+should love, honour, and respect one another.</q> Therefore,
+love mankind, and bring them near to the Torah. Let
+the honour of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own.
+Condemn not thy fellow-man until thou art come into his
+place, and judge all men in the scale of merit. Say not
+<q>I will love scholars, but hate their disciples;</q> or even,
+<q>I will love the disciples, but hate the ignorant,</q> but love
+all, for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer.
+Indeed, during the age of the second Temple,
+men studied the Torah and the commandments, and performed
+works of charity, but they hated each other, a sin
+that outweighs all other sins, and for which the holy
+Temple was destroyed. Be careful not to withdraw thy
+mercy from any man, for he who does so rebels against
+the kingdom of God on earth. Walk in the ways of God,
+who is merciful even to the wicked, and as He is gracious
+alike to those who know Him, and to those who know
+<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/>
+Him not, so be thou. Indeed, charity is one of the three
+pillars on which the world is based. It is more precious
+than all other virtues. The man who gives charity in
+secret is greater even than Moses our teacher. An act
+of charity and love it is to pray for our fellow-man, and to
+admonish him. <q>Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy neighbour,
+and not suffer sin upon him</q> (Lev. xix. 18), means
+it is thy duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be,
+even if he be thy superior; for Jerusalem was only destroyed
+for the sin of its people in not admonishing one
+another. The man whose protest would be of any weight,
+and who does not exercise his authority (when any wrong
+is about to be committed), is held responsible for the whole
+world.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>Peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love.
+Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing
+peace. Let every man be cautious in the fear of God;
+let him ever give the soft answer that turneth away wrath;
+let him promote peace, not only among his own relatives
+and acquaintances, but also among the Gentiles. For (the
+labour of) all the prophets was to plant peace in the world.
+Be exceeding lowly of spirit, since the hope of man is but
+the worm. Be humble as Hillel, for he who is humble
+causes the Divine presence to dwell with man. But the
+proud man makes God say, <q>I and he cannot dwell in the
+same place.</q> He who runs after glory, glory flees from
+him, and he who flees from glory, glory shall pursue him.
+Be of those who are despised rather than of those who
+despise; of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors;
+be of those who bear their reproach in silence and answer
+not.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q rend='pre'>Another distinctive mark of Judaism is faith in God,
+<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/>
+and perfect confidence in Him. Which is the right course
+for a man to choose for himself? Let him have a strong
+faith in God, as it is said, <q>Mine eye shall be upon the
+faithful (meaning those possessing faith in God) of the
+land.</q> And so also Habakkuk based the whole Torah on
+the principle of faith, as it is said, <q>And the just shall live
+by his faith</q> (ii. 4). He who but fulfils a single commandment
+in absolute faith in God deserves that the Holy
+Spirit should rest on him. Blessed is the man who fears
+God in private, and trusts in Him with all his heart, for
+such fear and trust arms him against every misfortune.
+He who puts his trust in the Holy One, blessed be He,
+God becomes his shield and protection in this world
+and in the next. He who has bread in his basket for
+to-day, and says, <q>What shall I have to eat to-morrow?</q>
+is a man of little faith. One consequence of real faith is
+always to believe in the justice of God's judgments. It is
+the duty of man to thank God when he is visited with
+misfortune as he does in the time of prosperity. Therefore,
+blessed is the man who, when visited by suffering,
+questions not God's justice. But what shall he do? Let
+him examine his conduct and repent.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q>For repentance is the greatest prerogative of man.
+Better is one hour of repentance and good deeds in this
+world than the whole life of the world to come. The aim
+of all wisdom is repentance and good deeds. The place
+where the truly penitent shall stand is higher than that of
+the righteous. Repentance finds its special expression in
+prayer; and when it is said in Scripture, <q>Serve God with
+all thy heart,</q> by this is meant, serve Him by prayer, which
+is even greater than worship by means of sacrifices.
+Never is a prayer entirely unanswered by God. Therefore,
+<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/>
+even though the sword be on a man's neck, let him
+not cease to supplicate God's mercy. But regard not thy
+prayer as a fixed mechanical task, but as an appeal for
+mercy and grace before the All-Present; as it is said,
+<q>For He is gracious and full of mercy, slow to anger,
+abounding in loving-kindness, and repenteth him of the
+evil.</q></q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The last two volumes of Weiss's work deal with the
+history of Tradition during the Middle Ages, that is, from
+the conclusion of the Talmud to the compilation of the
+Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro. I have already indicated
+that with Weiss Tradition did not terminate with
+the conclusion of the Talmud. It only means that a
+certain undefinable kind of literature, mostly held in dialogue
+form and containing many elements of Tradition,
+was at last brought to an end. The authorities who did
+this editorial work were the so-called <foreign rend='italic'>Rabbanan Saburai</foreign><note place='foot'>מבוראי, <q>Elucidators</q> or <q>Explainers.</q> The heads of the
+schools in Babylon during the fifth and sixth centuries were so
+designated.</note>
+and the <foreign rend='italic'>Gaonim</foreign>, whose lives and literary activity are fully
+described by Weiss. But, while thus engaged in preserving
+their inheritance from the past, they were also enriching
+Tradition by new contributions, both the Saburai and
+the Gaonim having not only added to and diminished from
+the Talmud, but having also introduced avowedly new
+ordinances and decrees, and created new institutions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now, it cannot be denied that a few of these ordinances
+and decrees had a reforming tendency (see the second and
+twentieth chapters of vol. iv.); in general, however, they
+took a more conservative turn than was the case in the
+previous ages. This must be ascribed to the event of the
+great schism within the Rabbinical camp itself. I refer
+to the rise of Caraism, which took place during the first
+half of the eighth century.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/>
+
+<p>
+There is probably no work in which the Halachic or
+legalistic side of this sect is better described than in this
+volume of Weiss. I regret that I am unable to enter into
+its details. But I cannot refrain from pointing to one of
+the main principles of the Caraites. This was <q>Search
+the Scriptures.</q> Now this does not look very dissimilar
+from the principle held by the Rabbis. For what else is
+the Talmud, but a thorough searching through the Bible
+for whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances?
+The light which the Caraites applied to the searching of
+the Scriptures was the same which illumined the paths of
+the Rabbis' investigations. They employed most of the
+expository rules of the Tannaite schools. The fact is that
+they were only determined to find something different from
+what the Rabbis found in the Scriptures. They wanted
+to have gloomy Sabbaths and Festivals, and discovered
+authority for it in the Bible; they wanted to retain most
+of the dietary laws which had their root only in Tradition,
+but insisted on petty differences which they thought might
+be inferred from the Scriptures, and they created a new
+<q>order of inheritance,</q> and varied the forbidden degrees
+in marriage, in all which the only merit was that they were
+in contradiction to the interpretation of the Rabbis. They
+also refused to accept the Liturgy of Rabbinical Judaism,
+but never succeeded in producing more than a patch-work
+from verses of the Bible, which, thus recast, they
+called a prayer-book. There were undoubtedly among
+their leaders many serious and sincere men, but they give
+us the impression of prigs, as for instance, Moses Darai,
+when he reproaches the Rabbinical Jews for having an
+<q>easy religion,</q> or Israel Hammaarabi, when he recommended
+his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering
+<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/>
+of animals, as having the special advantage that his decisions
+were always on the more stringent side. Those
+who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land were by the
+Caraites canonised as <q>mourners.</q> The Rabbanite R.
+Judah Hallevi also visited the ruins of Jerusalem, but he
+did something more than <q>mourn and sigh and cry,</q> he
+became a God-intoxicated singer, and wrote the <q>Zion-Elegy.</q>
+The novel terminology which they use in their exegetical
+and theological works, was only invented to spite
+the Rabbanites, and marks its authors as pedants. On
+the other hand, it is not to be denied that their opponents
+did not employ the best means to conciliate them. The
+Middle Ages knew no other remedy against schism than
+excommunication, and the Gaonim were the children of
+their time. Nor were the arguments which the latter
+brought forward in defence of Tradition always calculated
+to convince the Caraites of their error. When R. Saadiah,
+in his apology for the institution of the Second Day of
+the Festival,<note place='foot'>The Rabbinic Jews of the dispersion add one day to each
+festival, and thus celebrate the Passover eight days, the Feast of
+Weeks two days, etc. The custom arose out of the uncertainty
+about the first day of the month, the prerogative of fixing the New
+Moon resting with the great <hi rend='italic'>Beth Din</hi> in Palestine, which had not
+always the means of communicating in time the evidence given before
+them that the New Moon had been seen by qualified witnesses. The
+prerogative was abolished in the fourth century, and the calendar fixed
+for all future time, but the additional day is still kept by the Rabbinic
+Jews as the <q>Custom of their Fathers.</q></note> went the length of assigning to it a Sinaitic
+origin, he could only succeed in making the Caraites more
+suspicious of the claims of Tradition than before. In a
+later generation one of his own party, R. Hai Gaon, had
+to declare his predecessor's words a <q>controversial exaggeration.</q>
+The zeal which some of the Gaonim showed
+in their defence of such works as the <hi rend='italic'>Chambers</hi> and the
+<hi rend='italic'>Measure of the Stature</hi><note place='foot'>שיעור קומה, היכלות, <q>Chambers (of Heaven)</q> and the <q>Measure
+of the Stature,</q> mystical works in which occasionally gross anthropomorphisms
+are to be found. Their authorship is unknown.</note> was a not less unfortunate thing,
+for it involved the Rabbanites in unnecessary responsibilities
+for a new class of literature of doubtful origin,
+which in succeeding centuries was disowned by the best
+minds in Judaism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Gaonic period, to which we also owe the rise of the
+Massorah and the introduction of points in the text of the
+<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/>
+Bible&mdash;of which Weiss treats fully in the twenty-third
+and twenty-fourth chapters of vol. iv.&mdash;comes to an end
+with the death of R. Hai. The famous schools of Sura
+and Pumbeditha, over which these two Gaonim presided,
+fell into decay, and Babylon ceased to be the centre of
+Judaism. To be more exact, we should say that Judaism
+had no longer any real centre. Instead of dwelling in one
+place for centuries, we now have to be perpetually on our
+journey, accompanying our authors through all the inhabited
+parts of the world&mdash;France, Italy, Spain, Germany,
+with an occasional trip to Africa and Russia. There we
+shall meet with the new schools, each of which, though
+interpreting the same Torah, occupied with the study of
+the same Talmud, and even conforming more or less to
+the same mode of life, has an individuality and character
+of its own, reflecting the thought and habits of the country
+which it represents. Thus <q>geographical Judaism</q> becomes
+a factor in history which no scholar can afford to
+neglect. It is true that Judaism never remained entirely
+unbiassed by foreign ideas, and our author points in many
+a place to Persian, Greek, and Roman influences on
+Tradition; still, these influences seem to have undergone
+such a thorough <q>Judaization</q> that it is only the practised
+eye of the scholar that is able to see through the transformation.
+But it requires no great skill to discriminate
+between the work produced by a Spanish and that of a
+French Rabbi. Though both would write in Hebrew,
+they betray themselves very soon by the style, diction,
+and train of thought peculiar to each country. The
+Spaniard is always logical, clear, and systematising, whilst
+the French Rabbi has very little sense of order, is always
+writing occasional notes, has a great tendency to be
+<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/>
+obscure, but is mostly profound and critical. Hence the
+fact that whilst Spain produced the greatest codifiers of
+the law, we owe to France and Germany the best commentaries
+on the Talmud. What these codes and commentaries
+meant for Judaism the student will find in
+Weiss's book, and still more fully in his admirable essays
+on Rashi (Solomon b. Isaac), Maimonides, and R. Jacob
+Tam (published in his periodical, <hi rend='italic'>Beth Talmud</hi>, and also
+separately). It is enough for us here only to notice the
+fact of the breadth of Tradition, which could include
+within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics,
+Maimonides, Solomon b. Gabirol, and Abn Ezra on one
+side, and the simple <q>non-questioning</q> Rabbenu Gershom,
+Rashi, and Jacob Tam on the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The last three centuries, which occupy our author's
+attention in the fifth volume, are not remarkable for their
+progress. The world lives on the past. The rationalists
+write treatises on Maimonides' philosophical works, whilst
+the German Talmudists add commentary to commentary.
+It is, indeed, the reign of authority, <q>modified by accidents.</q>
+Such an accident was the struggle between the
+Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists, or the rise of the Cabbalah,
+or the frequent controversies with Christians, all of
+which tended to direct the minds of people into new channels
+of thought. But though this period is less original in
+its work, it is not on that account less sympathetic. One
+cannot read those beautiful descriptions which Weiss gives
+of R. Meir of Rothenburg and his school, or of R. Asher
+and his descendants, without feeling that one is in an
+atmosphere of saints, who are the more attractive the
+less they were conscious of their own saintliness. The
+only mistake, perhaps, was that the successors of these
+<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/>
+<q>Chassidim or pious men of Germany</q> looked on many
+of the religious customs that were merely the voluntary
+expression of particularly devout souls as worthy of imitation
+by the whole community, and made them obligatory
+upon all.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This brings us to the question of the Code already mentioned
+(by R. Joseph Caro), with which Weiss's work concludes.
+I have already transgressed the limits of an
+essay, without flattering myself that I have done anything
+like justice to the greatest work on Jewish Tradition
+which modern Jewish genius has produced. But I should
+not like the reader to carry away with him the false impression
+that our author shares in the general cry, <q>Save
+us from the Codifiers.</q> Weiss, himself a Rabbi, and the
+disciple of the greatest Rabbis of the first half of this century,
+is quite aware of the impossibility of having a law
+without a kind of manual to it, which brings the fluid
+matter into some fixed form, classifying it under its proper
+headings, and this is what we call codifying the law. And
+thus he never passes any attempt made in this direction
+without paying due tribute to its author&mdash;be it Maimonides
+or Caro. But however great the literary value of a
+code may be, it does not invest it with the attribute of infallibility,
+nor does it exempt the student or the Rabbi
+who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph
+on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same
+rules of interpretation that were always applied to Tradition.
+Indeed, Weiss shows that Maimonides deviated in
+some cases from his own code, when it was required by
+circumstances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor do I know any modern author who is more in
+favour of strong authority than Weiss. His treatment of
+<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/>
+the struggle between the Patriarch R. Gamaliel and his
+adversaries, which I have touched on above, proves this
+sufficiently. What Weiss really objects to, is a <emph>weak</emph>
+authority&mdash;I mean that phonograph-like authority which
+is always busy in reproducing the voice of others without
+an opinion of its own, without originality, without initiative
+and discretion. The real authorities are those who, drawing
+their inspiration from the past, also understand how to
+reconcile us with the present and to prepare us for the
+future.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>VIII. The Doctrine of Divine Retribution in Rabbinical Literature</head>
+
+<p>
+<q>Blessed be he who knows.</q> These are the words
+with which Nachmanides, in his classical treatise, <hi rend='italic'>Gate of
+Reward</hi>, dismisses a certain theory of the Gaonim with
+regard to this question; after which he proceeds to expound
+another theory, which seems to him more satisfactory.
+This mode of treatment implies that, unsatisfactory
+as the one or other theory may appear to us, it would be
+presumptuous to reject either entirely, there being only
+One who knows the exact truth about the great mystery.
+But we may indicate our doubt about one doctrine by putting
+by its side another, which we may affirm to be not
+more absolutely true, but more probable. This seems to
+have been the attitude, too, of the compilers of the ancient
+Rabbinical literature, in which the most conflicting views
+about this grave subject were embodied. Nor did the Synagogue
+in general feel called upon to decide between these
+views. There is indeed no want of theodicies, for almost
+every important expounder of Job, as well as every Jewish
+philosopher of note, has one with its own system of retribution.
+Thus Judaism has no fixed doctrine on the subject.
+It refused a hearing to no theory, for fear that it should
+<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/>
+contain some germ of truth, but on the same ground it
+accepted none to the exclusion of the others.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These theories may, perhaps, be conveniently reduced
+to the two following main doctrines that are in direct
+opposition to each other, whilst all other views about the
+subject will be treated as the more or less logical results of
+the one or other doctrine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. There is no death without (preceding) sin, nor affliction
+without (preceding) transgression.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 55<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> This view is cited
+in the name of R. Ammi, who quoted in corroboration the
+verses Ez. xviii. 20, and Ps. lxxxix. 33. Though this
+Rabbi flourished towards the end of the third century,
+there is hardly any doubt that his view was held by the
+authorities of a much earlier date. For it can only be
+under the sway of such a notion of Retribution that the
+Tannaim were so anxious to assign some great crime as
+the antecedent to every serious calamity by which mankind
+was visited. The following illustrations will suffice:&mdash;<q>Pestilence
+comes into the world for capital crimes
+mentioned in the Torah, which are not brought before the
+earthly tribunal.... Noisome beasts come into the world
+for vain swearing and for profanation of the name (of God).
+Captivity comes upon the world for strange worship and
+incest, and for shedding of blood and for (not) giving
+release to the land.</q> As an example of the misfortune
+befalling the individual I will merely allude to a passage in
+another tractate of the Talmud, according to which leprosy
+is to be regarded as the penalty for immorality,
+slander, perjury, and similar sins.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi> (ed. C. Taylor), v. 12-15. See also
+<hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 32 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi> (ed. Friedman), 95<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. <hi rend='italic'>Arachin</hi>, 16<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If we were now to complement R. Ammi's view by adding
+that there is no happiness without some preceding
+merit&mdash;and there is no serious objection to making this
+<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/>
+addition&mdash;then it would resolve itself into the theory of
+Measure for Measure, which forms a very common standard
+of reward and punishment in Jewish literature.
+Here are a few instances:&mdash;<q>Because the Egyptians
+wanted to destroy Israel by water (Exod. i. 22), they were
+themselves destroyed by the waters of the Red Sea, as
+it is said, Therefore I will <emph>measure</emph> their former work
+into their bosom (Is. lxv. 7);</q> whilst, on the other hand,
+we read, <q>Because Abraham showed himself hospitable
+towards strangers, providing them with water (Gen. xviii.
+4), God gave to his children a country blessed with plenty
+of water (Deut. viii. 1).</q> Sometimes this form of retribution
+goes so far as to define a special punishment to
+that part of the body which mostly contributed to the
+committing of the sin. Thus we read, <q>Samson rebelled
+against God by his eyes, as it is said, Get her (the Philistine
+woman) for me, for she pleases <emph>my eyes</emph> (Judg. xvi.
+21); therefore his <emph>eyes</emph> were put out by the Philistines
+(Judg. xviii. 9)</q>; whilst Absalom, whose sinful pride began
+by his <emph>hair</emph> (2 Sam. xiv. 25), met his fate by his <emph>hair</emph>
+(2 Sam. xviii. 9).<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi>, 25<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, 32<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. <hi rend='italic'>Gen. Rabbah</hi>, ch. 48, and <hi rend='italic'>Tossephta
+Sotah</hi>, iv. 7, and parallels.</note> Nahum of Gemzo himself explained
+his blindness and the maimed condition of his arms and
+legs as a consequence of a specific offence in having neglected
+the duty of succouring a poor man. Addressing
+the dead body of the suppliant who perished while Nahum
+was delaying his help, he said, <q>Let my eyes (which had
+no pity for your pitiful gaze) become blind; may my
+hands and legs (that did not hasten to help thine) become
+maimed, and finally my whole body be covered with
+boils.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Taanith</hi>, 21<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> <q>This was the hand that wrote it,</q> said Cranmer
+at the stake; <q>therefore it shall first suffer punishment.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is worth noticing that this retribution does not always
+<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/>
+consist in a material reward, but, as Ben Azzai expressed
+it: <q>The reward of a command is a command, and the
+reward of a transgression is a transgression.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi>, iv. 5.</note> So again:
+<q>Because Abraham showed himself so magnanimous in
+his treatment of the king of Sodom, and said, I will not
+take from thee a thread; therefore, his children enjoyed
+the privilege of having the command of Zizith, consisting
+in putting a thread or fringe in the border of their garments.</q>
+In another passage we read, <q>He who is anxious
+to do acts of charity will be rewarded by having the
+means enabling him to do so.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Baba Bathra</hi>, 9<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> In more general terms
+the same thought is expressed when the Rabbis explained
+the words, Ye shall sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be
+holy (Lev. xi. 44), to the effect that if man takes the initiative
+in holiness, even though in a small way, Heaven will
+help him to reach it to a much higher degree.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Yoma</hi>, 39<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Notwithstanding these passages, to which many more
+might be added, it cannot be denied that there are in the
+Rabbinical literature many passages holding out promises
+of <emph>material</emph> reward to the righteous as well as threatening
+the wicked with <emph>material</emph> punishment. Nor is there any
+need of denying it. Simple-minded men&mdash;and such the
+majority of the Rabbis were&mdash;will never be persuaded
+into looking with indifference on pain and pleasure; they
+will be far from thinking that poverty, loss of children,
+and sickness are no evil, and that a rich harvest, hope of
+posterity, and good health, are not desirable things. It
+<emph>does</emph> lie in our nature to consider the former as curses and
+the latter as blessings; <q>and if this be wrong there is
+no one to be made responsible for it but the Creator of
+nature.</q> Accordingly the question must arise, How can
+a just and omnipotent God allow it to happen that men
+<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/>
+should suffer innocently? The most natural suggestion
+towards solving the difficulty would be that we are <emph>not</emph>
+innocent. Hence R. Ammi's assertion that affliction and
+death are both the outcome of sin and transgression; or,
+as R. Chanina ben Dossa expressed it, <q>It is not the wild
+beast but sin which kills.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Berachoth</hi>, 33<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may thus perceive in this theory an attempt <q>to
+justify the ways of God to man.</q> Unfortunately it does
+not correspond with the real facts. The cry wrung from
+the prophets against the peace enjoyed by the wicked,
+and the pains inflicted on the righteous, which finds its
+echo in so many Psalms, and reaches its climax in the
+Book of Job, was by no means silenced in the times of
+the Rabbis. If long experience could be of any use, it
+only served to deepen perplexity. For all this suffering
+of the people of God, and the prosperity of their wicked
+persecutors, which perplexed the prophets and their immediate
+followers, were repeated during the death-struggle
+for independence against Rome, and were not lessened
+by the establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion.
+The only comfort which time brought them was,
+perhaps, that the long continuance of misfortune made
+them less sensible to suffering than their ancestors were.
+Indeed, a Rabbi of the first century said that his generation
+had by continuous experience of misery become as
+insensible to pain as the dead body is to a prick of a
+needle.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 13<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> The anæsthetic effect of long suffering may,
+indeed, help one to endure pain with more patience, but
+it cannot serve as an apology for the deed of the inflictors
+of the pain. The question, then, how to reconcile hard
+reality with the justice of God, remained as difficult as
+ever.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/>
+
+<p>
+The most important passage in Rabbinical literature relating
+to the solution of this problem is the following:&mdash;With
+reference to Exod. xxxiii. 13, R. Johanan said, in the
+name of R. José, that, among other things, Moses also
+asked God to explain to him the method of his Providence,
+a request that was granted to him. He asked God, Why
+are there righteous people who are prosperous, and righteous
+who suffer; wicked who are prosperous and wicked
+who suffer? The answer given to him was, according to
+the one view, that the prosperity of the wicked and the
+suffering of the righteous are a result of the conduct of
+their ancestors, the former being the descendants of righteous
+parents and enjoying their merits, whilst the latter,
+coming from a bad stock, suffer for the sins of those to
+whom they owe their existence. This view was suggested
+by the Scriptural words, <q>Keeping mercy for thousands
+(of generations) ... visiting the iniquity of the fathers
+upon the children</q> (Exod. xxxiv. 7), which were regarded
+as the answer to Moses' question in the preceding chapter
+of Exodus.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Berachoth</hi>, 7<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> Prevalent, however, as this view may have
+been in ancient times, the Rabbis never allowed it to pass
+without some qualification. It is true that they had no
+objection to the former part of this doctrine, and they
+speak very frequently of the <q>Merits of the Fathers</q> for
+which the remotest posterity is rewarded; for this could
+be explained on the ground of the boundless goodness of
+God, which cannot be limited to the short space of a lifetime.
+But there was no possibility of overcoming the
+moral objection against punishment of people for sins
+they have not committed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It will suffice to mention here that, with reference to
+Joshua vii. 24, 25, the Rabbis asked the question, If he
+<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/>
+(Achan) sinned, what justification could there be for putting
+his sons and daughters to death? And by the force
+of this argument they interpreted the words of the Scriptures
+to mean that the children of the criminal were only
+compelled to be present at the execution of their father.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Such passages, therefore, as would imply that children
+have to suffer for the sins of their parents are explained
+by the Rabbis as referring to cases in which the children
+perpetuate the crimes of their fathers.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi>, 68<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and parallels. <hi rend='italic'>Siphra</hi>, 112<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. <hi rend='italic'>Pessikta</hi> of R.
+Kahana, 167<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. Cp. <hi rend='italic'>Sanhedrin</hi>, 44<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> The view of
+R. José, which I have already quoted, had, therefore, to
+be dropped, and another version in the name of the same
+Rabbi is accepted. According to this theory the sufferer
+is a person either <q>entirely wicked</q> or <q>not perfectly
+righteous,</q> whilst the prosperous man is a person either
+<q>perfectly righteous,</q> or <q>not entirely wicked.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is hardly necessary to say that there is still something
+wanting to supplement this view, for the given classification
+would place the not entirely wicked on the same
+level with the perfectly righteous, and on a much higher
+level than the imperfectly righteous, who are undoubtedly
+far superior. The following passage may be regarded as
+supplying this missing something:&mdash;<q>The wicked who
+have done some good work are as amply rewarded for it
+in <emph>this</emph> world as if they were men who have fulfilled the
+whole of the Torah, so that they may be punished for
+their sins in the next world (without interruption); whilst
+the righteous who have committed some sin have to suffer
+for it (in this world) as if "they were men who burned the
+Law,</q> so that they may enjoy their reward in the world to
+come (without interruption).<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Aboth</hi> de R. Nathan, 40<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, 59<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and 62<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> Thus the real retribution
+takes place in the next world, the fleeting existence on
+earth not being the fit time either to compensate righteousness
+<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/>
+or to punish sin. But as, on the one hand, God
+never allows <q>that the merit of any creature should be
+cut short,</q> whilst, on the other hand, He deals very
+severely with the righteous, punishing them for the
+slightest transgression; since, too, this reward and punishment
+are only of short duration, they must take place in
+this short terrestrial existence. There is thus established
+a sort of divine economy, lest the harmony of the next
+world should be disturbed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet another objection to the doctrine under discussion
+remains to be noticed. It is that it justifies God by
+accusing man, declaring every sufferer as more or less
+of a sinner. But such a notion, if carried to its last
+consequences, must result in tempting us to withhold
+our sympathies from him. And, indeed, it would seem
+that there were some non-Jewish philosophers who argued
+in this way. Thus a certain Roman official is reported
+to have said to R. Akiba, <q>How can you be so eager
+in helping the poor? Suppose only a king, who, in his
+wrath against his slave, were to set him in the gaol, and
+give orders to withhold from him food and drink; if,
+then, one dared to act to the contrary, would not the
+king be angry with him?</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Baba Bathra</hi>, 10<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> There is some appearance
+of logic in this notion put into the mouth of a heathen.
+The Rabbis, however, were inconsistent people, and responded
+to the appeal which suffering makes to every
+human heart without asking too many questions. Without
+entering here into the topic of charity in the Rabbinic
+literature, which would form a very interesting chapter,
+I shall only allude now to the following incident, which
+would show that the Rabbis did not abandon even those
+afflicted with leprosy, which, according to their own
+<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/>
+notion, given above, followed only as a punishment for
+the worst crimes. One Friday, we are told, when the
+day was about to darken, the Chassid Abba Tachnah
+was returning home, bearing on his shoulders the baggage
+that contained all his fortune; he saw a leprous man
+lying on the road, who addressed him: <q>Rabbi, do me
+a deed of charity and take me into the town.</q> The
+Rabbi now thought, <q>If I leave my baggage, where shall
+I find the means of obtaining subsistence for myself and
+my family? But if I forsake this leprous man I shall
+commit a mortal sin.</q> In the end, he allowed the good
+inclination to prevail over the evil one, and first carried
+the sufferer to the town.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Eccles. Rabbah</hi>, ix. 7.</note> The only practical conclusion
+that the Rabbis drew from such theories as identify
+suffering with sin were for the sufferer himself, who
+otherwise might be inclined to blame Providence, or even
+to blaspheme, but would now look upon his affliction as
+a reminder from heaven that there is something wrong
+in his moral state. Thus we read in tractate <hi rend='italic'>Berachoth</hi>:<note place='foot'>5<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note>
+<q>If a man sees that affliction comes upon him, he ought
+to inquire into his actions, as it is said, Let us search and
+try our ways, and turn again to the Lord (Lam. iii. 40).</q>
+This means to say that the sufferer will find that he
+has been guilty of some offence. As an illustration of
+this statement we may perhaps consider the story about
+R. Huna, occurring in the same tractate.<note place='foot'>7<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> Of this Rabbi
+it is said that he once experienced heavy pecuniary losses,
+whereupon his friends came to his house and said to him,
+<q>Let the master but examine his conduct a little closer.</q>
+On this R. Huna answered, <q>Do you suspect me of
+having committed some misdeed?</q> His friends rejoined,
+<q>And do you think that God would pass judgment without
+<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/>
+justice?</q> R. Huna then followed their hint, and
+found that he did not treat his tenant farmer so generously
+as he ought. He offered redress, and all turned
+out well in the end. Something similar is to be found
+in the story of the martyrdom of R. Simeon ben Gamaliel
+and R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Of these Rabbis we are
+told that on their way to be executed the one said to
+the other, <q>My heart leaves me, for I am not aware of
+a sin deserving such a death</q>; on which the other answered,
+<q>It might have happened that in your function
+as judge you sometimes&mdash;for your own convenience&mdash;were
+slow in administering justice.</q><note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi>, 95<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and parallels.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But even if the personal actions of the righteous were
+blameless, there might still be sufficient ground for his being
+afflicted and miserable. This may be found in his relations
+to his kind and surroundings, or, to use the term now more
+popular, by reason of human solidarity. Now, after the
+above remarks on the objections entertained by the Rabbis
+against a man's being punished for the sins of others, it
+is hardly necessary to say that their idea of solidarity has
+little in common with the crude notions of it current in
+very ancient times. Still, it can hardly be doubted that
+the relation of the individual to the community was more
+keenly felt by the Rabbis than by the leaders in any other
+society, modern or ancient. According to the view given
+by an ancient Rabbi whose name is unknown, it would,
+indeed, seem that to them the individual was not simply a
+member of the Jewish commonwealth, or a co-religionist,
+but a limb of the great and single body <q>Israel,</q> and that
+as such he communicated both for good and evil the sensations
+of the one part to the whole. In the <hi rend='italic'>Midrash</hi>,
+where a parallel is to be found to this idea, the responsibility
+<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/>
+of the individual towards the community is further
+illustrated by R. Simeon ben Yochai, in the following way:
+<q>It is,</q> we read there, <q>to be compared to people sitting
+on board a ship, one of the passengers of which took an
+awl and began to bore holes in the bottom of the vessel.
+Asked to desist from his dangerous occupation, he answered,
+<q>Why, I am only making holes on my own seat,</q>
+forgetting that when the water came in it would sink the
+whole ship.</q> Thus the sin of a single man might endanger
+the whole of humanity. It was in conformity with
+the view of his father that R. Eliezer, the son of R. Simeon
+(ben Yochai) said, <q>The world is judged after the merits or
+demerits of the majority, so that a single individual by his
+good or bad actions can decide the fate of his fellow-creatures,
+as it may happen that he is just the one who constitutes
+this majority.</q><note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Kiddushin</hi>, 40<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. <hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi>, 63<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. <hi rend='italic'>Lev. Rabbah</hi>, iv.</note> Nor does this responsibility cease
+with the man's own actions. According to the Rabbis
+man is responsible even for the conduct of others&mdash;and
+as such liable to punishment&mdash;if he is indifferent to the
+wrong that is being perpetrated about him, whilst an energetic
+protest from his side could have prevented it. And
+the greater the man the greater is his responsibility. He
+may suffer for the sins of his family which is first reached
+by his influence; he may suffer for the sins of the whole
+community if he could hope to find a willing ear among
+them, and he may even suffer for the sins of the whole
+world if his influence extend so far, and he forbear from
+exerting it for good.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 54<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> Thus the possibility is given that
+the righteous man may suffer with justice, though he himself
+has never committed any transgression.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a much higher aspect of this solidarity&mdash;and as may
+have already suggested itself to the reader from the passage
+<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/>
+cited above from the anonymous Rabbi&mdash;we may
+regard the suffering of the righteous as an atonement for
+the sins of their contemporaries. <q>When there will be
+neither Tabernacle nor the Holy Temple,</q> Moses is said
+to have asked God, <q>what will become of Israel?</q> Whereupon
+God answers, <q>I will take from among them the
+righteous man whom I shall consider as pledged for them,
+and will forgive all their sins;</q> the death of the perfect
+man, or even his suffering being looked upon as an expiation
+for the shortcoming of his generation.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Exodus Rabbah</hi>, c. 35, and parallels.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is hardly necessary to remind the reader of the affinity
+of this idea with that of sacrifices in general, as in both
+cases it is the innocent being which has to suffer for the
+sins of another creature. But there is one vital point which
+makes all the difference. It is that in our case the suffering
+is not enforced, but is a voluntary act on the part of
+the sacrifice, and is even desired by him. Without entering
+here on the often-discussed theme of the suffering of
+the Messiah, I need only mention the words of R. Ishmael
+who, on a very slight provocation, exclaimed, <q>I am the
+atonement for the Jews,</q> which means that he took upon
+him all their sins to suffer for them.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Negaim</hi>, ii. 1.</note> This desire seems
+to have its origin in nothing else than a deep sympathy
+and compassion with Israel. To suffer <emph>for</emph>, or, at least
+<emph>with</emph> Israel was, according to the Rabbis, already the ideal
+of Moses. He is said, indeed, to have broken the Two
+Tables with the purpose of committing some sin, so that
+he would have either to be condemned together with Israel
+(for the sin of the golden calf), or to be pardoned together
+with them.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Exod. Rabbah</hi>, c. 46.</note> And this conduct was expected not only from
+the leaders of Israel, but almost from every Jew. <q>When
+Israel is in a state of affliction (as, for instance, famine) one
+<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/>
+must not say, I will rather live by myself, and eat and drink,
+and peace be unto thee, my soul. To those who do so the
+words of the Scriptures are to be applied: And in that day
+did the Lord God of Hosts call to weeping and to mourning,
+... and behold joy and gladness.... Surely this
+iniquity shall not be purged out from you till ye die</q> (Is.
+xxii. 12-14). Another passage is to the effect that, when a
+man shows himself indifferent to the suffering of the community,
+there come the two angels (who accompany every
+Jew), put their hands on his head, and say, <q>This man who
+has separated himself shall be excluded from their consolations.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Taanith</hi>, 11<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We might now characterise this sort of suffering as the
+chastisement of love (of the righteous) to mankind, or
+rather to Israel. But we must not confuse it with the
+Chastisement of Love often mentioned in the Talmud,
+though this idea also seems calculated to account for the
+suffering of the righteous. Here the love is not on the
+side of the sufferer, but proceeds from him who inflicts
+this suffering. <q>Him,</q> says R. Huna, <q>in whom God
+delights he crushes with suffering.</q> As a proof of this
+theory the words of Is. liii. 10 are given, which are interpreted
+to mean: him whom the Lord delights in He puts
+to grief. Another passage, by the same authority, is to
+the effect that where there is no sufficient cause for punishment
+(the man being entirely free from sin), we have
+to regard his suffering as a chastisement of love, for it
+is said: <q>Whom the Lord loveth He correcteth</q> (Proverbs
+iii. 11).<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Berachoth</hi>, 5<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> To what purpose He corrects him may, perhaps,
+be seen from the following passage: <q>R. Eleazar ben
+Jacob says: If a man is visited by affliction he has to be
+thankful to God for it: for suffering draws man to, and
+<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/>
+reconciles him with God, as it is said: For whom God
+loveth he correcteth.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Tanchuma</hi>, כי תצא, § 2. Cp. <hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi>, 72<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is in conformity with such a high conception that
+affliction, far from being dreaded, becomes almost a
+desirable end, and we hear many Rabbis exclaim, <q>Beloved
+is suffering,</q> for by it fatherly love is shown to man
+by God; by it man obtains purification and atonement,
+by it Israel came in possession of the best gifts, such as
+the Torah, the Holy Land, and eternal life.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Siphré</hi>, 73<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and parallels.</note> And so
+also the sufferer, far from being considered as a man
+with a suspected past, becomes an object of veneration,
+on whom the glory of God rests, and he brings salvation
+to the world if he bears his affliction with joyful submission
+to the will of God.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Taanith</hi>, 8<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> Continuous prosperity is by no
+means to be longed after, for, as R. Ishmael taught, <q>He
+who has passed forty days without meeting adversity has
+already received his (share of the) world (to come) in
+this life.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Arachin</hi>, 16<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> Nay, the standing rule is that the really
+righteous suffer, whilst the wicked are supposed to be
+in a prosperous state. Thus, R. Jannai said, <q>We (average
+people) enjoy neither the prosperity of the wicked nor
+the afflictions of the righteous,</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi>, iv. 15.</note> whilst his contemporary,
+Rab, declared that he who experiences no affliction and
+persecution does not belong to them (the Jews).<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Chagigah</hi>, 5<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. The second main view on Retribution is that recorded
+by the Rabbis as in direct opposition to that of
+R. Ammi. It is that there is suffering as well as death
+without sin and transgression. We may now just as well
+infer that there is prosperity and happiness without preceding
+merits. And this is, indeed, the view held by
+R. Meir. For in contradiction to the view cited above,
+R. Meir declares that the request of Moses to have
+<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/>
+explained to him the mysterious ways of Providence was
+<emph>not</emph> granted, and the answer he received was, <q>And I will
+shew mercy on whom I will shew mercy</q> (Exod. xxxiii.
+19), which means to say, even though he to whom the
+mercy is shown be unworthy of it. The old question
+arises how such a procedure is to be reconciled with the
+justice and omnipotence of God. The commentaries try
+to evade the difficulty by suggesting some of the views
+given above, as that the real reward and punishment are
+only in the world to come, or that the affliction of the
+righteous is only chastisement of love, and so on. From
+the passages I am about to quote, however, one gains the
+impression that some Rabbis rather thought that this
+great problem will indeed not bear discussion or solution
+at all. Thus we have the legend: <q>The angels said to
+God, why have you punished Adam with death? He
+answered, On account of his having transgressed my
+commandment (with regard to the eating of the tree of
+knowledge). But why had Moses and Aaron to die?
+The reply given to them is the words, Eccl. ix. 2: <q>All
+things come alike to all; there is one event to the righteous
+and to the wicked, to the good and to the clean and
+to the unclean.</q></q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 55<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> Another legend records, <q>When
+Moses ascended to heaven, God showed him also the
+great men of futurity. R. Akiba was sitting and interpreting
+the law in a most wonderful way. Moses said
+to God: Thou hast shown me his worth, show me also
+his reward; on which he is bidden to look back. There
+he perceives him dying the most cruel of deaths, and his
+flesh being sold by weight. Moses now asks: Is this the
+reward of such a life? whereupon God answers him:
+Be silent; this I have determined.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Menachoth</hi>, 29<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/>
+
+<p>
+It is impossible not to think of the fine lines of the
+German poet:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Warum schleppt sich blutend, elend,</l>
+<l>Unter Kreuzlast der Gerechte,</l>
+<l>Während glücklich als ein Sieger</l>
+<l>Trabt auf hohem Ross der Schlechte?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Also fragen wir beständig,</l>
+<l>Bis man uns mit einer Handvoll</l>
+<l>Erde endlich stopft die Mäuler&mdash;</l>
+<l>Aber ist das eine Antwort?</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Still, one might perhaps suggest that these passages
+when examined a little closer, not only contain a rebuke
+to man's importunity in wanting to intrude into the secrets
+of God, but also hint at the possibility that even God's
+omnipotence is submitted to a certain law&mdash;though designed
+by His own holy will&mdash;which He could not alter
+without detriment to the whole creation. Indeed, in one
+of the mystical accounts of the martyrdom of R. Akiba
+and other great Rabbis, God is represented as asking the
+sufferers to accept His hard decree without protest, unless
+they wish Him to destroy the whole world. In another
+place again, we read of a certain renowned Rabbi, who
+lived in great poverty, that once in a dream he asked the
+divine Shechinah how long he would have still to endure
+this bitter privation? The answer given to him was:
+<q>My son, will it please you that I destroy the world for
+your sake?</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Taanith</hi>, 25<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> It is only in this light that we shall be
+able to understand such passages in the Rabbinic literature
+as that God almost suffers Himself when He has to
+inflict punishment either on the individual or on whole
+communities. Thus God is represented as mourning for
+<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/>
+seven days (as in the case when one loses a child) before
+He brought the deluge on the world; He bemoans the
+fall of Israel and the destruction of the Temple, and the
+Shechinah laments even when the criminal suffers his just
+punishment. And it is not by rebelling against these
+laws that He tries to redeem His suffering. He himself
+has recourse to prayer, and says: <q>May it be my will
+that my mercy conquer my wrath, that my love over-rule
+my strict justice, so that I may treat my children with
+love.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Gen. Rabbah</hi>, xxvii.; <hi rend='italic'>Pessikta</hi>, 136<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Sanhedrin</hi>, vi. 5; <hi rend='italic'>Berachoth</hi>,
+7<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> If now man is equal to God, he has nevertheless,
+or rather on that account, to submit to the law of God
+without any outlook for reward or punishment; or, as
+Antigonos expressed it, <q>Be not as slaves that minister to
+the Lord with a view to receive recompense.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi>, i. 3, p. 27, ed. Taylor. See also note 8.</note> Certainly
+it would be hazardous to maintain that Antigonos's saying
+was a consequence of this doctrine; but, at any rate, we
+see a clear tendency to keep the thought of reward (in
+spite of the prominent part it holds in the Bible) out of
+view. Still more clearly is it seen when, with reference
+to Ps. cxii., <q>Blessed is the man ... that delighteth
+greatly in his commandments,</q> Rabbi Eleazar remarks
+that the meaning is that the man desires only to do His
+commandments, but he does not want the rewards connected
+with them.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Abodah Zarah</hi>, 19<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Siphré</hi>, 79<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> This is the more remarkable, as the
+whole contents of this psalm are nothing else than a long
+series of promises of various rewards, so that the explanation
+of Rabbi Eleazar is in almost direct contradiction to
+the simple meaning of the words. On the other hand,
+also, every complaint about suffering must cease. Not
+only is affliction no direct chastisement by God in the
+way of revenge; but even when it would seem to us that
+we suffer innocently, we have no right to murmur, as
+<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/>
+God himself is also suffering, and, as the Talmud expresses
+it, <q>It is enough for the slave to be in the position of his
+master.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Berachoth</hi>, 58<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This thought of the compassion&mdash;in its strictest sense
+of fellow-suffering&mdash;of God with His creatures becomes
+a new motive for avoiding sin. <q>Woe to the wicked,</q>
+exclaims a Rabbi, <q>who by their bad actions turn the
+mercy of God into strict justice.</q><note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Exod. R.</hi>, 30, and parallels.</note> And the later mystics
+explain distinctly that the great crime of sin consists in
+causing pain, so to speak, to the Shechinah. One of
+them compared it with the slave who abuses the goodness
+of his master so far as to buy with his money arms to
+wound him. But, on the other hand, it becomes, rather
+inconsistently, also a new source of comfort; for, in the
+end, God will have to redeem Himself from this suffering,
+which cannot be accomplished so long as Israel is still
+under punishment.<note place='foot'>See ראשית חבמה, i. 9.</note> Most interesting is the noble prayer
+by a Rabbi of a very late mystical school: <q>O God,
+speedily bring about the redemption. I am not in the
+least thinking of what I may gain by it. I am willing to
+be condemned to all tortures in hell, if only the Shechinah
+will cease to suffer.</q><note place='foot'>See רמתים נמים, 33<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If we were now to ask for the attitude of the Synagogue
+towards these two main views, we should have to answer
+that&mdash;as already hinted at the opening of this paper&mdash;it
+never decided for the one or the other. R. David Rocca
+Martino dared even to write a whole book in Defence of
+Adam proving that he committed no sin in eating the
+fruit of the tree of knowledge against the literal sense of
+the Scriptures, which were also taken by the Rabbis
+literally.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 55<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Siphra</hi>, 27<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> By this he destroyed the prospects of many a
+theodicy, but it is not known to me that he was severely
+<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/>
+rebuked for it. It has been said by a great writer that the
+best theology is that which is not consistent, and this advantage
+the theology of the Synagogue possesses to its
+utmost extent. It accepted with R. Ammi the stern principle
+of divine retribution, in as far as it makes man feel
+the responsibility of his actions, and makes suffering a
+discipline. But it never allowed this principle to be
+carried so far as to deny the sufferer our sympathy, and
+by a series of conscious and unconscious modifications,
+he passed from the state of a sinner into the zenith of the
+saint and the perfectly righteous man. But, on the other
+hand, the Synagogue also gave entrance to the very opposite
+view which, abandoning every attempt to account
+for suffering, bids man do his duty without any hope of
+reward, even as God also does His. Hence the remarkable
+phenomenon in the works of later Jewish moralists, that,
+whilst they never weary of the most detailed accounts of
+the punishments awaiting the sinner and the rewards in
+store for the righteous, they warn us most emphatically
+that our actions must not be guided by these unworthy
+considerations, and that our only motive should be the love
+of God and submission to His holy will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor must it be thought that the views of the Rabbis
+are so widely divergent from those enunciated in the
+Bible. The germ of almost all the later ideas is already
+to be found in the Scriptures. It only needed the process
+of time to bring into prominence those features
+which proved at a later period most acceptable. Indeed,
+it would seem that there is also a sort of domestication
+of religious ideas. On their first association with man
+there is a certain rude violence about them which, when
+left to the management of untutored minds, would certainly
+<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/>
+do great harm. But, let only this association last
+for centuries, during which these ideas have to be subdued
+by practical use, and they will, in due time, lose
+their former roughness, will become theologically workable,
+and turn out the greatest blessing to inconsistent
+humanity.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>IX. The Law And Recent Criticism<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of the Progress of Thought
+from Old Testament to New Testament</hi>, by C. H. Toy, Professor in
+Harvard University. London, 1890.</note></head>
+
+<p>
+Professor Toy's work, <hi rend='italic'>Judaism and Christianity</hi>, gives
+an admirable conspectus of the results of the modern
+critical school in their bearing on the genesis of Christianity.
+The author takes various important doctrines of
+Christianity, traces them back to their origin in Israelitism,
+pursues their course through their various phases
+in Judaism, until they reach their final development in
+the teaching of Jesus and His disciples, which, in the
+author's judgment, is the consummation of that which
+the prophets and their successors had to give to the
+world. Laying so much stress as Professor Toy does on
+the saying, <q>By their fruits shall ye know them,</q> he
+ought also, perhaps, to have told us what, in the course
+of time, has become of these several doctrines. For
+when, for instance, with regard to the doctrine of original
+sin, he remarks that <q>in certain systems of Christian
+theology the human race is involved in the condemnation
+of the first man</q> (p. 185, n. 1); or that, in the
+New Testament, <q>the demand for a mediating power between
+God and humanity is pushed to the farthest point
+which thought can occupy consistently with the maintenance
+of the absoluteness of the one Supreme Deity</q>
+(p. 121), he is rather evading a difficulty than answering
+it. Such elaboration would, however, have been outside
+<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/>
+the scope of Professor Toy's book, which claims only to
+be a sketch of the progress of thought from the Old
+Testament to the New. For his own solution of the
+indicated difficulty, Toy, to judge from his liberal standpoint,
+would probably refer us to Dr. Hatch's Hibbert
+lectures; the issue of such an appeal must, I imagine,
+remain for long doubtful and disputed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A delightful characteristic of Toy's book is its transparent
+clearness and sobriety, which will make it interesting
+reading, even to those who are acquainted with
+the writer's authorities in their original sources. Almost
+entirely new, as well as most suggestive, is the justice
+which Toy does to the law in recognising it as a factor
+for good in the history of religion. In this point Toy is
+not only up to his date, but beyond it. It is true that
+even the Pharisees have made some advance in the estimation
+of the liberal school. They are no longer condemned
+<foreign rend='italic'>en masse</foreign> as so many hypocrites. It is even
+admitted that there were a few honest men among
+them, such as Rabban Gamaliel, the teacher of Paul,
+or R. Akiba, the patriot of Bethar. We are now too
+polite to be personal. But with regard to the law, on
+the other hand, there is at present a markedly opposite
+tendency. The general idea seems to be that, as the
+doctrine of the resurrection of Christ must be loosely
+interpreted in a spiritual sense, it must logically have
+been preceded by a universal spiritual death, and the
+germs of the disease which brought this death about
+are to be sought for in the law. Hence the strained
+efforts to discover in the law the source of all religious
+evil,&mdash;cant, hypocrisy, formalism, externalism, transcendentalism,
+and as many <q>isms</q> more, of bad reputation.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/>
+
+<p>
+It was probably with this current representation of the
+law in view that Toy, when speaking of the Levitical legislation,
+and of its fixing <q>men's minds on ceremonial
+details which, in some cases, it put into the same category
+and on the same level with moral duties,</q> asks the question:
+<q>Would there not thence result a dimming of the
+moral sense and a confusion of moral distinctions? The
+ethical attitude of a man who could regard a failure in the
+routine of sacrifice as not less blameworthy than an act of
+theft cannot be called a lofty one</q> (p. 186). The answer
+which he gives is more favourable than such a leading
+question would induce us to expect. He tells us that, <q>in
+point of fact, the result was different</q> (<hi rend='italic'>ibid</hi>). <q>The Levitical
+law is not to be looked on as a mere extension and
+organisation of the ritual.... Its ritual was, in great
+part, the organised expression of the consciousness of sin</q>
+(p. 226). Of the law in general Toy says that it had
+<q>larger consequences than its mere details would suggest,</q>
+for it <q>cultivated the moral sense of the people
+into results above its mechanical prescriptions,</q> and <q>it
+developed the sense of sin, as Paul points out</q> (Gal. iii.
+19), <q>and therewith a freer feeling, which brought the
+soul into more immediate contact with God</q> (p. 227);
+whilst in another place he reminds us <q>that much of the
+law is moral, and that no one could fail to see a spiritual
+significance beneath its letter</q> (p. 245), and he even admits
+that <q>the great legal schools which grew up in the
+second century, if we may judge by the sayings of the
+teachers which have come down to us, did not fail to discriminate
+between the outward and the inward, the ceremonial
+and the moral</q> (p. 186).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These and similar passages will suffice to show that
+<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/>
+Toy's estimate of the law is a very different one from that
+of Smend and his school. However, it must not be supposed
+that he is not on the look-out for the germs of the
+disease. He must find these germs somewhere, or else
+the progress, which his book is intended to illustrate,
+would be difficult to detect. And thus he repeats the old
+accusations, though not without modification.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Professor Toy's objections may, perhaps, be summed up
+in the passage in which he represents the Jewish law as
+<q>an attempt to define all the beliefs and acts of life</q>
+(p. 239), or as <q>the embodiment of devotion to a fixed
+rule of belief and conduct</q> (p. 237). Toy does not
+entirely condemn this system, and even speaks of it as a
+<q>lofty attempt</q> (p. 239); but, on the whole, he considers
+that it must have resulted in bad theology, as well as in
+doubtful conduct. Without following Professor Toy over
+the whole area of his investigations, which would require
+a volume for itself, I will only take the opportunity of
+making a few general remarks upon the nature and
+character of this legal system, which seems to hold the
+key to the spiritual history of Judaism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+First, as to its theology, Toy's description of the law as
+an attempt to define all the <emph>beliefs</emph> of life&mdash;an assertion
+which is also made by Schürer&mdash;is not wholly accurate.
+For such an attempt was never made by Judaism. The
+few dogmas which Judaism possesses, such as the Existence
+of God, Providence, Reward, and Punishment&mdash;without
+which no revealed religion is conceivable&mdash;can
+hardly be called a creed in the modern sense of the term,
+which implies something external and foreign to man's
+own knowledge, and received only in deference to the
+weight of authority. To the Jew of the Christian era,
+<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/>
+these simpler dogmas were so self-evident that it would
+have cost him the greatest effort <emph>not</emph> to believe them.
+Hence the fact that, whilst there have come down to us
+so many controverted points between the Sadducees and
+Pharisees with regard to certain juristic and ritual questions,
+we know of only one of an essentially dogmatic
+character, viz. the dispute concerning the Resurrection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is thus difficult to imagine to what Professor Toy can
+be alluding when he speaks of the <q>interest they (the
+Jews) threw into the discussion and determination of
+minutiæ of faith</q> (p. 241). Discussions upon <emph>minutiæ</emph>
+of faith are only to be read in the works of the later
+schoolmen (as Saadiah, Maimonides and their followers),
+in which such subtle problems as <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Creatio ex nihilo</foreign>, the
+origin of evil, predestination, free will and similar subjects
+are examined; but this period is very distant from that
+with which Toy is concerned. The older schools and
+the so-called houses of Shammai and Hillel, most of whose
+members were the contemporaries of the Apostles, show
+very little predilection for such <emph>minutiæ</emph>. Their discussions
+and differences of opinion about ritual matters are
+very numerous, scattered as they are over the whole of
+the ancient Rabbinic literature, but I can only remember
+two of a metaphysical character, or touching upon the
+<emph>minutiæ</emph> of faith. The one, dealing with the efficacy of
+certain sacrifices, discusses whether it only extends to
+the remission of the pending punishment for sins, or also
+includes their purification and washing away; the other
+considers the question whether it would not have been
+better for man not to have been created.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Pessikta</hi> of R. Kahana, 61<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and parallels, and <hi rend='italic'>Erubin</hi>,
+13<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> But this latter
+controversy, which is said to have lasted for two years
+and a half, by no means led to any big metaphysical or
+<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/>
+theological system, but only to the practical advice that,
+as we have been created, we ought to be watchful over
+our conduct. It is, indeed, a noteworthy feature of Judaism
+that theological speculations have never resulted in
+the formulation of any imposing or universal doctrine, but
+usually in divers ceremonial practices. To give one illustration:
+according to Professor Toy (p. 210) the conclusion
+which the author of 1 Tim. ii. 11-14 draws from the
+fact that woman was the immediate agent of the introduction
+of sin was the subordination of her sex. The Rabbis
+also noticed the same fact, and in their less abstract language
+speak of woman as having brought death and grief
+into the world; but the conclusion which they drew was
+that since woman had extinguished the <q>light of the
+world,</q> she ought to atone for it by lighting the candles
+for the Sabbath.<note place='foot'>Tal. Jer., <hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 5<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> Nor is Toy quite correct when he maintains
+that the conception of the Memra as Creator and
+Lord, etc., and as <q>representative of the immediate divine
+activity,</q> did not keep its hold on Jewish thought, having
+been discarded in the later literature (p. 104). For
+the Shechinah of the Talmud, the <hi rend='italic'>Metatron</hi><note place='foot'>מטטרון, the name of an angel, already found in the Talmud, but
+playing a more important part in the <hi rend='italic'>Book of Chambers</hi>, where he is
+identified with Enoch. The etymology of the word is doubtful, some
+authors considering it to be of Persian origin (<hi rend='italic'>Mithra</hi>); others again
+deriving it from the Greek μετὰ τύραννον, or μετὰ θρόνον.</note> of the Gaonic-mystical
+literature, the Active Intelligence of the philosophical
+schools, as well as the Ten Sephiroth<note place='foot'>ספירות.</note> (Emanations)
+of the Cabbalists, all owe their existence to the same theosophic
+scruples and subtleties in which the Logos of Philo
+and the Memra<note place='foot'>מימרא, <q>The Word,</q> sometimes substituted for God. See J.
+Levy's <hi rend='italic'>Chaldäisches Wörterbuch</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi></note> of the Targums originated. Thus, they
+always kept&mdash;though under various forms&mdash;their hold
+on the Jewish mind. Judaism was always broad enough
+to accommodate itself to these formulæ, which for the
+one may mean the most holy mysteries, and for the other
+empty and meaningless catchwords. The objection&mdash;in
+fact, the active opposition&mdash;of the Synagogue began when
+<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/>
+these possible or impossible explanations of the universe
+tended to transgress the bounds of abstract speculation,
+and, passing over into real concrete beings, to be worshipped
+as such. An instance from comparatively modern
+times might be found in one of the vagaries of the followers
+of the Pseudo-Messiah, Shabbethai Tsebi. For
+many generations the controversy had raged among the
+Cabbalists, whether the first of the above-mentioned Ten
+Emanations (called by some <hi rend='italic'>Original Adam</hi>, by others,
+<hi rend='italic'>Crown</hi><note place='foot'>בחר, אדם קדמון.</note>) is to be considered as a part of the Deity or
+as something separate, and so to speak, having a reality
+in itself. The danger of establishing a Being near the
+Deity, having an existence of its own and invested with
+divine attributes, could not have escaped the thoughtful,
+and there are indeed some indications to this effect. The
+Synagogue as such, however, remained during the whole
+controversy strictly neutral, and allowed these theosophists
+to fight in the air as much as they liked. But the moment
+that the sect of Shabbethai Tsebi identified the incarnate
+Original Adam with their leader, and worshipped him as
+a sort of God-Messiah, the Synagogue at once took up
+a hostile attitude against those who separated God from
+His world, and, declaring Shabbethai Tsebi and his followers
+to be apostates, excluded them from Judaism for
+ever.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor can it be proved that legalism or nomism has ever
+tended to suppress the spiritual side of religion, either in
+respect of consciousness of sin, or of individual love and
+devotion. With an equal logic quite the opposite might
+be argued. Professor Toy tells us himself that it is no
+<q>accident that along with this more definite expression of
+ethical-religious law we find the first traces of a more
+<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/>
+spiritual conception of righteousness in the <q>new heart</q>
+of Jeremiah and Ezekiel</q> (p. 235), whilst in another passage
+we read that <q>a turning point is marked by the
+Deuteronomist Jeremiah and Ezekiel, who announce the
+principles of individual responsibility and inwardness of
+obedience</q> (p. 184). Now, two things are certain; first,
+that Ezekiel urges the necessity of the new heart as well as
+of individual responsibility more keenly than any of his
+predecessors; secondly, that in Ezekiel the legalistic tendency
+is more evident than in Deuteronomy and Jeremiah.
+The logical conclusion would thus be that the higher ideals
+of religion are not only not inconsistent with legalism, but
+are the very outcome of it, and the so-called Priestly Code,
+by the very fact of its markedly legalistic tendency,
+should be considered as a step in the right direction. The
+latter assertion sounds like a paradox, but it will seem less
+so when the prevailing characteristic of this portion of the
+Pentateuch, as given even by Kuenen, who is by no means
+a champion of the Law, is borne in mind. <q>The centre
+of gravity,</q> according to the great Dutch critic, <q>lies for
+the priestly author elsewhere than for the prophet; it lies
+in man's attitude, not towards his fellow-men, but towards
+God; not in his social, but in his personal life</q> (<hi rend='italic'>Hibbert
+Lectures</hi>, p. 161). It is here that we seem to strike the
+keynote of the <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Weltanschauung</foreign> of the Priestly Legislation.
+In it man is more than a social being. He has also an
+individual life of his own, his joys and sorrows, his historical
+claims, his traditions of the past, and his hopes for
+the future&mdash;and all these have to be brought under the
+influence of religion, and to become sanctified through
+their relation to God. Hence, the work of the Priestly
+narrator and legislator opens with a cosmogony of his
+<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/>
+own, in which we find the grand theological idea of man
+being created in the Divine image; hence, too, his religious
+conception of the history of the nation and the control
+claimed by him over all the details of human life,
+which became with him so many opportunities for the
+worship of God. To him, God is not a mere figurehead;
+He not only reigns, but governs. Everywhere,&mdash;in the
+temple, in the judge's seat, in the family, in the farm, and
+in the market-place,&mdash;His presence is felt in enforcing
+the laws bearing His <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>imprimatur</foreign>, <q>I am the Lord thy
+God.</q> By thus diffusing religion over the whole domain
+of human life&mdash;not confining it to the social institutions
+which are represented only by a few personages, such as
+the king, the princes, the priests, the judges or elders&mdash;they
+made it the common good of the whole people,
+and the feeling of personal responsibility for this good
+became much deeper than before. Thus it came to pass
+that whilst, during the first temple, the apostasy of kings
+and aristocracy involved the entire people, so that the
+words <q>And he (the king) did evil in the sight of the
+Lord,</q> embrace the whole nation, during the second
+temple it was no longer of much consequence which side
+the political leaders took. Both during the Hellenistic
+persecutions, as well as afterwards in the struggles of
+some Maccabean kings with the Pharisees, the bulk of the
+people showed that they considered religion as their own
+personal affair, not to be regulated by the conscience of
+either priest or prince. It is true that this success may
+be largely ascribed to such contemporary religious factors
+as the Synagogue with its minimum of form, the Scribes
+with their activity as teachers, and the Psalmists with
+their divine enthusiasm; but the very circumstance that
+<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/>
+these factors arose and flourished under the influence of
+the Priestly Code would suffice to prove that its tendency
+was not so sacerdotal as some writers would have us
+believe. Jewish tradition indeed attributes the composition
+of the daily public prayers, as well as of others for
+private worship, to the very men whom modern biblical
+criticism holds responsible for the introduction of the
+Priestly Code. Now this fact may perhaps be disputed,
+but there is little doubt that the age in which these
+prayers were composed was one of flourishing legalism.
+Nor is there any proof that the synagogues and their
+ritual were in opposition to the temple. From the few
+documents belonging to this period, it is clear that there
+was no opposition to the legalistic spirit by which the
+Priestly Code was actuated. This would prove that legalism
+meant something more than tithes and sacrifices for
+the benefit of the priests.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor is it true that the legal tendency aimed at narrowing
+the mind of the nation, turning all its thoughts into the one
+direction of the law. Apart from the fact that the Torah
+contained other elements besides its legalism, the prophets
+were not forgotten, but were read and interpreted from a
+very early age. It was under the predominance of the
+Law that the Wisdom literature was composed, which is
+by no means narrow or one-sided, but is even supposed by
+some critics to contain many foreign elements. In the
+book of Job, the great problems of man's existence are
+treated with a depth and grandeur never equalled before
+or since. This book alone ought partly to compensate the
+modern school for the disappearance of prophecy, which
+is usually brought as a charge against the Law. Then,
+too, the Psalms, placed by the same school in the post-exilic
+<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/>
+period, are nothing but another aspect of prophecy,
+with this difference, perhaps, that in the Prophets God
+speaks to man, while in the Psalms it is man who establishes
+the same communion by speaking to God. There
+is no reason why the critical school, with its broad conception
+of inspiration, and with its insistence that prophecy
+does <emph>not</emph> mean prediction, should so strongly emphasise
+this difference. If <q>it is no longer as in the days of
+Amos, when the Lord Yahveh did nothing without revealing
+his counsel to his servants the prophets,</q> there is in
+the days of the Psalmists nothing in man's heart, no element
+in his longings and meditations and aspirations,
+which was not revealed to God. Nay, it would seem that
+at times the Psalmist hardly ever desires the revelation of
+God's secrets. Let future events be what they may, he is
+content, for he is with God. After all his trials, he exclaims,
+<q>And yet I am continually with thee; thou hast
+taken hold of my right hand. According to thy purpose
+wilt thou lead me, and afterwards receive me with glory.
+Whom have I (to care for) in heaven? and possessing
+thee, I have pleasure in nothing upon earth. Though my
+flesh and my heart should have wasted away, God would
+for ever be the rock of my heart and my portion</q> (Ps.
+lxxiii. 23-26). How an age producing a literature containing
+passages like these&mdash;of which Wellhausen in his <hi rend='italic'>Abriss</hi>
+(p. 95) justly remarks, that we are not worthy even to
+repeat them&mdash;can be considered by the modern school as
+wanting in intimate relation to God and inferior to that of
+the prophets is indeed a puzzle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now a few words as to the actual life under the Law.
+Here, again, there is a fresh puzzle. On the one side, we
+hear the opinions of so many learned professors, proclaiming
+<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/>
+<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>ex cathedrâ</foreign>, that the Law was a most terrible burden,
+and the life under it the most unbearable slavery, deadening
+body and soul. On the other side we have the testimony
+of a literature extending over about twenty-five
+centuries, and including all sorts and conditions of men,
+scholars, poets, mystics, lawyers, casuists, schoolmen,
+tradesmen, workmen, women, simpletons, who all, from the
+author of the 119th Psalm to the last pre-Mendelssohnian
+writer&mdash;with a small exception which does not even deserve
+the name of a vanishing minority&mdash;give unanimous
+evidence in favour of this Law, and of the bliss and happiness
+of living and dying under it,&mdash;and this, the testimony
+of people who were actually living under the Law,
+not merely theorising upon it, and who experienced it in
+all its difficulties and inconveniences. The Sabbath will
+give a fair example. The law of the Sabbath is one of
+those institutions the strict observance of which was already
+the object of attack in early New Testament times.
+Nevertheless, the doctrine proclaimed in one of the Gospels&mdash;that
+the son of man is Lord also of the Sabbath&mdash;was
+also current among the Rabbis. They, too, taught
+that the Sabbath had been delivered into the hand of man
+(to break, if necessary), and not man delivered over to the
+Sabbath.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Mechilta</hi>, 104<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> And they even laid down the axiom that a
+scholar who lived in a town, where among the Jewish population
+there could be the least possibility of doubt as to
+whether the Sabbath might be broken for the benefit of a
+dangerously sick person, was to be despised as a man neglecting
+his duty; for, as Maimonides points out, the laws
+of the Torah are not meant as an infliction upon mankind,
+<q>but as mercy, loving-kindness, and peace.</q><note place='foot'>See Tal. Jer., <hi rend='italic'>Yoma</hi>, 45<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. Cf. Maimonides, <hi rend='italic'>Mishneh Torah</hi>,
+הלבות שבת פב הג.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The attacks upon the Jewish Sabbath have not abated
+<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/>
+with the lapse of time. The day is still described by
+almost every Christian writer on the subject in the most
+gloomy colours, and long lists are given of minute and
+easily transgressed observances connected with it, which,
+instead of a day of rest, would make it to be a day of
+sorrow and anxiety, almost worse than the Scotch Sunday
+as depicted by continental writers. But it so happens
+that we have the prayer of R. Zadok, a younger contemporary
+of the Apostles, which runs thus: <q>Through the
+love with which Thou, O Lord our God, lovest Thy people
+Israel, and the mercy which Thou hast shown to the
+children of Thy covenant, Thou hast given unto us in love
+this great and holy Seventh Day.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Tosephta Berackoth</hi>, iii. 7.</note> And another Rabbi,
+who probably flourished in the first half of the second
+century, expresses himself (with allusion to Exod. xxxi. 13:
+Verily my Sabbaths ye shall keep ... that ye may know
+that I am the Lord that doth sanctify you)&mdash;<q>The Holy
+One, blessed be He, said unto Moses, I have a good gift
+in my treasures, and Sabbath is its name, which I wish
+to present to Israel. Go and bring to them the good
+tidings.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 10<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>. The name of the Rabbi is not given, but the
+fact that R. Simeon b. Gamaliel (160 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.c.</hi>) already refers to this interpretation
+makes it clear that its anonymous author must have lived at
+least a generation before.</note> The form again of the Blessing over the
+Sanctification-cup<note place='foot'>כום של קדוש.</note>&mdash;a ceremony known long before the
+destruction of the Second Temple&mdash;runs: <q>Blessed art
+Thou, O Lord our God, who hast sanctified us by Thy
+commandments, and hast taken pleasure in us, and in love
+and grace hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an inheritance.</q>
+All these Rabbis evidently regarded the Sabbath
+as a gift from heaven, an expression of the infinite mercy
+and grace of God which He manifested to His beloved
+children.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And the gift was, as already said, a <emph>good</emph> gift. Thus
+the Rabbis paraphrase the words in the Scripture <q>See,
+<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/>
+for that the Lord hath given you the Sabbath</q> (Exod. xvi.
+29): God said unto Israel behold the gem I gave you, My
+children I gave you the Sabbath for your good. Sanctify
+or honour the Sabbath by choice meals, beautiful garments;
+delight your soul with pleasure and I will reward you (for
+this very pleasure); as it is said: <q>And if thou wilt call
+the Sabbath a delight and the holy of the Lord honourable
+(that is honouring the Sabbath in this way) ... then
+shalt thou delight thyself in the Lord</q> (Is. lviii. 13, 14).<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Midrash</hi> to the Psalms xcii. and <hi rend='italic'>Deut. Rabbah</hi> iii. The
+Rabbis perceived in the words וקראת לשבת עננ (Isa. lviii. 13), a command
+to make the Sabbath a day of pleasure, whilst the word הסצף was understood
+by them to mean <q>needs,</q> <q>wants,</q> or <q>business</q> (<emph>not</emph> <q>pleasure</q>).
+Cf. <hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 113<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The delight of the Sabbath was keenly felt. Israel
+fell in love with the Sabbath, and in the hyperbolic language
+of the Agadah the Sabbath is personified as the
+<q>Bride of Israel,</q> whilst others called it <q>Queen Sabbath,</q><note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Gen. Rabbah</hi>, xi. (and parallels), and <hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 119<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note>
+and they are actually jealous of a certain class
+of semi-proselytes who, as it seems, were willing to observe
+the Sabbath, but declined to submit to the covenant
+of Abraham. The Gentile Sabbath-keepers&mdash;who,
+like all the nations of the world, envy Israel their Sabbath&mdash;the
+Rabbis considered as shameless intruders deserving
+punishment.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Maaseh Torah</hi> (ed. Schönblum) and <hi rend='italic'>Deut. Rabbah</hi>, i.</note> No, it was Israel's own Queen or
+Bride Sabbath whose appearance in all her heavenly
+glory they were impatiently awaiting. Thus we are told
+of R. Judah b. Ilai that when the eve of the Sabbath
+came <q>he made his ablutions, wrapped himself up in his
+white linen with fringed borders looking like an angel of
+the Lord of Hosts,</q> thus prepared for the solemn reception
+of Queen Sabbath. Another Rabbi used to put on
+his best clothes, and arise and invite the Sabbath with
+the words: <q>Come in Bride, come in.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 25<hi rend='italic'>b</hi> and 119<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>.</note> What the Bride
+brought was peace and bliss. Nay, man is provided with
+a super soul for the Sabbath, enabling him to bear both
+the spiritual and the material delights of the day with
+<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/>
+dignity and solemnity.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Betsah</hi>, 16<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>. Cf. Baer's notes in his <hi rend='italic'>Prayer-Book</hi>, p. 203 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi></note> The very light (or expression)
+of man's face is different on Sabbath, testifying to his
+inward peace and rest. And when man has recited his
+prayers (on the eve of the Sabbath) and thus borne testimony
+to God's creation of the world and to the glory
+of the Sabbath, there appear the two angels who accompany
+him, lay their hands on his head and impart to
+him their blessing with the words: <q>And thine iniquity
+is taken away and thy sin purged</q> (Is. vi. 7).<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 119<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Gen. Rabbah</hi>, xi.</note> For
+nothing is allowed to disturb the peace of the Sabbath;
+not even <q>the sorrows of sin,</q> though the Sabbath had
+such a solemn effect on people that even the worldly
+man would not utter an untruth on the Day of the Lord.
+Hence it was not only forbidden to pray on Sabbath for
+one's own (material) needs, but everything in the liturgy
+of a mournful character (as for instance the confession
+of sin, supplication for pardon) was carefully avoided. It
+was with difficulty, as the Rabbis say, that they made
+an exception in the case of condoling with people who
+had suffered loss through the death of near relatives.
+There is no room for morbid sentiment on Sabbath, for
+the blessing of the Lord maketh rich, and He addeth
+no sorrow with it (Prov. x. 22).<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Sabbath</hi>, 10<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Gen. Rabbah</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi></note> The burden of the
+Sabbath prayers is for peace, rest, sanctification, and joy
+(through salvation) and praise of God for this ineffable
+bliss of the Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Such was the Sabbath of the old Rabbis and the
+same spirit continued through all ages. The Sabbath
+was and is still celebrated by the people who did and
+do observe it, in hundreds of hymns, which would fill volumes,
+as a day of rest and joy, of pleasure and delight,
+a day in which man enjoys some foretaste of the pure
+<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/>
+bliss and happiness which are stored up for the righteous
+in the world to come. Somebody, either the learned
+professors, or the millions of the Jewish people, must
+be under an illusion. Which it is I leave to the reader
+to decide.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is also an illusion to speak of the burden which a
+scrupulous care to observe six hundred and thirteen commandments
+must have laid upon the Jew. Even a superficial
+analysis will discover that in the time of Christ
+many of these commandments were already obsolete (as
+for instance those relating to the tabernacle and to the
+conquest of Palestine), while others concerned only certain
+classes, as the priests, the judges, the soldiers, the
+Nazirites, or the representatives of the community, or
+even only one or two individuals among the whole population,
+as the King and the High-Priest. Others, again,
+provided for contingencies which could occur only to a
+few, as for instance the laws concerning divorce or
+levirate marriages, whilst many&mdash;such as those concerning
+idolatry, and incest, and the sacrifice of children to
+Moloch&mdash;could scarcely have been considered as a practical
+prohibition by the pre-Christian Jew; just as little
+as we can speak of Englishmen as lying under the
+burden of a law preventing them from burning widows
+or marrying their grandmothers, though such acts would
+certainly be considered as crimes. Thus it will be found
+by a careful enumeration that barely a hundred laws
+remain which really concerned the life of the bulk of
+the people. If we remember that even these include
+such laws as belief in the unity of God, the necessity of
+loving and fearing Him, and of sanctifying His name,
+of loving one's neighbour and the stranger, of providing
+<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/>
+for the poor, exhorting the sinner, honouring one's
+parents and many more of a similar character, it will
+hardly be said that the ceremonial side of the people's
+religion was not well balanced by a fair amount of
+spiritual and social elements. Besides, it would seem
+that the line between the ceremonial and the spiritual
+is too often only arbitrarily drawn. With many commandments
+it is rather a matter of opinion whether they
+should be relegated to the one category or the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus, the wearing of Tephillin<note place='foot'>תפלין.</note> or phylacteries has,
+on the one hand, been continually condemned as a meaningless
+superstition, and a pretext for formalism and
+hypocrisy. But, on the other hand, Maimonides, who
+can in no way be suspected of superstition or mysticism,
+described their importance in the following words:
+<q>Great is the holiness of the Tephillin; for as long as
+they are on the arm and head of man he is humble and
+God-fearing, and feels no attraction for frivolity or idle
+things, nor has he any evil thoughts, but will turn his
+heart to the words of truth and righteousness.</q> The
+view which R. Johanan, a Palestinian teacher of the
+third century, took of the fulfilment of the Law, will
+probably be found more rational than that of many a
+rationalist of to-day. Upon the basis of the last verse
+in Hosea, <q>The ways of the Lord are right, and the
+just shall walk in them, but the transgressors shall fall
+therein,</q> he explains that while one man, for instance,
+eats his paschal lamb with the purpose of doing the
+will of God who commanded it, and thereby does an act
+of righteousness, another thinks only of satisfying his
+appetite by the lamb, so that his eating it (by the very
+fact that he professes at the same time to perform a religious
+<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/>
+rite) becomes a stumbling-block for him.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Nazir</hi>, 23<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> Thus all
+the laws by virtue of their divine authority&mdash;and in this
+there was in the first century no difference of opinion
+between Jews and Christians&mdash;have their spiritual side,
+and to neglect them implies, at least from the individual's
+own point of view, a moral offence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The legalistic attitude may be summarily described as
+an attempt to live in accordance with the will of God, caring
+less for what God is than for what He wants us to be.
+But, nevertheless, on the whole this life never degenerated
+into religious formalism. Apart from the fact that during
+the second temple there grew up laws, and even beliefs,
+which show a decided tendency towards progress and
+development, there were also ceremonies which were popular
+with the masses, and others which were neglected. Men
+were not, therefore, the mere soulless slaves of the Law;
+personal sympathies and dislikes also played a part in
+their religion. Nor were all the laws actually put upon
+the same level. With a happy inconsistency men always
+spoke of heavier and slighter sins, and by the latter&mdash;excepting,
+perhaps, the profanation of the Sabbath&mdash;they
+mostly understood ceremonial transgressions. The statement
+made by Professor Toy (p. 243), on the authority of
+James (ii. 10), that <q>the principle was established that he
+who offended in one point was guilty of all,</q> is hardly correct;
+for the passage seems rather to be laying down a
+principle, or arguing that logically the law ought to be
+looked upon as a whole, than stating a fact. The fact
+was that people did not consider the whole law as of equal
+importance, but made a difference between laws and laws,
+and even spoke of certain commandments, such as those
+of charity and kindness, as outweighing all the rest of the
+<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/>
+Torah. It was in conformity with this spirit that in
+times of great persecution the leaders of the people had
+no compunction in reducing the whole Law to the three
+prohibitions of idolatry, of incest, and of bloodshed. Only
+these three were considered of sufficient importance
+that men should rather become martyrs than transgress
+them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These, then, are some of the illusions and misrepresentations
+which exist with regard to the Law. There are
+many others, of which the complete exposure would require
+a book by itself. Meanwhile, in the absence of
+such a book to balance and correct the innumerable volumes
+upon the other side, Professor Toy has done the
+best he could with existing materials, and produced a
+meritorious work deserving of wide recognition and
+approval.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>X. The Hebrew Collection of the British Museum</head>
+
+<p>
+The Hebrew collection in the British Museum forms
+one of the greatest centres of Jewish thought. It is only
+surpassed by the treasures which are contained in the
+Bodleian Library at Oxford. The fame of these magnificent
+collections has spread far and wide. It has penetrated
+into the remotest countries, and even the Bachurim
+(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>alumni</foreign>) of some obscure place in Poland, who otherwise
+neither care nor know anything about British civilisation,
+have a dim notion of the nature of these mines of Jewish
+learning.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All sorts of legends circulate amongst them about the
+<q>millions</q> of books which belong to the <q>Queen of England.</q>
+They speak mysteriously of an autograph copy of
+the Book of Proverbs, presented to the Queen of Sheba on
+the occasion of her visit to Jerusalem, and brought by the
+English troops as a trophy from their visit to Abyssinia,
+which is still ruled by the descendants of that famous lady.
+They also talk of a copy of the Talmud of Jerusalem
+which once belonged to Titus, afterwards to a Pope, was
+presented by the latter to a Russian Czar, and taken away
+from him by the English in the Crimean war; of a manuscript
+<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/>
+of the book <hi rend='italic'>Light is Sown</hi>,<note place='foot'>אור זרוה by R. Isaac b. Moses of Vienna (thirteenth century),
+mostly on legal subjects.</note> which is so large that
+no shelf can hold it, and which therefore hangs on iron
+chains. How they long to have a glance at these precious
+things! Would not a man get wiser only by looking
+at the autograph of the wisest of men?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But even the students of Germany and Austria, who are
+inaccessible to such fables, and by the aid of Zedner's,
+Steinschneider's, and Neubauer's catalogues have a fair
+notion of our libraries, cherish the belief that they would
+gain in scholarship and wisdom by examining these grand
+collections. How often have I been asked by Jewish students
+abroad: <q>Have you really been to the British Museum?
+Have you really seen this or that rare book or
+manuscript? Had you not great difficulties in seeing
+them? Is not the place where these heaps of jewels are
+treasured up always crowded by students and visitors?</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet how little does our English public know of these
+wonderful things! We are fairly interested in Græco-Roman
+art. We betray much curiosity about the different
+Egyptian dynasties. We look with admiration at the
+cuneiform inscriptions in the Nimrod room. We do not
+even grudge a glance at the abominable idols of the savage
+tribes. But as to the productions of Jewish genius,&mdash;well,
+it is best to quote here the words of Heine, who
+ridiculed this indifference to everything that is Jewish,
+in the following lines:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Alte Mumien, ausgestopfte,</l>
+<l>Pharaonen von Ægypten,</l>
+<l>Merowinger Schattenkön'ge,</l>
+<l>Ungepuderte Perticken,</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Auch die Zopfmonarchen China's</l>
+<l>Porzellanpagodenkaiser&mdash;</l>
+<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/>
+<l>Alle lernen sie answendig,</l>
+<l>Kluge Mädchen, aber, Himmel!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Fragt man sie nach grossen Namen,</l>
+<l>Aus dem grossen Goldzeitalter</l>
+<l>Der arabisch-althispanisch</l>
+<l>Jüdischen Poetenschule,</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Fragt man nach dem Dreigestirn</l>
+<l>Nach Jehuda ben Halevy,</l>
+<l>Nach dem Salomon Gabirol</l>
+<l>Und dem Moses Iben Esra.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Fragt man nach dergleichen Namen,</l>
+<l>Dann mit grossen Augen schaun</l>
+<l>Uns die Kleinen an&mdash;alsdann</l>
+<l>Stehn am Berge die Ochsinnen.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Now Heine goes on to advise his beloved one to study
+the Hebrew language. It would be indeed the best remedy
+against this indifference. But this is so radical a cure
+that one cannot hope that it will be made use of by many.
+A few remarks in English, trying to give some notion of
+the Hebrew collection in the British Museum, may, therefore,
+not be considered altogether superfluous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Hebrew collection in the Museum may be divided
+into two sections: Printed Books, and Manuscripts. The
+number of the printed books amounted in the year 1867,
+in which Zedner concluded his catalogue, to 10,100 volumes.
+Within the last twenty-eight years about 5000
+more have been added.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This enormous collection has grown out of very small
+beginnings. The British Museum was first opened to the
+public in the year 1759. Amongst the 500,000 volumes
+which it possessed at that time only a single Jewish work,
+the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>editio princeps</foreign> of the Talmud (Bomberg, Venice, 1520-1523)
+<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/>
+was to be found on its shelves. According to an
+article by Zedner in the <hi rend='italic'>Hebräische Bibliographie</hi> (ii. p.
+88), this copy of the Talmud once belonged to Henry
+VIII. But very soon the Museum was enriched by a
+small collection of Hebrew books, presented to it by Mr.
+Solomon da Costa, surnamed Athias, who had emigrated
+to England from Holland. The translation of the Hebrew
+letter with which the donor accompanied his present
+to the Trustees of the Museum was first published in
+the <hi rend='italic'>Gentleman's Magazine</hi>, February 1760, and was afterwards
+republished by the Rev. A. L. Green, in an article
+in the <hi rend='italic'>Jewish Chronicle</hi>, 1859. I shall only reproduce
+here the passage relating to the history of this collection.
+After expressing his gratitude to the <q>crowning city, the
+city of London, in which he dwelt for fifty-four years in
+ease and quietness and safety,</q> and telling us that he
+bequeaths these books to the British nation as a token of
+his gratitude, Da Costa proceeds to say that they are 180
+books, which had been gathered and bound for Charles
+II., with valuable bindings and marked with the king's
+own cipher. These books were intended as a present
+from the London Jewish community to Charles for certain
+privileges which he had bestowed on them. The sudden
+death of the king seems to have frustrated the intention
+of the first donors. The books were scattered, and Da
+Costa had to collect them again.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Small as this collection is, it is most valuable on account
+of its including many early editions of Venice, Constantinople,
+Naples, etc. The original letter of Da Costa, with
+a full list of the 180 books, is preserved in a MS. in the
+British Museum (Additional, 4710-11).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of still greater importance is the Michaelis collection.
+<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/>
+It consists of 4420 volumes, and was bought by the Trustees
+of the Museum in 1848. Other successive acquisitions,
+especially the purchase of a large number of printed
+books from the Almanzi collection, brought the Museum
+into possession of one of the most complete and one of
+the largest Hebrew libraries in the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the foregoing remarks on the quantity of this
+collection, I shall now attempt to give some idea of its
+quality. The following table, taken from the Preface of
+Zedner's <hi rend='italic'>Catalogue</hi>, shows its manifold contents:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>1. Bibles, 1260</l>
+<l>2. Commentaries on the Bible, 510</l>
+<l>3. Talmud, 730</l>
+<l>4. Commentaries on the Talmud, 700</l>
+<l>5. Codes of Law, 1260</l>
+<l>6. Decisions, 520</l>
+<l>7. Midrash, 160</l>
+<l>8. Cabbalah, 460</l>
+<l>9. Sermons, 400</l>
+<l>10. Liturgies, 1200</l>
+<l>11. Divine Philosophy, 690</l>
+<l>12. Scientific works, 180</l>
+<l>13. Grammars, Dictionaries, 450</l>
+<l>14. History, Geography, 320</l>
+<l>15. Poetry, Criticism, 770</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The reader can see that almost every branch of human
+thought, religious and secular, is amply represented in
+this collection. Looking at this table from a geographical
+point of view, we may perhaps classify the authors in the
+following way:&mdash;France and Germany in the Middle
+Ages, Poland and the East in modern times, are represented
+by the fourth, fifth, and sixth classes. The Rabbis
+of Spain and Italy would probably excel in the last five
+classes. In the productions of classes eight and nine all
+the before-mentioned countries would have an equal share.
+English Judaism, by reason of its large number of occasional
+prayers and wedding hymns (Zedner, pp. 472, 652),
+may perhaps be represented in the last class (criticism
+<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/>
+excluded). We in England are a pious, devotional people,
+and leave the thinking to others.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But what is still more welcome to the student is the fact
+that all these branches of Jewish learning are represented
+in the British Museum by the best editions. It would be
+a rather tedious task to enumerate here all the early editions
+of which this collection can boast. There is hardly
+any Hebrew book of importance from the Bible down to
+the Code of R. Joseph Caro of which the Museum does
+not possess the first printed edition. There are also many
+books and editions in the Museum of which no second
+copy is known to be in existence. An enumeration of
+these rare books and editions would require long lists, the
+perusal of which would be rather trying. But I shall say
+a few words to show the importance of such early editions
+for the student. They possess, first, the advantage of
+being free from the misprints which crept in with every
+fresh republication. The art of editing books in a correct
+and scientific way is of a very recent date. And even
+Hebrew literature does not find that support from the
+public which would enable scholars to edit Jewish books
+in such a way as Roman and Greek classics are prepared
+by Oxford and Cambridge students. A new edition of a
+Hebrew book meant therefore an addition of new mistakes
+and misprints. And it is only by examining the <foreign rend='italic'>editiones
+principes</foreign> that the scholar finds his way out of these
+perplexities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another advantage is the fact that these early editions
+escaped the hand of the censor, whose office was not introduced
+till a comparatively late date. The same advantage
+is also possessed by the Hebrew books published at Constantinople,
+Salonica, and other Mohammedan cities. Only
+<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/>
+Christian countries indulged in the barbarous pleasure of
+burning and disfiguring Jewish books. It is one of the
+most touching points in the life of R. David Oppenheim,
+of Prague, who spent all his life and fortune in collecting
+Hebrew works, and whose collection now forms one of the
+greatest ornaments of the Bodleian Library, that he was
+not allowed by the censor to enjoy the use of his treasures.
+He had to put them under the protection of Lipman Cohen,
+his father-in-law in Hanover, many hundreds of miles from
+his own home. With the exception of the Bible hardly
+any Jewish books escaped mutilation. In certain Christian
+countries some books were not allowed to be published
+at all; of others, again, whole chapters had to be omitted,
+while of others many passages had to be expunged. The
+words Roman, Greek, Gentile, were strictly forbidden, and
+had to be changed into Turks, Arabs, Samaritans, or worshippers
+of the stars and planets. One can imagine what
+confusion such stupid alterations caused. Fancy what
+blunders would have been committed in history if the old
+chroniclers had been compelled to change the Pope into
+the Grand Turk or the Shah of Persia, the Christian rulers
+into as many califs and pashas, or Rome and Athens into
+Pekin and Mecca!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may perhaps be interesting to learn that Jews sometimes
+imitated their bitter enemies in this work of mutilation.
+Thus in the later editions of the <hi rend='italic'>Book of Genealogies</hi>
+by Abraham Zacuto,<note place='foot'>יוחסין, Yuchasin.</note> a passage was left out reproducing
+the evidence given by the widow of Moses de Leon to the
+effect that the cabbalistic work, the Zohar, was a forgery
+manufactured by her poor dear husband. Another omission
+of this kind is to be found in the Code of R. Joseph
+Caro, mentioned above. Here the earliest editions declare,
+<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/>
+in the heading of section 605, <q>a certain religious usage</q>
+to be <q>a custom of folly.</q> In the republications, the last
+three words were left out. From such nonsensical omissions
+and changes only the earliest editions, which are
+abundant in the Museum, were exempt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A remarkable feature about the books of this Hebrew
+collection also is that many of them are provided in the
+margin with manuscript notes by their former possessors.
+These often happen to bear very great names in literature.
+I shall only mention here R. Jacob Emden, Almanzi,
+Michael, Gerundi, and Heidenheim. Of the works written
+by R. Jacob Emden, the Museum possesses an almost
+complete author's copy with abundant corrections, notes,
+and emendations by the author himself. His works are
+still very popular among Polish and Russian Jews, especially
+his Prayer-Book, and his Responses. It would be
+advisable for publishers in these countries to avail themselves
+of this copy on the occasion of a new edition. Of
+Christian scholars I should name here Isaac Casaubon. A
+rather amusing mistake occurs in Ben-Jacob's <hi rend='italic'>Treasure of
+Books</hi> in connection with this name. Among the many
+valuable copies of Kimchi's grammatical work <hi rend='italic'>Perfection</hi>,<note place='foot'>מכלל, Miklal.</note>
+possessed by the Museum, there is included one which
+belonged to Casaubon, and is full of notes by him. The
+author of the <hi rend='italic'>Treasure</hi> speaks of a <hi rend='italic'>Perfection</hi> with notes
+by Rabbi Yitzchak Kasuban. I was at first at a loss to
+guess who that Rabbi Casaubon might be. When examining
+Zedner I found it was no other than the famous
+Christian scholar, Isaac Casaubon. It is not known that
+Casaubon's ambition lay in this direction. But when
+Philo was regarded as a Father of the Church, Ben Gabirol
+quoted for many centuries as a Mohammedan philosopher,
+<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/>
+why should not Casaubon obtain for once the dignity of a
+Rabbi?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After having given the reader some notion of the collection
+of printed works, I should like now to invite him to
+accompany me through the Manuscript Department of the
+Museum. But I am afraid that I shall make a bad guide
+here; for the Museum is still without a descriptive catalogue
+of the Hebrew manuscripts, which is the only means
+of enabling the student to obtain a general view of the
+number and nature of these works. The manuscript catalogue
+of Dukes goes only as far as 1856. It was, as we
+shall soon see, just after this time that the Museum made
+its largest and, to a certain degree also, its most valuable
+acquisitions in Hebrew manuscripts. The following remarks
+must, therefore, not be taken as the result of a
+systematic study of this collection, which would be quite
+impossible without the aid of a catalogue. They rest
+partly on the descriptions given of a certain number of
+manuscripts in the catalogue by Dukes, but for the greater
+part on occasional glances at this or that MS.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to the history of the collection, it has grown out of
+small beginnings just as that of printed books. The collection
+of Dr. Sloane, which laid the foundation of the
+Museum Library, contained only nine Hebrew MSS.
+Later acquisitions, as the Harleian collection, the Cottonian
+collection, the Royal collection, and many other
+smaller collections marked as Additional up to 1854, increased
+the number of the Hebrew manuscripts to 232.
+Of much more importance was the Almanzi collection,
+bought by the trustees of the Museum in 1865, and consisting
+of 335 MSS. Of succeeding acquisitions I shall
+mention here only the Yemen MSS., which were brought
+<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/>
+to this country by the famous Shapira. The number of
+Hebrew MSS. at the present day is said to exceed one
+thousand. But we must not forget that many MSS. contain
+more than one work; in some cases even three or
+four, so that the number of Hebrew works is far greater
+still.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I shall now speak of the nature and importance of these
+MSS. As to their contents they may be easily grouped
+under the following headings: Biblical MSS., Commentaries
+(to the Bible) and Super-Commentaries, parts of the
+Talmud and their Commentaries, Theology, Philosophy
+and Ethics, Massorah, Grammar and Lexicography, Cabbalah,
+Poetry, Mathematics, Astronomy, Astrology and
+Magic, Historical and Polemical Literature, etc. All
+these branches of theological and secular learning and even
+of human folly are fairly represented in the collection of
+Hebrew MSS. in the Museum, though often only by a
+part or a fragment of a work.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus the Babylonian Talmud is to be found only in two
+MSS. (Harl. 5508 and Add. 25,717) both of them including
+11 Tractates, hardly a third part of the whole work.
+Indeed poor <q>Rabbinus Talmud</q> had to go to the <foreign rend='italic'>auto de
+fé</foreign> on so many occasions that one cannot wonder if only
+disjointed limbs are to be found of him in libraries. The
+only complete MS. copy which escaped this vandalism is
+that in the Royal Library in Munich, from which Mr.
+Rabbinowicz has edited his monumental work, <hi rend='italic'>Variae
+Lectiones of the Talmud</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All other libraries, Oxford included, have to be satisfied
+with fragments. Still worse, as it is seen, fared the Jerusalem
+Talmud, and excepting the well-known copy in
+Leyden from which the Venice edition was prepared, not
+<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/>
+even fragments of this Talmud are to be found in the
+majority of libraries. To my knowledge it is only the
+British Museum which can boast of the Jerusalem Talmud
+in MS. extending over <hi rend='italic'>Order of Seeds</hi> and one tractate of
+<hi rend='italic'>Order of Festivals</hi><note place='foot'>זרעים, מועד, the former treating of the agricultural laws of the
+Bible, the latter of those relating to the Sabbath, Passover, and other
+festivals.</note> (Or. 2122-24) with commentaries of R.
+Solomon Syrillo, the first few pages of which were edited
+by Dr. Lehmann of Mayence. The Museum also possesses
+a great part of the Tosephta extending over 14
+Tractates (Add. 27,296). Of Midrashim we find in the
+Museum two excellent manuscripts of the Genesis <hi rend='italic'>Rabbah</hi>,
+one of the Leviticus <hi rend='italic'>Rabbah</hi>, and one of the <hi rend='italic'>Siphra</hi> and
+the <hi rend='italic'>Siphré</hi> (Add. 27,169 and 16,406), besides two copies
+of the Midrash <hi rend='italic'>Haggadol</hi> and other Aagadic collections
+brought from Yemen. The <hi rend='italic'>Midrash</hi> by Machir b. Abba
+Mari to the minor prophets included in the Harleian collection
+(5704) is unique. Of Liturgies, besides a great
+number of MSS. representing the most peculiar rites, I
+shall mention the Machzor<note place='foot'>מחזר, <q>Cycle,</q> containing the liturgy for the festivals.</note> Vitri (Add. 27,200-1) composed
+by the disciples of R. Solomon b. Isaac, and forming
+in itself almost a small library. For, apart from the
+prayers for festivals and week days which gave it its title,
+it includes, besides the <hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi> with a large
+commentary, three of the Minor Tractates of the Talmud,
+many responses by German and French Rabbis, and a
+whole series of religious hymns by German and Spanish
+authors, and many other literary pieces. Cabbalah is represented
+by various valuable writings of the pre-Zoharistic
+time (see for instance Add. 15,299) and the works of
+R. Moses de Leon and R. Abraham Abulafia. Of Poetry,
+I shall point here to the Tarshish of R. Moses Ibn Ezra,
+the Makames by Judah Al Charisi (Add. 27,122), and the
+Divan of R. Abraham of Bedres (Add. 27,188). Of works
+<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/>
+relating to grammar and lexicography, I may refer to a
+Codex (Add. 27,214) which contains the lexicon of R.
+Menahem ben Saruk, which is considered as the oldest
+Hebrew MS. in the Museum, dating from the year 1091.
+Of historical works, I mention the chronicle of R. Joseph
+the Priest (Add. 27,122) and the letter of R. Sherira Gaon
+(Arundel 51), the oldest existing copy of this work (1189),
+which was edited by Dr. Neubauer in his <hi rend='italic'>Mediæval Jewish
+Chronicles</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These examples will suffice to show the significance of
+the MSS. collection of this Library. And the student
+may rest assured that in whatever branch of Jewish
+thought he is interested, he will always find in the Museum
+some Hebrew manuscript useful for his purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I ought now to say a few words as to the value of this
+collection of manuscripts. Now, if the work contained in
+a MS. has never been edited, as for instance the Machzor
+Vitri<note place='foot'>Since then edited by the Mekize Nirdamim.</note> and so many others, its value is established by the
+mere fact of its existence. For those who published MSS.
+were not always guided by the best literary motives. And
+while they published and republished many books of
+which one edition would have been more than enough,
+many other works of the greatest importance for Jewish
+literature and history remained in manuscript. As an
+instance, it will suffice to mention here the Zohar, which
+has passed through twenty-four editions since the sixteenth
+century, whilst the earliest Jewish Midrash, the
+<hi rend='italic'>Pessikta de Rab Kahana</hi>, had to linger in the libraries till
+the year 1868, when it was edited by Mr. S. Buber. Thus
+there are still many pearls of Jewish literature which exist
+only in MS. Likewise most publishers were careless in
+their choice of the manuscript from which our editions
+<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/>
+have been prepared. Almost the whole of Jewish literature
+will have to be re-edited before a scientific study of it
+will be possible. But such critical editions can only be
+obtained by the aid of the MSS. not yet made use of, in
+which better readings are to be found. From this fact
+even those MSS. the contents of which have been several
+times reprinted, as for instance the MSS. of the Midrash
+<hi rend='italic'>Rabbah</hi>, gain the greatest literary importance. And the
+more MSS. the editor of a work has at his disposal, the
+more certain is he of being able to furnish us with a good
+text.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But even when the whole of Jewish literature lies
+before the student in the best of texts, there will still
+remain a great charm about manuscripts. Printed books,
+like the great mass of the modern society for which they
+are prepared, are devoid of any originality. They interest
+us only as classes, and it is very seldom that they have a
+story of their own to tell. It is quite different with manuscripts,
+where the fact of their having been produced by a
+living being invests them with a certain kind of individuality.
+This is specially the case with Hebrew MSS., which
+were not copied by men shut up in cloisters, but by sociable
+people living in the world and sharing its joys and
+sorrows. Even women were employed in this art, and I
+remember to have read in some MS. or catalogue a postscript
+by the lady copyist, which, if I remember rightly,
+ran as follows: <q>I beseech the reader not to judge me
+very harshly when he finds that mistakes have crept into
+this work; for when I was engaged in copying it God
+blessed me with a son, and thus I could not attend to my
+business properly.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To be sure, some of these copyists were curious folk.
+<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/>
+Their mind as well as that of the world around them must
+have been of a peculiar constitution hardly conceivable to
+us. Take, for example, Benjamin, the copyist of a certain
+Machzor in the Museum (Add. 11,639). This Machzor
+was written in times of bitter persecution. The copyist,
+who was himself a learned man, alludes in one place to
+the sufferings which the Jews in a certain French town
+had to undergo in the year 1276. On one of them,
+the martyr R. Samson, Benjamin the copyist composed a
+lamentation written in a most mournful strain. But this
+lamentation is followed by a wine-song, one of the jolliest
+and wildest parodies for the feast of Purim.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Speaking of this Machzor I should like to remark that
+it forms one of the greatest ornaments of the Museum.
+Besides including the whole of the Pentateuch, the above-mentioned
+Tarshish by R. Moses Ibn Ezra, and many
+other smaller literary pieces which would require a small
+volume to describe them properly, this MS. is most richly
+illuminated, and contains very many illustrations. The
+subjects of these illustrations are biblical, sometimes also
+apocryphal, such as&mdash;Adam and Eve in Paradise, Noah
+in the Ark, Abraham meeting the angels, Sarah behind
+the door listening to the conversation of her husband with
+his guests, Moses with the rod in his hands dividing the
+Red Sea, Samson riding on the back of a lion, Solomon
+on his throne, Daniel in the lion's den, the king Ahasuerus
+holding out the golden sceptre to Esther, Judith addressing
+Holofernes, the Leviathan, the mythical bird Bar
+Yochni, and many other similar subjects. In passing I
+recommend these illustrations and illuminations to the
+attention of the artist as the most worthy examples of
+Jewish ecclesiastical art,&mdash;if there is such a thing as a
+<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/>
+special Jewish art. The artist will find the Museum best
+suited for this purpose, its collection being considered as
+the richest of the kind. Besides this Machzor I must also
+allude to the illuminated Bible (Or. 2226-28) written in
+Lisbon for R. Judah Alchakin&mdash;it is said to be one of the
+finest specimens of such works&mdash;and the illuminated
+Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, executed for R. Joseph of
+the famous Yachya family, also thought to be most artistically
+done. The liturgies for the Passover Eve service
+will also offer to the artist a rich harvest, especially Codex,
+Add. 27,210, which the wealthy Lady Rosa Galico presented
+to her son-in-law on his wedding-day, and Codex,
+Add. 14,762, even the binding of which is considered as
+an artistic curiosity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Leaving now these marvels to the appreciation of the
+artist, the greatest wonder which suggests itself to us is
+how the Jews could maintain such a cultured taste in such
+unhappy times, and get the means of satisfying it. These
+reflections about the owners present themselves the more
+strongly to our mind when we meet with one of those old
+Jewish prayer-books, which in many cases formed the
+whole religious and literary treasure of the family. In
+their fly-leaves, in which the births and deaths of successive
+generations are very often registered, the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>spiritus
+familiaris</foreign> seems to be still haunting the pages. When
+you turn them over and see the service for Passover Eve,
+are you not bound to think of the anxiety with which these
+poor creatures engaged in this ceremony lest they might
+be attacked suddenly by a fanatic mob? must you not ask
+how they could bear life under such circumstances? And
+when you turn a few more pages and arrive at the prayers
+read for the dead, must you not ask how did they die?
+<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/>
+Were they perhaps burnt alive <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>ad majorem Dei gloriam</foreign>,
+or torn to pieces by a <q>saintly mob</q>? Take again the
+illuminated copies of the Bible and the Mishneh Torah,
+both of which were finished only a few years before the
+great expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal, times
+when the earth already <q>burnt under their feet, and the
+heaven was also very unkind to them.</q> And nevertheless
+Jews were still, as these MSS. show us, cultivating science
+and art. Another instance of such a devotion to science
+in spite of the unfavourable times may be seen from a
+colophon to Codex Or. 39. It contains the book <hi rend='italic'>Nissim</hi>,
+a philosophical treatise on the fundamental teachings of
+Judaism, together with a philosophical commentary on the
+Pentateuch by R. Nissim of Marseilles, a contemporary
+of R. Solomon ben Adereth in the thirteenth century.
+The Museum copy was written by R. Jacob, the son of
+David, who also added some annotations to the book.
+At the end he says: <q>I have copied this book <hi rend='italic'>Nissim</hi> for
+my own use, that I may study in it, I and my children and
+my grandchildren.... I have finished it to-day, Sunday,
+the 28th of Ab, 5333 (1573), at Venice, in the year of the
+expulsion which befell us on account of our sins.</q> Now,
+only observe this poor R. Jacob, who has to go through all
+these horrors, yet is still occupied in copying MSS. for his
+own pleasure, and in meditating on the most complicated
+problems of philosophy and religion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it is not always stories of this heroic nature that
+the MSS. tell us. They betray also very much of the
+instability of human affairs and their weakness. You
+find in many copies the words that they must not
+<q>be sold or given in mortgage.</q> But scarcely a generation
+has passed away, and they are already in the possession
+<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/>
+of a new owner, who writes the same injunction to
+be broken again by his children in their turn. In Codex
+27,122, we find commendatory letters for a worthy poor
+man, who is so unhappy as to have two grown-up daughters,
+and not to have the means of supplying them with
+marriage portions. Indeed, he must have been very poor,
+not possessing even a book in his house, or else his
+troubles could not have been so great. For in Codex
+Harl. 5702, we find the owner saying: <q>To eternal
+memory that I have acquired this <hi rend='italic'>Third Book of Avicena</hi>
+from the hands of my father-in-law, R. Jekuthiel, as a
+part of my dowry.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a sign of human weakness I give the following two
+instances. There lies before me a cabbalistic Codex (Add.
+27,199), which acquired some notoriety from the fact of
+its having been copied by the famous grammarian, R.
+Elijah Levita, for his pupil Cardinal Aegidius. At the
+end of this MS. we read: <q>I (Levita) have finished (the
+copying of) this book on Wednesday, the day of Hoshana
+Rabba,<note place='foot'>Eve of the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles.</note> 5277 (1516), on which day I have seen my head
+in the shadow of the moon. Praised be God (for it), for
+now I am sure not to die in the following year.</q> These
+words relate to a well-known superstition, according to
+which, when a man is going to die in the course of the
+next year his shadow disappears from him on the preceding
+Hoshana Rabba. But is it not humiliating to see
+that the great Levita, who was superior to many prejudices
+of his time, and taught Christians Hebrew, and who
+denied the antiquity of the vowels in the Bible, which was
+considered by the great majority of his contemporaries
+as a mortal heresy&mdash;is it not humiliating to see this
+enlightened man trembling for his life on this night, and
+<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/>
+anxiously observing his shadow? Another Codex lies
+before me (Add. 17,053), containing the Novellæ to three
+tractates of the Talmud. Its owner must accordingly
+have been a learned man. But in the fly-leaf of this MS.
+we read the following words: <q>Memorandum&mdash;Thursday,
+the 25th of Sivan, 5295 (1535), I have taken an oath
+in the presence of R. David Ibn Shushan and R. Moses
+de Castro, etc., not to play (cards) any more.</q> I might
+perhaps suggest on this occasion that in our days when
+all sorts of Judaisms are circulating, a cooking Judaism,
+a racing Judaism, a muscular Judaism, and so many
+Judaisms more&mdash;it would be interesting to take up also
+the subject of playing Judaism, and to write its history.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In conclusion I shall mention the colophon to Codex
+Harl. 5713, which may have some interest for the English
+reader. It runs: <q>I have written it in honour of the
+noble and pious, etc., Humphrey Wanley, the noble Librarian
+of my Lord Treasurer. May his glory be increased.
+In the year 5474 (1714) in the holy community of London,
+under the reign of the noble and happy Queen Anne.
+May the Lord increase her splendour and glory.</q> The
+signature of the copyist is <q>Aaron the son of Moses,
+born in the city of Navaschadok in Poland.</q> By the way,
+we learn from this signature that the immigration of Polish
+Jews into this country had already begun in the time of
+Queen Anne, and perhaps still earlier.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus everything in a MS., the arrangement of the
+matter, the remarks of the owners, the signature of the
+copyist, sets the reader thinking, and contributes many
+a side-light to the history of the Jews.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>XI. Titles of Jewish Books</head>
+
+<p>
+It is now more than half a century since Isaac Reggio
+in his edition of Elijah Delmedigo's <hi rend='italic'>Examination of
+Religion</hi>, made the remark that this book adds to its other
+merits that of bearing a title corresponding to its contents,&mdash;a
+merit that is very rare in Jewish books. Reggio proceeds
+to give a few specimens confirming his assertion,
+and concludes his remarks with a eulogy on Delmedigo,
+who in this respect also had the courage to differ from
+his contemporaries. Zunz also once wrote an article on
+titles of books. But this article unfortunately appeared
+in some German periodical which the British Museum
+does not possess, and I could not even succeed in ascertaining
+whether Zunz treats at all of titles of Hebrew
+books, nor am I aware that the subject has been taken up
+by any other scholar, Isaac D'Israeli's few notes on the
+subject in his <hi rend='italic'>Curiosities of Literature</hi> being scarcely
+worth mention. It seems to me, however, interesting
+enough to deserve some illustration, though I can by no
+means hope to be complete.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The titles of the books contained in the Bible need not
+be discussed here; information concerning them is to be
+found in every critical introduction to the Old Testament.
+The Rabbinical works dating from antiquity also offer
+<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/>
+little opportunity for reflection on their titles. The Talmud,
+as a work, has no title at all; for Talmud simply
+means <q>teaching</q> or <q>study.</q> Sometimes it is termed
+ShaSS, an abbreviation of <hi rend='italic'>Shisha Sedarim</hi>,<note place='foot'>ששח סדרים. ש֜֜ם.</note> meaning the
+Six Orders or divisions contained in the Mishnah. This
+last word means, according to some authors, <q>Repetition.</q>
+Other Tannaitic collections of laws or expositions of the
+Scriptures are called <q>the Book</q> (Siphra), <q>the Books</q>
+(Siphré), or <q>Additions</q> (Tosephta to the Mishnah).
+The word <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Baraitha</foreign><note place='foot'>ברייתה.</note> means the external Mishnah that
+enjoyed less authority than the Mishnah of R. Judah the
+Patriarch. Some approach to titles we find in the names
+given to the different tractates included in the Mishnah,
+as <hi rend='italic'>Berachoth</hi>, because it treats of Benedictions, <hi rend='italic'>Peah</hi><note place='foot'>פאה.</note>
+(Corner) which contains the particulars concerning the
+law in Lev. xix. and so forth. Of the few works quoted
+in the Talmud it will suffice to mention the <hi rend='italic'>Seder Olam</hi>,
+the Order of the World, the name of which is very suitable
+to the chronological contents of the book. In general,
+I may observe that as long as the law which prohibited
+the writing down of the Oral teachings was in force, there
+hardly existed Jewish books. But where there are no
+books there is also no need for titles. The few titles,
+however, which can be proved to be historical are simple
+and to the point. It is not till about the beginning of the
+Middle Ages, when this prohibitive law had, for reasons not
+to be explained here, been abolished, that we can speak of
+Hebrew books. But here also the Title-confusion begins.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In order that we may have some general view of the
+thousands of titles that are catalogued by the Jewish
+bibliographers, it will perhaps be well to arrange them
+under the following six classes:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/>
+
+<p>
+I. <hi rend='italic'>Simple titles</hi>, that have no other object than that of
+indicating the subject matter of the book. These are, as
+we have just seen, the only kind of titles known to antiquity.
+The few books which the Gaonim left us bear
+such simple titles as could have served as models to later
+generations. Among them may be mentioned the <hi rend='italic'>Halachoth</hi>
+or collection of Laws, <hi rend='italic'>Creeds and Opinions</hi>, by R.
+Saadiah Gaon, the <hi rend='italic'>Book on Buying and Selling</hi>, by R.
+Hai Gaon, containing the laws relating to commercial
+transactions. It may be noticed that this last book is
+one of the best arranged in Jewish literature, and displays
+more systematising powers than even the Code of
+Maimonides. The greatest part of the literary activity
+of the Gaonim consists in their Responsa, in which they
+gave decisions on ritual questions, or explanations of difficult
+passages in the Talmud. The titles borne by the
+various collections of those Responsa belong to a period
+later than the author's. The great majority of the books
+produced by the Franco-German school may also be included
+in this class. They are termed <q>Commentaries,</q>
+<q>Additions</q> or <q>Glosses,</q> <q>Novellæ,</q> or <q>Confirming
+Proofs,</q> and similar modest titles which show both their
+relation to, and dependence on, another older authority.
+The largest collection of Midrashim we possess bears the
+simple title <q>Bag.</q><note place='foot'>ילקות, Yalkut.</note> Many of the Responsa satisfy themselves
+with the words <q>Questions to, and Answers by.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+II. <hi rend='italic'>Titles taken from the first word with which the book
+begins</hi>, or from the first word of the Scriptural verse occurring
+first in the book. This class is strongly represented
+by the Midrashim. Thus the Midrash to the Song of
+Songs is also quoted as the Midrash <hi rend='italic'>Chazitha</hi>,<note place='foot'>חזית.</note> <q>Midrash,
+Seest thou</q> (the first text with which this Midrash deals
+<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/>
+being Proverbs xxii. 28). The Midrash to the Psalms is
+called Midrash <hi rend='italic'>Shocher Tob</hi>,<note place='foot'>ישוהר נשב.</note> <q>Midrash, He that diligently
+seeketh the good</q> (Prov. xi. 37). The Midrash
+containing the legendary story of the wars of the sons of
+Jacob with the Canaanites is quoted as Midrash <hi rend='italic'>V'yisseu</hi>,<note place='foot'>ויסען.</note>
+<q>Midrash, And they journeyed,</q> as the story begins with
+the verse from Gen. xxxv. 5. And this is the case with
+the titles of many other Midrashim. Whether the work
+cited under the strange name of <hi rend='italic'>Meat on Coals</hi> did not
+begin with those words, containing some law relating to
+the salting of meat, I do not venture to decide. Under
+this class we may also arrange those books that are called
+after a phrase which is often used in the book, <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>, the
+Midrash <hi rend='italic'>Yelamdenu</hi> (He may teach us), or the <hi rend='italic'>Vehizhir</hi>,
+<q>And He commanded us,</q> almost every paragraph in
+these books beginning with the phrases mentioned.<note place='foot'>ילמרנו והזחיר.</note>
+Probably all the books belonging to this class received
+from the hands of their authors or compilers no titles at
+all. The student who had to quote them gave them
+names after the phrase or word which first caught his eye.
+In later centuries this class disappears almost entirely (see,
+however, Ben-Jacob's <hi rend='italic'>Treasure</hi>, p. 201, No. 827).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+III. <hi rend='italic'>Pompous titles.</hi> The largest contributions to this
+class were made by the mystical writers. Books which
+profess to know what is going on in the heavens above
+and the earth beneath cannot possibly be satisfied with
+modest titles. Thus we have the <q>Book of Brightness</q>
+(Zohar), <q>the shining book</q> (Bahir), <q>the Confidential
+Shepherd</q> (Moses).<note place='foot'>רעיא מחימנא.</note> The books which the Zohar
+quotes bear such titles as the Book of Adam, the Book of
+Enoch. The only excuse for the Zohar is that the manufacturing
+of such books with pseudo-epigraphical titles
+<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/>
+had already begun in antiquity. It is not, however, till
+the Gaonic period that a whole apocryphal literature suddenly
+emerges which perplexes the Gaonim themselves.
+No one is spared. Angels, patriarchs, and martyrs are
+called upon to lend their names to these books. What
+one resents most is that history came within the range of
+the forger's activity. There is, for instance, the Josippon,
+which professes to be written by Josephus, the well-known
+Jewish historian of the first century. But in spite of all
+the care taken by the author to disguise himself in the
+garb of antiquity, the Josippon is a forgery of the ninth
+or tenth century. Of a similar kind is the Book of Jasher,
+containing legendary stories relating to Biblical personages.
+It pretends to be identical with the Book of Jasher
+quoted in Joshua x. 13 and 2 Sam. i. 18. Some sixty
+years ago a certain Mr. Samuel of Liverpool had the misfortune
+to make himself ridiculous by maintaining the pretensions
+of this book; for, indeed, it does not require
+much knowledge of the Agadic literature to see that the
+Book of Jasher is only a compilation of comparatively late
+Midrashim.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+IV. <hi rend='italic'>Titles suggested by other Titles.</hi> As an instance of
+this we may take Maimonides' great Code of Law, which
+bears the title <hi rend='italic'>Mishneh Torah</hi>. The importance of the
+book made it the object of study for hundreds of scholars,
+who wrote their commentaries and glosses on it. Among
+the titles of the commentaries such Title-genealogies may
+be discovered as Maggid <hi rend='italic'>Mishneh</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Mishneh</hi> Lammelech;
+which last word again suggested such titles as Emek ha-<hi rend='italic'>Melech</hi>,
+Shaar ha-<hi rend='italic'>Melech</hi>, and so on.<note place='foot'>עמק המלך, משנה למלך, מגיד משנה, משנה תורה, ששר המלך.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same process may be observed in other standard
+works, the importance of which made them a subject of
+<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/>
+investigation and interpretation as the <q>Prepared Table,</q>
+one of the glosses to which is called <hi rend='italic'>Mappah</hi>, <q>Tablecloth,</q>
+whilst others provided it with the <hi rend='italic'>Shewbread</hi> and
+with <hi rend='italic'>New Fruit</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+V. <hi rend='italic'>Euphemistic Titles</hi>, as <q>The Tractate of Joys,</q>
+treating of funeral ceremonies and kindred subjects. It
+does not seem that this title was known to antiquity, but
+it is certain that already the earlier authorities quoted it
+by this name. <q>The Book of Life</q> (the German Jewish
+title of which is <hi rend='italic'>Alle Dinim, von Freuden</hi>), is the name of
+a very popular book containing the prayers to be read in
+the house of mourning as well as in the cemetery, which
+is also called the House of Life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+VI. <hi rend='italic'>Titles taken from the Bible</hi>, or Fancy Titles. This
+is the largest class of all, though it was utterly unknown
+in antiquity. It will be, perhaps, convenient to arrange
+this class of titles under the following sub-divisions. (<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>)
+Titles taken from the Bible, but also fulfilling the purpose
+of indicating the name of the author. For instance,
+<q>Seed of Abraham</q> (Ps. cv. 6), is the title of nine different
+books, the name of whose authors happened to be
+Abraham; <q>And Isaac entreated</q> (Gen. xxv. 21), is by
+Isaac Satanow on the Prayers; <q>Then Isaac sowed</q>
+(<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> xxvi. 12), edited by R. Isaac Perles, contains an
+index to the Zohar. <q>Jacob shall take root</q> (Is. xxvii.
+6) is the name of a book on Grammar and Massorah
+by R. Jacob Bassani. R. Joseph of Posen left two collections
+of sermons and commentaries on the Pentateuch,
+of which the one is called <q>And Joseph nourished</q>
+(Gen. xlvii. 12), the other <q>And Joseph gathered</q>
+(<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> 14). Authors with the name of Judah are represented
+among others by such titles as <q>And this of Judah</q>
+<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/>
+(Deut. xxxiii.7), a treatise on the laws concerning the
+killing of animals; or <q>Judah shall go up</q> (Judges i. 2),
+a pamphlet containing a collection of prayers to be said
+on a journey. <q>Moses began</q> (Deut. i. 5) forms the title
+of three different books on various subjects, the authors
+of which had the name Moses. <q>Moses shall rejoice,</q>
+a phrase occurring in the morning prayer for Sabbaths,
+is also the title of two books, the authors of which were
+named Moses. The <q>Rod of Aaron</q> enjoyed, as it seems,
+a goodly popularity; there are four bearing this name,
+not to speak of a fifth, <q>The Rod of Aaron brought forth
+buds</q> (Exod. xvii. 23), which is the name of a collection
+of Responsa by R. Aaron ben Chayim. But other Rods
+also were fashionable; there are, besides the five Rods
+of Moses, also Rods of Ephraim, Dan, Judah, Joseph,
+Naphtali, and Manasseh. By authors of the name of
+David we find books with the title <q>And David said,</q> or
+a <q>Prayer of David,</q> and other phrases occurring in the
+Psalms relating to David; whilst the <q>Tower of David</q>
+became the stronghold of other writers, and the <q>Shield
+of David</q> protected as many as nine more. The <q>Chariot
+of Solomon</q> (Cant. iii. 9) adorns the title-pages of five
+books by authors named Solomon. The Caraite Solomon
+Troki was so fond of that title that he called his two
+polemical treatises <q>He made himself a chariot,</q> while
+R. Solomon of Mir's collection of sermons has the title,
+<q>This Bed which is Solomon's</q> (Cant. iii. 7). As to
+family names, there were not many authors in the enjoyment
+of that luxury (especially among the German Jews),
+but we find them indicating the fact of their being Priests
+or Levites. Among such books are the collection of
+Responsa, by R. Raphael Cohen, which has the title
+<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/>
+<q>And the Priest shall come again</q> (Lev. xiv. 39), and
+the Cabbalistic treatise by R. Abraham Cohen, of Lask,
+with the title <q>And the Priest shall reckon unto him</q>
+(Lev. xxvii. 18). Probably the author deals with numbers.
+R. Hirsch Horwitz, the Levite, called his Novellæ
+to the Talmud <q>The Camp of Levi.</q> The title <q>The
+Service of the Levite</q> (with allusion to Exodus xxxviii.
+21) is borne by five other books by authors who were
+Levites. And there may be found hundreds of books
+with titles suggesting the Priestly or Levitical descent of
+their authors. Most anxious is Joseph Ibn Kaspi (Joseph
+the Silvern, so called after his native place Argentière, in
+the south of France) to provide most of his numerous
+books with some Biblical titles combined with silver, as a
+<q>Bowl of Silver</q> (Numb. vii. 13), or <q>Points of Silver</q>
+(Song of Songs i. 11), or <q>Figures of Silver</q> (Prov. xxv.
+10), and other similar phrases. On the other hand Azulai
+manages to indicate at least one of his three Hebrew
+names, Chayim Joseph David, in most of his works, of
+which the number exceeds seventy, as Chayim Shaal,<note place='foot'>ח֜֜ם שאל.</note>
+<q>He asked Life</q> (Ps. xxi. 4), or <q>The knees of Joseph</q>
+(alluding to Gen. xlviii. 12), and <q>Truth unto David</q>
+(Ps. cxxxii. 11).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) The Tabernacle with its furniture was also a great
+favourite with many authors. There are not only six tabernacles
+(two on Cabbalah, two on grammar, and two on
+Talmudical subjects), but also three <q>Arks of the Testimony,</q>
+two <q>Altars of gold,</q> two <q>Tables of Shewbread,</q>
+four <q>Candlesticks of the Light,</q> two <q>Sockets of Silver,</q>
+and two <q>Pillars of Silver.</q> Others again preferred the
+vestments of the priests as the <q>Plate of Judgment,</q> the
+<q>Robe of the Ephod,</q> the <q>Mitre of Aaron,</q> the <q>Plate
+<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/>
+of Gold,</q> the <q>Bell and Pomegranate,</q> <q>Wreathen Chains,</q>
+and the <q>Arches of Gold.</q> Many of these books were
+written by authors claiming to be priests. (<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) But besides
+the canonical, other costumes were also fashionable.
+R. Mordecai Yafeh composed ten books, every one of them
+bearing the name of some garment or apparel, as <q>Apparel
+of Royalty,</q> <q>Apparel of Blue,</q> <q>Apparel of White,</q> and
+so the whole suit with which Mordecai went out from the
+presence of the king (Esther viii. 15). These ten works
+range from codifications of the law and occasional sermons
+to philosophy, astronomy, and Cabbalah. By other writers
+we have three <q>Coats of many colours</q> (Gen. xxxvii. 4),
+one <q>Bridal Attire,</q> and the <q>Thread of Scarlet</q> is not
+missing. (<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) The ingredients for incense as well as other
+articles used in the Tabernacle or in the Temple were also
+fancied by some authors, and we have two books with the
+title of <q>Principal Spices,</q> two <q>Pure Myrrh,</q> three
+<q>Arts of the Apothecary,</q> one <q>Oil of Holy Ointment,</q>
+five <q>Meat Offerings mingled or dry,</q> three or four <q>Flour
+of the Meat Offering,</q> and also one <q>Two Young Pigeons</q>
+(Bene Yonah) by R. Jonah Zandsopher. But the appetite
+of the authors did not stop at these holy things. It extended
+also to such lay articles as <q>Spiced Wine,</q> <q>Juice
+of Pomegranate</q> (Cant. viii. 2), <q>Forests of Honey,</q> the
+<q>Book of the Apple,</q> and <q>Seven Kinds of Drink.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) Field and flock also suggested to Hebrew writers as
+well as to Mr. Ruskin such titles as <q>The Fruit of the
+Hand,</q> the <q>Rose of Sharon,</q> the <q>Lily of the Valleys,</q>
+or <q>The Shepherds' Tents,</q> and <q>In the Green Pastures</q>
+(Ps. xxiii. 2).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The specimens given for every class may with very little
+trouble be doubled and redoubled. But it is not my intention
+<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/>
+to reproduce here whole catalogues. Reggio thinks
+all such titles, which do not correspond with the context
+of the book, absurd and confusing. He suggests that
+the Jews followed in this respect the Arabic writers. There
+is no doubt that Reggio is not altogether wrong in his
+complaint. Almost all the titles included in class vi., as
+the reader might have observed, never indicate to the
+student the subject of which the books treat. How can
+one guess that the Responsa, the Dance of Mahanaim
+(two companies), is of a polemical nature against the tendencies
+of reform? This list may be lengthened by hundreds
+of titles. But even these incomprehensible titles
+are better than the <hi rend='italic'>Chad Gadyah Lo Israel</hi> (One Kid No
+Israel),<note place='foot'>חד גדיא לא ישראל.</note> the un-Hebrew title of a pamphlet trying to prove
+the un-Jewish origin of the well-known folk-song sung on
+Passover Eve. But, on the other hand, it must not be
+overlooked that even this class has, though not always,
+something suggestive and even practical about it. The
+<q>Choice of Pearls</q> is undoubtedly more attractive than
+the prosaic <q>Collection of Proverbs and Sayings,</q> which
+is what the book contains. <q>Understanding of the Seasons</q>
+(1 Chr. xii. 32), sounds also better than the simple
+<q>Collection of Sermons on different occasions.</q> <q>The
+Lips of those who Sleep</q> recommends itself as a very
+suggestive title for a catalogue, especially when one thinks
+of the Agadic explanation given to Cant. vii. 10, according
+to which the study of the book of a departed author
+makes the lips of the dead man to speak. Such titles as
+<q>Bunch of Lilies</q> for a collection of poems are still usual
+with us. Such a title as the <q>Jealousy Offering,</q> or the
+<q>Law of Jealousies,</q> in polemical literature is very appropriate
+for its subject. R. Jacob Emden, who named one
+<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/>
+of his pamphlets <q>Rod for the fool's back</q> (Prov. xxvi. 3),
+will be envied for his choice by many a controversialist
+even to-day. Wittily devised is the pun-title, <q>City of
+Sihon</q> for a mathematical book by R. Joseph Tsarphathi,
+alluding to Numb. xxi. 27, <q>For Hesbon (reckoning) is
+the City of Sihon.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Other titles were probably intended more as mottoes
+than titles. <q>Go forth and behold, ye daughters of
+Zion</q> (Cant. iii. 11), is put in the title-page of R. Jacob's
+German-Jewish paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which was
+written chiefly for the use of ladies. <q>Let another man
+praise thee and not thine own mouth, a stranger and not
+thine own lips</q> (Prov. xxvii. 2), forms the title of a book
+extending over only one and a half page in quarto. It
+contains letters by seven Rabbis (among them R. Liva of
+Prague) recommending the Ascetic, R. Abraham Wangos,
+who has a daughter to marry, and wants also to make a
+pilgrimage to the Holy Land, as deserving the support
+of his brethren.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is also another objection to these titles. It is
+that they seem sometimes not quite consonant with our
+notions of modesty. Thus we have <q>Desirable and
+Sweet</q> on astronomy, <q>Sweeter than Honey</q> or <q>He
+shall comfort us,</q> and many others of this kind. But it
+must not be thought that we have a right to infer from
+the title to the author. There is, indeed, an anecdote
+that three authors were rather too little careful about
+the choice of their titles, namely Maimonides in calling
+his Code <hi rend='italic'>Mishneh Torah</hi> (which is the traditional title of
+the Book of Deuteronomy), R. Moses Alshech in calling
+his homiletical commentaries <hi rend='italic'>Torah</hi> of Moses, and
+R. Isaiah Horwitz in calling his book <hi rend='italic'>Shene Luchoth ha-Berith</hi>
+<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/>
+(The Two Tables of the Covenant). These authors,
+as the story goes, had for their punishment that their
+works are never quoted by the titles they gave to them,
+the former two being usually cited as Rambam or
+Alshech, whilst the last is more known by its abbreviated
+title of SHeLa<note place='foot'>שני לוחות הכרית. ש֜֜לה.</note> than by its full name.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I do not remember where I have read this story, but I
+am quite sure that its pious author would have been more
+careful about repeating it had he known that this accusation
+against Maimonides was a favourite topic with
+apostates, who thought to hit Judaism in the person of
+its representative Maimonides. But, as R. Solomon
+Duran in his polemical work remarks, Maimonides was
+too much of a truly great man to find any satisfaction
+in such petty vanity. Nor do I believe that even the
+character of less-known authors can in any way be impugned
+by the seemingly conceited titles of their books;
+just as on the other hand the humility of the author is
+not proved by calling his book <q>The Offering of the
+Poor,</q> or other modest titles. The fancy title was in
+common use, and was therefore a commonplace with no
+significance whatever. The real disadvantage of such
+titles lies in the fact that, as already pointed out, they conceal
+from the student the contents of the book which he
+might otherwise consult in the course of his researches.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Did these authors perhaps foresee that there would
+come a time in which index-knowledge would pass for
+deep scholarship? and did they thus by using these
+obscure titles try to put a check on the dabblers who
+speak the more of a book the less they have read of its
+contents? If this be the case we can only admire their
+foresight.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>XII. The Child in Jewish Literature</head>
+
+<p>
+<q>I saw a Jewish lady only yesterday with a child at
+her knee, and from whose face towards the child there
+shone a sweetness so angelical that it seemed to form a
+sort of glory round both. I protest I could have knelt
+before her, too, and adored in her the divine beneficence
+in endowing us with the maternal <foreign rend='italic'>storgé</foreign> which began with
+our race and sanctifies the history of mankind.</q> These
+words, which are taken from Thackeray's <hi rend='italic'>Pendennis</hi>, may
+serve as a starting-point for this paper. The fact that the
+great student of man perceived this glory just round the
+head of a Jewish lady rouses in me the hope that the small
+student of letters may, with a little search, be able to discover
+in the remains of our past many similar traces of this
+divine beneficence and sanctifying sentiment. Certainly
+the glimpses which we shall catch from the faded leaves
+of ancient volumes, dating from bygone times, will not be
+so bright as those which the novelist was so fortunate as
+to catch from the face of a lady whom he saw but the previous
+day. The mothers and fathers, about whom I am
+going to write in this essay, have gone long ago, and the
+objects of their anxiety and troubles have also long ago
+vanished. But what the subject will lose in brightness, it
+may perhaps gain in reality and intensity. A few moments
+<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/>
+of enraptured devotion do not make up the saint. It is a
+whole series of feelings and sentiments betrayed on different
+occasions, expressed in different ways, a whole life of
+sore troubles, of bitter disappointments, but also moments
+of most elevated joys and real happiness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And surely these manifestations of the divine beneficence,
+which appear in their brightest glory in the literature
+of every nation when dealing with the child, shine
+strongest in the literature of the Jewish nation. In it,
+to possess a child was always considered as the greatest
+blessing God could bestow on man, and to miss it as the
+greatest curse. The patriarch Abraham, with whom Israel
+enters into history, complains&mdash;<q>Oh Lord, what wilt Thou
+give me, seeing I go childless!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Rabbis regarded the childless man as dead, whilst
+the Cabbalist in the Middle Ages thought of him who died
+without posterity as of one who had failed in his mission
+in this world, so that he would have to appear again on
+our planet to fulfil this duty. To trace out the feelings
+which accompanied the object of their greatest anxiety,
+to let them pass before the reader in some way approaching
+to a chronological order, to draw attention to
+some points more worthy of being emphasised than
+others, is the aim of this essay.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I said that I propose to treat the subject in chronological
+order. I meant by this that I shall follow the
+child in the different stages through which it has to pass
+from its birth until it ceases to be a child and attains its
+majority. This latter period is the beginning of the thirteenth
+year in the case of a female, and the beginning of
+the fourteenth year in the case of a male. I shall have
+occasion later on to examine this point more closely.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/>
+
+<p>
+But there is the embryo-period which forms a kind of
+preliminary stage in the life of the child, and plays a
+very important part in the region of Jewish legends.
+Human imagination always occupies itself most with
+the things of which we know least. And so it got hold
+of this semi-existence of man, the least accessible to experience
+and observation, and surrounded it by a whole
+cycle of legends and stories. They are too numerous
+to be related here. But I shall hint at a few points
+which I regard as the most conspicuous features of
+these legends.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These legends are chiefly based on the notion of the
+pre-existence of the soul on the one hand, but on the
+other hand they are a vivid illustration of the saying
+of the Fathers, <q>Thou art born against thy will.</q> Thus
+the soul, when it is brought before the throne of God,
+and is commanded to enter into the body, pleads before
+Him: <q>O Lord, till now have I been holy and pure;
+bring me not into contact with what is common and unclean.</q>
+Thereupon the soul is given to understand that
+it was for this destiny alone that it was created. Another
+remarkable feature is the warning given to man before
+his birth that he will be responsible for his actions. He
+is regularly sworn in. The oath has the double purpose
+of impressing upon him the consciousness of his duty to
+lead a holy life, and of arming him against the danger
+of allowing a holy life to make him vain. As if to render
+this oath more impressive, the unborn hero is provided
+with two angels who, besides teaching him the
+whole of the Torah, take him every morning through
+paradise and show him the glory of the just ones who
+dwell there. In the evening he is taken to hell to witness
+<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/>
+the sufferings of the reprobate. But such a lesson
+would make free will impossible. His future conduct
+would only be dictated by the fear of punishment and
+hope of reward. And the moral value of his actions
+also depends, according to Jewish notions, upon the
+power to commit sin. Thus another legend records:
+<q>When God created the world, He produced on the
+second day the angels with their natural inclinations to
+do good, and the absolute inability to commit sin. On
+the following days again He created the beasts with their
+exclusively animal desires. But He was pleased with
+neither of these extremes. If the angels follow my will,
+said God, it is only on account of their impotence to act
+in the opposite direction. I shall therefore create man,
+who will be a combination of both angel and beast, so that
+he will be able to follow either the good or evil inclination.
+His evil deeds will place him beneath the level of animals,
+whilst his noble aspirations will enable him to obtain a
+higher position than angels.</q> Care is therefore taken to
+make the child forget all it has seen and heard in these
+upper regions. Before it enters the world an angel strikes
+it on the upper lip, and all his knowledge and wisdom
+disappear at once. The pit in the upper lip is a result of
+this stroke, which is also the cause why children cry when
+they are born.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to the origin of these legends, the main features of
+which are already to be found in the Talmud, I must refer
+the reader to the researches of Löw and others.<note place='foot'>The main authorities on the subjects of this essay are <hi rend='italic'>Die
+Lebensalter</hi>, by Dr. Leopold Löw; <hi rend='italic'>The Jewish Rite of Circumcision</hi>,
+by Dr. Asher; an article by Dr. Perles in the Graetz <hi rend='italic'>Jubelschrift</hi>,
+p. 23 <hi rend='italic'>seq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Merkwürdigkeiten der Juden</hi>, by Schudt; the מקורי המנהגים
+and other works on ritual customs; Güdemann's <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Erziehungswesens
+und der Cultur der Juden</hi>; and <hi rend='italic'>Das Kind in Brauch
+und Sitte der Völker</hi>, by Dr. Ploss.</note> Here
+we have only to watch the effect which these legends had
+upon the minds of Jewish parents. The newly born child
+was in consequence looked upon by them as a higher
+being, which, but a few seconds before, had been conversing
+<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/>
+with angels and saints, and had now condescended
+into our profane world to make two ordinary mortals
+happy. The treatment which the child experienced from
+its parents, as well as from the whole of the community,
+was therefore a combination of love and veneration. One
+may go even further and say that the belief in these
+legends determines greatly the destination of the child.
+What other destination could a being of such a glorious
+past have than to be what an old German Jewish poem
+expressed in the following lines:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Geboren soll es wehren</l>
+<l>Zu Gottes Ehren.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+<q>The child should be born to the honour of God.</q> The
+mission of the child is to glorify the name of God on earth.
+And the whole bringing up of the child in the old Jewish
+communities was more or less calculated to this end. The
+words of the Bible, <q>And ye shall be unto me a kingdom
+of priests,</q> were taken literally. Every man felt it his
+duty to bring up his children, or at least one member of
+his family, for this calling. How they carried out this
+programme we shall see later on.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now, regarding almost every infant as a predestined
+priest, and thinking of it as having received a certain
+preparation for this calling before it came into this world,
+we cannot wonder that the child was supposed to show
+signs of piety from the days of its earliest existence, and
+even earlier. Thus we read that even the unborn children
+joined in with the chorus on the Red Sea and sang the
+Song (of Moses). David, again, composed Psalms before
+perceiving the face of this world. On the Day of Atonement
+they used to communicate to the unborn child,
+<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/>
+through the medium of its mother, that on this great day
+it had to be satisfied with the good it had received the day
+before. And when a certain child, afterwards named
+Shabbethai, refused to listen to such a request, R. Johanan
+applied to it the verse from the Psalm, <q>The wicked are
+estranged from the womb.</q> Indeed, Shabbethai turned
+out a great sinner. It will perhaps be interesting to hear
+what his sin was. It consisted in forestalling the corn in
+the market and afterwards selling it to the poor at a much
+higher price. Of a certain child the legend tells that it
+was born with the word <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>emeth</foreign> (truth) engraved on its fore-head.
+Its parents named it Amiti,<note place='foot'>אמתי, אמת.</note> and the child proved
+to be a great saint.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The priest, however, could not enter into his office without
+some consecration. As the first step in this consecration
+of the child we may consider the Covenant of Abraham.
+But this was prefaced by a few other solemn acts which
+I must mention. One of the oldest ceremonies connected
+with the birth of a child was that of tree-planting. In
+the case of a boy they planted a cedar, in that of a girl
+a pine; and on their marriage they cut branches from
+these trees to form the wedding-canopy. Other rites followed,
+but they were more of a medical character, and
+would be better appreciated by the physician. In the
+Middle Ages superstition played a great part. To be sure,
+I have spoken of saints; but we ought not to forget that
+saints, too, have their foolish moments, especially when they
+are fighting against hosts of demons, the existence of
+which is only guaranteed by their own over-excited brains.
+Jewish parents were for many centuries troubled by the
+fear of Lilith,<note place='foot'>לילית, Is. xxxiv. 14.</note> the devil's mother, who was suspected of
+stealing children and killing them. The precautions they
+<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/>
+took to prevent this atrocity were as foolish as the object
+of their fear. I do not intend to enumerate here all these
+various precautions. Every country almost has its own
+usages and charms, one more absurd than the other. It
+will suffice to refer here to the most popular of these
+charms, in which certain angels are invoked to protect
+the child against its dangerous enemy Lilith. But of
+whatever origin they may be, Judaism could do better
+without them. The only excuse for their existence among
+us is to my mind that they provoked the famous Dr. Erter
+to the composition of one of the finest satires in the
+Hebrew language.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of a less revolting character was the so-called ceremony
+of the <q>Reading of the Shema.</q><note place='foot'>See <ref target='Pg141'>above</ref>, note 39 to Nachmanides. [Transcriber's Note: The footnote on <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Shema</foreign>.]</note> It consisted in taking
+all the little children of the community into the house of
+the newly-born child, where the teacher made them read
+the Shema, sometimes also the ninety-first Psalm. The
+fact that little children were the chief actors in this ceremony
+reconciles one a little to it despite its rather doubtful
+origin. In some communities these readings took
+place every evening up to the day when the child was
+brought into the covenant of Abraham. In other places
+they performed the ceremony only on the eve of the day
+of the <hi rend='italic'>Berith Milah</hi><note place='foot'>ברית מילה, <q>Covenant of Circumcision.</q> This is the usual
+expression in Hebrew literature for the rite of circumcision.</note> (Ceremony of the Circumcision).
+Indeed, this was the night during which Lilith was supposed
+to play her worst tricks, and the watch over the
+child was redoubled. Hence the name <q>Wachnacht,</q> or
+the <q>Night of Watching.</q> They remained awake for the
+whole night, and spent it in feasting and in studying
+certain portions of the Bible and the Talmud, mostly relating
+to the event which was to take place on the following
+day. This ceremony was already known to Jewish
+<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/>
+writers of the thirteenth century. Nevertheless, it is considered
+by the best authorities on the subject to be of
+foreign origin. Quite Jewish, as well as entirely free from
+superstitious taint, was the visit which was paid to the
+infant-boy on the first Sabbath of his existence. It was
+called <q>Shalom Zachar,</q><note place='foot'>שלום זכר.</note> probably meaning <q>Peace-boy,</q>
+in allusion to a well-known passage in the Talmud
+to the effect that the advent of a boy in the family brings
+peace to the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At last the dawn of the great day of the Berith came.
+I shall, however, only touch here on the social aspects of
+this rite.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Its popularity began, as it seems, in very early times.
+The persecutions which Israel suffered for it in the times
+of Antiochus Epiphanes, <q>when the princes and elders
+mourned, the virgins and the young men were made
+feeble, and the beauty of women was changed, and when
+certain women were put to death for causing their children
+to be circumcised,</q> are the best proof of the attachment
+of the people to it. The repeated attempts against
+this law, both by heathen and by Christian hands, only
+served to increase its popularity. Indeed R. Simeon ben
+Eleazar characterised it as the law for which Israel
+brought the sacrifice of martyrdom, and therefore held
+firmly by it. In other words they suffered for it, and it
+became endeared to them. R. Simeon ben Gamaliel declares
+it to be the only law which Israel fulfils with joy
+and exultation. As a sign of this joy we may regard the
+eagerness and the lively interest which raised this ceremony
+from a strictly family affair to a matter in which the
+whole of the community participated. Thus we find that
+already in the times of the Gaonim the ceremony was
+<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/>
+transferred from the house of the parents to the synagogue.
+Here it took place after the prayers, in the
+presence of the whole congregation. The synagogue
+used to be specially illuminated in honour of the event.
+Certain pieces of the daily prayer, of a rather doleful
+nature, such as the confession of sins, were omitted, lest
+the harmony of the festival should be disturbed. As a
+substitute for these prayers, various hymns suitable for
+the occasion were composed and inserted in the liturgy
+for the day. As the most prominent members among
+those present figured the happy father of the child and
+the medical man who performed the ceremony, usually
+called the Mohel or Gozer,<note place='foot'>גוזר, מוהל.</note> both wearing their festal
+garments and having certain privileges, such as being
+called up to the Reading of the Law and chanting certain
+portions of the prayers. It is not before the tenth century
+that a third member suddenly emerges to become almost
+as important as the father of the child. I refer to the
+<foreign rend='italic'>Sandek</foreign> or Godfather. In some countries he was also
+called the Baal Berith (Master of the Covenant). In Italy
+they seemed to have had two Sandeks. This word was
+for a long time supposed to be the Greek word σύνδικος.
+But it is now proved beyond doubt that it is a corruption
+of the word σύντεκνος used in the Greek church for godfather.
+In the church he was the man who lifted the
+neophyte from the baptismal waters. Among the Jews,
+the office of the Sandek was to keep the child on his
+knees during the performance of the rite. The Sandek's
+place was, or is still, near the seat of honour, which is
+called the Throne of Elijah, who is supposed to be the
+angel of the covenant. Other angels, too, were believed
+to officiate at this rite. Thus the angel Gabriel is also
+<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/>
+said to have performed the office of Sandek to a certain
+child. According to other sources the archangel Metatron
+himself attended. Probably it was on this account
+that later Rabbis admonished the parents to take only
+a pious and good Jew as Sandek for their children.
+Christian theologians also declared that no good Christian
+must render such a service to a Jew. The famous Buxtorf
+had to pay a fine of 100 florins for having attended
+the Berith of a child, whose father he had employed as
+reader when editing the well-known Basel Bible. The
+poor reader himself, who was the cause of Buxtorf's
+offence, was fined 400 florins. Of an opposite case in
+which a Jew served as godfather to a Christian child, we
+find a detailed account in Schudt's <hi rend='italic'>Merkwürdigkeiten der
+Juden</hi>, a very learned and very foolish book. When the
+father was summoned before the magistrate, and was
+asked how he dared to charge a Jew with such a holy
+Christian ceremony, he coolly answered, because he knew
+that the Jew would present him with a silver cup. As
+to the present, I have to remark that with the Jews also
+the godfather was expected to bestow a gift on the child.
+In some communities he had to defray the expenses of
+the festival-dinner, of which I shall speak presently. In
+others, again, he had also to give a present to the mother
+of the child.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Much older than the institution of the Sandek is the
+festival-dinner just alluded to, which was held after the
+ceremony. Jewish legend supplies many particulars of
+the dinner the patriarch Abraham gave at the Berith of
+his son Isaac. This is a little too legendary, but there is
+ample historical evidence that such meals were already
+customary in the times of the Second Temple. The
+<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/>
+Talmud of Jerusalem gives us a detailed account of the
+proceedings which took place at the Berith dinner of
+Elisha ben Abuyah, who afterwards obtained a sad celebrity
+as Acher. Considering that Elisha's birth must have
+fallen within the first decades after the destruction of the
+Temple, and that these sad times were most unsuitable for
+introducing new festivals, we may safely date the custom
+back to the times of the Temple. The way in which the
+guests entertained themselves is also to be gathered from
+the passage referred to. First came the dinner, in which
+all the guests participated; afterwards the great men of
+Jerusalem occupied one room, indulging there in singing,
+hand clapping, and dancing. The scholars again, who
+apparently did not belong to the great men, were confined
+to another room, where they employed themselves in discussing
+biblical subjects. In later times special hymns,
+composed for this festival, were inserted in the grace after
+dinner. After the dinner, sermons or speeches used also
+to be given, the contents of which were usually made up
+of reflections on biblical and Talmudical passages relating
+to the event of the day. Sometimes they consisted of
+a kind of learned puns on the name which the child received
+on this occasion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With this meal the first consecration of the child-priest
+was concluded. In some places they used to come to the
+father's house on the third day after the circumcision with
+the purpose of making inquiries after the child's health.
+In the case when the child was the first-born the ceremony
+of <q>redeeming the child</q><note place='foot'>פדיון הבן.</note> in accordance with Exodus xiii.
+used to take place. The details of this ceremony are to
+be found in almost every prayer-book, and there is nothing
+fresh to add. But perhaps I may be allowed to draw
+<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/>
+attention to another distinction that the first-born received
+in the Middle Ages. I refer to an account given by the
+author of the book, <hi rend='italic'>The Ordinance of the Law</hi>,<note place='foot'>הקת תהורה, on educational matters.</note> who
+flourished in the thirteenth century. He says: Our predecessors
+made the rule to destine every first-born to God,
+and before its birth the father had to say, <q>I take the vow
+that if my wife presents me with a son, he shall be holy
+unto the Lord, and in His Torah he shall meditate day and
+night.</q> On the eighth day after the Berith Milah they
+put the child on cushions, and a Bible on its head, and
+the elders of the community, or the principal of the college,
+imparted their blessings to it. These first-born sons
+formed, when grown up, the chief contingent of the Yeshiboth
+(Talmudical Colleges), where they devoted the
+greatest part of their lives to the study of the Torah. In
+later centuries the vow was dropped, but from the abundance
+of the Yeshiboth in Poland and elsewhere it seems
+as if almost every child was considered as having no other
+calling but the study of the Torah. Indeed, the growing
+persecutions required a strengthening of the religious
+force.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With these ceremonies the first act of consecration
+ended in the case where the new-born child was a boy.
+I will now refer to the ceremony of the name-giving, which
+was common to males and females. In the case of the
+former this ceremony was connected with the Berith
+Milah. The oldest formula, which is already to be found
+in the <hi rend='italic'>Ritual Rab Amram Gaon</hi>, is composed in Aramaic.
+It is, like many prayers in that language, a most beautiful
+composition, and very suitable for the occasion. Our
+present Hebrew prayer is far less beautiful, and dates
+from a much later age. In some countries the ceremony
+<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/>
+of naming was repeated in the house of the parents. It
+took place on the Sabbath, when the mother returned home
+from her first visit to the synagogue after her recovery.
+Here the friends and relatives of the family assembled,
+and after arranging themselves round the cradle of the
+child they lifted it three times, shouting the new name at
+every lifting. This name was the so-called <q>profane</q>
+name, whilst the name it received in the synagogue was
+the <q>sacred</q> or Hebrew name. The ceremony concluded
+with the usual festival-dinner. By the way, there
+was perhaps a little too much feasting in those days. The
+contemporary Rabbis tried indeed to suppress some of
+the banquets, and put all sorts of restrictions on dinner-hunting
+people. But considering the fact that, as Jews,
+they were excluded from every public amusement, we
+cannot grudge them the pleasure they drew from these
+semi-religious celebrations. For people of an ascetic
+disposition it was, perhaps, the only opportunity of enjoying
+a proper meal. In the same way, in our days, the
+most severe father would not deny his lively daughter the
+pleasure of dancing or singing charitably for the benefit
+of suffering humanity. The ceremony described was known
+to the authors of the Middle Ages by the name of <hi rend='italic'>Holle
+Kreish</hi>. These words are proved by Dr. Perles to be of
+German origin, and based on some Teutonic superstition
+into the explanation of which I cannot enter here.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of much more importance was the ceremony of name-giving
+in the case of a girl, it being the only attention the
+female child received from the synagogue. The usages
+varied. In some countries the name was given on the
+first Sabbath after the birth of the child. The father
+was <q>called up to the Reading of the Law,</q> on which
+<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/>
+followed the formula, <q>He who blessed our ancestors
+Abraham,</q> etc., <q>may He also bless,</q> etc., including the
+blessing and announcement of the child's name. After
+the prayer the congregation assembled in the house of
+the parents to congratulate them. In other countries the
+ceremony took place on the Sabbath when the mother attended
+the synagogue after the recovery. The ceremony
+of Holle Kreish seems to have been especially observed
+in the case of a girl.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Though the feasting was now over for the parents, the
+child still lived in a holiday atmosphere for a long time.
+In the legend of the <q>Ages of Man</q> the child is described
+in the first year of its existence as a little prince,
+adored and petted by all. The mother herself nourished
+and tended the child. Although the Bible already speaks
+of nurses, many passages in the later Jewish literature
+show a strong aversion to these substitutes for the mother.
+In the event of the father of the child dying, the mother
+was forbidden to marry before her suckling infant reached
+the age of two years, lest a new courtship might lead to
+the neglect of the child.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+More difficult is it to say wherein the other signs of
+loyalty to the little prince consisted; as, for instance,
+whether Jews possessed anything like lullabies to soothe
+the little prince into happy and sweet slumber. At least
+I am not aware of the existence of such songs in the
+ancient Jewish literature, nor are they quoted by mediæval
+writers. The <q>Schlummerlied,</q> by an unknown Jewish
+bard, about which German scholars wrote so much, contains
+more heathen than Jewish elements. From the
+protest in <hi rend='italic'>The Book of the Pious</hi>, against using non-Jewish
+cradle-songs, it seems that little Moshechen was
+<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/>
+lulled to sleep by the same tunes and words as little
+Johnny. The only Jewish lullaby of which I know, is
+to be found in the work of a modern writer who lived
+in Russia. How far its popularity goes in that country
+I have no means of ascertaining. This jingle runs as
+follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>O! hush thee, my darling, sleep soundly my son,</l>
+<l>Sleep soundly and sweetly till day has begun;</l>
+<l>For under the bed of good children at night</l>
+<l>There lies, till the morning, a kid snowy white.</l>
+<l>We'll send it to market to buy Sechora,<note place='foot'>סחורה, <q>business,</q> or <q>wares.</q></note></l>
+<l>While my little lad goes to study Torah.</l>
+<l>Sleep soundly at night and learn Torah by day,</l>
+<l>Then thou'lt be a Rabbi when I have grown gray.</l>
+<l>But I'll give thee to-morrow ripe nuts and a toy,</l>
+<l>If thou'lt sleep as I bid thee, my own little boy.<note place='foot'>I am indebted for the English adaptation to Mrs. Henry Lucas.</note></l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+But naturally the holiday atmosphere I spoke of was
+very often darkened by clouds resulting from the illness
+of the child. Excepting small-pox, the child was subject
+to most of those diseases which so often prove fatal to
+our children. These diseases were known under the collective
+name of <q>the difficulties (or the pain) of bringing
+up children.</q> These difficulties seem to have been still
+greater in Palestine, where one of the old Rabbis exclaimed
+that it was easier to see a whole forest of young
+olive trees grow up than to rear one child.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Bereshith Rabbah</hi>, chapter xx. For another reading see ראשית הכמה
+(ed. Cracow), p. 374.</note> To avoid
+so mournful a subject, I refrain from repeating the touching
+stories relating to the death of children. The pain
+was the more keenly felt since there was no other way
+of explaining the misfortune which befell the innocent
+creature than that it had suffered for the sins of the
+parents; and the only comfort the latter had was that
+<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/>
+the child could not have lost much by its being removed
+from this vale of tears at such an early period. A remarkable
+legend describes God Himself as giving lessons
+so many hours a day to these prematurely deceased
+children.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Abodah Zarah</hi>, 3<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>.</note> Indeed, to the mind of the old Rabbis, the
+only thing worth living for was the study of the Law.
+Consequently the child that suffered innocently could
+not have a better compensation than to learn Torah from
+the mouth of the Master of masters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But even when the child was healthy, and food and
+climate proved congenial to its constitution, there still
+remained the troubles of its spiritual education. And to
+be sure it was not an easy matter to bring up a <q>priest.</q>
+The first condition for this calling was learning. But
+learning cannot be acquired without honest and hard
+industry. It is true that R. Akiba numbers wisdom
+among the virtues which are hereditary from father to son.
+Experience, however, has shown that it is seldom the case,
+and the Rabbis were already troubled with the question
+how it happens that children so little resemble their
+fathers in respect of learning.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Certainly Jewish legends can boast of a whole series of
+prodigies. Thus a certain Rabbi is said to have been so
+sharp as to have had a clear recollection of the mid-wife
+who made him a citizen of this world. Ben Sira again,
+instantly after his birth, entertains his terrified mother
+with many a wise and foolish saying, refuses the milk she
+offers him, and asks for solid food. A certain Nachman
+was born with a prophecy on his lips, predicting the fate
+of all nations on earth, as well as fixing the date for the
+advent of the Messiah. The youngest of seven sons of
+Hannah, who became martyrs under the reign of Antiochus
+<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/>
+Epiphanes, was according to one version aged two
+years, six months, six hours, and thirty minutes. But the
+way in which he defied the threats of the tyrant was
+really worthy of one of seventy. R. Judah de Modena is
+said to have read the lesson from the prophets in the
+synagogue at the age of two years and a half. A famous
+Cabbalist, Nahum, at the age of three, gave a lecture on
+the decalogue that lasted for three days. The Chassidim
+pretended of one of their Zaddikim that he remembered
+all that he had been taught by the angels before his birth,
+and thus excused their Zaddik's utter neglect of studying
+anything. Perhaps I may mention in this place a sentence
+from Schudt, which may reconcile one to the harmless
+exaggerations of the Chassidim. It relates to a case
+where a Jewish girl of six was taken away by a Christian
+with the intention of baptising her, for he maintained that
+this was the wish and pleasure of the child. Probably
+the little girl received her instruction from the Christian
+servant of the house, as has happened many times.
+Schudt proves that this wish ought to be granted in spite
+of the minority of the child. He argues: As there is a
+maxim, <q>What is wanting in years may be supplied by
+wickedness,</q> why could not also the reverse be true that
+<q>What is wanting in years can be supplied by grace</q>?
+Of a certain R. Meshullam, again, we know that he
+preached in the synagogue at Brody, at the age of nine,
+and perplexed the chief Rabbi of the place by his deep
+Talmudical learning. As the Rabbi had a daughter of
+seven, the cleverness exhibited by the boy Rabbi did not
+end without very serious consequences for all his life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Happily all these prodigies or children of grace are
+only exceptional. I say happily, for the Rabbis themselves
+<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/>
+disliked such creatures. They were more satisfied
+with those signs of intelligence that indicate future greatness.
+The following story may serve as an instance:&mdash;R.
+Joshua ben Hananiah once made a journey to Rome.
+Here he was told that amongst the captives from Jerusalem
+there was a child with bright eyes, its hair in
+ringlets, and its features strikingly beautiful. The Rabbi
+made up his mind to redeem the boy. He went to the
+prison and addressed the child with a verse from Isaiah,
+<q>Who gave Jacob for a spoil and Israel to the robbers?</q>
+On this the child answered by continuing the second half
+of the same verse, <q>Did not the Lord, He against whom
+we have sinned? For they would not walk in His ways,
+neither were they obedient unto His law</q> (Isaiah xlii.
+24). The Rabbi was so delighted with this answer, that
+he said: <q>I am sure he will grow up to be a teacher in
+Israel. I take an oath to redeem him, cost what it
+may.</q> The child was afterwards known under the name
+of R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Such children were ideals
+of the Rabbis, but they hated the baby scholar, who
+very often grew impertinent and abused his elders. The
+Rabbis much preferred the majority of those tiny creatures,
+who are characterised by the already mentioned
+legends on the <q>Ages of Men</q> as little animals playing,
+laughing, crying, dancing, and committing all sorts
+of mischief.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But these children must be taught. Now, there is the
+well-known advice of Judah ben Tema, who used to say
+that the child at five years was to be taught Scripture,
+at ten years Mishnah, at thirteen to fulfil the Law, etc.
+This saying, incorporated in most editions in the fifth
+Chapter of the <hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi>, is usually considered
+<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/>
+as the programme of Jewish education. But,
+like so many programmes, this tells us rather how things
+ought to have been than how they were. In the times of
+the Temple, the participation of the youth in religious
+actions began at the tenderest age. As soon as they
+were able to walk a certain distance with the support
+of their parents, the children had to accompany them
+on their pilgrimages to Jerusalem. In the Sabbatical
+year they were brought to the Temple, to be present at
+the reading of Deuteronomy by the king.<note place='foot'>This is the way in which Deut. xxxi. 10-12 was explained.</note> The period
+at which the child's allegiance to the Synagogue began
+is still more distinctly described. Of the many Talmudical
+passages relating to this question, I shall select the
+following quotation from a later Midrash, because it is
+the most concise. In allusion to Leviticus xix. 23, 24,
+concerning the prohibition of eating the fruits of a tree
+in the first three years, this Midrash goes on to say:
+<q>And this is also the case with the Jewish child. In
+the first three years the child is unable to speak, and
+therefore is exempted from every religious duty, but in
+the fourth year all its fruits shall be holy to praise the
+Lord, and the father is obliged to initiate the child in
+religious works.</q> Accordingly the religious life of the
+child began as soon as it was able to speak distinctly,
+or with the fourth year of its life. As to the character
+of this initiation we learn from the same Midrash and
+also from other Talmudical passages, that it consisted in
+teaching the child the verses, <q>Hear, O Israel: the Lord
+our God <emph>is</emph> One</q> (Deut. vi. 4), and <q>Moses commanded
+us a Torah, the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob</q>
+(Deut. xxxiii. 4). It was also in this year that the boys
+began to accompany their parents to the synagogue, carrying
+<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/>
+their prayer-books. At what age the girls first
+came out&mdash;not for their first party, but with the purpose
+of going to the synagogue&mdash;is difficult to decide
+with any degree of certainty. But if we were to trust a
+rather doubtful reading in Tractate <hi rend='italic'>Sopherim</hi>,<note place='foot'>סופרים, <q>Scribes</q>; treating of the regulations concerning the
+writing of the Law, but containing also much liturgical matter.</note> we might
+maintain that their first appearance in the synagogue was
+also at a very tender age. I hope that they behaved there
+more respectfully than their brothers, who played and
+cried instead of joining in the responses and singing
+with the congregation. In some communities they proved
+so great a nuisance that a certain Rabbi declared it would
+be better to leave them at home rather than to have the
+devotion of the whole congregation disturbed by these
+urchins. Another Rabbi recommended the praiseworthy
+custom of the Sephardim,<note place='foot'>סשרדים, by which name the Jews of the Spanish rite are designated.</note> who confined all the boys
+in the synagogue to one place, and set a special overseer
+by their side, with a whip in his hands, to compel
+them to keep quiet and to worship with due devotion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A strange custom is known among the Arabian and Palestinian
+Jews under the name of <hi rend='italic'>Chalaka</hi>. It means the
+first hair-cutting of the boy after his fourth birthday. As
+on this occasion loyalty to the Scripture is shown by not
+touching the <q>corners</q> (Lev. xix. 17), the whole action is
+considered a religious ceremony of great importance. In
+Palestine it usually takes place on the second day of the
+Feast of the Passover when the counting of the seven
+weeks begins. On this day friends and relatives assemble
+at the house of the parents. Thither the boy is brought,
+dressed in his best garments, and every one of the assembly
+is entrusted with the duty of cutting a few hairs,
+which is considered a great privilege. The ceremony is as
+usual followed by a dinner given to the guests. The Jews
+<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/>
+in Safed and Tiberias perform the ceremony with great
+pomp in the courtyard surrounding the (supposed) grave
+of R. Simeon ben Yochai, in one of the neighbouring
+villages.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another custom already mentioned in the Talmud, but
+which quite disappeared in later times, is that of weighing
+the child. It would be worth reviving if performed in the
+way in which the mother of Doeg ben Joseph did it. This
+tender-hearted mother weighed her only son every day,
+and distributed among the poor, in gold, the amount of
+the increased weight of her child.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I pass now to the second great consecration of the boy,&mdash;the
+rites performed on the day when the boy went to
+school for the first time. This day was celebrated by the
+Jews, especially in the Middle Ages, in such a way as to
+justify the high esteem in which they held the school.
+The school was looked upon as a second Mount Sinai, and
+the day on which the child entered it as the Feast of Revelation.
+Of the many different customs, I shall mention
+here that according to which this day was fixed for the
+Feast of Weeks. Early in the morning, while it was still
+dark, the child was washed and dressed carefully. In
+some places they dressed it in a <q>gown with fringes.</q>
+As soon as day dawned the boy was taken to the synagogue,
+either by his father or by some worthy member of
+the community. Arrived at their destination, the boy was
+put on the Almemor, or reading-dais, before the Scroll of
+the Law, from which the narrative of the Revelation (Exod.
+xx. 2-26) was read as the portion of the day. From the
+synagogue the boy was taken to the house of the teacher,
+who took him into his arms. Thereupon a slate was
+brought, containing the alphabet in various combinations,
+<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/>
+the verse, <q>Moses has commanded,</q> etc. in Deut. xxxiii. 4,
+the first verse of the Book of Leviticus, and the words,
+<q>The Torah will be my calling.</q> The teacher then read
+the names of the letters, which the boy repeated. After
+the reading, the slate was besmeared with honey, which the
+boy licked off. This was done in allusion to Ezekiel iii.
+3, where it is said: <q>And it (the roll) was in my mouth
+as honey for sweetness.</q> The boy was also made to eat
+a sweet cake, on which were written passages from the
+Bible relating to the importance of the study of the Torah.
+The ceremony was concluded by invoking the names of
+certain angels, asking them to open the heart of the boy,
+and to strengthen his memory. By the way, I am very
+much afraid that this invocation was answerable for the
+abolition of this ceremony. The year in which this ceremony
+took place is uncertain, probably not before the fifth,
+nor later than the seventh, according to the good or bad
+health of the child.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The reverence for the child already hinted at was still
+further increased when the boy entered the school. <q>The
+children of the house (school) of the master</q> is a regular
+phrase in Jewish literature. It is on their pure breath
+that the existence of the world depends, and it is their
+merit that justifies us in appealing to the mercy of God.
+Words of Scripture, uttered by them quite innocently,
+were considered as oracles; and many a Rabbi gave up
+an undertaking on account of a verse pronounced by a
+schoolboy, who hardly understood its import. Take only
+one instance: R. Johanan was longing to see his friend
+Mar Samuel in Babylon. After many disturbances and
+delays, he at last undertook the journey. On the way he
+passed a school where the boys were reciting the verse
+<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/>
+from 1 Samuel xxviii. 3, <q>And Samuel died.</q> This was
+accepted by him as a hint given by Providence that all
+was over with his friend.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Especially famous for their wisdom and sharpness were
+the children of Jerusalem. Of the many illustrative
+stories given in the Midrash to Lamentations, let the following
+suffice: R. Joshua was one day riding on his donkey
+along the high road. As he passed a well, he saw a
+little girl there, and asked her to give him some water.
+She accordingly gave water to him and to his animal.
+The Rabbi thanked her with the words: <q>My daughter,
+you acted like Rebecca.</q> <q>To be sure,</q> she answered,
+<q>I acted like Rebecca; but you did not behave like
+Eleazar.</q> I must add that there are passages in Jewish
+literature from which, with a little ingenuity, it might be
+deduced that Jewish babies are the most beautiful of their
+kind. The assertion made by a monk that Jewish children
+are inferior to Christian children is a dreadful libel.
+The author of the <hi rend='italic'>Old Victory</hi>,<note place='foot'>נצראן ישן, a controversial work published by Wagenseil. See
+above, p. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, for another victory.</note> in whose presence this
+assertion was made, was probably childless, or he would
+have simply scratched out the eyes of this malicious monk,
+instead of giving a mystical reason for the superior beauty
+of any other children than his own.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another point to be emphasised is that the boys were
+not confined all day long to the close air of the schoolroom.
+They had also their hours of recreation. This
+recreation consisted chiefly, as one can imagine, in playing.
+Their favourite game was the ball, boys as well as
+girls being fond of this form of amusement. They did
+not deny themselves this pleasure even on festivals.
+They were also fond of the kite and games with nuts, in
+which their mothers also took part. Letter-games and
+<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/>
+riddles also occupied their minds in the recreation hours.
+The angel Sandalphon,<note place='foot'>סנדלפון, who is probably known to the English reader from
+Longfellow's poem.</note> who also bears in the Cabbalah
+the name of <q>Boy,</q> was considered by the children as
+their special patron, and they invoked him in their plays,
+addressing to him the words: <q>Sandalphon, Lord of the
+forest, protect us from pain.</q> Speaking generally, there
+are very few distinctively Jewish games. From the researches
+of Zunz, Güdemann, and Löw on this subject, it
+is clear that the Jews always adopted the pastimes of the
+peoples among whom they dwelt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But it must not be thought that there was too much
+playing. Altogether, Jewish education was far from spoiling
+the children. And though it was recommended&mdash;if
+such recommendation were necessary&mdash;to love children
+more than one's own soul, the Rabbis strongly condemned
+that blind partiality towards our own offspring, which ends
+in burdening our world with so many good-for-nothings.
+The sad experience of certain biblical personages served
+as a warning for posterity. Even from the quite natural
+behaviour of Jacob towards his son Joseph, which had the
+best possible results in the end, they drew the lesson that
+a man must never show to one of his children marks of
+greater favour than to the others. In later times they
+have been even anxious to conceal this love altogether,
+and some Rabbis went so far as to refrain from kissing
+their children. The severity of Akabya ben Mahalaleel
+is worth mentioning, if not imitating. When this Rabbi,
+only a few minutes before his death, was asked by his
+son to recommend him to his friends and colleagues, the
+answer the poor boy received was: <q>Thy conduct will
+recommend thee to my friends, or will estrange thee from
+them.</q> Another Rabbi declared (with reference to Prov.
+<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/>
+xxviii. 27) that it is life-giving to a youth to teach him
+temperance in his diet, and not to accustom him to meat
+and wine. R. Judah, the Pious, in the Middle Ages, gives
+the advice to rich parents to withdraw their resources
+from their sons if they lead a disorderly life. The struggle
+for their existence, and the hardship of life, would
+bring them back to God. When the old Rabbi said that
+poverty is a most becoming ornament for Israel, his remark
+was probably suggested by a similar thought. And
+many a passage in the Rabbinic literature gives expression
+to the same idea as that in Goethe's divine lines:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Wer nie sein Brot mit Thränen ass,</l>
+<l>Wer nie die kummervollen Nächte</l>
+<l>Auf seinem Bette weinend sass,</l>
+<l>Der kennt Euch nicht, Ihr himmlischen Mächte.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+I have spoken of a kingdom of priests, but there is one
+great disadvantage of such a polity. One or two priests
+in a community may be sustained by the liberality of
+the congregation. But if a community consisted of only
+priests, how could it then be maintained? Besides, the
+old Jewish ideal expected the teacher to be possessed of a
+divine goodness, imparting his benefits only as an act of
+grace. Salaries, therefore, either for teaching or preaching,
+or for giving ritual decisions, were strongly forbidden.
+The solution of the question put by the Bible, <q>And if ye
+shall say, What shall we eat?</q> is to be found in the law
+that every father was obliged to teach his son a handicraft,
+enabling him to obtain a living.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have now to speak of the time when childhood is
+brought to a conclusion. It is, as I stated above, in the
+case of a girl at the beginning of the thirteenth year, and
+<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/>
+in that of a boy at the beginning of the fourteenth year.
+As a reason for this priority I will reproduce the words of
+R. Chisda, who said that God has endowed woman with
+a greater portion of intelligence than man, and therefore
+she obtains her maturity at an earlier period than man
+does. A very nice compliment, indeed; but like all compliments
+it is of no practical consequence whatever. It
+is not always the wiser who get the best of it in life.
+Whilst the day on which the girl obtained her majority
+passed unnoticed either by her or by her family, it was
+marked in the case of the boy as the day on which he
+became a Son of the Law,<note place='foot'>בר מצוה.</note> and was signalised by various
+rites and ceremonies, and by the bestowing on him of
+beautiful presents. I miss only the wig, which used to
+form the chief ornament of the boy on this happy day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Less known, however, is the origin of this ceremony,
+and the reason for fixing its date. It cannot claim a very
+high antiquity. I may remark that in many cases centuries
+elapse before an idea or a notion takes practical shape
+and is crystallised into a custom or usage, and still longer
+before this custom is fossilised into a law or fixed institution.
+As far as the Bible goes, there is not the slightest
+indication of the existence of such a ceremony. From
+Lev. xxvii. 5, and Num. xiv. 29, it would rather seem that
+it was not before the twentieth year that the man was considered
+to have obtained his majority, and to be responsible
+for his actions. It was only in the times of the Rabbis,
+when Roman influence became prevalent in juristic matters
+at least, that the date of thirteen, or rather the <foreign rend='italic'>pubertas</foreign>,
+was fixed as giving the boy his majority. But it would
+be a mistake to think that before having obtained this
+majority the boy was considered as under age in every
+<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/>
+respect. Certainly the law made every possible effort to
+connect him with the synagogue, and to initiate him in his
+religious duties long before the age of thirteen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have seen that the boy's first appearance in the synagogue
+was at the beginning of the fourth year. We have
+noticed the complaints about his troublesome behaviour.
+But how could we expect the poor child to be attentive to
+things which quite surpassed the intellectual powers of his
+tender age? There was no better reason for this attendance
+either in the Temple or in the synagogue than that
+the parents might be rewarded by God for the trouble of
+taking their children there. These cares, by the way, fell
+most heavily upon the women. The mother of R. Joshua
+enjoyed this burden so much that she carried her boy,
+when still in the cradle, to the <q>House of Study of the
+Law,</q> in order that his ears might be accustomed to the
+sound of the Torah. In later times there was another excuse
+for taking the little children to the synagogue. They
+were there allowed to sip the wine of the Sanctification
+Cup,<note place='foot'>קידוש, <q>Sanctification</q>&mdash;<q>benediction</q>&mdash;on the eve of Sabbath,
+which is pronounced over a cup of wine.</note> which was the exclusive privilege of the children;
+an easy way of worshipping, but, as you can observe, it is
+a method that they enjoy and understand most excellently.
+They did not less enjoy and understand the service with
+which they were charged on the day of <q>The Rejoicing of
+the Law.</q><note place='foot'>שמכת תורה, or on the 23rd of Tishri, when the last portion from the
+Pentateuch is read.</note> On this feast they were provided with flags,
+which they carried before the bearers of the Torah, who
+feasted them after the service with sweets. Another treat
+was that of being called up on this day to the Torah, a
+custom that is still extant. In the Middle Ages they went
+in some countries so far as to allow these little fellows who
+did not wear caps <q>to be called up</q> to say the blessings
+over the Law bare-headed. A beautiful custom was that
+<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/>
+every Sabbath, after finishing the weekly lesson and dressing
+the Scroll of the Law, the children used to come up to
+the Almemor and kiss the Torah. Leaving the synagogue
+they kissed the hands of the scholars. At home the initiation
+began with the blessing the child received on every
+eve of the Sabbath, and with its instruction in <q>Hear O
+Israel</q> and other verses as already mentioned. Short
+prayers, consisting of a single sentence, were also chosen
+for children of this age. The function of the child on the
+eve of the first day of Passover is well known. Besides
+the putting of the four questions for the meaning of the
+strange ceremony (Exod. xiii. 14), the boy had also to
+recite, or rather to sing, the <q>Praise.</q><note place='foot'>הלל, <q>Praise,</q> <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.</note> But I am afraid
+that they enjoyed better the song of <q>One Kid,</q> which
+was composed or rather adapted for their special entertainment
+from an old German poem.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Within three or four years after entering the synagogue,
+and with the growth of intellect and strength,
+the religious duties of the boy increased, and became of
+a more serious character. He had not only to attend
+the school, which was troublesome enough, but he was
+also expected to attend the services more regularly, and
+to gain something by it. Yet the Rabbis were not so
+tyrannical as to put unjust demands on the patience of
+the child. The voice of God on Mount Sinai, the Rabbis
+said, was adapted to the intellect and powers of all who
+witnessed the Revelation&mdash;adapted, as the Midrash says,
+to the powers of old and young, children and women. It
+was in accordance with this sentiment that the Rabbis
+suited their language to the needs of the less educated
+classes. Thus we read in the Tractate <hi rend='italic'>Sopherim</hi> that
+according to the law the portion of the week, after having
+<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/>
+been recited in Hebrew, must be translated into
+the language of the vernacular for the benefit of the unlearned
+people, the women, and the children. Another
+consideration children experienced from the Rabbis was
+that at the age of nine or ten the boy was initiated into
+the observance of the Day of Atonement by fasting a
+few hours. Lest, however, this good work might be overdone,
+and thus endanger the child's health, the sage R.
+Acha used to tell his congregation after the Addition-Prayer
+<q>My brethren, let every one of you who has a
+child go home and make it eat.</q> In later centuries,
+when the disease of small-pox became so fatal, some
+Rabbis declared it to be the duty of every father to
+leave the town with his children as soon as the plague
+showed itself. The joy with which the Rabbis hailed
+Dr. Jenner's discovery deserves our recognition. None
+of them perceived in vaccination a defiance of Providence.
+R. Abraham Nansich, from London, wrote a
+pamphlet to prove its lawfulness. The Cabbalist Buzagli
+disputed Dr. Jenner's priority, but nevertheless approved
+of vaccination. R. Israel Lipschütz declared that the
+Doctor acquired salvation by his new remedy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With his advancing age, not only the boy's duties but
+also his rights were increased. An enumeration of all
+these rights would lead me too far, but I shall mention
+the custom which allowed the boy the recital of <q>Magnified</q><note place='foot'>קדִש, the name of a prayer commencing יתגדל ויתקדש, <q>Magnified
+and sanctified be,</q> etc.</note>
+and <q>Bless ye</q><note place='foot'>Prayer beginning ברכו, <q>Bless ye,</q> etc.</note> in the synagogue. Now this
+privilege is restricted to the orphan boy. It is interesting
+to hear that girls were also admitted to recite the
+Magnified in the synagogue, in cases where their parents
+left no male issue. I have myself witnessed such a case.
+In some countries the boy had the exclusive privilege of
+<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/>
+reading the prayers on the evenings of the festivals and
+Sabbaths. R. Samson ben Eleazar, in the fifteenth century,
+received his family name Baruch Sheamar<note place='foot'>ברוך שאמר, beginning of a prayer, <q>Blessed be He,</q> etc.</note> from
+the skill with which he recited this prayer when a boy.
+He chanted it so well that he was called by the members
+of the community Master Baruch Sheamar. As to the
+question whether the boy, while under age, might lawfully
+be considered as one of the Ten when such a quorum
+was required, or one of the three in the case of
+grace after meals, I can only say that the authorities
+never agreed in this respect. Whilst the one insisted
+upon his having obtained his majority, the other was
+satisfied with his showing such signs of intelligence as
+would enable him to participate in the ceremony in question.
+Here is an instance of such a sign. Abaye and
+Raba, the two celebrated heroes of the Babylonian Talmud,
+were sitting at the table of Rabbah. Before saying
+grace he asked them, <q>Do you know to whom these
+prayers are addressed?</q> Thereupon one boy pointed
+to the roof, whilst the other boy went out and pointed
+to the sky. The examiner was satisfied with their answer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The privilege of putting on the phylacteries forms now
+in most countries the chief distinction of <q>The Son of
+the Law</q>; in olden times, however, every boy had claim
+to it as soon as he showed himself capable of behaving
+respectfully when wearing the holy symbol. It even happened
+that certain honours of the synagogue were bestowed
+on boys, though under age. We possess a copy
+of a Jewish epitaph dating from about the third century,
+which was written in Rome for a boy of eight years, who
+is there designated as archon. The fact is the more curious,
+as on the other hand the Palestinian R. Abuha, who
+<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/>
+lived in the same century, maintained that no man must
+be elected as Warden before he has achieved his fiftieth
+year. That boys were admitted to preach in the synagogue
+I have already mentioned.<note place='foot'>See Schürer's <hi rend='italic'>Die Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom</hi>,
+p. 24. Cf. <hi rend='italic'>Hebräische Bibliographie</hi>, xix. p. 79.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From all these remarks it will easily be seen that in
+olden times the boy enjoyed almost all the rights of
+majority long before the day of his being <q>The Son of
+the Law.</q> The condition of the novice is hardly distinguishable
+from that of the initiated priest. The Talmud,
+the Gaonim, and even R. Isaac Alfasi and Maimonides
+knew neither the term <q>The Son of the Law</q> (in our
+sense of the word) nor any ceremony connected with it.
+There is only one slight reference to such an institution,
+recorded in the Tractate <hi rend='italic'>Sopherim</hi>, with the quotation of
+which I shall conclude this paper. We read there: <q>In
+Jerusalem there was the godly custom to initiate the children
+at the <emph>beginning</emph> of the thirteenth year by fasting the
+whole Day of Atonement. During this year they took
+the boy to the priests and learned men that they might
+bless him, and pray for him that God might think him
+worthy of a life devoted to the study of the Torah and
+pious works.</q> For, this author says, <q>they were beautiful,
+and their lives harmonious and their hearts directed
+to God.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>XIII. Woman in Temple and Synagogue</head>
+
+<p>
+The learned Woman has always been a favourite subject
+with Jewish students; and her intellectual capabilities
+have been fully vindicated in many an essay and even
+fair-sized book. Less attention, however, has been paid
+to woman's claims as a devotional being whom the
+Temple, and afterwards the Synagogue, more or less
+recognised. At least it is not known to me that any
+attempt has been made to give, even in outline, the history
+of woman's relation to public worship. It is needless to
+say that the present sketch, which is meant to supply
+this want in some measure, lays no claim to completeness;
+but I venture to hope that it will help to direct the attention
+of the friends of research to the matter, and that it
+may induce others to deal more fully with the subject and
+do it the justice it deserves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The earliest allusion to women's participation in <emph>public</emph>
+worship, is that in Exodus xxxviii. 8, to the women who
+assembled to minister at the door of the <q>tent of meeting,</q>
+of whose mirrors the lavers of brass were made (cf.
+1 Sam. ii. 22). Philo, who is not exactly enamoured of
+the emancipation of women, and seeks to confine them to
+the <q>small state,</q> is here full of their praise. <q>For,</q> he
+says, <q>though no one enjoined them to do so, they of
+<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/>
+their own spontaneous zeal and earnestness contributed
+the mirrors with which they had been accustomed to deck
+and set off their beauty, as the most becoming first-fruits
+of their modesty, and of the purity of their married life,
+and, as one may say, of the beauty of their souls.</q> In
+another passage Philo describes the Jewish women as
+<q>competing with the men themselves in piety, having
+determined to enter upon a glorious contest, and to the
+utmost extent of their power to exert themselves so as not
+to fall short of their holiness.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is, however, very difficult to ascertain in what this
+ministry of women consisted. The Hebrew term <q>Zobeoth</q><note place='foot'>זבאת.</note>
+would suggest the thought of a species of religious
+Amazons, who formed a guard of honour round the
+Sanctuary. Some commentators think that the ministry
+consisted in performing religious dances accompanied
+by various instruments. The Septuagint again speaks
+<q>of the women who fasted by the doors of the Tabernacle.</q>
+But most of the old Jewish expositors, as well as
+Onkelos, conceive that the women went to the tent of
+meeting to pray. Ibn Ezra offers the interesting remark,
+<q>And behold, there were women in Israel serving the
+Lord, who left the vanities of this world, and not being
+desirous of beautifying themselves any longer, made of
+their mirrors a free offering, and came to the tabernacle
+every day to pray and to listen there to the words of
+the commandments.</q> When we find that in 1 Sam. i.
+12, <q>Hannah continued to pray before the Lord,</q> she
+was only doing there what many of her sisters did
+before and after her. We may also judge that it was
+from the number of these noble women, who made religion
+the aim of their lives, that the <q>twenty-two</q> heroines
+<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/>
+and prophetesses sprang who form part of the glory of
+Jewish history. Sometimes it even happened that their
+husbands derived their religious inspiration from them.
+Thus the husband of the prophetess Deborah is said to
+have been an unlettered man. But his wife made him
+carry to the Sanctuary the candles which she herself had
+prepared, this being the way in which she encouraged
+him to seek communion with the righteous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The language in which the husband of the <q>Great
+Woman</q> of Shunem addresses his wife: <q>Wherefore wilt
+thou go to him</q> (the prophet)? <q>it is neither New Moon
+nor Sabbath</q> (2 Kings iv. 23), proves that on Festivals
+and Sabbaths the women used to attend some kind of worship,
+performed by the prophet, though we cannot say in
+what this worship consisted. The New Moon was especially
+a woman's holiday, and was so observed even in the
+Middle Ages, for the women refrained from doing work
+on that day. The explanation given by the Rabbis is that
+when the men broke off their golden earrings to supply
+material for the golden calf, the women refused to contribute
+their trinkets, for which good behaviour a special
+day of repose was granted to them. Some Cabbalists even
+maintain that the original worshippers of the golden calf
+continue to exist on earth, their souls having successively
+migrated into various bodies, while their punishment consists
+in this, that they are ruled over by their wives.
+Rather interesting as well as complimentary to women
+is the remark which the Rabbis made with regard to
+the <q>Great Woman.</q> As will be remembered, it is <emph>she</emph>
+who says, <q>I perceive that this (Elisha) is a holy man
+of God</q> (2 Kings iv. 19). In allusion to this verse
+the Talmud says: <q>From this fact we may infer that
+<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/>
+woman is quicker in recognising the worth of a stranger
+than man.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The great woman, or women, continued to pray and to
+join in the public worship also after the destruction of the
+first Temple. Thus Esther is reported by tradition to
+have addressed God in a long extempore prayer before
+she presented herself before the throne of Ahasuerus to
+plead her people's cause; and women were always enjoined
+to attend the reading of the Book of Esther. When
+Ezra read the Law for the first time, he did so in the presence
+of the men and the women (Neh. viii. 3). In the
+Book of the Maccabees we read of <q>The women girt with
+sackcloth ... and the maidens that ran to the gates....
+And all holding their hands towards heaven made supplication.</q>
+In the Judith legend, mention is also made of
+<q>Every man and woman ... who fell before the Temple,
+and spread out their sackcloth before the face of the Lord
+... and cried before the God of Israel.</q> In the second
+Temple, the women, as is well known, possessed a court
+reserved for their exclusive use. There the great illuminations
+and rejoicings on the evening of the Feast of Tabernacles
+used to be held. On this occasion, however, the
+women were confined to galleries specially erected for
+them. It was also in this Women's Hall that the great
+public reading of certain portions of the Law by the king,
+once in seven years, used to take place, and women had
+also to attend at the function. On the other hand, it is
+hardly necessary to say that women were excluded from
+performing any important service in the Temple. If we
+were to trust a certain passage in the <q>Chapters of R.
+Eliezer,</q> we might perhaps conclude that during the first
+Temple, the wives of the Levites formed a part of the
+<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/>
+choir, but the meaning of the passage is too obscure and
+doubtful for us to be justified in basing on it so important
+an inference. Nor can the three hundred maidens who
+were employed for the weaving of the curtains in the Temple,
+be looked upon as having stood in closer connection
+with the Temple, or as having formed an order of women-priests
+or girl-devotees (as one might wrongly be induced
+to think by certain passages in Apocryphal writings of the
+New Testament). But on the other hand, it is not improbable
+that their frequent contact with the Sanctuary of
+the nation produced in them that religious enthusiasm and
+zeal which may account for the heroic death which&mdash;according
+to the legend&mdash;they sought and found after the
+destruction of the Temple. It is to be remarked that,
+according to the law, women were even exempted from
+putting their hands on the head of the victim, which
+formed an important item in the sacrificial worship. It is,
+however, stated by an eye-witness, that the authorities permitted
+them to perform this ceremony if they desired to do
+so, and that their reason for this concession was <q>to give
+calmness of the spirit, or satisfaction, to women.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Still greater, perhaps, was <q>the calmness of spirit</q>
+given to women in the synagogue. We find in ancient
+epitaphs that such titles of honour were conferred upon
+them as <q>Mistress of the Synagogue,</q> and <q>Mother of
+the Synagogue,</q> and, though they held no actual office
+in the Synagogue, it is not improbable that they acquired
+these titles by meritorious work connected with a religious
+institution, viz.: Charity. There was, indeed, a tendency
+to exclude women from the synagogue at certain seasons,
+but almost all the authorities protest against it, many of
+them declaring such a notion to be quite un-Jewish. Some
+<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/>
+Jewish scholars even think that the ancient synagogues
+knew of no partition for women. I am rather inclined to
+think that the synagogue took for its model the arrangements
+in the Temple, and thus confined women to a place
+of their own. But, whether they sat side by side with
+the men or occupied a special portion of the edifice, there
+can be no doubt that the Jewish women were great synagogue-goers.
+To give only one instance. One Rabbi asks
+another: Given the case that the members of the synagogue
+are all descendants of Aaron, to whom then would
+they impart their blessing? The answer is, to the women
+who are there.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of the sermon they were even more fond than their
+husbands. Thus one woman was so much interested in
+the lectures of R. Meir, which he was in the habit of
+giving every Friday evening, that she used to remain there
+so long that the candles in her house burnt themselves
+out. Her lazy husband, who stopped at home, so strongly
+resented having to wait in the dark, that he would not
+permit her to cross the threshold until she gave some offence
+to the preacher, which would make him sure that
+she would not venture to attend his sermons again.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The prayers they said were the Eighteen Benedictions
+which were prescribed by the Law. But it would
+seem that occasionally they offered short prayers composed
+by themselves as suggested by their personal feelings
+and needs. Thus, to give one instance, R. Johanan
+relates that one day he observed a young girl fall on her
+face and pray: <q>Lord of the world, Thou hast created
+Paradise, Thou hast created hell, Thou hast created the
+wicked, Thou hast created the righteous; may it be Thy
+will that I may not serve as a stumbling-block to them.</q>
+<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/>
+The fine Hebrew in which the prayer is expressed, and
+the notion of the responsibility of Providence for our
+actions, manifest a high degree of intelligence and reflection.
+It would also seem that some women went so far
+in their religious sensibility as to lead a regular ascetic
+life, and, according to the suggestion of some scholars,
+even took the vow of celibacy. Of these the Rabbis did
+not approve, and stigmatised them as the <q>destroyers of
+the world.</q> Perhaps it was just at this period that Judaism
+could not afford to give free play to those morbid
+feelings, degenerating into religious hysterics, which led
+some to join rival sects, and others to abandon themselves
+to the gross immorality we read of in the history of
+the Gnostics.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same circumstances may have been the cause of
+public opinion being led to accept the view of R. Eliezer,
+who thought it inadvisable&mdash;it would seem on moral
+grounds&mdash;to permit woman to study the Law. This
+opinion was opposed to that of Ben Azzai, who considered
+it incumbent upon every father to teach his
+daughter Torah. But justified as the advice of R. Eliezer
+may have been in his own time, it was rather unfortunate
+that later generations continued to take it as the guiding
+principle for the education of their children. Many great
+women in the course of history indeed became law-breakers
+and studied Torah; but the majority were entirely
+dependent on men, and became in religious matters
+a sort of appendix to their husbands, who by their good
+actions insured salvation also for them, and sometimes the
+reverse. Thus there is a story about a woman which, put
+into modern language, would be to the effect that she
+married a minister and copied his sermons for him; he
+<pb n='320'/><anchor id='Pg320'/>
+died, and she then married a cruel usurer, and kept his
+accounts for him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The fact that women were exempted from certain affirmative
+laws, which become operative only at special seasons&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi>,
+the taking of the palm branch on the Feast of
+Tabernacles&mdash;must also have contributed to weaken their
+position as a religious factor in Judaism. The idea that
+women should vie with men in the fulfilment of every law,
+became even for the Rabbis a notion connected only with
+the remotest past. This is the impression one gains when
+reading the legend about Michal, the daughter of Saul,
+putting on phylacteries, or the wife of the prophet Jonah
+making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the three Festivals.
+It would indeed seem as if women were led to strive for
+the satisfaction of their religious wants in another direction.
+Yet it was said of Jewish women, <q>The daughters
+of Israel were stringent and laid certain restrictions on
+themselves.</q> They were also allowed to form a quorum
+by themselves for the purpose of saying the Grace, but
+they could not be counted along with males for this end.
+It was also against the early notion of the dignity of the
+congregation that women should perform any public service
+for men.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One privilege was left to women&mdash;that of weeping.
+In Judges xi. 40, we read of the daughters of Israel that
+went yearly to lament the daughter of Jephthah; while in
+2 Chronicles xxxv. 25, we are told how <q>all the singing
+men and the singing women spake of Josiah in their
+lamentations.</q> Of this privilege they were not deprived,
+and if they were not allowed to sing any longer, they at
+least retained the right to weep as much as they pleased.
+Even in later times they held a public office as mourning
+<pb n='321'/><anchor id='Pg321'/>
+women at funerals. In the Talmud fragments of compositions
+by women for such occasions are to be found. Indeed,
+woman became in these times the type of grief and
+sorrow. She cannot reason, but she feels much more
+deeply than man. Here is one instance from an old
+legend: Jeremiah said, <q>When I went up to Jerusalem
+(after the destruction of the Temple) I lifted my eyes and
+saw there a lonely woman sitting on the top of the mountain,
+her dress black, her hair dishevelled, crying, <q>Who
+will comfort me?</q> I approached her and spake to her,
+<q>If thou art a woman, speak to me. If thou art a ghost,
+begone.</q> She answered, <q>Dost thou not know me?...
+I am the Mother, Zion.</q></q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In general, however, the principle applied to women
+was: The king's daughter <emph>within the palace</emph> is all glorious
+(Psalm xlv. 14), but <emph>not</emph> outside of it. In the face of the
+<q>Femina in ecclesia taceat,</q> which was the ruling maxim
+with other religions, Jewish women could only feel flattered
+by this polite treatment by the Rabbis, though it
+meant the same thing. We must not think, however,
+that this prevented them from attending the service of the
+synagogue. According to the Tractate <hi rend='italic'>Sopherim</hi>, even
+<q>the little daughters of Israel were accustomed to go to
+the synagogue.</q> In the same tractate we find it laid
+down as <q>a duty to translate for them the portion (of the
+Law) of the week, and the lesson from the prophets</q> into
+the language they understand. The <q>King's daughter</q>
+occasionally asserted her rights without undue reliance on
+the opinion of the authorities. And thus being ignorant
+of the Hebrew language women prayed in the vernacular,
+though this was at least against the letter of the law.
+And many famous Rabbis of the twelfth and thirteenth
+<pb n='322'/><anchor id='Pg322'/>
+centuries express their wonder that the <q>custom of
+women praying in other (non-Hebrew) languages extended
+over the whole world.</q> It is noteworthy that
+they did not suppress the practice, but on the contrary,
+they endeavoured to give to the Law such an interpretation
+as would bring it into accord with the general custom.
+Some even recommended it, as, for example, the author
+of <hi rend='italic'>The Book of the Pious</hi>, who gives advice to women to
+learn the prayers in the language familiar to them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At about the same period a lengthy controversy was
+being waged by the commentators of the Talmud and the
+codifiers, about woman's partaking in the fulfilment of the
+laws for special seasons, from which, as already remarked,
+they were exempted. To the action itself there could not
+be much objection, but the difficulty arose when women
+also insisted on uttering the blessing. Now the point at
+issue was whether they could be permitted to say, for
+instance, <q>Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, etc., who
+hast sanctified us by Thy Commandments, and <emph>hast commanded
+us</emph>, concerning the taking of the Palm branch,</q>
+since in reality the women had <emph>not</emph> been commanded to do
+it. To such logical and systematic minds as Maimonides
+and R. Joseph Caro, the difficulty was insurmountable,
+and they forbade women to use the formula; but with
+the less consistent majority women carried their point.
+Rather interesting is the answer received by R. Jacob, of
+Corbeil, with regard to this question. This Rabbi is said
+to have enjoyed the mysterious power which enabled him
+to appeal in cases of doubt to the celestial authorities.
+Before them he put also this women's case for decision.
+Judgment was communicated to him in the verse from the
+Scriptures, <q>In all that Sarah saith unto Thee, hearken
+<pb n='323'/><anchor id='Pg323'/>
+unto her voice</q> (Gen. xxi. 12). Nor was it unknown for
+a pious Jew to compose a special hymn for his wife's use
+in honour of the Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+How long this custom of women praying in the vernacular
+lasted, we have no means of ascertaining. Probably
+was already extinct about the end of the fifteenth century.
+For R. Solomon Portaleone, who lived in the sixteenth
+century, already regrets the abolition of <q>this beautiful
+and worthy custom.</q> <q>When they prayed in the vernacular,</q>
+he says, <q>they understood what they were saying,
+whilst now they only gabble off their prayers.</q> As
+a sort of compromise we may regard the various <q>Supplications</q>;<note place='foot'>תהנות.</note>
+they form a kind of additional prayers supplementary
+to the ordinary liturgy, and are written in
+German. Chiefly composed by women, they specially answer
+the needs of the sex on various occasions. These
+prayers deserve a full description by themselves, into
+which I cannot enter here; I should like only to mention
+that in one of these collections in the British Museum, a
+special supplication is added for servant-maids, and if I
+am not quite mistaken, also one for their mistresses.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is also worth noticing that the manuals on the
+<q>Three Women's Commandments</q> (mostly composed in
+German, sometimes also in rhymes), contained much more
+than their titles would suggest. They rather served as
+headings to groups of laws, arranged under each commandment.
+Thus the first (about certain laws in Lev. xii.
+and xv.) becomes the motto for purity in body and soul;
+the second (the consecration of the first cake of the
+dough) includes all matters relating to charity, in which
+women were even reminded to encourage their newly
+married husbands not to withhold from the poor the
+<pb n='324'/><anchor id='Pg324'/>
+tithes of the bridal dowry, as well as of their future yearly
+income; whilst the third (the lighting of the Sabbath
+lamp) becomes the symbol for spiritual light and sweetness
+in every relation of human life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As another compromise may also be considered the institution
+of <q>Vorsugern</q> (woman-reader) or the <q>Woilkennivdicke</q>
+(the well-knowing one) who reads the prayers
+and translates them into the vernacular for the benefit
+of her less learned sisters. In Poland and in Russia, even
+at the present time, such a woman-reader is to be found
+in every synagogue, and from what I have heard the institution
+is by no means unknown in London. The various
+prayer-books containing the Hebrew text as well as the
+Jewish-German translation, which appear in such frequent
+editions in Russia, are mostly intended for the use of
+these praying women. Not uninteresting is the title-page
+of R. Aaron Ben Samuel's Jewish-German translations
+and collections of prayers which appeared in the beginning
+of the eighteenth century. He addressed the Jewish
+public in the following terms: <q>My dear brethren, buy
+this lovely prayer-book or wholesome tonic for body and
+soul, which has never appeared in such German print
+since the world began; and make your wives and children
+read it often, thus they will refresh their bodies and souls,
+for this light will shine forth into your very hearts. As
+soon as the children read it they will understand their
+prayers, by which they will enjoy both this world and the
+world to come.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An earlier translator of the prayer-book addresses himself
+directly to the <q>pious women</q> whom he invites to buy
+his book, <q>in which they will see very beautiful things.</q>
+Recent centuries seem, on the whole, to have been distinguished
+<pb n='325'/><anchor id='Pg325'/>
+for the number of praying-women they produced.
+The virtues which constituted the claim of women
+to religious distinction were modesty, charity, and daily attendance
+at the synagogue morning and evening. In the
+memorial books of the time hundreds of such women are
+noticed. Some used also to spin the <q>Fringes,</q> which
+they presented to their friends; others fasted frequently,
+whilst <q>Old Mrs. Hechele</q> not only attended the synagogue
+every day, and did charity to poor and rich, but also
+understood the art of midwifery, which she practised in the
+community without accepting payment for her services.
+According to R. Ch. J. Bachrach women used also to say
+the <q>Magnified</q> prayer in the synagogue when their
+parents left no male posterity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In bringing to a close this very incomplete sketch, perhaps
+I ought to notice the confirmation of girls introduced
+during this century in some communities in Germany,
+which the <q>Reformed</q> Rabbis recommended, but of which
+the <q>Orthodox</q> Rabbis disapproved. It would be well if
+in the heat of such controversies both sides would remember
+the words of R. Zedekiah b. Abraham, of Rome, who
+with regard to a certain difference of opinion on some
+ritual question, says: <q>Every man receives reward from
+God for what he is convinced is the right thing, if this
+conviction has no other motive but the love of God.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='326'/><anchor id='Pg326'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in Europe</head>
+
+<p>
+Roman Judaism has disappeared from our guide-books.
+Civilisation has levelled down the walls of the Ghetto, and
+its former inhabitants are not any longer <q>a people that
+dwell alone.</q> But with this well-deserved destruction
+a good deal of the interest was also destroyed which the
+traveller used to attach to <q>the peculiar people</q> enclosed
+in that terrible slum of Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Still, if there is anything eternal in the <q>eternal city,</q>
+which was neither reconstructed by the Cæsars, nor improved
+upon by the Popes, it is the little Jewish community
+at Rome. It has survived the former; it has suffered
+for many centuries under the latter, and, partaking in the
+general revival which has come upon the Italian nation,
+it may still be destined for a great future. Indeed, the
+history of the relation of Israel to Rome is so old that it is
+not lacking even in legendary elements. On the day on
+which King Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh,
+the Rabbis narrate, there came down the angel Gabriel.
+He put a reed into the sea, which, by means of the slime
+that adhered to it, formed itself, in the course of time,
+into a large island, on which the city of Rome was built&mdash;an
+event with which the troubles of Israel began. These
+<pb n='327'/><anchor id='Pg327'/>
+were the evil consequences of the first <foreign rend='italic'>mésalliance</foreign>. Even
+more unfortunate for Israel (and it is not impossible that
+this is the meaning of the legend) were the results of that
+spiritual mixed marriage between Judaism and paganism
+which took place at a much later period, whereat a blunt
+soldier, who sympathised with neither, and <q>who dealt in
+salvation as he dealt in provinces,</q> acted as best man.
+As a fact, the parties concerned never understood each
+other properly. The declaration of love, and the final
+proposal, were made in an Alexandrine jargon, strange to
+both, the obscurities of which only grew with the commentaries
+each successive generation added to them.
+Under such circumstances, a happy union was not to be
+expected, and the family quarrel which fills the annals of
+civilised Europe soon broke out. Judaism, more particularly
+Roman Judaism, witnessed this struggle from the
+beginning, and its fortunes were greatly dependent on
+the chance which of these two elements, the Jewish or the
+pagan, won the ascendency.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, I am theologising too much, whilst I am
+deviating from the subject of these lines. Nor could I
+think of giving here, even in outline, the history of the
+oldest Jewish community in Europe. This has been
+already admirably done by Dr. A. Berliner, who has made
+the history of the Jews of Rome the subject of his studies
+for nearly a quarter of a century. I intend only to reproduce
+here, in a stray fashion, some of those impressions
+and reflections which, I am certain, must occur to every
+Jewish traveller in Italy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now I do not think for a moment that we Jews should
+have a point of view of our own for looking at things and
+men in this paradise of Europe. It would be as silly to
+<pb n='328'/><anchor id='Pg328'/>
+have a Jewish Baedeker as to think of orthodox mathematics
+or an ecclesiastical logic or a racial morality&mdash;though
+unfortunately there exist such things. But on the
+other hand, if we have not, like the fox in the fable, left
+our heart at home, let us not do violence to our feelings by
+passing over everything Jewish, over sights which might
+remind us of our history, with a certain indifference which
+would be affected on our part. We are not all little
+Goethes, nor even little Ruskins, and our artistic enjoyment
+is hardly so intense as to shut our hearts against
+impressions which force themselves upon us either by
+the way of remembrance of the past, or even as a living
+contrast in the present.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It so happened that my first visit to the Vatican was
+on a Friday. After doing my work in the Vatican
+Library, which is open till noon, I went into the adjoining
+Church of St. Peter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+One should be, like the angel of death in the legend,
+full of eyes, properly to see all the wonders of art and
+marvels of architecture at which human genius and piety
+laboured busily through centuries, in adorning the grandest
+of sacred buildings in the world. But there is Baedeker
+or Murray serving at least as a pair of good spectacles
+to the layman, and it was by their aid that I made my
+round in St. Peter. But lo, whilst you are observing the
+celebrated Pietà by Michael Angelo, and, according to
+the instruction of your guides, admiring both the grief
+of the Mother and the death of the Son, you notice in its
+vicinity a little column, surrounded by rails to which the
+pilgrims approach with a certain awe; for <q>Tradition
+affirms it to have been brought from Jerusalem.</q> Naturally,
+one is instantly reminded of the report, given by the
+<pb n='329'/><anchor id='Pg329'/>
+famous traveller of Tudela, of the curiosities of Rome,
+which among other things records, <q>That there are also
+to be seen in St. Giovanni in Porta Latina (probably
+meant for Lateran) the two brazen pillars, constructed
+by King Solomon of blessed memory, whose name,
+Solomon, the son of David, is engraved upon each; of
+which he was also told that every year about the 9th
+of Ab (the anniversary of the destruction of Jerusalem),
+these pillars sweat so much that water runs down from
+them.</q> So far Benjamin of Tudela in the twelfth century.
+In our days pillars weep no longer, and even of
+men it is considered a special sign of good breeding to
+behave pillar-like; but a sigh is still permissible at the
+sight of this temple-column, which in its captivity symbolises,
+not less than the Pietà, the grief of a whole
+people. Of course, not possessing on the spot either
+the <hi rend='italic'>Itinerary</hi> or even Urlick, one is unable to establish
+the connection between these two traditions and their
+claim to authenticity. Perhaps one may even comfort
+oneself on the same ground on which the famous curé
+tried to appease his flock who were sobbing bitterly at
+his telling them the Passion story. He exclaimed: <q>My
+children, do not weep so much; it happened long ago,
+and even perhaps is not quite true.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, the Vatican is the last place in the world to
+exercise your critical faculties; you are so deeply absorbed
+in seeing, that you have no time to think. So on I went,
+from aisle to aisle, from niche to niche, from chapel to
+chapel, looking, staring, and admiring, till of a sudden my
+eyes were struck by a large statue, on which the words,
+<q>Thou shalt have no other God before me,</q> are engraved.
+There I stood before a question of exegesis, where one is
+<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/>
+permitted to use his right senses without any regard to
+the æsthetic side. Yet not all the manifold expositions
+of the Decalogue, nor all the talk about the subjective-objective,
+the absolute and the real, with which metaphysicians
+have tried to confuse the notion of the Unity of
+God, will reconcile one to the meaning which Mediæval
+Art has impressed upon the Ten Commandments. The
+truth has to be sought elsewhere, and thus my thoughts
+were turned to the synagogue, and thither I went.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The day was already drawing to its close, and, by a
+marvellous coincidence, I arrived at the synagogue just as
+the congregation was intoning the words: <q>The Lord is
+one, and His name is one to His renown and glory.</q>
+Here was sound, simple exegesis, though sadly lacking
+in the illustrative matter in which the Vatican is so rich.
+But what need was there of any real or artificial <q>aid to
+the believer,</q> in the presence of such a living faith, as
+enabled this little community to maintain its protesting
+position in the teeth of the mistress of the world! And
+this even at a time, when it only required a hint from the
+successors of the old Roman Emperors to make the whole
+world renounce its right of thinking and judging, and,
+were we to believe Herr Janssen, even to feel perfectly
+happy in this torpor.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But, by the way, are our own times much better? As
+I write these lines (October 1893) I hear that a Bill has
+been brought into the German Diet, asking that the Talmud
+should be submitted to a Commission (which <foreign rend='italic'>en passant</foreign>,
+has been sitting in unbroken session in that country
+since the days of Pfefferkorn in the fifteenth century)
+with the purpose of examining its contents, while in the
+Vatican the very pupils of Loyola are offering every convenience
+<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/>
+and comfort to the student who should care to
+devote his time to Rabbinic literature. Does not the work
+of a great number of our poets, historians, theologians,
+and so-called seers in this blessed century of ours, in many
+respects prove but a strained effort to destroy the few
+humanitarian principles which were established a few
+generations ago, as well as to deify every brutal warrior
+who was successful in his day? Again, is the national
+idea so much sublimer, so much grander, than that of a
+universal religion, that we would willingly permit the
+former to employ the means which have been denied to
+the latter as inhuman and barbarous? Every age has its
+own idolatry, and the eternal wandering Jew will always
+be the chosen victim of the Moloch in fashion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Let us, however, return to the synagogue, which withstood
+many a cruelty, both ancient and modern. The
+place where the synagogue stands is near the Ghetto,
+now called Piazza di Scuola. It is, besides a few other
+communal houses, the only building left there,&mdash;all those
+narrow, dirty, and typhoid-breeding streets which formed
+the old Ghetto having been demolished by a sage and
+humane government, which by this action wiped out the
+last stain from its history. There, on this vast blank is
+the synagogue, a comparatively small, insignificant building,
+laden with heavy age and looking down on her
+children whom she has been nursing, consoling, and protecting
+for centuries, but who, now grown old, have forsaken
+her and scattered to all the ends of the city. Of
+all her former acquaintances there appears to be left
+only father Tiber, who would seem to be murmuring to
+her many an old tale of the times before she was called
+into existence. And if he listened to the special prayers
+<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/>
+recited within her walls by the deputies of the Jewish
+communities, when preparing themselves to go to the
+court of the Pope, the Tiber heard many a sigh and
+cry, wrung out from the heart of a Jewish captive who,
+preferring death to slavery even under the masters of
+the world, found his last repose in its waters. But insignificant
+as this synagogue appears, she proved the spiritual
+bulwark against all the attacks of the time, and you
+admire her brave resistance all the more when you look
+at that multitude of churches and cloisters in the closest
+vicinity of the Ghetto, impressing you as so many intrenchments,
+all directing their missiles and weapons
+against this humble, defenceless building, threatening it
+with death and destruction. One of these churches,
+probably founded by some Jewish convert, who gained
+in it both salvation and a good living, bears on its gates
+in Hebrew letters the inscription: <q>I have spread out
+my hands all the day unto a rebellious people, which
+walketh in the way that was not good, after their own
+thoughts. A people that provoketh me to anger continually
+to my face</q> (Isaiah lxv. 2, 3). Menace is followed
+by persuasion, the cited verses being accompanied
+by the Latin words: <q>Indulgentia plenaria quotodiana
+perpetua pro vivis et defunctis.</q> Theologians who like
+to quarrel most about things they can know least, have
+for ages discussed the question, whether prayers for the
+dead are of any use; here the matter is decided by a
+simple advertisement. It is not to be denied that one
+would enjoy the fortunes accumulated by one's late sinner
+of an uncle all the better for being sure that a few
+pennyworths of prayer enable the legatee to make one's
+benefactor in Hades comfortable and happy.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/>
+
+<p>
+The thought is very consoling indeed, and it is not to be
+wondered at that the Roman synagogue could not entirely
+withstand its temptations, and introduced into the offering-blessing
+after one is called up to the Torah, the words:
+<q>To the advancing of the soul of the departed.</q> Of
+course much of this tendency may be attributed to the
+Ford Jabbok,<note place='foot'>מעבר יכק.</note> which was and is still very popular in
+that country; but the fact that the author of this Jewish
+<q>Book of the Dead</q> was an Italian (from Modena), shows
+clearly that there was some Catholic influence at work,
+from which even the fellow-countrymen of Azariah de
+Rossi and Judah Messer Leon could not entirely emancipate
+themselves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I ought to have spoken of Roman synagogues, since
+the building in the Ghetto to which I have been constantly
+alluding comprises four prayer-houses devoted to Spanish
+and Italian rites. It says much for Roman Judaism, that
+they did not consider ritual differences of such importance
+as to prevent them from forming one community for all
+charitable and congregational purposes. In Verona and
+in Modena some congregations even retained the German
+rite, which their ancestors who immigrated from the Rhine
+provinces brought with them, whilst they accepted the
+Spanish pronunciation. I wish that the Anglo-Jewish
+community could see their way to imitate their example.
+Not that I think for a moment that the Spanish pronunciation
+is more correct than the German. Each system
+has its own mistakes and corruptions; and it is more
+than probable that the prophet Isaiah, or even the author
+of Ecclesiastes, would be as little able to follow the
+prayers in Bevis Marks as in Duke's Place. But since
+the non-Jewish scientific world has, though only by pure
+<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/>
+accident, accepted the Spanish way of reading the Hebrew,
+I should like to see this trifling difference of <hi rend='italic'>Ba</hi>ruch over
+<hi rend='italic'>Bu</hi>ruch at last disappear, by pronouncing the camets-vowel
+<hi rend='italic'>a</hi> instead of <hi rend='italic'>o</hi>, and accepting similar little changes, which
+are of no real importance to us.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The inside of these synagogues is even more simple
+than their outside. I was told that the synagogue which
+was burned down last winter, and which also formed a
+part of this building, could boast of many fine decorations
+and carvings, etc., but I could observe nothing of the kind
+in the synagogues I had occasion to frequent. Nor is
+there much of natural decorum in them, and they reconcile
+one perfectly to the worst of the Small Synagogues elsewhere.
+I venture to think that in this respect, too, we
+have to recognise Catholic influence. It was, I think, one
+of the leaders in the Oxford Movement who expressed his
+delight at seeing in Italy a woman poorly-dressed coming
+into the church, who, after putting down the basket from
+her back, kneels before one of the many altars and says
+her prayers. A good deal of this familiarity in the place
+of worship may also be noticed in the Roman synagogues,
+where I have seen a woman come into the partition for
+men, notwithstanding their having a separate gallery,
+without bonnet or hat on her head, and with an infant in
+her arms, and listen there to the prayers, till she walked
+home with her husband. The other people were also
+very restless, coming and going often, whilst, as soon as
+the reading of the Law was over, the greater part of the
+worshippers left the synagogue. It was not a very delightful
+sight. A minus of decorum does not always mean
+a plus of devotion; just as little as a maximum of respectability
+and stiffness are to be taken as signs of true piety.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/>
+
+<p>
+It is not uninteresting to notice that the Roman synagogue,
+in spite of its old traditions, did not entirely shut
+itself against modern reforms. Among them there is that
+of <q>calling up the people to the Torah</q> by the simple formula,
+<q>Let the Priest</q> (or <q>the Levite</q>) <q>step forth,</q><note place='foot'>יעמוד. In olden times the weekly lesson from the Law used to
+be read by seven members of the congregation who were <q>called up</q>
+for this purpose; the Priest and the Levite took precedence of laymen
+for this honour. At the present day, the members of the congregation
+are still called up, but the actual reading is performed by an official.</note>
+and so on, not mentioning either names or titles, which I
+should like to recommend most strongly to our congregations.
+I hope that no man will suspect me of such heresy
+as that of questioning the wisdom of the Synagogue Regulations.
+But I am inclined to think that the business of
+conferring the degrees of <hi rend='italic'>Rabbi</hi>, <q>Associate</q> or <q>Master,</q>
+does not exactly fall within the sphere of activity of the
+Wardens. The matter could only be decided by a proper
+Board of examination. As the Council is not provided
+with such a Board, nor is every aspirant to this honour
+prepared to undergo the examination required, the wisest
+course would be to give up titles altogether, calling up all
+people alike in the way indicated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The robes the ministers wear (somewhat similar to those
+of the Greek clergy), are probably also an innovation of
+modern date,&mdash;the old orthodox Rabbis looking at any
+special vestment for the Preacher or Reader with the same
+feeling of disgust which the old Puritans entertained for
+surplice or mitre. But the principle of <q>The Beauty of
+Holiness</q> proved too strong for resistance, and it was
+only a pardonable vanity when the reformers applied it
+to their own persons; <q>Vanity of vanities,</q> saith the
+preacher, so often, that he gets rather to like it. This
+vanity is greatly redeemed by the fact that the preacher
+does not grudge his uniform to his humbler brother, the
+beadle, who is in most cases to be distinguished from the
+officiating ministry only by the brass-plate on his breast,
+<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/>
+on which the word <q>Servant</q> is engraved. Considering
+the great confusion arising from the meaningless <q>Reverend</q>
+and the universal white neck-tie, such a label, indicating
+the proper office of the bearer, might, perhaps,
+prove as useful among the English Jews as it is among
+the Jews of Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was with a pupil of the Rabbinical College, in company
+with his friends, that I took my first walk through
+ancient Rome. I felt attracted to him by his striking face
+of that peculiar fine Jewish type, which is more common
+among the Jews in the East than among us. And when
+he was reading the lesson from the Prophets in the synagogue,
+where I made his acquaintance, he reminded me of
+that Jewish boy with bright eyes, black curls, and features
+strikingly beautiful walking as a captive from Jerusalem
+through the streets of Rome some seventeen centuries ago,
+whose proficiency in the words of Isaiah caused his redemption.
+It would be an exaggeration to say that my
+companion's remarks were very instructive from an artistic
+point of view. Being born and bred in Rome, he passed
+with utter indifference many objects which we are bidden
+to admire, whilst at others he actually shouted out <q>Image,</q>
+or made some other prosaic remark. But in a country
+where one is determined to play the heathen for so
+many weeks, to worship superannuated deities, to get into
+raptures at every reminiscence of superseded and vanishing
+religions, and to be delighted at the sights of <q>greasy
+saints and martyrs hairy,</q> there can be no great harm in
+being called back to one's true nature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The feelings crowding upon one, when entering that
+part of the ancient city which probably was in the mind
+of the Rabbis when they spoke of <q>Guilty Rome,</q> are
+<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/>
+of a conflicting nature. Every stone and every brick
+there saw the humiliation of Israel, in every theatre and
+every circus the Jew served as a comic figure, and was
+held up to ridicule, whilst there was, perhaps, hardly a
+single lane or gate through which those who resented
+the yoke of the <q>anti-Semites of Antiquity</q> did not pass,
+in order to <q>be butchered to make a Roman holiday.</q>
+What concerns a Jew most in this perished world of
+ruins, and at the same time causes him the deepest grief,
+is the triumphal arch of Titus, <q>commemorating the defeat
+of the Jews, and dedicated to him by his successor,
+Domitian.</q> Enough has been said and written about it
+both by antiquarians and theologians, the former admiring
+the workmanship of the reliefs, the latter perceiving
+in it a proof of the fulfilment of the well-known passages
+in the New Testament about the destruction of the Temple,
+which came to pass in spite of the efforts made by
+Titus to save it. Those who have read Bernay's essay on
+the <q>Chronik des Sulpicius Severus</q> know that the behaviour
+of <q>the delight of the human species</q> on that
+occasion is rather open to doubt, and it is more probable
+that, instead of trying to rescue it, he commanded that
+it should be set on fire. Josephus, who witnessed the
+shame of his compatriots and co-religionists, has left us
+a full account of the triumphal procession. Only a
+flunkey like Josephus could maintain that calm indifference
+with which he describes the events of the <q>bitter
+day,</q> the perusal of which makes one's blood boil. His
+description fairly agrees with the famous relief on the
+arch, showing that part of the procession in which the
+table with the shewbread, the candlestick with the seven
+lamps, and the golden trumpets figure as the chief objects.
+<pb n='338'/><anchor id='Pg338'/>
+The only thing which we miss is the <q>Law of
+the Jews,</q> which, according to Josephus, was carried in
+the triumph as <q>the last of all the spoils.</q> Was it only
+an oversight of the artist, or had he no place for it, or is
+it Josephus who committed the error, mistaking some
+other object for the Scroll of the Law? I dearly hope
+that this last was the case, and that Heine was under the
+impulse of a true and real and poetic inspiration when he
+wrote (speaking of the Holy Scripture to which he owed
+his conversion): <q>The Jews, who appreciate the value
+of precious things, knew right well what they did when,
+at the burning of the second temple they left to their fate
+the golden and silver implements of sacrifice, the candlesticks
+and lamps, even the breastplate of the High Priest
+adorned with great jewels, but saved the Bible. This
+was the real treasure of the temple, and, thanks be to
+God! it was not left a prey to the flames, nor to the fury
+of Titus Vespasian, the wretch, who, as the Rabbi tells us,
+met with so dreadful a death.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, there were others who brought the glad tidings
+of the Old Testament to Rome long before there
+existed a New one. And this is, on the other side, what
+makes Rome a sort of Terra Sancta even to the Jew. It
+is true that we have not to look for the footprints of the
+prophets, for whom even tradition never claimed <q>the gift
+of missionary-travelling.</q> But might not the ground there
+have received a sort of consecration by the fact that it was
+traversed by the ambassadors of Judas Maccabæus (about
+161 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>) <q>to make a league of amity and confederacy</q>
+with the Roman Senate? Of the embassy of Simon the
+Maccabee (about 140 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>) there is actual historical evidence
+that they began to propagate in Rome the Jewish
+<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/>
+religion. Some seventy or eighty years later the Jews
+had already their own quarter in Rome, with their own
+synagogues, which they were in the habit of visiting,
+<q>most especially on the sacred Sabbath days, when they
+publicly cultivate their national philosophy.</q> That many
+of the oldest teachers of Israel, the Tannaim, went to
+Rome as deputies, and that one of them (R. Mathia ben
+Chares) founded a school there early in the second century,
+is also an authenticated fact. One would like to
+know what they taught, and in what way they expounded
+their <hi rend='italic'>national philosophy</hi>. Most of all one would like to
+know what were the spiritual means they employed in
+their proselytising work, in which they were, according to
+the testimony of history, so successful. Did they preach
+in the streets? Or did they hold public controversies?
+Or did they even send out Epistles which, in form at least,
+served as a model to apostles of another creed? How
+many a problem would be solved; how many a miracle
+would disappear; how many a book would become superfluous,
+if we could obtain certainty about these points!
+The Talmud tells us little, almost nothing, about these
+important things, whilst we get from the Roman writers
+only sneers and raillery. To these respectable Romans
+the Jews were only a mob of unlettered atheists. Indeed,
+to a good orthodox heathen, a religion without images and
+statues, with a God without a pedigree and without a
+theogony, was an impossible thing. Those poor metaphysicians!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, why dwell so long on a past world? A
+famous Rabbi once exclaimed: <q>If a man would ask thee,
+<q>Where is thy God?</q> answer him: <q>In the great city of
+Rome.</q></q> The underlying idea was the mystical notion
+<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/>
+that wherever Israel had to migrate, they were accompanied
+by the Divine presence. And Rome was, in the
+times of the Rabbis, the point to which the streams of
+Jewish migration from the Holy Land chiefly converged.
+But now, instead of to Rome, might we not point to London
+and New York as centres of Jewish migrations?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='361'/><anchor id='Pg361'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>Index</head>
+
+<p>
+This Index contains the most important names of persons, titles of books,
+technical terms and Hebrew words occurring in the text. In the notes to
+the text, the Hebrew words are for the most part
+given also in Hebrew characters.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abarbanel, Isaac, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abaye, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Ab Beth Din</foreign>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abba Mari b. Moses, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abba Tachnah, the Chassid, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abraham, Baalshem's father-in-law, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abraham, son of Elijah Wilna, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abraham of Bedres, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abraham Abulaphia, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abraham Ibn Daud, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abraham Ibn Ezra, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abraham b. Shem&mdash;Tob Bibago, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abtalyon, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Abuha, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Acha, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Acher</foreign>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Adam, Primal</hi>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Agadah</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Agadoth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Agadic</foreign>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ages of Man</hi>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Akabyah b. Mahalaleel, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Akiba, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Almemor</foreign>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ammi, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Amora</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Amoraim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Amram Gaon, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Anna of Kaidon, wife of Elijah Wilna, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Anselm, St., of Canterbury, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Antigonos of Socho, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Anti-Maimonists, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Aristotle, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Aryeh Leb, son of Elijah Wilna, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ascension of Elijah</hi>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Asher b. Jechiel, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Assideans, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Ayil Meshulash</foreign>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Azariah de Rossi, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Aziluth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Azulai, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<anchor id='Index-Baalshem'/>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Baalshem</hi>, Israel, <ref target='Pg003'>3-12</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14-35</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Bachrach, Ch. J., <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Bachur</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Bachurim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Bachya, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Baraitha</foreign>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Baruch Sheamar</foreign>, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Bashazi, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Bath-Kol</foreign>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Beer of Mizriez, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Beer, Peter, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ben Azzai, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Benjamin of Tudela, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ben-Jacob, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ben Sira, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ben Zoma, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='362'/><anchor id='Pg362'/>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Bereshith</hi>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Berith Milah</hi>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Berliner, A., <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Bernays, Isaak, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Beth Din</foreign>, <ref target='Pg191'>191-193</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Beth Hammidrash</foreign>, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Beth Talmud</foreign>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Biccurim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Bloch, Samson, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Bodek, A., <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Book of Brightness</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='Index-Zohar'>Zohar</ref>)</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Book of the Pious</hi>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Book of Victory</hi>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Book of Weight</hi>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Boswell, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Buckle, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Burbot</foreign>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Buzagli, the Cabbalist, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Cabbalah, Cabbalists, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Cabod</foreign>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Caraites, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Casaubon, Isaac, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Chagigah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Chakhamim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Chambers</hi>, the, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Chanina b. Dossa, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Chanukah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great</hi>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Chasdai Ibn Crescas, <ref target='Pg167'>167-173</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Chassidim</foreign>, Chassid, Chassidic, Chassidism, <ref target='Pg001'>1-4</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14-16</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25-27</ref>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg035'>35-41</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43-45</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Chayim Vital, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Chayim Walosin, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Chisda, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Chukkim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Code of the Law</hi>, by Caro, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Collectanea</hi>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Commentary on the Pentateuch</hi>, by Nachmanides, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Creeds and Opinions</hi>, by Saadiah Gaon, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Crown</hi>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Cusari</foreign>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Date of the Redemption</hi>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>David Rocca Martino, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>David Messer Leon, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>David b. Samuel d'Estella, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>David b. Yom-Tob Bilia, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Defence of Adam</hi>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Delmedigo, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Disputation</hi>, by Nachmanides, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Dukes, L., <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Eighteen Benedictions</hi>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Eleazar, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Eleazar b. Jacob, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Eliezer, father of Baalshem, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Eliezer b. Hyrkanos, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Eliezer b. Samuel Hallevi, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Eliezer b. Simeon, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Elijah Levita, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Elijah Wilna, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73-77</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81-92</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Elisha b. Abuyah, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Emden, Jacob, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Epikurus</hi>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Erech Millin</foreign>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Erter, Isaac, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Essenes, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Examination of the World</hi>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Eybeschütz, J., <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ezra, or Azriel, the mystic, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Faithful City</hi>, the, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Fichte, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Finn, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ford Jabbok</hi>, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Frankists, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Frankl, Z., <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Fürst, J., <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Gamaliel I., <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Gamaliel II., <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='363'/><anchor id='Pg363'/>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign rend='italic'>Gaon</foreign>, pl. <foreign rend='italic'>Gaonim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76-78</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Garden of Mystical Contemplation</hi>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Gate of Reward</hi>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Geiger, A., <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Gemara</foreign>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Gershon, brother-in-law of Baalshem, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ghetto, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref>, <ref target='Pg331'>331-333</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Gnostics, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Goethe, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Gozer</foreign>, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Graetz, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Great Interpreters</hi>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Green, A. L., <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Guide of the Perplexed</hi>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Guide of the Perplexed of the Time</hi>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Hadasi, Judah, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Hai Gaon, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Halachah</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Halachoth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Halachic</foreign>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Halachoth Gedoloth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Hannaneel of Kairwan, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Hegel, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Heine, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>High Belief</hi>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Hillel the Great, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Hillel, R., <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>History of Jewish Tradition</hi>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Hithlahabuth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Holle Kreisch</hi>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Huna, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Isaac Alfasi, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Isaac Aramah, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Isaac Loria, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Isaac b. Ruben, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ishmael, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ishmael b. Elishah, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Israel Baalshem (<hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='Index-Baalshem'>Baalshem, Israel</ref>)</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jacob of Corbeil, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jacob Dubna, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jacob the Levite, or Maharil, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jacob Sasportas, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jacob Tam, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jannai, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jedaiah of Bedres, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Jerusalem</hi>, by Mendelssohn, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Johanan, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Johanan b. Zaccai, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jonah Gerundi, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jonah, son of Nachmanides, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>José, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Joseph Albashir, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Joseph Albo, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Joseph Caro, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Joseph Jabez, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Joshua b. Hananiah, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Jost, M., <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah Alcharisi, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah Hallevi, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah b. Ilai, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah Messer Leon, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah de Modena, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah the Patriarch, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah the Pious, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah b. Tema, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Judah b. Yakar, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Karab</foreign>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Kilayim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Kimchi, D., <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Korban</foreign>, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Krochmal, Nachman, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48-68</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Kuenen, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Law of Man</hi>, <ref target='Pg113'>113-115</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Laws unto Moses on Mount Sinai</hi>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='364'/><anchor id='Pg364'/>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Lessing, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Letteris, M., <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Levi b. Gershom, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Light of God</hi>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Lilac of Mysteries</hi>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Lilith</hi>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Lipman of Mühlhausen, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Liva of Prague, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Lowell, R., <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Löw, L., <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Lucas, Mrs. Henry, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Macaulay, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Maggid</foreign>, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Magnified</hi>, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Maimonides, or Moses b. Maimon, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg161'>161-168</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170-181</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Maimonists, Anti-Maimonists, <ref target='Pg163'>163-165</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Mar Samuel, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Mathia b. Chares, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Measure of the Stature</hi>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Mechilta</foreign>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Meheram Schiff, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Meir, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Meir b. Nathan of Trinquintaines, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Meir of Rothenburg, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Memra</foreign>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Men of the Great Synagogue</hi>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Menachoth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Mendelssohn, Moses, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Metatron</foreign>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Midrash</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Midrashim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Milton, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Minhag</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Minhagim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Minim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Minor Tractates, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Mishnah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Mistress of the Synagogue, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Moses Cordevora, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Moses Ibn Ezra, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Moses de Leon, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Moses of Tachau, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Mother Zion</hi>, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Nachman, son of Nachmanides, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Nachmanides, or Moses b. Nachman, <ref target='Pg099'>99-141</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Nahum of Gemzo, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Nasi</foreign>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Nathan, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Nephesh Chayah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Neubauer, Dr. A., <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Night of Watching</hi>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Nissim of Gerona, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Nissim of Marseilles, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Olam Habba</foreign>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Old Victory</hi>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Oral Law, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Orchard</hi>, the, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ordinance of the Law</hi>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Pablo Christiano, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Pairs</hi>, the, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Paradise Lost</hi>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Pardes</foreign>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Pashut</foreign>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Path of Belief</hi>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Perles, J., <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Pharisees, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Philo, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Pilpul Pilpulist</foreign>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Plato, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Pugio Fidei</hi>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Raba, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Rabbanan Saburai</hi>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Rabbah, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Rabbenu, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Rabbenu Mosheh</hi>, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Rabbinowicz, R. N. N., <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Raimund Martini, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Rapoport, Solomon Leb, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Reggio, Isaac, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Roots</hi>, the, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Ruskin, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='365'/><anchor id='Pg365'/>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Saadiah Gaon, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Sacred Letter</hi>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Sadducees, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Salman the Good, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sambatyon</foreign>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Sanctification-cup</hi>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Sandalphon, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sandek</foreign>, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Sanhedrin, the, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Saul Berlin, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Sayings of the Fathers</hi>, <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Aboth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Schelling, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Schiller, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Schlummerlied</hi>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Schorr, O., <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Schudt, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sechorah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Seder Nezikin</hi>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Seder Olam</hi>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Seder Taharoth</hi>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Segulah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sephardim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sepher</foreign>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sephiroth</foreign>, Ten, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Sermon in the Presence of the King</hi>, by Nachmanides, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Shabbethai Tsebi, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Shalom Zachar</foreign>, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Shammai, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Shechinah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228-230</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Shema</foreign>, reading of the, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Shemaiah, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Shemariah of Crete, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Sherira Gaon, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Shiphluth, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Simchah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Simeon Duran, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Simeon b. Eleazar, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Simeon b. Gamaliel, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Simeon b. Gamaliel II., <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Simeon b. Yochai, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Simlai, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Siphra</hi>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Siphré</hi>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon b. Adereth, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon b. Gabirol, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon of St. Goar, <ref target='Pg143'>143-145</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon b. Isaac, Rashi, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon b. Isaac b. Zadok, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon Ladier, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon Portaleone, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon, son of Nachmanides, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon Syrillo, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Solomon Wilna, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Son of the Law</hi>, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref>, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sopherim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Spencer, Herbert, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Steinschneider, M., <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Taanith</hi>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Talmid Chaber</hi>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Talmid Chakam</hi>, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Talmud (of Jerusalem or Babylon), <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57-59</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254-256</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Tanna</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Tannaim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Tephillin</foreign>, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Thackeray, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Thirteen Articles of the Creed, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Thirteen Rules</hi> (of Interpretation), <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Tobijah, the Priest, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tosephta</hi>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Toy, Prof., <ref target='Pg233'>233-239</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tractate Berachoth</hi>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tractate Evidences</hi>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tractate Joys</hi>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tractate Sanhedrin</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tractate Sopherim</hi>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref>, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tree of Life</hi>, the, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Troki, Solomon, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Variae Lectiones</hi> (of the Talmud), <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Viterbo, Abraham Chayim, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Vorsugerin</hi>, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='366'/><anchor id='Pg366'/>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Wars of the Lord</hi>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Watchman</hi>, the, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Weiss, T. H., <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185-187</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191-197</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209-212</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Wellhausen, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Wisdom of Solomon</hi>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Woilkennivdicke</hi>, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Yediah</foreign>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Yeshibah</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Yeshiboth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg094'>94-96</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Yom-Tob Heller, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Zaddik</foreign>, pl. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Zaddikim</foreign> (Zaddikism), <ref target='Pg036'>36-44</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Zadoc, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Zebachim</foreign>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Zedner, <ref target='Pg254'>254-256</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Zehub</foreign>, <ref target='Pg137'>137-139</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Zerahiah Hallevi of Gerona (or Gerondi), <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Zion-Elegy</hi>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Zobeoth</foreign>, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<anchor id='Index-Zohar'/>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Zohar</hi>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Zunz, Leopold, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref></l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+</body>
+<back rend="page-break-before: right">
+  <div id="footnotes">
+    <index index="toc" />
+    <index index="pdf" />
+    <head>Footnotes</head>
+    <divGen type="footnotes"/>
+  </div>
+  <div rend="page-break-before: right">
+    <divGen type="pgfooter" />
+  </div>
+</back>
+</text>
+</TEI.2>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Studies in Judaism, First Series by Solomon
+Schechter
+
+
+
+This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+http://www.gutenberg.org/license. If you are not located in the United
+States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located
+before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: Studies in Judaism, First Series
+
+Author: Solomon Schechter
+
+Release Date: May 6, 2015 [Ebook #48890]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+
+
+
+
+
+                            Studies in Judaism
+
+                               First Series
+
+                                    by
+
+                     Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D.
+
+                               Philadelphia
+
+                The Jewish Publication Society of America
+
+                                   1911
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Preface
+Introduction
+I. The Chassidim
+II. Nachman Krochmal and the "Perplexities Of The Time"
+III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna, Gaon
+IV. Nachmanides
+V. A Jewish Boswell
+VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism
+VII. The History of Jewish Tradition
+VIII. The Doctrine of Divine Retribution in Rabbinical Literature
+IX. The Law And Recent Criticism
+X. The Hebrew Collection of the British Museum
+XI. Titles of Jewish Books
+XII. The Child in Jewish Literature
+XIII. Woman in Temple and Synagogue
+XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in Europe
+Index
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                               [Cover Art]
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter
+at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.]
+
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+THE EVER-CHERISHED MEMORY
+
+OF
+
+THE LATE DR. P. F. FRANKL, RABBI IN BERLIN
+
+THESE STUDIES ARE REVERENTLY
+
+DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+These studies appeared originally in their first form in _The Jewish
+Quarterly_ and _The Jewish Chronicle_. To the Editors of these periodicals
+my best thanks are due for their readiness in placing the articles at my
+disposal for the purposes of the present volume. The Introductory Essay is
+new. I desire to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. J. G. Frazer, Fellow
+of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Dr. J. Sutherland Black, of London, for
+their great kindness in revising the proofs, and for many a valuable
+suggestion. To Mr. Claude G. Montefiore I am indebted for the English
+version of the Essay on "Chassidim"--my first literary effort in this
+country, written at his own suggestion.
+
+In the transliteration of Hebrew names, I have given the familiar English
+forms of the authorised version. As regards post-Biblical names, I have
+with few exceptions followed Zedner's _Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in
+the Library of the British Museum_. A Hebrew word will be found here and
+there in the text; I have purposely avoided bewildering devices for
+representing the actual sound of the word, contenting myself with the
+ordinary Roman alphabet, in spite of its shortcomings.
+
+The authorities used for the various Essays will be found indicated in the
+Notes at the end of the volume, where the reader will also find short
+biographical and bibliographical notices, together with brief explanations
+of technical terms for which no exact equivalent exists in English. The
+index will, it is hoped, facilitate reference.
+
+_S. S._
+
+CAMBRIDGE, _February 1896_.
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The essays published in this volume under the title of _Studies in
+Judaism_ have been written on various occasions and at long intervals.
+There is thus no necessary connection between them. If some sort of unity
+may be detected in the book, it can only be between the first three
+essays--on the Chassidim, Krochmal, and the Gaon--in which there is a
+certain unity of purpose. The purpose in view was, as may easily be
+gathered from the essays themselves, to bring under the notice of the
+English public a type of men produced by the Synagogue of the Eastern
+Jews. That Synagogue is widely different from ours. Its places of worship
+have no claims to "beauty of holiness," being in their outward appearance
+rather bare and bald, if not repulsive; whilst those who frequent them are
+a noisy, excitable people, who actually dance on the "Season of Rejoicing"
+and cry bitterly on the "Days of Mourning." But among all these
+vagaries--or perhaps because of them--this Synagogue has had its moments of
+grace, when enthusiasm wedded to inspiration gave birth to such beautiful
+souls as Baalshem, such fine sceptics as Krochmal, and such saintly
+scholars as Elijah Wilna. The Synagogue of the West is certainly of a more
+presentable character, and free from excesses; though it is not devoid of
+an enthusiasm of its own which finds its outlet in an ardent and self-
+sacrificing philanthropic activity. But owing to its practical tendency
+there is too little room in it for that play of intellectual forces which
+finds its extravagant expression in the saint on the one hand, and the
+learned heretic on the other.
+
+Eight of these essays are more or less of a theological nature. But in
+reading the proofs I have been struck by the fact that there is assumed in
+them a certain conception of the Synagogue which, familiar though it be to
+the Jewish student, may appear obscure and even strange to the general
+English reader. For brevity's sake I will call it the High Synagogue,
+though it does not correspond in all details to what one is accustomed to
+understand under the term of High Church. The High Synagogue has a history
+which is not altogether without its points of interest.
+
+Some years ago when the waves of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament
+reached the shores of this country, and such questions as the
+heterogeneous composition of the Pentateuch, the comparatively late date
+of the Levitical Legislation, and the post-exilic origin of certain
+Prophecies as well as of the Psalms began to be freely discussed by the
+press and even in the pulpit, the invidious remark was often made: What
+will now become of Judaism when its last stronghold, the Law, is being
+shaken to its very foundations?
+
+Such a remark shows a very superficial acquaintance with the nature of an
+old historical religion like Judaism, and the richness of the resources it
+has to fall back upon in cases of emergency.
+
+As a fact, the emergency did not quite surprise Judaism. The alarm signal
+was given some 150 years ago by an Italian Rabbi, Abiad Sar Shalom
+Bazilai, in his pamphlet _The Faith of the Sages_. The pamphlet is, as the
+title indicates, of a polemical character, reviewing the work of the
+Jewish rationalistic schools; and after warming up in his attacks against
+their heterodox views, Bazilai exclaims: "Nature and simple meaning, they
+are our misfortune." By "nature and simple meaning" Bazilai, who wrote in
+Hebrew, understood what we would call Natural Science and Philology. With
+the right instinct of faith, Bazilai hit on the real sore points. For
+though he mostly argues against the philosophical systems of Aristotle and
+his commentators, he felt that it is not speculation that will ever
+seriously endanger religion. There is hardly any metaphysical system, old
+or new, which has not in course of time been adapted by able dialecticians
+to the creed which they happened to hold. In our own time we have seen the
+glorious, though not entirely novel spectacle, of Agnosticism itself
+becoming the rightful handmaid of Queen Theology. The real danger lies in
+"nature" (or Natural Science) with its stern demand of law and regularity
+in all phenomena, and in the "simple meaning" (or Philology) with its
+inconsiderate insistence on truth. Of the two, the "simple meaning" is the
+more objectionable. Not only is it very often at variance with Tradition,
+which has its own code of interpretation, but it is constantly increasing
+the difficulties raised by science. For if words could only have more than
+one meaning, there would be no objection to reading the first words of
+Genesis, "In _a_ beginning God _evolved_." The difficulties of science
+would then be disposed of easily enough. Maimonides, who was as bold an
+interpreter as he was a deep metaphysician, hinted plainly enough that
+were he as convinced of the eternity of matter as he was satisfied of the
+impossibility of any corporeal quality in the deity, he would feel as
+little compunction in explaining (figuratively) the contents of the first
+chapter of Genesis as he did in allegorising the anthropomorphic passages
+of the Bible. Thus in the end all the difficulties resolve themselves into
+the one great difficulty of the "simple meaning." The best way to meet
+this difficulty was found to be to shift the centre of gravity in Judaism
+and to place it in the secondary meaning, thus making religion independent
+of philology and all its dangerous consequences.
+
+This shifting work was chiefly done, perhaps not quite consciously, by the
+historical school which followed upon that of Mendelssohn and his first
+successors. The historical school, which is still in the ascendant,
+comprises many of the best Jewish writers who either by their learning or
+by their ecclesiastical profession as Rabbis and preachers in great
+communities have acquired some important position among their brethren.
+The men who have inaugurated this movement were Krochmal (1785-1841),
+Rapoport (1790-1867), and Zunz (1794-1886).
+
+It is not a mere coincidence that the first representatives of the
+historical school were also the first Jewish scholars who proved
+themselves more or less ready to join the modern school of Bible
+Criticism, and even to contribute their share to it. The first two,
+Krochmal and Rapoport, early in the second quarter of this century
+accepted and defended the modern view about a second Isaiah, the post-
+exilic origin of many Psalms, and the late date of Ecclesiastes; whilst
+Zunz, who began (in 1832) with denying the authenticity of Ezekiel,
+concluded his literary career (1873) with a study on the Bible
+(_Gesammelte __ Schriften_, i. pp. 217-290), in which he expressed his
+view "that the Book of Leviticus dates from a later period than the Book
+of Deuteronomy, later even than Ezekiel, having been composed during the
+age of the Second Temple, when there already existed a well-established
+priesthood which superintended the sacrificial worship." But when
+Revelation or the Written Word is reduced to the level of history, there
+is no difficulty in elevating history in its aspect of Tradition to the
+rank of Scripture, for both have then the same human or divine origin
+(according to the student's predilection for the one or the other
+adjective), and emanate from the same authority. Tradition becomes thus
+the means whereby the modern divine seeks to compensate himself for the
+loss of the Bible, and the theological balance is to the satisfaction of
+all parties happily readjusted.
+
+Jewish Tradition, or, as it is commonly called, the Oral Law, or, as we
+may term it (in consideration of its claims to represent an interpretation
+of the Bible), the Secondary Meaning of the Scriptures, is mainly embodied
+in the works of the Rabbis and their subsequent followers during the
+Middle Ages. Hence the zeal and energy with which the historical school
+applied itself to the Jewish post-biblical literature, not only
+elucidating its texts by means of new critical editions, dictionaries, and
+commentaries, but also trying to trace its origins and to pursue its
+history through its gradual development. To the work of Krochmal in this
+direction a special essay is devoted in this volume. The labours of
+Rapoport are more of a biographical and bibliographical nature, being
+occupied mostly with the minor details in the lives and writings of
+various famous Jewish Rabbis in the Middle Ages; thus they offer but
+little opportunity for general theological comment. Of more importance in
+this respect are the hints thrown out in his various works by Zunz, who
+was just as emphatic in asserting the claims of Tradition as he was
+advanced in his views on Bible criticism. Zunz's greatest work is _Die
+Gottesdienstlichen Vortraege_--an awkward title, which in fact means "The
+History of the Interpretation of the Scriptures as forming a part of the
+divine service." Now if a work displaying such wide learning and critical
+acumen, and written in such an impartial spirit can be said to have a
+bias, it was towards bridging over the seemingly wide gap between the
+Written Word (the Scriptures) and the Spoken Word (the Oral Law or
+Tradition), which was the more deeply felt, as most of Zunz's older
+contemporaries were men, grown up in the habits of thought of the
+eighteenth century--a century distinguished both for its ignorance of, and
+its power of ignoring, the teachings of history. Indeed it would seem that
+ages employed in making history have no time for studying it.
+
+Zunz accomplished the task he set himself, by showing, as already
+indicated, the late date of certain portions of the Bible, which by
+setting the early history of Israel in an ideal light betray the
+moralising tendency of their authors, and are, in fact, little more than a
+traditional interpretation of older portions of Scripture, adapted to the
+religious needs of the time. Placing thus the origin of Tradition in the
+Bible itself, it was a comparatively easy matter for Zunz to prove its
+further continuity. Prophecy and Interpretation are with him the natural
+expressions of the religious life of the nation; and though by the loss of
+Israel's political independence the voice of the prophets gradually died
+away, the voice of God was still heard. Israel continues to consult God
+through the medium of the Scriptures, and He answers His people by the
+mouth of the Scribes, the Sages, the Interpreters of the Law; whilst the
+liturgy of the Synagogue, springing up at the time when Psalms were still
+being composed, expands in its later stages through the work of the Poets
+of the Synagogue into such a rich luxuriance "that it forms in itself a
+treasure of history, poetry, philosophy; and prophecy and psalms are again
+revived in the hymnology of the Middle Ages." This is in brief the lesson
+to be learned from Zunz's _Gottesdienstliche Vortraege_ as far as it deals
+with the significance of Tradition; and it is in the introduction to this
+work that Zunz expresses himself to the following effect: Indispensable is
+the free Spoken Word. Mankind has acquired all its ideal treasures only by
+Word of Mouth; an education continuing through all stages of life. In
+Israel, too, the Word of Instruction transmitted from mouth to mouth was
+never silenced.
+
+The historical school has never, to my knowledge, offered to the world a
+theological programme of its own. By the nature of its task, its labours
+are mostly conducted in the field of philology and archaeology, and it pays
+but little attention to purely dogmatic questions. On the whole, its
+attitude towards religion may be defined as an enlightened Scepticism
+combined with a staunch conservatism which is not even wholly devoid of a
+certain mystical touch. As far as we may gather from vague remarks and
+hints thrown out now and then, its theological position may perhaps be
+thus defined:--It is not the mere revealed Bible that is of first
+importance to the Jew, but the Bible as it repeats itself in history, in
+other words, as it is interpreted by Tradition. The Talmud, that wonderful
+mine of religious ideas from which it would be just as easy to draw up a
+manual for the most orthodox as to extract a vade-mecum for the most
+sceptical, lends some countenance to this view by certain controversial
+passages--not to be taken seriously--in which "the words of the scribes" are
+placed almost above the words of the Torah. Since then the interpretation
+of Scripture or the Secondary Meaning is mainly a product of changing
+historical influences, it follows that the centre of authority is actually
+removed from the Bible and placed in some _living body_, which, by reason
+of its being in touch with the ideal aspirations and the religious needs
+of the age, is best able to determine the nature of the Secondary Meaning.
+This living body, however, is not represented by any section of the
+nation, or any corporate priesthood, or Rabbihood, but by the collective
+conscience of Catholic Israel as embodied in the Universal Synagogue. The
+Synagogue "with its long, continuous cry after God for more than twenty-
+three centuries," with its unremittent activity in teaching and developing
+the word of God, with its uninterrupted succession of prophets, Psalmists,
+Scribes, Assideans, Rabbis, Patriarchs, Interpreters, Elucidators,
+Eminences, and Teachers, with its glorious record of Saints, martyrs,
+sages, philosophers, scholars, and mystics; this Synagogue, the only true
+witness to the past, and forming in all ages the sublimest expression of
+Israel's religious life, must also retain its authority as the sole true
+guide for the present and the future. And being in communion with this
+Synagogue, we may also look hopefully for a safe and rational solution of
+our present theological troubles. For was it not the Synagogue which even
+in antiquity determined the fate of Scripture? On the one hand, for
+example, books like Ezekiel, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, were
+only declared to be Holy Writ in virtue of the interpretation put upon
+them by the Rabbis: and, on the other hand, it was the veto of the Rabbis
+which excluded from the canon the works that now pass under the name of
+Apocrypha. We may, therefore, safely trust that the Synagogue will again
+assert its divine right in passing judgment upon the Bible when it feels
+called upon to exercise that holy office. It is "God who has chosen the
+Torah, and Moses His servant, and Israel His people." But indeed God's
+choice invariably coincides with the wishes of Israel; He "performeth all
+things" upon which the councils of Israel, meeting under promise of the
+Divine presence and communion, have previously agreed. As the Talmud
+somewhere expresses itself with regard to the Book of Esther, "They have
+confirmed above what Israel has accepted below."
+
+Another consequence of this conception of Tradition is that it is neither
+Scripture nor primitive Judaism, but general custom which forms the real
+rule of practice. Holy Writ as well as history, Zunz tells us, teaches
+that the law of Moses was never fully and absolutely put in practice.
+Liberty was always given to the great teachers of every generation to make
+modifications and innovations in harmony with the spirit of existing
+institutions. Hence a return to Mosaism would be illegal, pernicious, and
+indeed impossible. The norm as well as the sanction of Judaism is the
+practice actually in vogue. Its consecration is the consecration of
+general use,--or, in other words, of Catholic Israel. It was probably with
+a view to this communion that the later mystics introduced a short prayer
+to be said before the performance of any religious ceremony, in which,
+among other things, the speaker professes his readiness to act "in the
+name of all Israel."
+
+It would be out of place in an introductory essay to pursue any further
+this interesting subject with its far-reaching consequences upon Jewish
+life and Jewish thought. But the foregoing remarks may suffice to show
+that Judaism did not remain quite inactive at the approach of the great
+religious crisis which our generation has witnessed. Like so many other
+religious communities, it reviewed its forces, entrenched itself on the
+field of history, and what it lost of its old devotion to the Bible, it
+has sought to make up by a renewed reverence for institutions.
+
+In this connection, a mere mention may suffice of the ultra-Orthodox
+party, led by the late Dr. S. R. Hirsch of Frankfort (1808-1889) whose
+defiance of reason and criticism even a Ward might have envied, and whose
+saintliness and sublimity even a Keble might have admired. And, to take an
+example from the opposite school, we must at least record the name of that
+devout Jew, Osias Schorr (1816-1895), in whom we have profound learning
+combined with an uncompromising disposition of mind productive of a
+typical champion of Radicalism in things religious. These men are,
+however, representative of two extremes, and their followers constitute
+mere minorities; the majority is with the historical school.
+
+How long the position of this school will prove tenable is another
+question. Being brought up in the old Low Synagogue, where, with all
+attachment to tradition, the Bible was looked upon as the crown and the
+climax of Judaism, the old Adam still asserts itself in me, and in
+unguarded moments makes me rebel against this new rival of revelation in
+the shape of history. At times this now fashionable exaltation of
+Tradition at the expense of Scripture even impresses me as a sort of
+religious bimetallism in which bold speculators in theology try to keep up
+the market value of an inferior currency by denouncing loudly the bright
+shining gold which, they would have us believe, is less fitted to
+circulate in the vulgar use of daily life than the small cash of
+historical interpretation. Nor can I quite reconcile myself to this
+alliance of religion with history, which seems to me both unworthy and
+unnatural. The Jew, some writer aptly remarked, was the first and the
+fiercest Nonconformist of the East, and so Judaism was always a protesting
+religion. To break the idols, whether of the past or of the present, has
+always been a sacred mission of Judaism, and has indeed been esteemed by
+it as a necessary preliminary to the advent of the kingdom of God on
+earth. One of its daily prayers was and still is: "We therefore hope in
+Thee, O Lord our God, that we may speedily behold the glory of Thy might,
+when ... the idols will be cut off, when the world will be perfected under
+the kingdom of the Almighty." It bowed before truth, but it had never made
+a covenant with facts only because they were facts. History had to be re-
+made and to sanctify itself before it found its way into its sacred
+annals. Nor did Judaism make a virtue of swallowing down institutions.
+Such institutions as crept into it in course of time had, when the
+Synagogue was conscious of their claims to form part of religion, to
+submit to the laborious process of a thorough adaptation to prophetic
+notions before they were formally sanctioned. But when this process was
+deemed impossible or impracticable, Judaism boldly denounced the past in
+such fierce language as the prophets used and as still finds its echo in
+such passages of the liturgy as "First our ancestors were worshippers of
+idols and now God has brought us near to His service"; or "But of a truth,
+we and our ancestors have sinned."
+
+However, it would be unfair to argue any further against a theological
+system which, as already said, was never avowed distinctly by the
+historical school--a school, moreover, with which speculation is a matter
+of minor importance. The main strength of this school lies in its
+scientific work, for which Judaism will always be under a sense of deep
+gratitude. And living as we do in an age in which history reigns supreme
+in all departments of human thought, we may hope that even its theology,
+as far as it goes, will "do" for us, though I neither hope nor believe
+that it will do for those who come after us. I may, however, humbly
+confess that the sixth essay in this volume was written in a spirit of
+rebellion against this all-absorbing Catholic Israel, with its decently
+veiled scepticism on the one hand, and its unfortunate tendency with many
+people to degenerate into a soulless conformity on the other hand. There
+is, I am afraid, not much to be said in favour of this essay. It is
+deficient both in matter and in style. It proved to be a futile attempt to
+bring within the compass of an essay what a whole book could hardly do
+justice to. The Hebrew documents bearing upon the question of dogma which
+I have collected from various manuscripts and rare printed books, would
+alone make a fair-sized volume. I only venture to offer it to the public
+in the absence of anything better; since, so far as I know, no other
+attempt has ever been made to treat the subject even in its meagrest
+outlines. I even venture to hope that, with all its shortcomings, it will
+contribute something towards destroying the illusion, in which so many
+theologians indulge, that Judaism is a religion without dogmas. To declare
+that a religion has no dogmas is tantamount to saying that it was wise
+enough not to commit itself to any vital principles. But prudence, useful
+as it may be in worldly affairs, is quite unworthy of a great spiritual
+power.
+
+Jewish mysticism in the Middle Ages and in modern times is represented in
+this volume by two essays ("The Chassidim" and "Nachmanides"). But in
+order to avoid mistakes which might be implied by my silence, I think it
+desirable to state that there are also to be found many mystical elements
+in the old Rabbinic literature. Mysticism, not as a theosophic system or
+as an occult science, but as a manifestation of the spiritual and as an
+expression of man's agonies in his struggle after communion with God, as
+well as of his ineffable joy when he receives the assurance that he has
+found it, is not, as some maintain, foreign to the spirit of old Rabbinic
+Judaism. There was no need for the mediaeval Rabbi to borrow the elements
+of such a mysticism from non-Jewish sources. The perusal of the old
+Homilies on the Song of Songs, and on the Lessons from the Prophets, or
+even a fair acquaintance with the Jewish liturgy would, in itself, suffice
+to refute such baseless assertions. Those who are at all familiar with old
+Rabbinic literature hardly need to be told that "the sea of the Talmud"
+has also its gulf stream of mysticism which, taking its origin in the
+moralising portions of the Bible, runs through the wide ocean of Jewish
+thought, constantly commingling with the icy waters of legalism, and
+unceasingly washing the desolate shores of an apparently meaningless
+ceremonialism, communicating to it life, warmth, and spirituality. To draw
+attention to this fact a humble attempt has been made in the ninth essay,
+"The Law and Recent Criticism," a subject which I have essayed to expound
+in a series of essays on "Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology," now
+appearing in _The Jewish Quarterly Review_.
+
+The last five essays touch rather on certain social and familiar aspects
+of Judaism, and need no further comment. They are mere _causeries_ and
+hardly deserve the name of studies. Perhaps it may be useful for those who
+judge of the heaviness of a work by its bulk to know that there is also a
+lighter side of Rabbinic literature.
+
+But I shall be better pleased if the more serious side of this
+volume--Jewish mysticism and Rabbinic theology--should attract the attention
+of students, and so draw some fellow-workers into a field which is utterly
+neglected. Notwithstanding the numerous Manuals and Introductions which
+all more or less touch on the subject of Rabbinic theology, there is,
+after nearly 250 years, not a single work among them which, either in
+knowledge of facts or in their interpretation, is a single step in advance
+of the Cambridge Platonist, John Smith, in his _Select Discourses_. But
+those who try so hard to determine the miraculous distance of Christianity
+by the eclipses in Rabbinism, should, if they wish to be just or prove
+themselves worthy scholars, also endeavour to make themselves acquainted
+with the numberless bright stars that move in the wide universe of Jewish
+thought. We are often told that no creed or theological system which has
+come down to us from antiquity can afford to be judged by any other
+standard than by its spiritual and poetic _possibilities_: this indulgence
+Judaism is as justly entitled to claim as any other religion. The great
+and saintly Franz Delitzsch who, born with an intellect of admirable
+temper, was also endowed by Heaven with a soul--and a beautiful soul it
+was--was one of the few theologians who, partly at least, admitted this
+claim, and sought earnestly and diligently after these spiritual and
+poetic possibilities, and was amply rewarded for his labours.
+
+
+
+
+
+I. THE CHASSIDIM(1)
+
+
+Throughout the whole of that interesting field of Theological Literature
+which deals with the genesis and course of religious movements, there is
+probably none whose history, even whose name, is so little known to
+English students, as that of the Chassidim. And yet it would be difficult
+to point, in comparatively recent times, to a Dissenting movement more
+strikingly complete in its development, more suggestive of analogy, more
+full of interest in its original purpose, more pregnant of warning in its
+decay.
+
+The Hebrew word "Chassidim"(2) merely means "the Pious," and appears to
+have been complacently adopted by the early apostles of the sect. But the
+thing--Chassidism--was, in its inception at all events, a revolt among the
+Jews of Eastern Europe against the excessive casuistry of the contemporary
+Rabbis. It was in fact one more manifestation of the yearning of the human
+heart towards the Divine idea, and of its ceaseless craving for direct
+communion with God. It was the protest of an emotional but uneducated
+people against a one-sided expression of Judaism, presented to them in
+cold and over-subtle disquisitions which not only did they not understand,
+but which shut out the play of the feelings and the affections, so that
+religion was made almost impossible to them.
+
+Some account of the sect is the more necessary because, although the
+Chassidim have not been wholly ignored by historians or novelists, the
+references to them have generally, for perfectly intelligible reasons,
+been either biassed or inaccurate. The historians who have treated of them
+have been almost exclusively men saturated with Western culture and
+rationalism. To them the rude and uncouth manifestations of an
+undisciplined religious spirit could not be other than repellent; to them
+Chassidism was a movement to be dismissed as unaesthetic and irrational.
+
+To the purposes of fiction the romantic side of Chassidism lends itself
+readily, but the novelists who have used this material have confined
+themselves to its externals. Indeed, to have done more would have involved
+a tedious and unremunerative study of difficult Hebrew texts, an
+undertaking not to be expected from the most conscientious writers of this
+class. Thus Franzos in his references to the Jews of Barnow describes
+faithfully the outer signs of the man, his long coat and tangled curls,
+but the inner life, the world in which the Chassid moved and had his
+being, was unknown to him and is therefore unrecorded.
+
+As to my treatment of the subject, I confess that there was a time when I
+loved the Chassidim as there was a time when I hated them. And even now I
+am not able to suppress these feelings. I have rather tried to guide my
+feelings in such a way as to love in Chassidism what is ideal and noble,
+and to hate in it what turned out bad and pernicious for Judaism. How far
+I have been successful is another question. At least I have endeavoured to
+write this paper in such a spirit. But of one thing I must warn the
+reader--the desire to give some clear notion of the leading ideas of
+Chassidism has compelled me to quote some passages in which the Chassidim
+have spoken in very offensive terms of their opponents. In justice to
+these I must remark that unfortunately religious struggles are usually
+conducted on the most irreligious principles. Thus the Chassidim imputed
+to their antagonists, the contemporary Rabbis, many vices from which they
+were free. Certainly, there was, as one can read in every history of
+Jewish religion, something wrong in the state of Judaism. But I know
+people who maintain that there is something very wrong in the present
+state of Judaism, and who despair of a regeneration. But surely this is a
+silly exaggeration. The Chassidim also exaggerated. It would be better to
+take but little notice of their accusations and dwell more on that which
+was spoken in a kind and loving spirit.
+
+As to the literature of the subject, I can only say here that I have made
+use of every book I could consult, both in English and in foreign
+libraries. But I cannot pledge myself to be what early Jewish writers
+called "a donkey which carries books." I exercise my own choice and my own
+judgment on many points.
+
+As an active force for good, Chassidism was short-lived. For, as I propose
+to show, there lurked among its central tenets the germs of the degeneracy
+which so speedily came upon it. But its early purposes were high, its
+doctrines fairly pure, its aspirations ideal and sublime.
+
+The founder of the sect was one Israel Baalshem,(3) and the story of his
+parentage, birth, and childhood, and the current anecdotes of his
+subsequent career play a considerable part in Chassidic literature. But
+the authentic materials for his biography are everywhere interwoven with
+much that is pure legend and with much more that is miraculous. This was,
+perhaps, inevitable, and is certainly not an unfamiliar feature in the
+personal histories of religious reformers as presented by their followers
+and devotees.
+
+The sayings and doings of Baalshem are an essential--perhaps the most
+essential--portion of any account of the sect. For Baalshem is the centre
+of the Chassidic world, and Chassidism is so intimately bound up with the
+personality of its founder that any separation between them is well nigh
+impossible. To the Chassidim Baalshem is not a man who established a
+theory or set forth a system; he himself was the incarnation of a theory
+and his whole life the revelation of a system.
+
+Even those portions of his history which are plainly legendary have their
+uses in indicating the ideals and in illustrating the aspirations of the
+early Chassidim; while their circulation and the ready credence they
+received are valuable evidence of the real power and influence of
+Baalshem's personality.
+
+In the tale as told by the sect little is omitted of those biographical
+accessories which are proper to an Avatar. There is all the conventional
+heralding of a pre-ordained advent; all the usual signs and portents of a
+new dispensation may be recognised in the almost preternatural virtues of
+Baalshem's parents, in the miraculous annunciation and exceptional
+circumstances of his nativity, and in the early indication of a strong and
+fearless individuality. Everywhere it seems to be suggested that Baalshem
+from his infancy was conscious of a lofty mission. It is already in tender
+years that he is made to give evidence of an indifference to conventional
+restraints and accepted ideals.
+
+Rabbi Eliezer and his wife, the parents of Baalshem, dwelt, as the story
+goes, in Moldavia. They are described as a pious and God-fearing couple,
+who, when they had already reached old age, were still childless. They are
+accredited with a spotless rectitude, which was unimpaired by a long
+series of strange vicissitudes and misfortunes.
+
+Ultimately, an angel of God appeared to Eliezer and announced that, as he
+had successfully withstood all the temptations and sufferings by which he
+had been tried, God was about to reward him with a son, who was destined
+to enlighten the eyes of all Israel. Therefore his name should be Israel,
+for in him the words of Scripture were to be fulfilled, "Thou art my
+servant, Israel, in whom I will be glorified." In due course the promise
+was fulfilled, and to the aged couple a son was born, who was named Israel
+according to the angel's word. The date of Baalshem's birth is about 1700;
+his birthplace, in Bukowina, in a hitherto unidentified village which the
+authorities call Ukop, then still belonging to Roumania. The child's
+mother died soon after he was weaned, and his father did not long survive
+her. But before Eliezer died he took his child in his arms, and blessing
+him, bade him fear naught, for God would always be with him.
+
+As Eliezer had been greatly honoured in the community in which he lived,
+his orphan son was carefully tended and educated. He was early supplied
+with an instructor in the Holy Law. But though he learned with rare
+facility, he rejected the customary methods of instruction. One day, while
+still quite young, his teacher missed him, and on seeking found him
+sitting alone in the forest that skirted his native village, in happy and
+fearless solitude. He repeated this escapade so often that it was thought
+best to leave him to follow his own bent. A little later we find him
+engaged as assistant to a schoolmaster. His duty was not to teach, but to
+take the children from their homes to the synagogue and thence on to the
+school. It was his wont while accompanying the children to the synagogue
+to teach them solemn hymns which he sang with them. In the synagogue he
+encouraged them to sing the responses, so that the voices of the children
+penetrated through the heavens and moved the Divine father to compassion.
+Satan, fearing lest his power on earth should thereby be diminished,
+assumed the shape of a werewolf, and, appearing before the procession of
+children on their way to the synagogue, put them to flight. In consequence
+of this alarming incident the children's services were suspended. But
+Israel, recollecting his father's counsel to fear naught, besought the
+parents to be allowed to lead the children once more in the old way. His
+request was granted, and when the werewolf appeared a second time Israel
+attacked him with a club and routed him.
+
+In his fourteenth year Israel became a beadle at the Beth Hammidrash.(4)
+Here he assiduously but secretly pursued the study of the Law. Yet, being
+anxious that none should know his design, he read and worked only at
+night, when the schoolroom was empty and the usual scholars had retired.
+During the daytime he slept, so that he was popularly believed to be both
+ignorant and lazy. Despite these precautions, however, his true character
+was revealed to one person. A certain holy man, the father of a young
+student at the college, had discovered some old manuscripts which
+contained the deepest secrets. Before his death he bade his son repair to
+Ukop, Israel's birthplace, telling him that he would find one Israel, son
+of Eliezer, to whom the precious documents were to be entrusted. They
+possessed, so the old man declared, a certain mystic and heavenly affinity
+with Israel's soul. The student carried out his father's instructions, and
+at last discovered the object of his search in the beadle of the Beth
+Hammidrash. Israel admitted him to his friendship and confidence on the
+condition of secrecy as to his real character. The student, however, paid
+dearly for this acquaintance with Israel. Contrary to Baalshem's advice,
+he entered upon a dangerous incantation in the course of which he made a
+mistake so serious that it cost him his life.
+
+Upon the death of his friend, Baalshem left his native village and settled
+as a teacher in a small town near Brody. Here, although his true mission
+and character were still unknown, he became much respected for his rigid
+probity, and was frequently chosen as umpire in disputes among Jews. On
+one of these occasions he arbitrated with so much learning and
+impartiality that not only did he satisfy both parties, but one of them, a
+learned man of Brody, named Abraham, offered him his own daughter in
+marriage. Israel, to whom it had been revealed that Abraham's daughter was
+his predestined wife, immediately accepted the offer and the act of
+betrothal was drawn up. But wishing his true character to remain unknown
+he stipulated that Abraham, although a "Talmid Chacham" (student)(5)
+himself and therefore presumably desirous that his daughter should marry a
+scholar, should omit from the betrothal-deed all the titles of honour
+usually appended to the name of a learned bridegroom. While returning to
+Brody, Abraham died, and Gershon his son, a scholar still greater and more
+celebrated than his father, was surprised and shocked to find a deed of
+betrothal among his father's papers, from which it appeared that his
+sister was to wed a man with apparently no claim to scholarship or
+learning. He protested to his sister, but she declined to entertain any
+objections to a marriage which her father had arranged. When the time for
+the wedding was at hand, Israel gave up his post as teacher, and repaired
+to Brody. Disguised as a peasant he presented himself before his future
+brother-in-law, who was then fulfilling some high judicial function.
+Gershon taking him for a beggar offered him alms, but Israel, refusing the
+money, asked for a private interview, stating that he had an important
+secret to reveal. He then, to Gershon's surprise and disgust, explained
+who he was and that he had come to claim his bride. As the girl was
+determined to obey her father's will the affair was settled and the day
+fixed. On the morning of the wedding Israel revealed to his bride his real
+character and mission, at the same time enjoining secrecy. Evil fortunes
+would befall them, he said, but a better time would eventually follow.
+
+After the wedding, Gershon, having in vain attempted to instruct his
+seemingly ignorant brother-in-law, decided to rid himself of his presence.
+He gave his sister the choice of being separated from her husband, or of
+leaving the town in his company. She chose the latter, and thereupon the
+two left Brody and began a life of hardship and suffering. Israel chose
+for his new home a spot on one of the spurs of the Carpathian Mountains.
+No Jews lived there, and Israel and his wife were thus separated from the
+society of their fellows in a life of complete and unchanging solitude.
+Israel dug lime in the ravines among the mountains, and his wife conveyed
+it for sale to the nearest town. Their life at this period seems to have
+been one of great privation, but the harder Israel's outward lot, the more
+he increased in spiritual greatness. In his solitude he gave himself up
+entirely to devotion and religious contemplation. His habit was to climb
+to the summit of the mountains and wander about rapt in spiritual
+ecstasies. He fasted, prayed, made continual ablutions, and observed all
+the customary outward and inward exercises of piety and devotion.
+
+After seven years, Gershon, who was well aware of the bitter poverty which
+his sister endured, relented and brought her and her husband back to
+Brody. At first he employed Baalshem as his coachman, but as he proved
+wholly unfit for this work Gershon rented a small inn in a remote village,
+and there established his sister and her husband. The business of the inn
+was managed by the wife, while Baalshem passed most of his time in a hut
+in a neighbouring forest. Here he once more gave himself up to meditation
+and preparation for his future work, and here, a little later, when nearly
+forty-two years of age, to a few chosen spirits, afterwards his most
+fervent disciples, he first revealed his true character and mission.
+
+From this point unfortunately the materials for a continuous biography are
+wanting; we next hear of Baalshem discharging the functions of an ordinary
+Rabbi at Miedziboz in Podolia, but for the remainder of his personal
+history we have to be content with detached anecdotes and fragmentary
+passages in his life, the sum total of which goes to show that he resided
+in Podolia and Wallachia, teaching his doctrines to his disciples and
+"working Wonders." He does not seem to have figured as a public preacher,
+nor has he left behind him any written work. He appears rather to have
+used the method, familiar to students of Greek philosophy, of teaching by
+conversations with his friends and disciples. These conversations, and the
+parables with which they were largely interspersed, were remembered and
+stored up by his hearers. By his neighbours the country folk, Baalshem was
+regarded simply as "a man of God." He was allowed to pursue his course
+undisturbed by persecution of the serious character which his more
+aggressive successors provoked. Such of the Rabbis as were aware of his
+existence despised him and his ways, but the Rabbinical world was at that
+time too much occupied in the controversy between Eybeschuetz and Emden to
+concern itself with the vagaries of an obscure and apparently "unlearned"
+eccentric. Baalshem also took part in the disputes which were held in
+Lemberg, the capital of Galicia (1757?), between the Rabbis and the
+Frankists,(6) who denounced the Talmud to the Polish Government and wanted
+to have all the Rabbinical books destroyed. Baalshem suffered from this
+excitement in a most terrible way. The abrogation of the Oral Law meant
+for him the ruin of Judaism.
+
+Baalshem, in forming the little band of devoted followers who were
+destined to spread a knowledge of his creed, travelled considerably about
+Wallachia. He at one time decided to make a pilgrimage to Palestine, but
+when he reached Constantinople he felt himself inspired to return and
+continue his work at home. He died at Miedziboz on the eve of Pentecost,
+1761.
+
+After his death his disciples, of whom one Beer of Mizriez was the most
+prominent, undertook the proselytising mission for which Baalshem had
+prepared them, but from which he himself appears to have abstained. They
+preached and taught in all the provinces of Russia where Jews may reside,
+and in Roumania, and Galicia. The number of the sect at the present day is
+probably about half a million.
+
+Returning now to Baalshem the founder, it may be noted that his appearance
+as a teacher and reformer was accompanied and justified by a customary and
+adequate number of miracles. To one disciple he revealed secrets which
+could have become known to him only by divine revelation; to another he
+appeared with a nimbus round his head. On the evidence of the Chassidim we
+learn that Baalshem performed all the recognised signs and marvels which
+have ever been the customary minor characteristics of men of similar type
+in similar environment. When Baalshem desired to cross a stream, he spread
+forth his mantle upon the waters, and standing thereupon passed safely to
+the other side. Ghosts evacuated haunted houses at the mere mention of his
+name. Was he alone in the forest on a wintry night, he had but to touch a
+tree with his finger tips and flames burst forth. When his spirit wandered
+through the angelic spheres, as was frequently the case, he obtained
+access to Paradise for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited
+without through long thousands of mournful years. These and other miracles
+need not be examined. Here, as in the case of other such blissful seasons
+of grace, they were the ephemeral though important accessories in
+establishing the inspired character of his utterances and the authority of
+his injunctions. It is not as a worker of miracles, but as a religious
+teacher and reformer, that Baalshem is interesting.
+
+Properly to understand the nature and special direction of his teaching,
+it is necessary in some measure to realise the character of the field in
+which he worked; to consider, in other words, the moral and religious
+condition of the Jews in those districts where Chassidism first took root.
+
+In a Hebrew Hymn, written about 1000 A.C., and still recited in the
+synagogue on the Day of Atonement, the poet expresses the strange and
+bitter fortunes of his race in touching words of mingled sorrow and
+exultation.
+
+
+    Destroyed lies Zion and profaned,
+    Of splendour and renown bereft,
+    Her ancient glories wholly waned,
+    One deathless treasure only left;
+        Still ours, O Lord,
+        Thy Holy Word.
+
+
+And this Divine Word it was, which a persecuted religion has sought to
+preserve intact through so many centuries of persecution, and for the sake
+of which no labour seemed too severe, no sacrifice too large. "Bethink
+Thee, O God," exclaimed one of our Jewish sages who flourished about the
+same period, "bethink Thee of Thy faithful children who, amid their
+poverty and want, are busy in the study of Thy Law. Bethink Thee of the
+poor in Israel who are willing to suffer hunger and destitution if only
+they can secure for their children the knowledge of Thy Law." And so
+indeed it was. Old and young, weak and strong, rich and poor, all pursued
+that single study, the Torah. The product of this prolonged study is that
+gigantic literature which, as a long unbroken chain of spiritual activity,
+connects together the various periods of the Jews' chequered and eventful
+history. All ages and all lands have contributed to the development of
+this supreme study. For under the word Torah was comprised not only the
+Law, but also the contributions of later times expressing either the
+thoughts or the emotions of holy and sincere men; and even their honest
+scepticism was not entirely excluded. As in the canon of the Bible,
+Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon found place in the same volume that
+contains the Law and the Prophets, so at a later time people did not
+object to put the philosophical works of Maimonides and the songs of Judah
+Hallevi on the same level with the Code of the Law compiled by R. Isaac
+Alfasi, and the commentaries on the Bible by R. Solomon b. Isaac.(7) None
+of them was declared infallible, but also to none of them, as soon as
+people were convinced of the author's sincerity, was denied the homage due
+to seekers after truth. Almost every author was called Rabbi ("my master")
+or Rabbenu ("our master"),(8) and nearly every book was regarded more or
+less as a contribution to the great bulk of the Torah. It was called
+Writ,(9) and was treated with a certain kind of piety. But, by a series of
+accidents too long to be related here, sincerity ceased and sport took its
+place. I refer to the casuistic schools commonly known by the name of
+Pilpulists(10) (the "seasoned" or the "sharp" ones), who flourished in the
+last two centuries preceding ours. To the authors of this unhappy period,
+a few glorious exceptions always allowed, the preceding Jewish literature
+did not mean a "fountain of living waters," supplying men with truth and
+religious inspiration, but rather a kind of armoury providing them with
+juristic cases over which to fight, and to out-do each other in sophistry
+and subtlety. As a consequence they cared little or nothing for that part
+of the Jewish literature that appeals less to the intellect than to the
+feelings of men. In short, religion consisted only of complicated cases
+and innumerable ordinances, in which the wit of these men found delight.
+But the emotional part of it, whose root is the Faith and Love of men, was
+almost entirely neglected.
+
+But it was precisely these higher religious emotions that were Baalshem's
+peculiar province, and it was to them that he assigned in his religious
+system a place befitting their importance and their dignity. And the
+locality where his ministration lay was curiously adapted for such
+propaganda. To that universal study of the Law of which I have just spoken
+there was one exception. That exception was amongst the Jews in the
+territories which bordered on the Carpathian Mountains, and comprise the
+principalities of Moldavia, and Wallachia, Bukowina, and the Ukraine.
+
+It is historically certain that the first arrival of the Jews in Roumania
+was at a very early date, but there is no trace of any intellectual
+productivity among the immigrants until recent times, and it is admitted
+that the study of the Law was almost entirely neglected. It was in these
+districts of mental, and perhaps we might add of even spiritual, darkness
+that Chassidism took its rise and achieved its first success. "The sect of
+the Chassidim," says one of the bitterest but most trustworthy of their
+opponents, "first gained ground in the most uncivilised provinces; in the
+wild ravines of Wallachia and the dreary steppes of the Ukraine."
+
+Apart from the genius of its founder, Chassidism owed its rapid growth to
+the intellectual barrenness of these districts as compared with the
+intellectual fertility of the other regions where Jews most thickly
+congregated. The Roumanian Jews were to some extent under the jurisdiction
+of the Rabbis of Poland. Now the Poles were celebrated even in Germany for
+the elaboration of their casuistry. These over-subtle Rabbis, delighting
+in the quibbles of their sophistry, and reducing religion to an unending
+number of juristic calculations and all sorts of possibilities and
+impossibilities, were but too apt to forget the claims of feeling in their
+eager desire to question and to settle everything. They may have been
+satisfactory guides in matters spiritual to the men of their own stamp,
+but they were of no avail to their Roumanian brethren who failed to
+recognise religion in the garb of casuistry. It was, therefore, not
+surprising that a revolt against the excess of intellectualism should have
+sprung up and flourished in those districts where the inhabitants were
+constitutionally incapable of appreciating the delights of argument. The
+field was ready, and in the fulness of time came the sower in the person
+of Baalshem.
+
+In the above estimate of the Polish Rabbis there undoubtedly lurks a touch
+of exaggeration. But it represents the view which the Chassidim took of
+their opponents. The whole life of Baalshem is a protest against the
+typical Rabbi thus conceived. The essential difference in the ideals of
+the two parties is perhaps best illustrated in those portions of their
+biographical literature where legend treads most closely upon the heels of
+fact.
+
+The hero of Polish Rabbinic biography at five years of age can recite by
+heart the most difficult tractates of the Talmud; at eight he is the
+disciple of the most celebrated teacher of the time, and perplexes him by
+the penetrative subtlety of his questions; while at thirteen he appears
+before the world as a full-fledged Doctor of the Law.
+
+The hero of the Chassidim has a totally different education, and his
+distinctive glory is of another kind. The legendary stories about
+Baalshem's youth tell us little of his proficiency in Talmudic studies;
+instead of sitting in the Beth Hammidrash with the folios of some
+casuistic treatise spread out before him, Baalshem passes his time singing
+hymns out of doors, or under the green trees of the forest with the
+children. Satan, however, says the Chassid, is more afraid of these
+innocent exercises than of all the controversies in the Meheram Shiff.(11)
+It was through external nature, the woods of his childhood, the hills and
+wild ravines of the Carpathians where he passed many of his maturer years,
+that Baalshem, according to his disciples, reached his spiritual
+confirmation. The Chassidic hero had no celebrated Rabbi for his master.
+He was his own teacher. If not self-taught, it was from angelic lips, or
+even the Divine voice itself, that he learned the higher knowledge. From
+the source whence the Torah flowed Baalshem received heavenly lore. His
+method of self-education, his ways of life, his choice of associates were
+all instances of revolt; not only did he teach a wholly different theory
+and practice, but he and his disciples seem to have missed no opportunity
+of denouncing the old teachers as misleading and ungodly. Among the many
+anecdotes illustrating this feature, it is told how once, on the evening
+before the great Day of Atonement, Baalshem was noticed by his disciples
+to be, contrary to his usual custom, depressed and ill at ease. The whole
+subsequent day he passed in violent weeping and lamentations. At its close
+he once more resumed his wonted cheerfulness of manner. When asked for the
+explanation of his behaviour, he replied that the Holy Spirit had revealed
+to him that heavy accusations were being made against the Jewish people,
+and a heavy punishment had been ordained upon them. The anger of heaven
+was caused by the Rabbis, whose sole occupation was to invent lying
+premisses and to draw from them false conclusions. All the truly wise
+Rabbis of the olden time (such as the Tannaim, the Amoraim(12) and their
+followers, whom Baalshem regarded as so many saints and prophets) had now
+stood forth as the accusers of their modern successors by whom their words
+were so grossly perverted from their original meaning. On this account
+Baalshem's tears had been shed, and his prayers as usual had been
+successful. The impending judgment was annulled. On another occasion, when
+he overheard the sounds of eager, loud discussion issuing from a
+Rabbinical college, Baalshem, closing his ears with his hands, declared
+that it was such disputants who delayed the redemption of Israel from
+captivity. Satan, he said, incites the Rabbis to study those portions of
+Jewish literature only on which they can whet the sharpness of their
+intellects, but from all writings of which the reading would promote piety
+and the fear of God he keeps them away. "Where there is much study," says
+a disciple of Baalshem, "there is little piety." "Jewish Devils"(13) is
+one of the numerous polite epithets applied to the Rabbis by the friends
+of Baalshem. "Even the worst sinners are better than they; so blind are
+they in the arrogance of their self-conceit that their very devotion to
+the Law becomes a vehicle for their sin." It will be found when we deal
+with the most positive side of Baalshem's teaching that this antagonism to
+the attitude and methods of the contemporary Rabbis is further emphasised,
+and it will readily be seen that his whole scheme of religion and of
+conduct in relation to God and man rendered this acknowledged hostility
+inevitable. In approaching this part of our subject it should be
+remembered that, as stated above, Baalshem himself wrote nothing. For a
+knowledge of his sayings we are therefore dependent on the reports of his
+friends and disciples. And it is not unfrequently necessary to supplement
+these by the teaching of his followers, whom we may suppose in large
+measure to have caught the spirit of their master. Unfortunately the
+original authorities are in a difficult Hebrew patois which often obscures
+the precise meaning of whole passages.
+
+The originality of Baalshem's teaching has been frequently impugned,
+chiefly by the suggestion that he drew largely from the Zohar (Book of
+Brightness).(14) This mystical book, "the Bible of the Cabbalists,"
+whether we regard its subject-matter or its history and influence, is
+unique in literature. Its pretended author is Simeon ben Yochai, a great
+Rabbi of the second century, but the real writer is probably one Moses de
+Leon, a Spanish Jew, who lived eleven centuries later. The book is one of
+the most interesting literary forgeries, and is a marvellous mixture of
+good and evil. A passage of delicate religious fancy is succeeded by
+another of gross obscenity in illustration and suggestion; true piety and
+wild blasphemy are strangely mingled together. Baalshem undoubtedly had
+studied the Zohar, and he even is reported to have said that the reading
+of the Zohar had enabled him to see into the whole universe of things.
+But, for all that, Baalshem was no copyist; and the Zohar, although it may
+have suggested a hint to him here and there, was not the source whence his
+inspiration was drawn.
+
+Its attraction for Baalshem is sufficiently explained by the fantastic,
+imaginative, and emotional nature of its contents. It lent itself more
+easily than the older Rabbinical literature to new explanations unthought
+of by its author. But even the Talmud and its early commentaries became
+apocalyptic to the heroes of Chassidism. Nay, the driest and most legal
+disquisitions about _meum_ and _tuum_ could be translated into parables
+and allegories and symbols full of the most exalted meanings. Baalshem,
+like every other religious reformer, was partially the product of his age.
+The influences of the past, the history and literature of his own people,
+helped to make him what he was. But they do not rob him of his
+originality. He was a religious revivalist in the best sense; full of
+burning faith in his God and his cause; convinced utterly of the value of
+his work and the truth of his teaching.
+
+Although there can be no real doubt of Baalshem's claim to originality, it
+should be borne in mind that his teaching is not only distinctively
+Jewish, but that for every part of it parallels and analogies could be
+found in the older Hebrew literature. Indeed it is not wonderful that in a
+literature, extending over 2000 years, of a people whose chief thoughts
+have been religion, and who have come in contact with so many external
+religious and philosophic influences, the germs can be discovered of
+almost every conceivable system, and the outline of almost every
+imaginable doctrine.
+
+The keynote of all Baalshem's teachings is the Omnipresence, or more
+strictly the Immanence, of God. This is the source from which flows
+naturally every article of his creed; the universality of the Divinity is
+the foundation of the entire Chassidic fabric. The idea of the constant
+living presence of God in all existence permeates the whole of Baalshem's
+scheme; it is insisted on in every relation; from it is deduced every
+important proposition and every rule in conduct of his school.
+
+All created things and every product of human intelligence owe their being
+to God. All generation and all existence spring from the thought and will
+of God. It is incumbent upon man to believe that all things are pervaded
+by the divine life, and when he speaks he should remember that it is this
+divine life which is speaking through him. There is nothing which is void
+of God. If we imagine for a moment such a thing to be, it would instantly
+fall into nothingness. In every human thought God is present. If the
+thought be gross or evil, we should seek to raise and ennoble it by
+carrying it back to its origin. So, if a man be suddenly overwhelmed by
+the aspect of a beautiful woman, he should remember that this splendour of
+beauty is owing to the all-pervading emanation from the divine. When he
+remembers that the source of corporeal beauty is God, he will not be
+content to let his thought abide with the body when he can rise to the
+inward contemplation of the infinite soul of beauty, which is God. A
+disciple of Baalshem has said: Even as in the jewels of his beloved the
+lover sees only the beauty of her he loves, so does the true lover of God
+see in all the appearances of this world, the vitalising and generative
+power of his divine master. If you do not see the world in the light of
+God you separate the creation from its Creator. He who does not fully
+believe in this universality of God's presence has never properly
+acknowledged God's Sovereignty, for he excludes God from an existing
+portion of the actual world. The word of God (to Baalshem, a synonym for
+God himself), which "is settled in heaven" and "established on earth," is
+still and always speaking, acting, and generating throughout heaven and
+earth in endless gradations and varieties. If the vitalising word were to
+cease, chaos would come again. The belief in a single creation after which
+the Master withdrew from his completed work, is erroneous and heretical.
+The vivifying power is never withdrawn from the world which it animates.
+Creation is continuous; an unending manifestation of the goodness of God.
+All things are an affluence from the two divine attributes of Power and
+Love, which express themselves in various images and reflections.
+
+This is the doctrine of universality in Chassidism. God, the father of
+Israel, God the Merciful, God the All-powerful, the God of Love, not only
+created everything but is embodied in everything. The necessity of
+believing this doctrine is the cardinal Dogma. But as creation is
+continuous so also is revelation. This revelation is only to be grasped by
+faith. Faith, therefore, is more efficacious than learning. Thus it is
+that in times of persecution, the wise and the foolish, the sinner and the
+saint, are wont alike to give up their life for their faith. They who
+could render no answer to the questions of the casuist are yet willing to
+die the most cruel of deaths rather than deny their faith in the One and
+Supreme God. Their strength to face danger and death is owing to that
+divine illumination of the soul which is more exalted than knowledge.
+
+We should thus regard all things in the light of so many manifestations of
+the Divinity. God is present in all things; therefore there is good,
+actual or potential, in all things. It is our duty everywhere to seek out
+and to honour the good, and not to arrogate to ourselves the right to
+judge that which may seem to be evil. In thinking therefore of a fellow-
+man, we should above all things realise in him the presence of the spirit
+of good. Whence we have the Doctrine that each of us, while thinking
+humbly of himself, should always be ready to think well, and always slow
+to think evil, of another. This explains the Chassidic attitude towards
+erring humanity. Baalshem viewed human sin and infirmity in a very
+different light from that of the ordinary Rabbi. Ever conscious of the
+Divine side of Humanity, he vigorously combated the gratuitous assumption
+of sinfulness in man which was a fertile subject with contemporary
+preachers. They, among the Roumanian Jews as in other communities,
+delighted chiefly to dwell on the dark side of things, and found their
+favourite theme in elaborate descriptions of the infernal punishments that
+were awaiting the sinner after death. It is related how on one occasion
+Baalshem rebuked one of these. The preacher had been denouncing woe to an
+audience of whom he knew nothing whether for evil or for good. Baalshem,
+indignant at this indiscriminative abuse and conceited arrogation of the
+divine office of judgment, turned on him in the following words: "Woe upon
+thee who darest to speak evil of Israel! Dost not know that every Jew,
+when he utters ever so short a prayer at the close of day, is performing a
+great work before which the angels in heaven bow down?" Great, as it would
+seem, was the value set by Baalshem upon the smallest evidence of the
+higher nature in man, and few there were, as he believed, who, if their
+spirit was not darkened by pride, did not now and again give proof of the
+divine stamp in which God had created them. No sin so separates us from
+God that we need despair of return. From every rung of the moral ladder,
+no matter how low, let man seek God. If he but fully believe that nothing
+is void of God, and that God is concealed in the midst of apparent ruin
+and degradation, he will not fear lest God be far from him. God is
+regained in a moment of repentance, for repentance "transcends the limits
+of space and time." And he who leads the sinner to repentance causes a
+divine joy; it is as though a king's son had been in captivity and were
+now brought back to his father's gaze.
+
+Baalshem refused to regard any one as wholly irredeemable. His was an
+optimistic faith. God was to be praised in gladness by the dwellers in
+this glorious world. The true believer, recognising the reflection of God
+in every man, should hopefully strive, when that reflection was obscured
+by sin, to restore the likeness of God in man. The peculiar detestability
+of sin lies in this, that man rejects the earthly manifestations of the
+Divinity and pollutes them. One of Baalshem's disciples delighted in the
+saying that the most hardened sinners were not to be despaired of, but
+prayed for. None knows the heart of man, and none should judge his
+neighbour. Let him who burns with zeal for God's sake, exercise his zeal
+on himself, not others. Baalshem said, "Let no one think himself better
+than his neighbour, for all serve God; each according to the measure of
+understanding which God has given him."
+
+From this position it is a natural step to Baalshem's view of prayer. He
+is reputed to have said that all the greatness he had achieved was the
+issue not of study but of prayer. But true prayer "must move," as Baalshem
+phrased it, "in the realms above," and not be concerned with affairs
+sublunary. Your prayer should not be taken up with your wishes and needs,
+but should be the means to bring you nigh to God. In prayer man must lay
+aside his own individuality, and not even be conscious of his existence;
+for if, when he prays, Self is not absolutely quiescent, the object of
+prayer is unattainable. Indeed it is only through God's grace that after
+true prayer man is yet alive; to such a point has the annihilation of self
+proceeded.
+
+It may be necessary to caution the reader against ascribing to Baalshem
+any modern rationalistic notions on the subject of prayer. The power of
+prayer, in the old-fashioned sense, to produce an answer from God was
+never doubted by Baalshem for a moment. Baalshem's deity is not restricted
+towards any side by any philosophic considerations. All Baalshem meant was
+that any reference or regard to earthly requirements was unworthy and
+destructive of this communion of man with God. The wise man, says
+Baalshem, does not trouble the king with innumerable petitions about
+trifles. His desire is merely to gain admission into the king's presence
+and to speak with him without a go-between. To be with the king whom he
+loves so dearly is for him the highest good. But his love for the king has
+its reward; for the king loves him.
+
+It has already been implied that, with regard to our duty towards our
+fellow-man, we must not only honour him for the good, and abstain from
+judging the evil that may be in him, but must pray for him. Furthermore we
+must work for his spiritual and moral reclamation. In giving practical
+effect in his own life to this doctrine, Baalshem's conduct was in
+striking contrast to that of his contemporaries. He habitually consorted
+with outcasts and sinners, with the poor and uneducated of both sexes,
+whom the other teachers ignored. He thus won for his doctrines a way to
+the heart of the people by adapting his life and language to their
+understanding and sympathies. In illustration of this, as well as of his
+hatred of vanity and display, it is told how, on the occasion of his being
+accorded a public reception by the Jews on his arrival at Brody, instead
+of addressing to them in the conventional fashion some subtle discourse
+upon a Talmudical difficulty, he contented himself with conversing upon
+trivial topics in the local dialect with some of the less important
+persons in the crowd.
+
+This incident is perhaps the more noteworthy because it occurred in Brody,
+which was at that time a seat of learning and Rabbinic culture,--a place
+where, for that very reason, Chassidism was never able to gain a foothold.
+It is probable enough that Baalshem in his visits to this town kept aloof
+from the learned and the wise, and sought to gather round him the
+neglected and humbler elements of Jewish society. It is well known that
+Baalshem consorted a good deal with the innkeepers of the district, who
+were held in very low repute among their brethren. The following remark by
+one of his followers is very suggestive in this respect. Just as only
+superficial minds attach a certain holiness to special places, whilst with
+the deeper ones all places are alike holy, so that to them it makes no
+difference whether prayers be said in the synagogue or in the forest; so
+the latter believe that not only prophecies and visions come from heaven,
+but that every utterance of man, if properly understood, contains a
+message of God. Those who are absorbed in God will easily find the divine
+element in everything which they hear, even though the speaker himself be
+quite ignorant of it.
+
+This line of conduct gave a fair opening for attack to his opponents, an
+opportunity of which they were not slow to avail themselves. Baalshem was
+pointed at as the associate of the lowest classes. They avenged themselves
+for his neglect of and hostility to the learned by imputing the worst
+motives to his indifference to appearances. He was accused of idling about
+the streets with disreputable characters, and one polemical treatise draws
+the vilest inferences from his apparent familiarity with women. To this
+charge Baalshem's conduct, innocent in itself, gave some colour; for his
+views and habits in relation to women marked a strong divergence from
+current customs. The position of women in contemporary circles was neither
+debased nor inevitably unhappy, but it was distinctly subordinate. Their
+education was almost entirely neglected, and their very existence was
+practically ignored. According to the Chassidic doctrine of Universality,
+woman was necessarily to be honoured. "All Jews," says one Chassid, "even
+the uneducated and the women, believe in God." Baalshem frequently
+associated with women, assigning to them not only social equality, but a
+high degree of religious importance.
+
+His own wife he reverenced as a saint; when she died he abandoned the hope
+of rising to heaven while yet alive, like Elijah of old, saying mournfully
+that undivided such translation might have happened, but for him alone it
+was impossible. Then again in a form of religion utilising so largely the
+emotions of Faith and Love there was a strong appeal to the female mind.
+The effect of this was soon evident, and Baalshem did not neglect to
+profit by it. Among the most devoted of his early adherents were women.
+One of them was the heroine of a favourite anecdote concerning Baalshem's
+work of Love and Rescue. It is related that in a certain village there
+dwelt a woman whose life was so disgraceful that her brothers at last
+determined to kill her. With this object they enticed her into a
+neighbouring wood, but guided by the Holy Spirit Baalshem intervened at
+the critical moment, and dissuading the men from their purpose rescued the
+sinner. The woman afterwards became a sort of Magdalen in the new
+community.
+
+Above I have endeavoured to throw together in some order of sequence the
+doctrines and practical rules of conduct which Baalshem and his early
+disciples seem to have deduced from their central idea of the omnipresence
+of God. This was necessary in order to give a connected idea of their
+creed, but it is right to say that nowhere in Chassidic literature have
+these deductions been logically co-ordinated. Perhaps their solitary
+attempt to formulate and condense their distinctive views is confined to a
+statement of their idea of piety or service of God, and an examination of
+three cardinal virtues, Humility, Cheerfulness, and Enthusiasm. What the
+Chassidim held as to true service brings into relief Baalshem's
+characteristic manner of regarding the Law.
+
+By the service of God was generally understood a life which fulfilled the
+precepts of the written and oral law. Baalshem understood by it a certain
+attitude towards life as a whole. For, as God is realised in life, each
+activity of life when rightly conceived and executed is at once a
+manifestation and a service of the Divine. All things have been created
+for the glory and service of God. The smallest worm serves Him with all
+its power. Thus, while eating, drinking, sleeping, and the other ordinary
+functions of the body are regarded by the old Jewish moralists as mere
+means to an end, to Baalshem they are already a service of God in
+themselves. All pleasures are manifestations of God's attribute of love;
+and, so regarded, they are at once spiritualised and ennobled. Man should
+seek to reach a higher level of purity and holiness before partaking of
+food and drink, than even before the study of the Law. For when the Torah
+had once been given by God the whole world became instinct with its grace.
+He who speaks of worldly matters and religious matters as if they were
+separate and distinct, is a heretic.
+
+Upon the continual and uninterrupted study of the Law, Baalshem lays but
+little stress. He accepted the ordinary belief that the Law (under which
+term are included not only the Pentateuch, but the whole Old Testament and
+the major portion of the old Rabbinic literature) was a revelation of God.
+But, as the world itself is equally a divine revelation, the Torah becomes
+little more than a part of a larger whole. To understand it aright one
+needs to penetrate to the inward reality--to the infinite light which is
+revealed in it. We should study the Law not as we study a science for the
+sake of acquiring knowledge (he who studies it so has in truth been
+concerning himself with its mere outward form), but we should learn from
+it the true service of God. Thus the study of the law is no end in itself.
+It is studied because, as the word of God, God is more easily discerned
+and absorbed in this revelation of Him than in any other. The Torah is
+eternal, but its explanation is to be made by the spiritual leaders of
+Judaism. It is to be interpreted by them in accordance with the Attribute
+of the age. For he regarded the world as governed in every age by a
+different Attribute of God--one age by the Attribute of Love, another by
+that of Power, a third again, by Beauty, and so on--and the explanation of
+the Torah must be brought into agreement with it. The object of the whole
+Torah is that man should become a Torah himself. Every man being a Torah
+in himself, said a disciple of Baalshem, has got not only his Abraham and
+Moses, but also his Balaam and Haman: he should try to expel the Balaam
+and develop the Abraham within him. Every action of man should be a pure
+manifestation of God.
+
+The reason why we should do what the Law commands is not to gain grace
+thereby in the eyes of God, but to learn how to love God and to be united
+to Him. The important thing is not how many separate injunctions are
+obeyed, but how and in what spirit we obey them. The object of fulfilling
+these various ordinances is to put oneself, as it were, on the same plane
+with God, and thus, in the ordinary phrase of the religious mystic, to
+become one with Him, or to be absorbed in Him. People should get to know,
+says Baalshem, what the unity of God really means. To attain a part of
+this indivisible unity is to attain the whole. The Torah and all its
+ordinances are from God. If I therefore fulfil but one commandment in and
+through the love of God, it is as though I have fulfilled them all.
+
+I have now briefly to refer to the three virtues to which the Chassidim
+assigned the highest place of honour. Of these the first is called in
+Hebrew "Shiphluth,"(15) and is best rendered by our word "Humility," but
+in Chassidic usage it includes the ideas of modesty, considerateness, and
+sympathy. The prominence given to these qualities is in sharp contrast to
+the faults of conceit, vanity, and self-satisfaction, against which
+Baalshem was never weary of protesting. He regarded these as the most
+seductive of all forms of sin. But a few minutes before his death he was
+heard to murmur, "O vanity, vanity! even in this hour of death thou darest
+to approach me with thy temptations: 'Bethink thee, Israel, what a grand
+funeral procession will be thine because thou hast been so wise and good.'
+O vanity, vanity! beshrew thee." "It should be indifferent to man," says
+the master, "whether he be praised or blamed, loved or hated, reputed to
+be the wisest of mankind or the greatest of fools. The test of the real
+service of God is that it leaves behind it the feeling of humility. If a
+man after prayer be conscious of the least pride or self-satisfaction, if
+he think, for instance, that he has earned a reward by the ardour of his
+spiritual exercises, then let him know that he has prayed not to God but
+to himself. And what is this but disguised idolatry? Before you can find
+God you must lose yourself." The Chassidim treated Shiphluth from two
+sides: a negative side in thinking humbly of oneself, a positive in
+thinking highly of one's neighbour, in other words the love for our
+fellow-man.
+
+He who loves the father will also love his children. The true lover of God
+is also a lover of man. It is ignorance of one's own errors that makes one
+ready to see the errors of others. "There is no sphere in heaven where the
+soul remains a shorter time than in the sphere of merit, there is none
+where it abides longer than in the sphere of Love."
+
+The second Cardinal Virtue is "Cheerfulness," in Hebrew "Simchah."(16)
+Baalshem insisted on cheerfulness of heart as a necessary attitude for the
+due service of God. Once believe that you are really the servant and the
+child of God and how can you fall again into a gloomy condition of mind?
+Nor should the inevitable sins which we all must commit disturb our glad
+serenity of soul. For is not repentance ready at hand by which we may
+climb back to God? Every penitent thought is a voice of God. Man should
+detect that voice in all the evidence of his senses, in every sight and
+sound of external nature. It is through his want of faith in the
+universality of God's presence that he is deaf to these subtle influences
+and can read only the lessons which are inscribed in books.
+
+The reader will be prepared to learn that Baalshem, taking this cheerful
+view of things, was opposed to every kind of asceticism. Judaism, or
+rather Israelitism, it is true, was not originally much of an ascetic
+religion. But there can be little doubt that in the course of history
+there came in many ascetic doctrines and practices, quite enough at least
+to encourage such tender souls the bent of whose minds lay in this
+direction. To one of these, a former disciple, Baalshem wrote: "I hear
+that you think yourself compelled from religious motives to enter upon a
+course of fasts and penances. My soul is outraged at your determination.
+By the counsel of God I order you to abandon such dangerous practices,
+which are but the outcome of a disordered brain. Is it not written 'Thou
+shalt not hide thyself from thine own flesh?' Fast then no more than is
+prescribed. Follow my command and God shall be with you." On another
+occasion Baalshem was heard to observe that it is a machination of Satan
+to drive us into a condition of gloom and despondency in which the
+smallest error is regarded as a deadly sin. Satan's object is to keep us
+away from the true service of God, and God can only be truly served from a
+happy and confident disposition. Anxious scrupulosity in details is
+therefore to be avoided. It is the counsel of the Devil to persuade us
+that we never have done and shall never do our duty fully, and that moral
+progress is impossible. Such ideas beget melancholy and despair, which are
+of evil.
+
+The third virtue is called in the Hebrew Chassidic literature
+"Hithlahabuth,"(17) and is derived from a verb meaning "to kindle" or "set
+on fire." The substantive "Hithlahabuth," so far as I am aware, was first
+coined by Baalshem's followers. It is best rendered by our word
+"Enthusiasm." Every religious action, to be of any avail, must be done
+with enthusiasm. A mere mechanical and lifeless performance of an
+ordinance is valueless. A man is no step nearer the goal if he thinks,
+forsooth, that he has done his duty when he has gone through the whole
+round of laws in every section of the code. This essential enthusiasm is
+only begotten of Love. The service of fear, if not wholly useless, is yet
+necessarily accompanied by a certain repulsion and heaviness, which
+effectually prevent the rush and ardour of enthusiasm. The inspiration of
+true service is its own end. There is no thought of this world, and there
+is none of the world to come. In the Talmud there is frequent reference to
+one Rabbi Elisha ben Abuyah, an apostate from Judaism, who, when urged to
+repent, replied that repentance was useless, and that for this mournful
+belief he had direct divine authority. For he had been told by a voice
+from heaven that even though he repented he would be excluded from sharing
+the happiness of the world to come. Of him it was said by one of the
+Chassidim, "This man indeed missed a golden opportunity. How purely could
+he have served God, knowing that for his service there could never be a
+reward!"
+
+From the conception of Enthusiasm springs the quality of mobility,
+suggesting spiritual progress, and commonly opposed by Baalshem and his
+followers to the dull religious stagnation of self-satisfied
+contemporaries. Man should not imagine himself to have attained the level
+of the righteous; let him rather regard himself as a penitent who should
+make progress every day. Always to remain on the same religious plane,
+merely repeating to-day the religious routine of yesterday, is not true
+service. There must be a daily advance in the knowledge and love of the
+Divine Master. Mere freedom from active sin is not sufficient; such
+negative virtue may be but another word for the chance absence of
+temptation. What boots it never to have committed a sin if sin lies
+concealed in the heart? It is only the uninterrupted communion with God
+which will raise and ennoble your thoughts and designs, and cause the
+roots of sin to die. The patriarch Abraham, without any command from God,
+fulfilled the whole Torah, because he perceived that the Law was the life
+of all created things. In the Messianic age the law will no longer seem to
+man as something ordained for him from without; but the law will be within
+the hearts of men; it will seem natural and self-evident to them, because
+they will realise that God and life are manifested through the law.
+
+Baalshem, who dealt largely in parable, has left the following, which we
+may fitly add to our somewhat inadequate presentation of his doctrine.
+
+There was once a king who built himself a glorious palace. By means of
+magical illusion it seemed as if the palace were full of devious corridors
+and mazes, preventing the approach to the royal presence. But as there was
+much gold and silver heaped up in the entrance halls, most people were
+content to go no further, but take their fill of treasure. The king
+himself they did not notice. At last the king's intimate had compassion
+upon them and exclaimed to them, "All these walls and mazes which you see
+before you do not in truth exist at all. They are mere illusions. Push
+forward bravely, and you shall find no obstacle."
+
+We must not interpret the parable to mean that Baalshem denied the reality
+or even the importance of the actual phenomenal world. The very contrary
+is the truth. The world is for him full of God, penetrated through and
+through by the divine, and therefore as real as God himself. It was quite
+in Baalshem's manner when one of his disciples declared that only fools
+could speak of the world as vanity or emptiness. "It is in truth a
+glorious world. We must only learn how rightly to make use of it. Call
+nothing common or profane: by God's presence all things are holy."
+
+Above we have reviewed the essential doctrines of Baalshem and his
+immediate followers; we have now to see how they fared at the hands of the
+sect which he founded. This is a sad part of our task, for the subsequent
+history of Chassidism is almost entirely a record of decay. As formulated
+by its founder the new creed amounted to a genuine Reformation, pure and
+lofty in ideal. After his death unhappily it was rapidly corrupted and
+perverted. This was due almost exclusively to the dangerous and
+exaggerated development of a single point in his teaching. That point, the
+honour due to the divine in man, was relatively a minor article in the
+original creed. But the later Chassidism has given it a distorted and
+almost exclusive importance wholly out of proportion to the grander and
+more essential features of Baalshem's teaching, until the distinctive
+feature of the Chassidism of to-day is an almost idolatrous service of
+their living leaders. What little there is to say of the history of the
+sect after Baalshem's death would be unintelligible without some
+explanation of the origin and growth of this unfortunate perversion.
+
+It has been explained that Baalshem laid but little stress upon the study
+of the Law or the observance of its precepts in themselves, but regarded
+them only as means to an end. The end is union with God. Man has to
+discover the presence of God in the Divine word and will. Now this
+mystical service of God, although perhaps sufficing to sensitive and
+enthusiastic natures, is scarcely plain or definite enough for ordinary
+men. Few can realise abstractions: and yet fewer can delight in them and
+find in their contemplation sufficient nurture for their religious needs.
+What then had Chassidism to offer to the ordinary majority who could not
+recognise God in all the plenitude of His disguise? The want of something
+tangible whereon to fix the minds of the people, which has confronted the
+teachers of so many creeds, was also encountered by the Chassidim, and
+they unfortunately found their way out of the difficulty by relying on and
+developing their doctrine of man's position in the Universe. Man's ideal
+is to be a law himself; himself a clear and full manifestation of God.
+Now, not only is he God's servant and child, but in highest development he
+becomes himself a part of God, albeit in human shape, so that he may
+become wholly one with his divine Father. But if man may reach this
+highest level of holiness, he is virtually a kind of God-man, whom his
+fellow-men of lower levels perceive by reason of his manhood, but his
+essential office consists in raising them up to God by reason of his
+Divinity.
+
+The few chosen spirits who through the successful persistency with which
+they have sought God in all things have become, though yet on earth,
+absorbed in Him, are known in Chassidic literature by the name of the
+"Zaddikim." The Hebrew word Zaddik(18) means "just" or "righteous," and
+the term was probably chosen in conscious opposition to the title of
+Rabbinic heroes, "disciples of the wise." For the Zaddik is not so much
+the product of learning as of intuition: his final consummation is reached
+by a sudden and direct illumination from God. The Zaddik not only
+resembles Moses, but, in virtue of his long communion with the Divine, he
+is also the true child of God. He is, moreover, a vivifying power in
+creation, for he is the connecting bond between God and his creatures. He
+is the source of blessing and the fount of grace. Man must therefore learn
+to love the Zaddik, so that through the Zaddik he may win God's grace. He
+who does not believe in the Zaddik is an apostate from God. Here then we
+have the fatal exaggeration to which I have alluded, and here its logical
+consequence. The step to man-worship is short.
+
+This peculiar doctrine of the Intermediary soon became the distinguishing
+feature of Chassidism. By a Chassid was understood not a man who held such
+and such opinions in theology and religion, but a believer in the Zaddik,
+and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship of the Zaddik.
+Every other doctrine of Chassidism was rapidly pushed into the background
+and overlooked. Even the grand and fundamental doctrine of Omnipresence in
+the Creation was veiled by the special presence in the Zaddik. Chassidism
+became mere Zaddikism, and its subsequent history is identical with the
+downward development of that cult.
+
+Whether Baalshem named his successor is doubtful. But the lead after his
+death was assumed by his disciple Beer of Mizriez. This man's conversion
+to Chassidism was an important event for the new community; his piety and
+learning were beyond dispute, and, whereas during Baalshem's life
+Chassidism had found its chief adherents among the lower classes of
+society, Beer managed to gather round him many of the most learned among
+his contemporaries. It was to these new and ardent disciples of Beer that
+the expansion of Chassidism was chiefly due. They came together from many
+quarters, and after Beer's death separated and preached the new doctrine
+far and wide. Many even went forth during the lifetime of their master,
+and at his command, to found fresh branches of the new sect. Like Beer
+himself, they directed their efforts mainly to winning over the educated
+sections of the Jews. The elder men paid little heed to their word, but
+the youths, just fresh from their casuistic studies, which had sharpened
+their wits and starved their souls, lent a ready ear and an eager heart to
+the new doctrine. The uneducated were by no means excluded; to them
+Chassidism held out a deeper consolation and a grander hope than the
+current Rabbinism of the age; they therefore joined the young community in
+large numbers without any special effort being necessary to gain them
+over.
+
+In their methods of Prayer the Chassidim most conspicuously differed from
+the older communities. Laying as they did supreme stress on the importance
+and efficacy of prayer, they soon found it necessary to secede from the
+existing synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves. The usual
+salaried Reader "with the beautiful voice and empty head," who naturally
+regarded his function as a matter of business, was done away with and his
+place taken either by the Zaddik himself or by some other distinguished
+person in the community. The Chassidim also effected many changes in the
+liturgy. Instead of the German they adopted the Spanish ritual. They
+excised many prayers which, lacking the authority of antiquity, were
+cumbrous in form or objectionable in matter. They inserted new prayers and
+hymns of their own. They paid little regard to the prescribed hours at
+which public worship should be held. Prayer began when they had got
+themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind. Frequent ablutions,
+perusal of mystical writings, introspective meditation were the means by
+which they sought to gain the befitting mood. The prayers themselves were
+accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement. Some in the
+zeal of their devotion began to dance; others were rapt in a motionless
+ecstasy; some prayed aloud; others in solemn silence. They justified their
+abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that you cannot order a
+child when to speak with its father: such restraint were fit only for
+slaves.
+
+As a rule the larger number of the younger Chassidim were able to devote
+their whole time to religious exercises. It was the custom among the Jews
+in Eastern Europe for the young men to live at the expense of their own or
+their wives' parents, in order that they might give themselves up entirely
+to religious study. According to the old notions, this meant the study of
+the Talmud and its Commentaries; the Chassidim who cared little for the
+legal side of Jewish literature betook themselves to the literature of
+edification and mysticism. No small part of their time was taken up with
+endless conversations about the Zaddik, his piety, goodness, and self-
+sacrifice and the wonderful miracles which he had wrought. If a Zaddik was
+living in his own town, the youthful Chassid spent as many hours as he
+could in the Zaddik's company, in order to observe and study this embodied
+Torah as constantly as possible. Where no Zaddik was at hand, periodical
+pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived, and endless were the
+tales which were afterwards repeated, to those who were obliged to stay at
+home, of the Zaddik's marvellous wisdom and extraordinary deeds. The last
+hours of the Sabbath day were looked upon as a special season of grace,
+and the Chassidim were therefore in the habit of collecting together in
+the waning of the Sabbath and celebrating the so-called "Supper of the
+Holy Queen." The meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as well
+as by hymns and prayers.
+
+The Chassidim were second to no other sect in their loyalty and affection
+for each other. No sacrifice for a brother Chassid was too great. They
+knew no difference of rich and poor, old and young, wise and ignorant; for
+they all, with one accord, worshipped one common ideal, the Zaddik, who in
+his exalted position was equally raised above them all. Before him all
+minor differences of rank disappeared. When a Chassid travelled, he had no
+scruple in asking for lodging or entertainment in the house of any Chassid
+who could afford to give them. If he was in money difficulties the purse
+of his host was at his disposal. If that was not sufficient, it was
+supplemented by a grant from the fund of the community. These gifts were
+not looked upon in the light of charity either by giver or receiver; they
+were made to the Zaddik, to whom all Chassidim alike were debtors. It
+sometimes even happened that a Zaddik said that the son of some rich
+merchant was to marry the daughter of a poor schoolmaster, and both
+parties were equally delighted to fulfil the wish of their beloved chief.
+
+It may easily be imagined that the innovations of the Chassidim provoked
+the wrath of the orthodox communities. But in their detestation of the
+Rabbis the Chassidim returned in full measure all the hatred they
+received. The Zaddik is the Moses of his age: the Rabbis its Korah and
+Abiram. Where the Chassidic party in any community gained the upper hand,
+the Rabbi was deposed and a Zaddik, if that was possible, elected in his
+place. The issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the
+Jewish race was a rigorous persecution. In many places the Chassidim were
+excommunicated, in others their leaders were publicly scourged and put
+into the stocks. Their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly
+closed. But persecution produced only the usual result of increasing the
+popularity and the numbers of the sect. The devotion of the Chassidim to
+each other and to their common cause was increased a hundred-fold by
+suffering. In one case a distinguished Zaddik was accused of treason,
+before the Russian authorities, and was thrown into prison. In Russia,
+however, the power of money is considerable, and on payment of a large
+ransom not only was the beloved Zaddik released but as an obvious
+consequence his reputation greatly profited: the day of his release was
+celebrated as a yearly festival, while his sufferings were regarded by his
+followers as a sin-offering that atoned for the iniquities of his age.
+From this time the government maintained a purely neutral attitude towards
+the new sect, and ere long the persecution by the orthodox ceased.
+
+The cessation of persecution may possibly be accounted for by the fact
+that Chassidism as a secession soon ceased to be formidable. There were
+early divisions within the sect. Even Beer's disciples began to quarrel
+over theological differences and to found separate communities. When once
+the course of corruption and spiritual decay had begun, it was the
+interest of the false Zaddikim to accentuate these differences. Each
+Zaddik sought to have a whole little sect to himself, from which to draw
+an undivided revenue. And each deluded little sect as it arose boasted of
+the exclusive possession of the true Zaddik.
+
+It must not be supposed that these strictures apply to the whole class of
+Zaddikim. The greater number of Baalshem's leading disciples as well as
+Beer's were beyond question men of pure, unalloyed piety, who would have
+rejected with scorn any idea of making a trade of their sacred profession.
+Their motives and their zeal were alike ideal. Many gave up highly paid
+posts as Rabbis when they joined the new sect. Some emigrated to Palestine
+to lead a holy life on holy ground, others sought to become religious
+specialists, following out practically, although with some exaggeration, a
+favourite doctrine of the Founder, that he who observes but one
+commandment devotedly and lovingly, may reach the goal desired: the union
+with God. Thus one Zaddik made it his business never to tell the smallest
+falsehood, whatever the cost or the inconvenience of truth might be. It is
+related that the Russian Government, suspecting the Jews of his town of
+smuggling, consented to withdraw the charge if he declared his brethren
+innocent. Having no alternative but either to bring misfortune on his
+brethren or to tell an untruth, he prayed to God to save him from this
+dilemma by sending death upon him. And lo! when the officials came to
+fetch him before the law court they found him dead. Another, thinking that
+the commandment in Exodus xxiii. 3, relating to the help that should be
+given to a neighbour or enemy when "his ass is lying under its burden,"
+was practically unobserved, devoted himself to its fulfilment. He was
+continually to be seen in the streets, helping one man to load his waggon,
+and another to drag his cart out of the mire. A third made the service of
+the oppressed his religious specialty. It is said that one day his wife,
+having had a quarrel with her maid, was setting out to the magistrate of
+the town to obtain satisfaction. Noticing that her husband was about to
+accompany her, she asked him whither he was bound. He replied, "to the
+magistrate." His wife declared that it was below his dignity to take any
+part in a quarrel with a servant. She could deal with the matter herself.
+The Zaddik replied, "That may be, but I intend to represent your maid, who
+when accused by my wife will find no one willing to take her part." And
+then, bursting into a passion of tears, he quoted Job xxxi. 13: "If I did
+despise the cause of my man-servant or of my maid-servant, when they
+contended with me, what shall I do when God riseth up?"
+
+Several Zaddikim were learned men and thinkers of no ordinary kind. The
+works of Solomon Ladier or of Mendel Witipsker, read with attention and
+without Western preconceptions, certainly give the impression of both
+originality and depth of thought. But most characteristic of all is the
+passionate yearning of authors such as these towards the Divine. The
+reader is astonished and moved by the intense sincerity and ardour of
+their longing after God. But, despite the adherence of these worthy men,
+the fate of Chassidism, as a regenerative force, was sealed from the day
+when Zaddikism replaced the original doctrines of the sect.
+
+For, apart from the obvious theological considerations already suggested,
+there are two points of inherent weakness in the cult of the Zaddik which
+naturally doomed it to perversion and failure. The necessary
+qualifications for "Zaddikship" are wholly undefined. We hear a great deal
+about what a Zaddik actually is, but we hear very little about what he
+should be. The Zaddik has many virtues, but we are nowhere told what are
+his indispensable qualifications. Moreover, the Zaddik is a being who can
+be comprehended by the understanding as little as an angel, or as God
+Himself. He is realised by faith, not conceived by thought. Hence there is
+no human test of a true Zaddik except the test of miracles; and every
+student of religious history knows the deceitful character of that test.
+
+The second source of danger arose from the Chassidim holding it to be
+their sacred duty to provide for the Zaddik a life of comfort and ease.
+The Zaddik must pursue his divine avocations undisturbed by grosser cares.
+But what were the consequences? The Chassidim believed they could win the
+grace and blessing of the Zaddik by the richness and variety of their
+gifts. A Zaddik's career became a very profitable concern. The result of
+both defects was that not only was the opportunity given for every
+scheming charlatan to become a Zaddik, but inducements were offered to
+make the deception lucrative. Hence the anxiety of the false Zaddikim,
+already noticed, to found separate communities.
+
+Among the Chassidim of to-day there is not one in ten thousand who has the
+faintest conception of those sublime ideas which inspired Baalshem and his
+immediate disciples. It is still the interest of the wretched ringleaders
+of a widely spread delusion to crush and keep down every trace of
+reflection and thought so that they may play at will with the conscience
+and purses of their adherents. The new scientific movement, inaugurated by
+such men as Krochmal, Zunz, and others who came under the influence of the
+German critical spirit, found in them its hottest and most fanatical
+opponents. That the cult of the Zaddikim has not led to still more
+disastrous consequences is solely due to the fact that the Chassidim in
+general have remained faithful to the Law. It is the Law, against the
+excessive study of which the original Chassidim protested, that has put
+limits to the license of its modern false prophets.
+
+Amid much that is bad, the Chassidim have preserved through the whole
+movement a warm heart, and an ardent, sincere faith. There is a certain
+openness of character and a ready friendliness about even the modern
+Chassidim which are very attractive. Religion is still to them a matter of
+life and death. Their faith is still real enough to satisfy the demands of
+a Luther, but it is diverted and wasted upon unworthy objects. If
+Chassidism is to be reformed, its worship must no longer be of man; it
+must be brought back again to the source of all Beauty, all Wisdom, and
+all Goodness; it must be restored to God.
+
+
+
+
+
+II. NACHMAN KROCHMAL AND THE "PERPLEXITIES OF THE TIME"
+
+
+In her good-natured panegyric of mediocrity which is known under the title
+of _Scenes of Clerical Life_, George Eliot remarked: "Let us hope that
+there is a saving ignorance."
+
+Strange as this demand may sound, the wish of the great novelist to see
+her favoured mediocrities "saved," has been shared by the great majority
+of mankind. I know that I, at least, echo that desire with all my heart.
+And I am afraid that I am prompted by some rather selfish reasons. It
+would be somewhat hard, when one is born with small abilities, but a great
+desire for being saved, to be deprived of the hope held out by the author
+of _Adam Bede_.
+
+But there are some, I am afraid, who are not satisfied with this dictum of
+George Eliot. They show a strong tendency to make salvation a monopoly of
+ignorance. This is a little too selfish. With all due respect to every
+form of ignorance, sacred as well as profane, we ought, I think, to
+believe that there is also such a thing as a saving knowledge. Nay, we
+might go even farther. There may be certain epochs in history when there
+is hardly any other path to salvation than knowledge, and the deep search
+after truth.
+
+We all know the words of the Psalmist, "The Lord preserveth the simple."
+But as there are periods in the life of the individual when naivete has to
+give way to sagacity and reflection, so there are times in history at
+which Providence does not choose to leave men in simplicity. At such times
+doubts arise, as though of themselves; questions suddenly become open when
+they had been supposed solved for centuries; and the human mind is stirred
+by a sceptical breeze of which no man can tell whence it came. One may
+under those circumstances be indifferent, but one can be simple no more.
+
+Even in such cases, however, man has no cause to despair. When our dearest
+beliefs are shaken by all kinds of doubts, Providence sends us also great
+thinkers, earnest lovers of truth, who devote their lives to enlightening
+our puzzled minds. Not that these men try to answer all the questions by
+which we feel perplexed. They endeavour to satisfy us, partly by showing
+that many of our difficulties are not difficulties at all, but merely
+arise from superficiality, and partly by proving that the great cause
+about which we feel so much anxiety does not exactly depend on the
+solution of the questions that are troubling us. They give to the things
+which are dearer to us than our life a fresh aspect, which enables us to
+remain attached to them with the same devotion and love as before. To
+speak again in the words of the Psalmist: "Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit,
+and they are created, and Thou renewest the face of the earth."
+
+This spirit that renews the face of things is what I understand by "saving
+knowledge." As men of that saving knowledge we may regard Rabban Johanan
+ben Zaccai(19) and his disciples, who made it possible for Judaism to
+survive the destruction of the Temple, which some believed to involve the
+end of the religion. As such men we may look upon R. Saadiah Gaon and his
+followers, who worked at a time when Judaism was menaced in its inner
+life, namely in the tradition, by the attempts of the narrow-minded
+Caraites to convert it into a bookish religion.(20) Such men were
+Maimonides and his successors, who came to the aid of religion when it had
+got into dogmatic troubles by reason of its coming into contact with
+various philosophical systems. And in order to approach the subject of the
+present essay, I venture to say that a man of such saving knowledge was
+also Nachman Krochmal, who lived and laboured in the first half of the
+present century, when Judaism had been terribly shaken by the scepticism
+of Voltaire, and the platitudes of the so-called Mendelssohnian school.
+
+Nachman Krochmal was born on the 17th of February in the year 1785. His
+father, Solomon Krochmal, was a merchant of Brody, a commercial frontier
+town in the north-east of Galicia in Austria. In his early years Solomon
+often used to visit Berlin for business purposes. He is said to have seen
+Mendelssohn there on one occasion, and to have learned greatly to revere
+the Jewish sage. And it is not unlikely that Nachman's subsequent
+admiration for Mendelssohn was partly due to his father's influence.
+
+Solomon was a man of considerable wealth, and he, therefore, endeavoured
+to give his son the best possible education. But as a respectable member
+of a Polish community a hundred years ago, Solomon had to follow the
+fashion adopted by his neighbours, and the best possible education
+consisted in affording the child an opportunity to study the Talmud and
+other Rabbinical works. All other languages and their literatures were
+sealed books to the child--a very absurd and regrettable fashion indeed.
+But let us not be too hard on Polish Jews. I have been told that there are
+countries on our globe where people have been driven by the force of
+fashion into the opposite extreme; where, with few exceptions, they think
+that the Talmud, as well as the whole Hebrew literature, must needs be
+excluded from the programme of a gentleman's education.
+
+Happily, or the reverse, Krochmal's childhood did not last long, for in
+the year 1798 we find that Nachman, a boy of fourteen, was already married
+to a Miss Haberman in Zolkiew. As a result of this foolish custom of
+marrying at so very early an age, Nachman was hardly ever a boy; we have
+at once to deal with him as a man.
+
+It was then customary in Poland, and perhaps is so still, for the father
+of the bride to provide for the support of the young couple for some years
+after their marriage. In order to reduce the expense of this arrangement,
+the bridegroom had to reside in the same house as his father-in-law. Thus
+we see Krochmal removing from Brody to Zolkiew, the native town of his
+wife. Here Krochmal lived in the house of her father for many years,
+entirely devoted to his studies; and he certainly needed all his time for
+them. For he now began to expand the sphere of his education, to embrace
+subjects quite new to him. By his marriage Nachman seems to have gained a
+certain amount of independence, and the first use he made of it was to
+study the _Guide of the Perplexed_(21) of Maimonides, the _Commentaries_
+of Ibn Ezra on the Bible,(22) and other more or less philosophical works
+written in the Hebrew language. His next step was to learn German; but, as
+his biographers inform us, he was not able to follow this course without
+undergoing many struggles, and overcoming many obstacles.
+
+It would lead us too far to give a full account of the difficulties which
+the young scholar had to conquer while pursuing his new studies. They will
+be sufficiently characterised by the following extract from a Hebrew
+letter of his disciple, Solomon Leb Rapoport, who, writing in 1841
+concerning his master and friend, remarks: "Consider this, ye inhabitants
+of Germany"--and, I may add, ye inhabitants of England--"and you will be
+astounded. It is easy for you to avoid being one-sided, and to study
+different sciences, for you possess many schools and teachers from every
+branch of learning. It is not so in Poland and Russia even at present,
+much less was it so forty years ago. There is no teacher, no guide, no
+supporter, for the Jew who desires any sort of improvement. The Jew who
+wishes to enter on a new path of learning has to prepare the road for
+himself. And when he has entered on it, his friend will come to him and
+ask, 'Is it true that you have got scientific books in your house? Mind
+you do not mention it to any one. There are enough bigots in the town to
+persecute you and all your family if they get scent of it.' " It was under
+these conditions that Krochmal pursued his studies, which were by no means
+few or easy, for he was not content with a knowledge of only the lighter
+portions of German literature. He soon began to read the works of Lessing,
+Mendelssohn, and more especially of Kant, who always remained his
+favourite philosopher. In his later years he also became acquainted with
+the writings of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. But to the last he could not
+console himself for having missed the advantages of a systematic
+university education.
+
+After having learned German, Krochmal proceeded to acquire a knowledge of
+Latin and French, and to read the best books written in those languages.
+To deepen his knowledge of Hebrew, he studied Arabic and Syraic, but we
+are unable to say how far he succeeded in mastering these languages. With
+these studies, which appear to have occupied our philosopher for an
+interval of ten years after his marriage, the first period of his life
+seems also to end. But the hard work of ten years did not pass over the
+delicate youth without undermining his health for ever. At the age of
+twenty-four, Krochmal fell sick of an illness which compelled him to
+interrupt his work. He was forced to go to Lemberg to consult the doctors
+of that town, and he had to remain there for a long time. And now began
+Krochmal's career as a teacher. For during his stay at Lemberg there
+gathered round him a band of young scholars whom Krochmal's fame had
+already reached. It is useless to enumerate the names of all these
+students. Among them figured Isaac Erter, Samson Bloch, A. Bodek, and many
+others. The most gifted of them was undoubtedly Rapoport, who afterwards
+became even more famous than his master Krochmal. It is not easy to define
+accurately the relation that subsisted between these two men. Graetz, in
+his history, calls Rapoport a disciple of Krochmal. Rapoport himself, in
+his memoir of Krochmal, describes the latter as a dear friend with whom he
+was wont to discuss literary topics. Zunz does not mention Rapoport at all
+in his account of our author. It seems to me that this relation may be
+most aptly defined by the Talmudic term "Talmid-Chaber,"(23) "disciple-
+colleague."
+
+Indeed, Krochmal's whole method of teaching was rather that of a companion
+than of a professor. He gave no set lectures on particular subjects, but
+conveyed his instruction rather by means of suggestive conversations with
+his younger friends. His usual habit was to walk with his pupils in the
+neighbourhood of the town, and to try to influence their minds each in
+accordance with its bent. If any of his disciples showed an inclination
+for poetry, Krochmal sought to refine his taste by directing his attention
+to the best works in Hebrew and German literature. To another, whose fancy
+strayed into mysticism, he recommended the writings of Philo and Ibn Ezra,
+at the same time suggesting how the works of the latter should be
+interpreted. A third who, like Rapoport, was interested in historical
+researches, Krochmal instructed in the methods of critical inquiry.
+
+There must have been some fascinating charm in Nachman's personality,
+which made him irresistible to all who came into contact with him.
+Rapoport has described his first interview with Krochmal. "It is more than
+thirty years since I first made his acquaintance, and beheld the glory of
+his presence. Though he was in weak health, still his soul was strong; and
+as soon as I conversed with him there came over me a spirit of judgment
+and knowledge. I felt almost transformed into another man." Elsewhere the
+same writer says: "Oh, how sweet to me were these walks with
+Krochmal--sweeter than all the pleasures of this world. I could never have
+enough of his wisdom; with his every word he conveyed a new lesson."
+
+After a lengthy stay at Lemberg, Krochmal partially, though not entirely,
+recovered from his severe illness; he remained weak and pale for the rest
+of his days. His antagonists, the Chassidim, believed him to be possessed
+by a demon who could find no better dwelling-place than in the person of
+this arch-heretic. Had it been in their power they would probably have
+dragged him to some exorcist for the purpose of driving out his German,
+French, Latin, and other symptoms of demoniacal heresy. Happily the
+orthodox were powerless to do this, so Krochmal was left unmolested, and
+was allowed to resume his walks and studies. It may be here remarked that
+Krochmal in general avoided giving the Chassidim any cause for reasonable
+complaint. Rapoport asserts that his master was "deeply religious and a
+strict observer of the law. He was zealously anxious to perform every
+ordinance, Biblical or Rabbinical." The only liberty that Krochmal claimed
+for himself and his disciples was the right to study what they thought
+best and in the way they thought best. When this liberty was attacked, he
+showed a firmness and resolution which would hardly have been expected
+from this quiet and gentle man. To one of his pupils, who made concessions
+to the Chassidim and their Zaddikim worship, Krochmal wrote: "Be firm in
+this matter unless you wish to earn the contempt of every honest man. One
+who is afraid of these people, and debases himself before them bears a
+mean soul that was born to slavery. The man that wishes to rise above the
+mob, with its confused notions and corrupt morality, must be courageous as
+a lion in conquering the obstacles that beset his path. Consideration of
+what people will say, what bigots will whisper, what crafty enemies will
+scheme--questions such as these can have but one effect,--to darken the
+intellect and confuse the faculty of judgment."
+
+So Krochmal continued his studies without interruption till 1814, when the
+death of his wife's mother brought his period of ease and comfort to an
+end. His father-in-law seems to have died some time before, and Krochmal
+was forced to seek his own living. He became a merchant, but it is to be
+regretted that he did not prove as successful a man of business as he was
+a man of letters. He found it a hard struggle to earn a living. But the
+severest trial which he had to undergo was the death of his wife in 1826.
+In a letter, dating from about this time, to a friend who had asked him
+for assistance in his philosophical inquiries, Krochmal wrote--"How can I
+help you now? I am already an old man; my head is gray, and my health is
+broken. In the last three years I have met with many misfortunes. My
+beloved wife died after a long illness. My daughter will soon leave me to
+get married, my elder son will depart to seek his livelihood, and I shall
+be left alone with only a child of ten years, the son of my old age. I
+will lift up mine eyes unto the hills: From whence shall my help come?"
+
+Nachman was evidently in very low spirits at this time, but he was in too
+true a sense a philosopher to despair. He turned for comfort to his
+studies, and at this dark epoch of his life he first became acquainted
+with the Philosophy of Hegel, whose system he was wont to call the
+"Philosophy of Philosophies."
+
+For the next ten years the works of Hegel and inquiries into Jewish
+history appear to have absorbed all the leisure that his mercantile
+occupation left him. We shall presently see what the result of these
+studies was. No fresh subjects were undertaken by Krochmal in the last
+years of his life; he had already acquired a fund of knowledge vast enough
+to engage all his thoughts. There are, however, some remaining points in
+his private circumstances which it may not be uninteresting to mention.
+
+Krochmal, as has been already related, was not prosperous in his business.
+Things went from bad to worse, and he was compelled in 1836 to seek a
+situation. "There ought to be literary men poor," some writer has
+maintained, "to show whether they are genuine or not." This test Krochmal
+successfully passed through. Even as a young man Nachman's strength of
+character was admired by his contemporaries not less than his rare
+learning. In his subsequent distress, he gave evidence of the truth of
+this judgment. Despite his poverty, his friends could not prevail upon him
+to accept the post of Rabbi in any Jewish community. "I am unwilling," he
+wrote to a friend, "to be the cause of dissensions in any Jewish
+congregation. I should prefer to die of hunger rather than become a Rabbi
+under present circumstances." He expressed his views on this subject even
+more decidedly on a later occasion when the Berlin congregation offered
+him the post of Chief Rabbi in that town. In a letter, conveying his
+refusal of this honourable office, he says: "I never thought of becoming
+the Conscience-counsellor (_Gewissensrath_) of men. My line of studies was
+not directed to that end, nor would it accord with my disposition and
+sentiments. The only post that I should care to accept would be that of
+teacher in the Jewish Theological Seminary, which, as I was informed, you
+were thinking of establishing in Berlin." The plan to found such an
+institution was not realised till forty years later, and in the interval
+Nachman had to look for his living in other regions than Jewish theology.
+Being in poor circumstances, and as his children and friends had left him,
+he felt very lonely at Zolkiew. "Nobody cares for me here," he writes,
+"and I am equally indifferent." His one desire was to obtain a situation
+at Brody, possibly as book-keeper with a salary of some thirty pounds a
+year, on condition that he would be expected to devote only half the day
+to his business duties, thus securing for himself leisure for
+philosophical studies.
+
+His terms were accepted, and he obtained the humble post he sought. He
+remained in Brody for the next two years, 1836-8, but at the end of 1838
+he fell so dangerously ill that he could no longer resist the pressing
+request of his daughter to live with her at Tarnopol. She had urged him to
+take this step even previous to his removal to Brody, but he had declined
+on the plea that he preferred to live by the labour of his hands. Now,
+however, he yielded to her wish, and betook himself to Tarnopol, where for
+two years longer he lived affectionately tended by his children and
+respected by all who knew him. In May 1840, Krochmal's illness began to
+develop fatal symptoms, and he died in the arms of his daughter on the
+31st of July (the first of Ab), at the age of fifty-five. As Zunz happily
+remarked: "This great man was born on the 7th of Adar, the birthday of
+Moses (according to Jewish tradition), and died on the first of Ab, the
+anniversary of the death of Aaron, the High Priest."
+
+I have tried in the foregoing remarks to give a short sketch of our
+Rabbi's life according to the accounts of Zunz, Rapoport, and Letteris.
+There is one other point to which I must allude, as it involves a
+consideration on which Letteris seems to lay much stress. This biographer
+appears to think that Krochmal was in his youth greatly influenced by the
+society in which he moved, consisting as it did of many learned and
+enlightened men. There is, too, the oft-quoted saying of Goethe:--
+
+
+    Wer den Dichter will verstehen
+    Muss in Dichters Lande gehen.
+
+
+And I am probably expected to give some account of the state of society in
+which Nachman grew up. I regret that I must ask to be excused from doing
+so. I cannot consent to take the reader to Krochmal's land. And if I might
+venture to give him my humble advice, I should only say, "By all means
+stop at home." Goethe may be right about the poet, but his remark does not
+apply to the case of the scholar. It may be true, as some think, that
+every great man is the product of his time, but it certainly does not
+follow that he is the product of his country. Nor could I name any other
+country of which Krochmal was the product. Many a city no doubt boasted
+itself a town full of "_Chakhamim_ and _Sopherim_"(24) as the Hebrew
+phrase is, or, as we would express it, "a seat of learning," full of
+scholars of the ancient and modern schools. But neither these ancient
+scholars nor the modern were of a kind to produce a real scholar and an
+enlightened thinker like Krochmal. There were many men who knew by heart
+the whole of the Halachic works of Maimonides, the Mishnah, and even the
+whole of the Babylonian Talmud. This is very imposing. But if you look a
+little closer, you will find that with a few exceptions--such as the school
+of R. Elijah Wilna--these men, generally speaking, hardly deserve the name
+of scholars at all. They were rather a sort of studying engines. The
+steam-engine passes over a continent, here through romantic scenery, there
+in the midst of arid deserts, by stream and mountain and valley, always
+with the same monotonous hum and shriek. So these scholars went through
+the Talmud with never changing feelings. They did not rejoice at the
+description which is given in tractate _Biccurim_(25) of the procession
+formed when the first-fruits were brought into the Holy Temple. They were
+not much saddened when reading in tractate _Taanith_(26) of the unhappy
+days so recurrent in Jewish history. They were not delighted by the wisdom
+of _Seder Nezikin_,(27) which deals with civil law; nor were they vexed of
+_Seder Taharoth_,(28) which treats of the laws of cleanliness and
+uncleanliness, that by their exaggeration gave cause to much dissension in
+the time of the Temple. The pre-Talmudic literature, such as the _Siphra_,
+_Siphre_, and _Mechilta_(29)--the only existing means of obtaining an
+insight into the Talmud--were altogether neglected. All that these readers
+cared for was to push on to the end, and the prayer recited at the close
+was of more importance to them than the treatise they had perused.
+
+Not less melancholy was the spectacle presented by the so-called men of
+"Enlightenment" (_Aufklaerung_). They belonged chiefly to the rationalistic
+school of Mendelssohn, but they equalled their master neither in knowledge
+nor in moral character. It was an enlightenment without foundation in real
+scholarship, and did not lead to an ideal life, though again I must add
+that there were exceptions. These men were rather what Germans would term
+_Schoengeister_, a set of dilettanti who cared to study as little as
+possible, and to write as much as possible. They wrote bad grammars,
+superficial commentaries on the Bible, and terribly dull poems. Of this
+literature, with the exception of Erter's _Watchman_,(30) there is
+scarcely a work that one would care to read twice. Most of them despised
+Rabbinism, but without understanding its noblest forms as they are to be
+traced in the Talmud and later Hebrew literature. They did not dislike
+Judaism, but the only Judaism they affected was one "which does not oppose
+itself to anything in particular"; or, as Heine would have described it,
+"Eine reinliche Religion." In one respect these little men were great: in
+mutual admiration, which reached such a pitch that such titles as "Great
+Luminary," "World-famed Sage," were considered altogether too
+insignificant and commonplace.
+
+I will now pass to the writings of Krochmal. It must be premised that
+Krochmal was not a voluminous author. All his writings, including a few
+letters which were published in various Hebrew periodicals, would scarcely
+occupy four hundred pages. Krochmal used to call himself "der ewige
+Student" (the perpetual pupil). He did not read books, nor study
+philosophical systems, with the object of writing books of his own on
+them. He read and studied in order that he might become a better and a
+wiser man. Besides, he did not think himself competent to judge on grave
+subjects, nor did he consider his judgment, even if he formed one, worthy
+of publication. He counselled his friends to be equally slow in publishing
+their views to the world. "Be not," he wrote to a correspondent,--"be not
+hasty in forming your opinions before you have studied the literature of
+the subject with care and devotion. This is no easy matter, for no man can
+obtain any real knowledge of the Torah and philosophy unless he is
+prepared to give himself up in single-hearted devotion to his studies."
+Severe though he was to his friends, he was still more severe to himself.
+Though he had been collecting materials on subjects of Jewish history and
+philosophy from his early youth, it was not until he had endured much
+persuasion and pressure from his friends that he began to write down his
+thoughts in a connected form. We thus possess only one work from the pen
+of this author; but that work is the _Guide of the Perplexed of the
+Time_,(31) a posthumous book published in 1851, eleven years after
+Krochmal's death. His work had been much interrupted by illness during the
+last years of his life, and as a necessary consequence many parts of his
+treatise finally remained in an unfinished state. Krochmal commissioned
+his children to hand over his papers to Zunz, who was to arrange and edit
+them as best he might. Zunz, who in his reverence for Krochmal went so far
+as to call him the man of God, gladly accepted the task, in which he was
+aided by Steinschneider. Unfortunately, the work was published in Lemberg,
+a place famous for spoiling books. Even the skill of these two great
+masters did not suffice to save Krochmal's work from the fate to which all
+the books printed in Lemberg seem inevitably doomed. Thus Krochmal's work
+is printed on bad paper, and with faint ink; it is full of misprints and
+the text is sometimes confused with the notes. A second edition appeared
+in Lemberg in 1863; but, it is scarcely necessary to add, the reprint is
+even worse than the original issue.
+
+The work occupies some 350 pages, and is divided into seventeen chapters.
+The opening six treat of Religion in general. The author first indicates
+the opposite dangers to which men are liable. On the one hand, men are
+exposed to extravagant phantasy (_Schwaermerei_), superstition and
+ceremonialism (_Werkheiligkeit_). Some, on the other hand, in their
+endeavour to avoid this danger, fall into the opposite extreme,
+materialism, unbelief, and moral degeneracy as a consequence of their
+neglect of all law. He proceeds to say: Even in the ritual part of
+religion, such as the regulations of the Sabbath, the dietary laws and so
+forth, we find abstract definitions necessary, and differences of opinions
+prevalent. In the dogmatic aspects of religion, dealing as they do with
+the grave subjects of metaphysics, the mystery of life and death, the
+destiny of man, his relation to God, reward and punishment, the inner
+meaning of the laws,--in these spiritual matters, the difficulty of
+accurate definition must be far greater and the opportunities for
+difference of opinion more frequent and important. What guide are we to
+follow, seeing that every error involves the most dangerous consequences?
+Shall we abandon altogether the effort of thinking on these grave
+subjects? Such a course is impossible. Do not believe, says Krochmal, that
+there ever was a time when the religious man was entirely satisfied by
+deeds of righteousness, as some people maintain. On the contrary, every
+man, whether an independent thinker or a simple believer, always feels the
+weight of these questions upon him. Every man desires to have some ideal
+basis for his actions which must constitute his real life in its noblest
+moments. Krochmal here quotes a famous passage from the Midrash.(32) The
+Torah, according to one of our ancient sages, may be compared to two
+paths, the one burning with fire, the other covered with snow. If a man
+enters on the former path he will die by the heat; if he walks by the
+latter path he will be frozen by the snow. What, then, must he do? He must
+walk in the middle, or, as we should say, he must choose the golden mean.
+But, as Krochmal suggests, the middle way in historical and philosophical
+doubts does not consist, as some idle heads suppose, in a kind of
+compromise between two opposing views. If one of two contending parties
+declares that twice two make six, while his opponent asserts that twice
+two make eight, a sort of compromise might be arrived at by conceding that
+twice two make seven. But such a compromise would be as false as either
+extreme; and the seeker after the truth must revert to that mean which is
+the heart of all things, independently of all factions, placing himself
+above them.
+
+Having dealt with the arguments relating to the existence of God as
+elaborated in the philosophical systems of his time, Krochmal leads up to
+his treatment of the History of Israel by a chapter on the ideal gifts
+bestowed upon the various ancient nations, which, possessed by them
+through many centuries, were lost when their nationality ceased. We next
+come, in Chapter VII., to the ideal gifts of Israel. These are the
+religious gift and the faculty and desire for seeking the ideal of all
+ideals, namely, God. But Israel, whose mission it was to propagate this
+ideal, was, even as other nations, subject to natural laws; and its
+history presents progress and reaction, rise and decline. Krochmal devotes
+his next three chapters to showing how, in the history of Israel, as in
+other histories, may be detected a triple process. These three stages are
+the budding, the period of maturity, and the decay. As the history of
+Israel is more a history of religion than of politics and battles, its
+rise and decline correspond more or less with Israel's attachment to God,
+and its falling away from Him. The decay would be associated with the
+adoption of either of the extremes, the dangerous effects of which have
+been already mentioned. But "through progress and backsliding, amid
+infectious contact with idolatry, amid survival of old growths of
+superstition, of the crude practices of the past; amid the solicitation of
+new aspects of life; in material prosperity and in material ruin," Israel
+was never wholly detached from God. In the worst times it had its judges
+or its prophets, its heroes or its sages, its Rabbis or its philosophers,
+who strove to bring Israel back to its mission, and who succeeded in their
+efforts to do so. Even in its decay traces of the Divine spirit made
+themselves felt, and revived the nation, which entered again on a triple
+course and repeated its three phases. The first of these three-fold epochs
+began, according to Krochmal's eighth chapter, with the times of the
+Patriarchs, and ended with the death of Gedaliah after the destruction of
+the first Temple. Next, in the following two chapters, Krochmal finds the
+second triple movement in the interval between the prophets of the exile
+in Babylon and the death of Bar-Cochba about 135 A.C. The author also
+hints at the existence of a third such epoch beginning with R. Judah the
+Patriarch, the compiler of the Mishnah (220 A.C.),(33) and ending with the
+expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492). This idea is not further
+developed by Krochmal; but it would be interesting to ask, by the way, in
+which phase of the three-fold process--rise, maturity, or decay--are we at
+the present time?
+
+The next five chapters may be regarded as an excursus on the preceding
+two. Krochmal discusses the Biblical books which belong to the period of
+the Exile and of the Second Temple, such as the Second Isaiah, certain
+Exilic and Maccabean psalms, Ecclesiastes, certain Apocryphal books, and
+the work of the Men of the Great Synagogue. They contain, again,
+researches on the various sects, such as the Assideans, Sadducees,
+Pharisees, Essenes, the Gnostics, the Cabbalists and their relation to the
+latter, and the Minim,(34) who are mentioned in the Talmud. In another
+part of this excursus Krochmal describes the systems of the Alexandrian
+Jewish philosophers, such as Philo and Aristobulus, and discusses their
+relation to certain theosophic ideas in various Midrash-collections. The
+author also attempts to prove the necessity of Tradition; he shows its
+first traces in the Bible, and explains the term Sopherim (scribes); and
+he points out the meaning of the phrase "A law unto Moses from Mount
+Sinai,"(35) and similar expressions. He gives a summary of the development
+of the Halachah in its different stages, the criteria by which the older
+Halachahs may be discriminated; he seeks to arrive at the origin of the
+Mishnah, and deals with various cognate topics. In another discourse
+Krochmal endeavours to explain the term Agadah,(36) its origin and
+development; the different kinds of Agadah and their relative value.
+Chapter XVI. contains the Prolegomena to a philosophy of the Jewish
+religion in accordance with the principles laid down by Hegel. In the
+seventeenth and last chapter the author gives a general introduction to
+the Philosophy of Ibn Ezra, and quotes illustrative extracts.
+
+The space of an essay does not permit me to give further details of
+Krochmal's book. I am conscious that the preceding outline is deficient in
+quality as well as in quantity. Yet, even from this meagre abstract, the
+reader will gather that Krochmal reviews many of the great problems which
+concern religion in general and Judaism in particular. Zunz somewhere
+remarks that Krochmal was inspired in his work by the study of Hegel, just
+as Maimonides had been by the study of Aristotle. I give this statement
+solely on the authority of Zunz, as I myself have never made a study of
+the works of the German philosopher, and am therefore unable to express an
+opinion on the question.
+
+Now there is no doubt that Krochmal's book is not without defects. The
+materials are not always well arranged, there is at times a want of
+proportion in the length at which the various points are treated, and the
+author occasionally seems to wander from the subject in hand. But we shall
+be better able to account for these and similar technical faults, as well
+as to appreciate the real value of the author's work, if we consider the
+following fact. Nachman Krochmal's object was to elaborate a philosophy of
+Jewish history, to trace the leading ideas that ran through it, and the
+ultimate causes that led to its various phases. But, unfortunately, at the
+time when Krochmal began to write, there did not exist a Jewish history at
+all. The labours of Zunz were conducted in an altogether different field.
+Not to mention the names of the younger scholars then unborn, Graetz, the
+author of the _History of the Jews_, and Weiss, who wrote a history of the
+Tradition, were still studying at college. Frankel's masterly essays on
+the Essenes and the Septuagint, his well-known work, _Introduction to the
+__ Mishnah_, and the results of Geiger's most interesting and suggestive
+researches on the older and later Halachah, and on the Pharisees and
+Sadducees, had yet to be written. Rapoport's great treatise, _Erech
+Millin_,(37) had not been published at that time, and Steinschneider was
+not yet working at his historical sketch of Jewish literature. It was not
+till six years after Krochmal's death (viz. in 1846) that Landauer's
+memorable studies on the Jewish mystics were given to the world. Even the
+bad books of Julius Fuerst, such as his _History of the Canon_, and his
+still worse _History of Jewish Literature in Babylon_, were then
+unwritten. Neither the most charlatanic _History of the Opinions and
+Teachings of All the Jewish Sects_, by Peter Beer, the universal provider,
+nor Jost's most honest but narrow-minded and superficial _History of the
+Jews_, was of much use to Krochmal. Jost's more scholarly works were not
+published till long afterwards. Krochmal was thus without the guidance of
+those authorities to which we are now accustomed to turn for information.
+Excepting the aid that he derived from the writings of Azariah de
+Rossi,(38) Krochmal was therefore compelled to prosecute all the necessary
+research for himself; he had to establish the facts of Jewish history as
+well as to philosophise upon them. Hence, in the very midst of his
+philosophical analysis, the author was bound to introduce digressions on
+historical subjects, in order to justify as well as to form the basis of
+that analysis. He had to survey the ground and to collect the materials,
+besides constructing the plan of the edifice and working at its erection.
+Nevertheless, it is precisely for these historical excursuses that
+Krochmal has deserved the gratitude of posterity. He it was who taught
+Jewish scholars how to submit the ancient Rabbinic records to the test of
+criticism and the way in which they might be utilised for the purpose of
+historical studies; he it was who enabled them to trace the genesis of the
+tradition, and to watch the inner germination of that vast organism. He
+even indicated to them how they might continue to connect their own lives
+with it, how they might derive nourishment from it, and in their turn
+further its growth. I may assert with the utmost confidence that there is
+scarcely a single page in Krochmal's book that did not afterwards give
+birth to some essay or monograph or even elaborate treatise, though their
+authors were not always very careful about mentioning the source of their
+inspiration. Thus Krochmal justly deserves the honourable title assigned
+to him by one of our greatest historians, who terms him the Father of
+Jewish Science.
+
+So far, I have been speaking of the importance of Krochmal's treatise and
+of its significance in the region of Jewish Science. It is necessary, I
+think, to add a few words with regard to the general tendency of his whole
+work. I have already alluded to the characteristic modesty of Krochmal; I
+have pointed out how little he cared for publicity, how dearly he loved
+retirement. The question accordingly presents itself--What can have been
+the real and sufficient causes that prevailed upon him to yield to the
+solicitations of his friends and to write upon what the Talmud would term
+"matters standing on the heights of the world"?
+
+The answer to this question may, I think, be found in the title of
+Krochmal's book, the _Guide of the Perplexed of the Time_. It is indeed a
+rather unusual coincidence for the title of a Hebrew book to have any
+connection with its subject matter. The same merit is possessed by the
+_Guide of the Perplexed_ of Maimonides, the title of which undoubtedly
+suggested that of Krochmal's treatise. There is, however, one little
+addition in Krochmal's title that contains a most important lesson for us.
+I mean the words "of the Time." By these words Krochmal reminds us that,
+great as are the merits of the immortal work of Maimonides--and it would be
+difficult to exaggerate its value and importance--still it will no longer
+suffice for us. For, as Krochmal himself remarks, every time has its own
+perplexities, and therefore needs its own guide. In order to show that
+these words are no idle phrase, I shall endeavour to illustrate them by
+one example at least. In the _Guide of the Perplexed_ of Maimonides, Part
+II., Chapter XXVI., occurs a passage which runs thus: "In the famous
+chapters known as the 'Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great,'(39) I find R.
+Eliezer the Great saying something more extraordinary than I have ever
+seen in the utterances of any believer in the Law of Moses. I refer to the
+following passage: 'Whence were the heavens created? He (God) took part of
+the light of His garment, He stretched it like a cloth, and thus the
+heavens were extending continually, as it is said (Ps. civ. 2): He
+covereth Himself with light as with a garment, He stretcheth the heavens
+like a curtain. Whence was the earth created? He took of the snow under
+the throne of glory, and threw it; according to the words (in Job xxxvii.
+6), He said to the snow be thou earth.' These are the words given there
+(in the 'Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great'), and I, in my surprise, ask,
+What was the belief of this sage? Did he think it impossible that
+something be produced from nothing?... If the terms 'the light of His
+garment' and the 'snow of glory' mean something eternal (as matter) they
+_must_ be rejected.... In short, it is a passage that greatly confuses the
+notions of all intelligent and religious persons. I am unable to explain
+it sufficiently."
+
+So far Maimonides; and we are quite able to conceive his perplexity in
+dealing with this passage. On one side, Maimonides himself believed that
+Judaism is a dogmatic religion, and that one of its dogmas is the
+principle of _Creatio ex nihilo_. On the other side, he found R.
+Eliezer--one of the greatest authorities of the early part of the second
+century--apparently denying this dogma. The perplexity was indeed a serious
+one for Maimonides, but we find no difficulty whatever in extricating
+ourselves from it. In the first place, there are many who cling to the
+theory which holds that there are no dogmas in Judaism at all, and to them
+Maimonides' difficulty would have no relevance. Secondly, those who
+believe that there are dogmas in Judaism may regard such expressions as
+those quoted above from the "Chapters of R. Eliezer" in the light of mere
+poetical metaphors, or may call them fairy tales or legends, or include
+them in some other section of literature, known under the name of
+folklore, which is an excuse for every absurdity, the fortunate authors of
+which are responsible neither to philosophy nor to religion, and sometimes
+not even to common sense. But there is a third consideration that affords
+the best solution of the difficulty. The "Chapters of R. Eliezer," despite
+their pompous title, are not the work of R. Eliezer at all. Criticism has
+taught us to attach no importance to the heading of a chapter or the
+title-page of a book. We are now in a position to judge from the tone,
+style, and contents of the work, that the "Chapters of R. Eliezer" is a
+later compilation of the eighth century, and that its author could not
+have been R. Eliezer, the teacher of R. Akiba, in the second century. In
+this way, these particular difficulties of Maimonides solve themselves for
+us in a sufficiently easy way. But it is just these solutions that open up
+new difficulties and perplexities which did not exist for the generation
+of the great Spanish philosopher. Suppose that we accept the view that
+Judaism is not a dogmatic religion. But how are we to conceive a religion
+without dogmas, or, if you prefer the expression, without principles or
+bases of belief? Or is Judaism, as some platitudinarians think, a mere
+national institute with some useful dietary and sanitary laws, but with
+nothing that makes for the sanctification of man, with no guidance to
+offer us in the great problems of our life, and in the greatest anxieties
+of the human soul? On the other hand, granted that we may consider certain
+things as mere legend, how are we to discriminate between these and the
+things that must be taken seriously? Does it depend on the nature of the
+subject, or on the position of the book in the canon of Hebrew literature?
+In the thirteenth century symbolical meanings were given to certain
+difficult passages in the Talmud; but the process was carried further, and
+the Biblical narratives were subjected by philosophers to a like
+treatment. R. Solomon ben Adereth and his colleagues (in the thirteenth
+century) settled the question by indiscriminately excommunicating all
+young men who should study philosophy; but this method is scarcely one to
+be commended for present use.
+
+The third, or the philological solution of difficulties, leads to fresh
+troubles. A hundred years ago men were in that happy state of mind in
+which they knew everything. They knew the exact author and date of every
+Psalm; they knew the author of each and every ancient Midrash; they knew
+the originator of every law and ordinance; they even knew the writer of
+the Zohar, and of other mystical books. There were certainly a few who did
+not know all these things, among them Ibn Ezra, Azariah de Rossi, and the
+two Delmedigos.(40) But they were merely a miserable historical blunder,
+men who had no right to be born when they were. But the philological
+method has swept away all this knowingness as by a deluge from heaven, and
+men find that they know nothing. True, there linger on a few who still
+know all these things, but it is they who are now the anachronism. These,
+and such as these, are the perplexities of our time, to the resolution of
+which the labours of Krochmal and of a noble band of scholars have been
+directed in this century.
+
+Have these perplexities, we must ask, and these puzzles been solved by
+Krochmal and his coadjutors? We may with all certainty answer: They have
+only pointed out the way, it is for ourselves to proceed by it. It would
+be unreasonable to expect that difficulties which have been accumulating
+during the course of thousands of years should be solved by the men of one
+or two generations. Again, we live in a century in which excavations and
+discoveries in other fields have added at once to our knowledge and to our
+uncertainty. Each country, we might almost say, over and above the
+perplexities that trouble mankind in general, has its own special
+difficulties which are entirely unknown to those who dwell outside its
+frontiers. I am not disposed to discuss these difficulties in this place.
+Nor have I the ability to do so. But of two things I am perfectly certain:
+the first is, that for a solution of these difficulties which, in the
+language of Maimonides, "confuse the notions of all intelligent and
+religious persons," the only hope is in true knowledge and not in
+ignorance; and secondly, this knowledge can only be obtained by a
+combination of the utmost reverence for religion and the deepest devotion
+to truth. The poor old Rabbis who have been so foully decried by their
+calumniators as hedonists, and so foolishly praised by sorry apologists as
+materialistic optimists, strongly insisted that when a man woos the truth,
+his suit can only prosper if he is influenced by the purest and most
+single-hearted affection. "A man," says the Siphre, "must not say: 'I will
+study the Torah in order that I may attain the title of Rabbi or savant,
+or that I may become rich by it, or that I may be rewarded for it in the
+world to come.' He must study for love's sake." Such a knowledge, which is
+free from all taint of worldliness and of other-worldliness, a knowledge
+sought simply and solely for pure love of God, who is Truth,--such a
+knowledge is in the highest sense a saving knowledge, and Nachman Krochmal
+was in possession of it.
+
+
+
+
+
+III. RABBI ELIJAH WILNA, GAON
+
+
+The three great stars of German literature are usually characterised by
+German scholars in the following way: Goethe they say represents the
+beautiful, Schiller the ideal, while Lessing represents truth. I think
+that we may apply the same characteristics to the three great luminaries,
+with which the Jewish middle ages ceased--for as Zunz somewhere remarked,
+the Jewish middle ages lasted till the beginning of the eighteenth
+century--and the modern age of Judaism opened. I am thinking of Mendelssohn
+in Germany, Israel Baalshem, the founder of the sect of the Chassidim in
+Podolia, and Elijah Wilna, or as he is more frequently called, the
+Gaon,(41) the Great One, in Lithuania.
+
+As to Mendelssohn, enough, and perhaps more than enough, has already been
+written and spoken about his merits in awakening the sense for the
+beautiful and the harmonious which was almost entirely dormant among the
+Jews of his age. In regard to the second, namely, Israel Baalshem, I have
+only to refer the reader to the first essay in this volume. The subject of
+the present essay will be R. Elijah Wilna, who, among the Jews, as Lessing
+among the Germans, represented truth, both by his life and by his literary
+activity.
+
+I say that the Gaon represented truth, but these words must be taken _cum
+grano salis_. For I do not mean at all to say that he was in possession of
+the whole truth, still less in _exclusive_ possession of it. It is true as
+we shall learn in the course of this essay, that the Gaon was a genius of
+the first order. But there are matters of truth, the obtaining of which
+cannot be accomplished by genius alone. R. Elijah Wilna did not know any
+other language than Hebrew. Truths, therefore, which are only to be
+reached through the medium of other languages, remained a secret to him.
+Again, records of ancient times which are buried in the shelves of remote
+libraries or under the ruins of past civilisations are not always a matter
+of intuition. Even the most gifted of men have to wait patiently till
+these are brought to light by the aid of spade and shovel, or the pen of
+some obscure copyist. But R. Elijah lived at a time when excavation had as
+yet done very little for Semitic studies, and when a Jew scarcely got
+admittance into the great libraries of Europe. Thus much truth which we
+get now in a very easy way was beyond this seer's eye.
+
+But even if all the libraries on earth had been at his disposal, even if
+he had read all the cuneiform writings which ornament the British Museum,
+and had deciphered all the Hieroglyphics which the Louvre possesses, even
+in that case we should not be justified in terming him a representative of
+the truth, without qualifying our words.
+
+"Truth," said the old Rabbis, "is the Seal of the Holy One, praised be
+He." But Heaven has no Lord Chancellor. Neither men nor angels are trusted
+with the great Seal. They are only allowed to catch a glimpse of it, or
+rather to long after this glimpse. However, even the longing and effort
+for this glimpse will bring man into communion with God, and make his life
+divine. And the life of the Gaon was, as we shall see, one long effort and
+unceasing longing after the truth.
+
+Again, if I say that the Gaon represented truth, you must not think that
+he lacked the two other qualities. A life entirely devoted to such a great
+cause as that of seeking the truth is, _ipso facto_, ideal and harmonious.
+It is only in his influence on Judaism--more particularly on the Jews in
+the North of Europe--that this feature in his life becomes more prominent
+than his other admirable qualities.
+
+In what this truth consisted, how the Gaon arrived at it, and by what
+means he conveyed it to others, we shall see in the course of this essay.
+
+R. Elijah was born at Wilna in the year 1720. His father, Solomon Wilna,
+is called by his biographers the great Rabbi Solomon, and is said to have
+been the descendant of R. Moses Rivkas, the author of a learned work,
+containing notes to the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro.(42)
+
+Having quoted the biographers, I must point out that there are only two
+biographies of the Gaon: the one by Finn, in his book _Faithful City_,(43)
+on the celebrities of Wilna, the other by Nachman of Horodna, in his book
+_Ascension of Elijah_.(44) The former is a very honest account of the
+Gaon's life, but a little too short. The latter is too long, or rather too
+much intermixed with that sort of absurd legend, the authors of which are
+incapable of marking the line which separates the monster from the hero.
+
+Even in the region of imagination we must not for a moment forget the good
+advice given to us by one of our greatest scholars who had to deal with a
+kindred subject: "He," says this scholar, "who banishes the thought of
+higher and lower from his study, degrades it into a mere means of
+gratifying his curiosity, and disqualifies it for the lofty task which it
+is called upon to perform for modern society." We shall thus cling to the
+higher and stop at the hero.
+
+Our hero was the first-born of five brothers. They were all famous men in
+their little world. According to the tradition in Wilna, Elijah was a
+lovely child, with beautiful eyes, and goodly to look at, or as it is
+expressed in another place, "as beautiful as an angel!" The tradition, or
+rather the legend, relates that as a child of six years he was already the
+pupil of R. Moses Margalith, the famous author of a commentary on the
+Talmud of Jerusalem. At the age of seven years he is said to have already
+perplexed the Chief Rabbi of his native town by his controversial skill in
+Talmudical subjects. At the early age of nine he was acquainted with the
+contents of the Bible, the Mishnah, the Talmud and its ancient
+commentaries; and even the Cabbalistic works of R. Isaac Loria were no
+secret to the youthful scholar.(45) At the age of twelve years he is said
+to have acquired the seven liberal arts, and to have puzzled the scholars
+of Wilna by his astronomical knowledge. At thirteen, when according to
+Jewish law he attained his majority, he was already the accomplished or
+"the great one" (Gaon); so far tradition. I am afraid that tradition is
+here, against all experience, too exact in its dates. But we may learn
+from it that the child Elijah showed many signs of the future Gaon, and
+was therefore considered as the prodigy of his age. Again it is likewise
+pretty certain that no man could boast of having been the master of
+Elijah. He was not the product of any school, nor was he biassed by the
+many prejudices of his time. He was allowed to walk his own way in his
+struggle after truth.
+
+It is rather an unfortunate thing that history is so much made up of
+parallels and contrasts that the historian or even the biographer cannot
+possibly point out the greatness of some men without touching, however
+slightly, on the smallness of others. It is only natural that every strong
+shining object should push the minor lights of its surroundings into the
+background and darken them. Thus, when we are speaking of the superiority
+of the Gaon, we cannot escape hinting at least at the shortcomings of his
+contemporaries, as well as of his predecessors.
+
+To indicate briefly in what this superiority consisted, I will premise
+here a few words from a _Responsum_ by one of his great predecessors, the
+Gaon Rabbi Hai.(46) Consulted by a student as to the meaning of certain
+mystical passages in the tractate _Chagigah_,(47) Rabbi Hai, in warning
+his correspondent not to expect from him a long philosophical
+dissertation, writes as follows: "Know that it never was our business to
+palliate matters and explain them in a way of which the author never could
+have thought. This is fashionable with other people, but our method is to
+explain the words of this or that authority in accordance with his own
+meaning. We do not pledge ourselves that this meaning is 'right rule' in
+itself, for there _do_ exist statements made by the old authorities that
+cannot be accepted as norm." Thus far the words of the Gaon of the tenth
+century, which speak volumes. The Gaon of the eighteenth century followed
+the same course. All his efforts were directed to this point; namely, to
+find out the true meaning of the Mishnah, the true meaning of the
+Gemara,(48) the true meaning of the Gaonim, the true meaning of the great
+codifiers, and the true meaning of the commentators on the ancient
+Rabbinical literature. Whether this meaning would be acceptable to us
+mattered very little to him. His only object was to understand the words
+of his predecessors, and this he obtained, as we shall soon see, by the
+best critical means. This was the method of the Gaon; that of other
+scholars (at least of the great majority) was dictated by entirely
+different considerations. They would not suffer the idea that the great
+man could be wrong at times. To them, all that he said was "right rule."
+Now suppose a great author like Maimonides had overlooked an important
+passage in the Talmud or any other statement by a great authority, the
+alternative remaining to them was either to explain away the passage of
+the Talmud or to give the words of Maimonides a strange meaning. This led
+originally to the famous method of the _Pilpul_ (casuistry), a kind of
+spiritual gymnastic, which R. Liva of Prague in the sixteenth century, and
+many others condemned as most pernicious to Judaism and leading to the
+decay of the study of the Torah.
+
+Now it is beyond doubt that the method of the two Gaonim is the only right
+one. But, in justice to the casuistic school, which includes many a great
+name, it is only right to remember that this impartiality towards
+acknowledged authorities as maintained by our hero is not at all such an
+easy matter as we imagine. We quote often with great satisfaction the
+famous saying, _Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates, sed magis amica veritas_,
+"Plato is our friend, so is Socrates, but Truth is, or rather ought to be,
+our greatest friend." This sounds very nicely, but let us only realise
+what difficulties it involves. To be a friend of Socrates or Plato means
+to know them, or in other words to have a thorough knowledge of the
+writings of the one and the recorded utterances of the other. But such a
+knowledge can with most men only be obtained by devoting one's _whole_
+life to the study of their works, so that there is not left much time for
+new friendships. And the few who are able to save a few years after long
+wanderings with these Greek philosophers, seldom see the necessity of new
+friendships. For what else did those long courtships of Plato or Aristotle
+mean except that those who conducted them thought that thereby they would
+wed Truth?
+
+This impartiality is the more difficult when these friends are invested
+with a kind of religious authority where humility and submission are most
+important factors. The history of Lanfranc, the predecessor of Anselm of
+Canterbury, gives a striking example of what this submission meant in the
+Middle Ages. One day, we are told, when he was still an ordinary monk, he
+was reading at the table and pronounced a word as it ought to be
+pronounced, but not as seemed right to the person presiding, who bade him
+say it differently; "as if he had said _docere_, with the middle syllable
+long, as is right, and the other had corrected it into _docere_, with the
+middle short, which is wrong; for that Prior was not a scholar. But the
+wise man, knowing that he owed obedience rather to Christ than to Donatus,
+the grammarian, gave up his pronunciation, and said what he was wrongly
+told to say; for to make a short syllable long, or a long one short, he
+knew to be no deadly sin, but not to obey one set over him in God's behalf
+was no light transgression."(49)
+
+But this admiration--and here we turn again to the Gaon--must not prevent us
+from believing that Providence is not confined to such ungrammatical
+Priors, and that the men who are really working on behalf of God are those
+who teach us to pronounce rightly, and to think rightly, and to take
+matters as they are, not as we desire them to be on account of our
+friends.
+
+As for the critical means to which I have alluded, the Gaon himself said
+somewhere that simplicity is the best criterion of truth, and this is the
+most characteristic feature of all his literary career. The Gaon studied
+Hebrew grammar in order to obtain a clear notion of the language in which
+the Scriptures are written. He tried to attain to the knowledge of the
+Bible by reading the Bible itself; and was not satisfied to become
+acquainted with its contents from the numerous quotations which are made
+from it in Rabbinical literature. Again, he studied mathematics,
+astronomy, and philosophy, as far as they could be found in Hebrew books.
+Certainly the Gaon did not study these subjects for their own sake, and
+they were considered by him only as a means to the end, or as the phrase
+goes, as the "hand-maidens" of Theology, the queen of all sciences. But it
+may be looked upon as a mark of great progress in an age when Queen
+Theology had become rather sulky, continually finding fault with her hand-
+maidens, and stigmatising every attention paid to them as conducive to
+disloyalty. To these accusations the Gaon answered that Queen Theology
+does not study her own interests. Knowledge of all arts and sciences, the
+Gaon maintained, is necessary for the real understanding of the Torah
+which embraces the whole of them. From his own writings it is evident that
+he himself was familiar with Euclid, and his _Ayil Meshulash_ contains
+several original developments of Euclid. It was at his suggestion that a
+certain Baruch of Sclow translated Euclid into the Hebrew language.
+
+Another way which led the Gaon to the discovery of many truths was his
+study of the pre-Talmudic literature, and of the Jerusalem Talmud. By some
+accident or other it came to pass that only the Babylonian Talmud was
+recognised as a guide _in the practices of religious life_. As the great
+teachers and their pupils cared more for satisfying the religious wants of
+their flocks than for theoretic researches, the consequence was that a
+most important part of the ancient Rabbinic literature was almost entirely
+neglected by them for many centuries. And it was certainly no
+exaggeration, when R. Elijah said that even the Gaonim and Maimonides,
+occupied as they were with the practical part of the law, did not pay
+sufficient attention to the Talmud of Jerusalem and the Tosephta.(50) The
+Gaon was no official head of any Jewish community, and was but little
+troubled by decisions of questions which concern daily life. He was thus
+in a position to leave for a little while the Babylonian Talmud and to
+become acquainted with the guides of the guide. I refer to Siphra, Siphre,
+Mechilta, Tosephta, the Seder Olam,(51) the Minor Tractates,(52) and above
+all the Talmud of Jerusalem, which, regarded from an historical and
+critical point of view, is even of more importance than its Babylonian
+twin-brother. But by this means there came a new light upon the whole of
+ancient Rabbinic literature. The words of the Torah, the Midrash says, are
+poor in one place, but we shall find them rich in another place. The Gaon
+by his acquaintance with the _whole_ of the Torah had no difficulty
+whatever in discovering the rich places. If there was a difficult passage
+in this or that Tractate, he showed, by giving a reference to some other
+place, that it was wanting in some words or lines. Obscure passages in the
+Mishnah he tried to elucidate by parallel passages in the Tosephta. The
+too complicated controversies of the Babylonian Talmud he tried to explain
+by comparing them with the more ancient and more simple Talmud of
+Jerusalem.
+
+There is little to be told of the Gaon's private affairs. Even the date of
+his marriage with a certain Miss Anna of Kaidon is not mentioned by his
+biographers. But it may be taken for granted that, in accordance with the
+custom in Poland, he married at a very early age, say about eighteen
+years. It was also when a young man that he travelled for some years
+through Poland and Germany. It is rather difficult to say what his object
+may have been in making these travels--for the Gaon was not the man to
+travel for pleasure's sake. Perhaps it was to become acquainted with the
+great Rabbis of these countries. It is also possible, as others maintain,
+that the Gaon considered the many privations which a traveller had to
+endure a hundred and fifty years ago, as an atonement for his imaginary
+sins. Indeed we find in many ascetic books that travelling, or as they
+term it "receiving upon oneself to be banished into the exile,"(53) is
+recommended as a very successful substitute for penance. At least it seems
+that the coachmen whom the Gaon employed on his journeys looked at it from
+this point of view. One of them went so far in adding to the privations of
+the Gaon as to run away with his carriage when the Rabbi alighted from it
+in order to read his prayers. But the reading of the Eighteen
+Benedictions(54) must not be interrupted excepting in the case of danger;
+and the Gaon did not consider it very dangerous to be left without money
+and without luggage.
+
+These travels ended in the year 1745. The Gaon left Wilna again at a later
+date with the purpose of going to Palestine and settling there. But he
+found so many obstacles on his way that he was soon compelled to give up
+his favourite plan and to return to his native town. It is not known
+whether he left Wilna again.
+
+The position which the Gaon occupied in Wilna was, as already hinted, that
+of a private man. He could never be prevailed upon to accept the post of
+Rabbi or any other office in a Jewish community. I am unable to give the
+reason for his declining all the offers made to him in this direction. But
+it may be suggested here that it was in the time of the Gaon that there
+arose a bitter struggle between the Rabbi and the Jewish wardens of his
+native town, which ended in the abolition of the office of Rabbi. The
+history of the struggle is the more irritating, as it arose from the
+pettiest reasons imaginable. People actually discovered that there was no
+light in the house of the Rabbi after the middle of the night, which fact
+might lead to the conclusion that he did not study later than 12 o'clock
+P.M. What an idle man! And this idleness was the less pardonable in the
+eyes of the community, as the Rabbi's wife was so unfortunate as not to
+have been polite enough to some Mrs. Warden. Under such circumstances we
+must not wonder if the Gaon did not find it very desirable to meddle with
+congregational affairs in an official capacity. The relation of the Gaon
+to his contemporaries resembles rather the position in the olden times of
+a Tanna or Amora,(55) who neither enjoyed the title of Nasin or that of Ab
+Beth Din.(56) Like R. Akiba, or Mar Samuel, the Gaon became influential
+among his contemporaries only by his teaching and his exemplary life.
+
+It must be said in praise of the Jews of Wilna that, notwithstanding their
+petty behaviour towards their ecclesiastical chief, they willingly
+submitted to the authority of the Gaon (who was devoid of all official
+authority). They revered him as a saint. To converse with the Gaon was
+considered as a happy event in the life of a Jew in Wilna, to be of any
+use to him as the greatest distinction a man could attain on earth. But
+what is remarkable is the readiness with which even scholars acknowledged
+the authority of the Gaon. Scholars are usually more slow in recognising
+greatness than simple mortals. Every new luminary does not only outshine
+their minor lights and thus hurt their personal vanity, but it threatens
+also sometimes to obscure certain traditions which they wish to keep
+prominently in view. But the literary genius of the Gaon was too great to
+be opposed with success, and his piety and devotion to religion far above
+suspicion. Thus the Gaon was very soon recognised by his contemporaries as
+their master and guide; not only in literary questions, but also in
+matters of belief and conduct.
+
+It would lead me too far to name here all the Gaon's disciples. It seems
+as if all the great scholars in his country considered themselves to be
+more or less his pupils. The Gaon used to give in the Beth Hammidrash,
+which he founded, public lectures on various subjects, and the students
+who attended these lectures also claimed the honour of being called his
+pupils. I shall mention here only his greatest disciple, R. Chayim
+Walosin, who, after the Gaon, influenced his countrymen more than any
+other scholar of that time. This R. Chayim also did not occupy any
+official post among his brethren. He was a cloth manufacturer by
+profession, and was very prosperous in his business. But it did not
+prevent him from being devoted to Hebrew literature, and he enjoyed a
+wide-spread fame as a great scholar. But as soon as the fame of the Gaon
+reached him, he left cloth manufactory and scholarship behind, and went to
+Wilna to "learn Torah" from the mouth of the great master. It must be
+noticed that even the giving up of his claim to scholarship was no little
+sacrifice. All our learning, said some scholar in Wilna, disappeared as
+soon as we crossed the threshold of the Gaon's house. He made every
+disciple who came into close contact with him begin at the beginning. He
+taught them Hebrew grammar, Bible, Mishnah, and many other subjects, which
+were, as already mentioned, very often neglected by the Talmudists of that
+time. R. Chayim had also to go through all this course. Some would have
+considered such treatment a degradation. R. Chayim, however, became the
+more attached to his master for it.
+
+In such a way the life of the Gaon was spent, studying by himself or
+teaching his pupils. It must be understood that to learn Torah meant for
+the Gaon more than mere brain work for the purpose of gaining knowledge.
+To him it was a kind of service to God. Contemporaries who watched him
+when he was studying the Torah observed that the effect wrought on the
+personality of the Gaon was the same as when he was praying. With every
+word his countenance flushed with joy; with every line he was gaining
+strength for proceeding further. Only by looking at matters from this
+point of view shall we be able to understand the devotion and the love of
+the Gaon for study.
+
+There has been, no doubt, among the Russian Jews a strong tendency to
+exaggerate the intellectual qualities of the Gaon. But one can readily
+excuse such a tendency. He was gifted by nature with such a wonderful
+memory that, having read a book once, he was able to recite it by heart
+for the rest of his life. Not less admirable was his sure grasp. The most
+complicated controversies in the Talmud, into which other scholars would
+require whole days and weeks to find their way, the Gaon was able to read
+by a glance at the pages. Already as a boy he is said to have gone through
+in a single night the tractates _Zebachim_ and _Menachoth_,(57) containing
+not less than two hundred and thirty pages, the contents of which are
+sometimes so difficult as to make even an aged scholar despair of
+understanding them. Again, he possessed so much common-sense that all the
+intellectual tricks of the casuistic schools did not exist for him. And
+nevertheless his biographers tell us that he was so much occupied by his
+studies, that he could not spare more than one hour and a half for sleep
+out of twenty-four hours. This is, no doubt, an exaggeration. But let us
+say five hours a day. He had not time to take his meals regularly. He used
+also, according to tradition, to repeat every chapter in the Bible, every
+passage in the Talmud, hundreds of times, even if they presented no
+difficulty at all. But it was, as already said, a matter of love for the
+Gaon; of love, not of passing affection.
+
+Nothing on earth could be more despicable to the Gaon than amateurs who
+dabble with ancient literature. To understand a thing clearly made him
+happy. He is said to have spent more than six months on a single Mishnah
+in the tractate _Kilayim_,(58) and felt himself the happiest man when he
+succeeded in grasping its real meaning. Not to be able to go into the
+depth of a subject, to miss the truth embedded in a single passage, caused
+him the most bitter grief. A story told by his pupil, R. Chayim, may
+illustrate this fact. One Friday, narrates R. Chayim, the servant of the
+Gaon came to him with the message that his master wanted to see him as
+soon as possible. R. Chayim went instantly. When he came into the house,
+he found the Gaon lying in bed with a bandage on his head and looking very
+ill. The wife of the Gaon also reported to him that it was more than three
+days since her husband had taken any food, and that he had hardly enjoyed
+any sleep all this time. All this misery was caused by reason of not
+having been able to understand some difficult passages in the Talmud of
+Jerusalem. The Gaon now asked his disciples to resume with him their
+researches. Heaven, he said, might have mercy upon them and open their
+eyes, for it is written, "Two are better than one": and lo! Heaven did
+have mercy on them; they succeeded in getting the true meaning of the
+passage. The Gaon recovered instantly, and master and disciple had a very
+joyful Sabbath.
+
+He is also reported to have said on one occasion, he would not like to
+have an angel for his teacher who would reveal to him all the mysteries of
+the Torah. Such a condition is only befitting the world to come, but in
+_this_ world only things which are acquired by hard labour and great
+struggle are of any value. The German representative of truth expressed
+the same thought in other words, which are well worth repeating here: "Did
+the Almighty," says Lessing, "holding in His right hand Truth and in His
+left Search after Truth, deign to tender me the one I might prefer, in all
+humility and without hesitation I should select Search after Truth."
+
+This absorption of all his being in the study of the Torah may also, I
+think, account for the fact that his biographers have so little to say
+about the family of the Gaon. Of his wife, we know only that she died in
+the year 1783. Not much fuller is our knowledge about his children. The
+biographers speak of them as of the family "which the Lord has blessed,"
+referring to his two sons, Rabbi Aryeh Leb and Rabbi Abraham, who were
+known as great scholars and very pious men. The latter one is best known
+by his edition of a collection of smaller Midrashim. Mention is also made
+of the Gaon's sons-in-law, especially one Rabbi Moses of Pinsk. But this
+is all, and we are told nothing either about their lives or their
+callings. From his famous letter which he sent to his family when on his
+way to Palestine, we see that he was rather what one may call a severe
+father. He bids his wife punish his children most severely for swearing,
+scolding, and speaking untruth. He also advises her to live as retired a
+life as possible. Retirement he considers as a condition _sine qua non_
+for a religious life. He even advises his daughter to read her prayers at
+home, for in the synagogue she may get envious of the finer dresses of her
+friends, which is a most terrible sin. The only tender feature in this
+letter is perhaps where he implores his wife to be kind to his mother on
+account of her being a widow, and it were a great sin to cause her the
+least annoyance. From other passages we may gather that his family had at
+times to suffer hunger and cold by the excessive occupation of their
+father with the study of the Torah and other religious works. In short,
+the Gaon was a one-sided, severe ascetic, and would never have deserved
+the title of a good father, a good husband, an amiable man or any other
+appellation derived from those ordinary "household decencies" which, as
+Macaulay informs us, half of the tombstones claim for those who lie behind
+them. But I am very much afraid that many a great man who has made his
+mark in history could never claim these household virtues as his own. I do
+not want to enter here into the question whether Judaism be an ascetic
+religion or not. But even those who think Judaism identical with what is
+called "making the best of this life," will not dispute the fact that
+Jewish literature contains within it enough ascetic elements to justify
+the conduct of our greatest men whose lives were one long-continued self-
+denial and privation. "The Torah," says the Talmud, "cannot be obtained
+unless a man is prepared to give his life for it," or as the Talmud puts
+it, in another place, "if it be thy desire not to die, cease to live
+before thou diest." This was the principle by which the Gaon's life was
+actuated. And as he did not spare himself, he could not spare others. We
+could not expect him to act differently. The Scriptures tell us: "Thou
+shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." But how is it with the man who never
+loved himself, who never gave a thought to himself, who never lived for
+himself, but only for what he considered to be his duty and his mission
+from God on earth? Such a man we cannot expect to spend his time on
+coaxing and caressing us. As to the charge of one-sidedness at which I
+have hinted, if the giving up of everything else for the purpose of
+devoting oneself to a scholarly and saintly life is one-sidedness, the
+Gaon must certainly bear this charge; but in a world where there are so
+many on the other side, we ought, I think, to be only too grateful to
+Providence for sending us from time to time great and strong one-sided
+men, who, by their counterbalancing influence, bring God's spoilt world to
+a certain equilibrium again. To appease my more tender readers, I should
+like only to say that there is no occasion at all for pitying Mrs. Gaon.
+It would be a miserable world indeed if a good digestion and stupidity
+were, as a certain author maintained, the only conditions of happiness.
+Saints are happy in their sufferings, and noble souls find their happiness
+in sacrificing themselves for these sufferers.
+
+Another severe feature in the life of the Gaon showed itself in his
+dispute with the Chassidim. I regret not to be able to enter here even
+into a brief account of the history of this struggle. I shall only take
+leave to say that I am afraid each party was right, the Gaon as well as
+the Chassidim; the latter, in attacking the Rabbis of their time, who
+mostly belonged to the casuistic schools, and in their intellectual
+pursuits almost entirely neglected the emotional side of religion; but
+none the less was the Gaon right in opposing a system which, as I have
+shown above, involved the danger of leading to a worship of men.
+
+Excepting this incident, the Gaon never meddled with public affairs. He
+lived in retirement, always occupied with his own education and that of
+his disciples and friends. It is most remarkable that, in spite of his
+hard work and the many privations he had to endure, he enjoyed good health
+almost all his life. He never consulted a doctor. It was not until the
+year 1791, in the seventieth year of his life, that he began to feel the
+decline of his health. But he was not much interrupted by the failure of
+his powers. As a means of recovery, he esteemed very highly the
+conversation of the preacher Jacob of Dubna, better known as the Dubna
+Maggid,(59) whose parables and sallies of wit the Gaon used to enjoy very
+much. On the eve of the Day of Atonement in the year 1797, he fell very
+ill and gave his blessing to his children. He died on the third day of the
+Feast of Tabernacles, with the branch of the Lulab(60) in his hands. The
+Feast of Joy, relates a contemporary, was turned into days of mourning. In
+all the streets of Wilna were heard only lamenting and crying voices. The
+funeral orations delivered on this occasion in Wilna, as well as in other
+Jewish communities, would form a small library. His disciples wept for
+their master, the people of Wilna for the ornament of their native town,
+and the feeling of the Jews in general was that "the Ark of God was taken
+away."
+
+After the foregoing sketch, the reader will hardly expect me to give an
+account of the Gaon's literary productions. The results of so long a life
+and such powers of mind devoted to one cause with such zeal and fervour,
+would furnish by themselves the subject of a whole series of essays. The
+tombstone set on his grave by his pious admirers bears the inscription,
+"The Gaon gave heed and sought and set in order"--that is to say, he wrote
+commentaries or notes on--"the Bible, the Mishnah, both Talmuds, the
+Siphre, Siphra, the Zohar, and many other works." Inscriptions on
+tombstones are proverbial for exaggeration, and we all know the saying,
+"as mendacious as an epitaph." But a glance at the catalogue of the
+British Museum under the heading of Elijah Wilna, will show that this
+inscription makes a praiseworthy exception. We will find that this list
+might be lengthened by many other works of great importance for Jewish
+life and thought. His commentary to the Code of R. Joseph Caro, in which
+one will find that in many cases he knew the sources of the religious
+customs and usages, put together in this work, better than its compiler
+himself, would have been sufficient to place him at the head of Halachic
+scholarship, whilst his notes and textual emendations to the Tosephta and
+Seder Olam, to the restoration of which he contributed so much, would have
+sufficed to establish his fame as a critic of the first order. And this is
+the more astonishing when we consider that all this was done without
+manuscripts or any other aid, and by mere intuition. We cannot wonder that
+scholars who had the opportunity of visiting great libraries and saw how
+the emendations of the Gaon agreed sometimes with the readings given in
+the best manuscripts exclaimed very often: "Only by inspiration could he
+have found out these secrets." We have no need to go so far; we shall
+simply say with the Talmud, "The powers of the real sage surpass those of
+the prophet." Nay, even had we possessed only his _Gleanings_, which form
+a kind of _obiter dicta_ on various topics of Jewish literature, the Gaon
+would have remained a model of clear thinking and real ingenuity for all
+future generations.
+
+However, a real appreciation of the Gaon's greatness as a scholar would
+only be possible either by a thorough study of his works, to which I have
+alluded, or by giving many specimens of them. The short space I am limited
+to makes such an undertaking impossible. I shall therefore use what
+remains to me to say a few words on the salutary influence the Gaon had on
+his countrymen, the Russian Jews.
+
+The Russian Jew is still a riddle to us. We know this strange being only
+from the Reports of the Board of Guardians or from bombastic phrases in
+public speeches; for he has always been the victim of platform orators,
+
+
+    So over violent or over civil,
+    That every man with them is God or Devil.
+
+
+From all, however, that I can gather from the best Jewish writers in
+Russia, I can only judge that the Russian Jew, when transplanted to a
+foreign soil, where he is cut off from the past and uncertain of his
+future, is for the time at least in a position in which his true character
+cannot be truly estimated. His real life is to be sought in his own
+country. There, amidst his friends and kinsmen who are all animated by the
+same ideals, attached to the same traditions, and proud of the same
+religious and charitable institutions, everything is full of life and
+meaning to him. Thus, a certain Russian writer addresses his younger
+colleagues who find so much fault with the bygone world: "Go and see how
+rich we always were in excellent men. In every town and every village you
+would find scholars, saints, and philanthropists. Their merits could
+sustain worlds, and each of them was an ornament of Israel." And he
+proceeds to give dozens of names of such excellent men, who are not all
+indeed known to us, but with whom the Russian Jew connects many noble and
+pious reminiscences of real greatness and heroic self-denial, and of whom
+he is justly proud.
+
+The focus, however, of all this spiritual life is the Yeshibah (Talmudical
+College)(61) in Walosin. I hope that a glance at its history and
+constitution will not be found uninteresting. The intellectual originator
+of this institution which bears the name _Yeshibah Ets Chayim_ (Tree of
+Life College),(62) was the Gaon himself. Being convinced that the study of
+the Torah is the very life of Judaism, but that this study must be
+conducted in a scientific, not in a scholastic way, he bade his chief
+disciple, the R. Chayim already mentioned, to found a college in which
+Rabbinical literature should be taught according to his own true method.
+It would seem that, as long as the Gaon was alive, R. Chayim preferred to
+be a pupil rather than a teacher. When, however, the Gaon died, R. Chayim
+did not rest till he had carried out the command of his master, and in the
+year 1803 the College was opened in Walosin. The cloth manufacturer and
+disciple now became Rabbi and master. He began on a small scale, teaching
+at first only a few pupils. But even for the sustenance of a small number
+he had not sufficient means, and his pious wife sold her jewellery to help
+him in accomplishing his favourite plan. This is the best refutation of
+the French proverb _Avare comme une Rabbine_. The number, however,
+increased daily, and before he died (1828), he was fortunate enough to
+lecture to a hundred students. The number of students in the year 1888
+amounted to 400, and the Russian Jews are thus right in asserting that
+they have the greatest Talmudical College in the world. It is evident that
+no private charity by a single man, however great, could suffice to
+maintain such large numbers. Thus R. Chayim was already compelled to
+appeal to the liberality of his Russian brethren. The name of R. Chayim,
+and the still greater name of his master, were recommendation enough, and
+besides private offerings, many communities promised large sums towards
+supporting the students in Walosin. From time to time also messengers are
+sent out by the committee to promote the interests of the Yeshibah. The
+writers to whom I owe these data tell us that these messengers travel to
+all parts of the world to collect offerings for Walosin: so that it is a
+standing joke with the students that the existence of the mythical river
+Sambatyon(63) may be questioned after all, otherwise it must long have
+been discovered by these messengers who explore the whole world in their
+journeys. But it would seem that this world is only a very small one. For
+the whole income of the Yeshibah has never exceeded the sum of about
+L1800. Of this a certain part is spent in providing the salaries of the
+teaching staff and proctors, and on the repairs of the building; whilst
+the rest is distributed amongst the students. Considering that no
+scholarship exceeds L13--it is only the forty immortals of Walosin who
+receive such high stipends--considering again that the great majority of
+the students belong to the poorer classes and thus receive no remittance
+from their parents, we may be sure that the words of the Talmud: "This is
+the way to study the Torah; eat bread and salt, drink water by measure,
+sleep on the earth, and live a life of care," are carried out by them
+literally. But it would seem that the less they eat and the less they
+sleep, the more they work. Indeed the industry and the enthusiasm of these
+Bachurim (_alumni_)(64) in the study of the Torah is almost unsurpassable.
+The official hours alone extend from nine in the morning until ten in the
+evening, while many of the students volunteer to continue their studies
+till the middle of the night, or to begin the day at three in the morning.
+
+As to the subject of these studies, it is confined, as may be imagined, to
+the exploration of the old Rabbinic literature in all its branches. But it
+would be a mistake to think that the modern spirit has left Walosin quite
+untouched. It would be impossible that among 400 thinking heads there
+should not be a few who are interested in mathematics, others again in
+philosophy or history, while yet others would conjugate the irregular
+verbs of some classical language when moving to and fro over their Talmud
+folios and pretending to "_learn_." Indeed, almost all the writers who
+demand that these subjects should be introduced as obligatory into the
+programme of Walosin, belonged themselves to this Yeshibah. And it is
+these writers who betray the secret how secular knowledge is now invading
+the precincts of Walosin, as well as of other Talmudical Colleges in spite
+of all obstacles and prohibitions. In conquering these difficulties seem
+to consist the pleasures of life of many Bachurim at Walosin. Look only at
+that undergraduate, how, after a heavy day's work he is standing there in
+the street reading Buckle's _History of Civilisation_ in the moonlight!
+Poor man, he is not so romantic as to prefer the moonlight to a cheerful,
+warm room, with the more prosaic light of a candle, but he has got tired
+of knocking at the door, for his landlady, to whom he has neglected to pay
+rent for the last three terms, made up her mind to let him freeze to-
+night. But still more cruel to him is his fellow-sufferer, who is also
+wandering in the streets with an overloaded brain and empty stomach; he
+roughly shakes him out of his dreams by telling him that Buckle is long
+ago antiquated, and that he had better study the works of Herbert Spencer,
+who has spoken the last word on every vital subject in the world. Still
+these two starving and freezing representatives of English thought in
+Walosin form only an exception. The general favourites are the
+representatives of Jewish thought. That such books as the _Guide of the
+Perplexed_, by Maimonides, the Metaphysical Researches of Levi b.
+Gershom,(65) and other philosophical works of the Spanish school are read
+by the Walosin students it is needless to say. These books now form a part
+of the Rabbinic literature, and it would be almost unorthodox to suspect
+their readers. But is worth noticing that even the productions of the
+modern historico-critical school, such as the works of Zunz, Frankel,
+Graetz, Weiss, are very popular with the Bachurim, being much read and
+discussed by them.
+
+Thus Walosin deserves rightly to be considered as the centre of Jewish
+thought in Russia, in which the spirit of the Gaon is still working.
+
+I have very often, however, heard doubts expressed as to the continuance
+of this spirit when, as it is to be hoped, better times come for the Jews
+in Russia. Is it not to be feared that liberty and emancipation will
+render untenable ideas and notions which arose under entirely different
+circumstances? There is no need of entertaining such fears. Rabbi Jedaiah
+of Bedres(66) concludes his philosophical work _Examination of the World_,
+with the following words: "The conclusion of the whole matter is, go
+either to the right, my heart, or go to the left, but believe all that R.
+Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides) has believed, the last of the Gaonim by
+time, but the first in rank." About five hundred years have passed away
+since these lines were written. Time, as we have seen, has brought another
+Gaon, and probably Time will favour us in future with still another. But
+times have also altered. The rebellious hearts of a liberal age are not
+likely to obey always the command, "believe all that the Gaon said." But
+the heart of man will in all ages retain idealism enough to love and
+revere the greatest of men and to follow what was best in them.
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. NACHMANIDES(67)
+
+
+R. Chayim Vital, in his _Book of the Transmigrations of Souls_, gives the
+following bold characteristic of the two great teachers of Judaism,
+Maimonides and Nachmanides. Their souls both sprang forth from the head of
+Adam--it is a favourite idea of the Cabbalists to evolve the whole of ideal
+humanity from the archetype Adam--but the former, Maimonides, had his
+genius placed on the left curl of Adam, which is all judgment and
+severity, whilst that of the latter, Nachmanides, had its place on the
+right curl, which represents rather mercy and tenderness.
+
+I start from these words in order to avoid disappointment. For Nachmanides
+was a great Talmudist, a great Bible student, a great philosopher, a great
+controversialist, and, perhaps, also a great physician; in one word, great
+in every respect, possessed of all the culture of his age. But, as I have
+already indicated by the passage quoted by way of introduction, it is not
+of Nachmanides in any of these excellent qualities that I wish to write
+here. For these aspects of his life and mind I must refer the reader to
+the works of Graetz, Weiss, Steinschneider, Perles, and others. I shall
+mostly confine myself to those features and peculiarities in his career
+and works which will illustrate Nachmanides the tender and compassionate,
+the Nachmanides who represented Judaism from the side of emotion and
+feeling, as Maimonides did from the side of reason and logic.
+
+R. Moses ben Nachman, or Bonastruc de Portas, as he was called by his
+fellow-countrymen, or Nachmanides, as he is commonly called now, was born
+in Gerona about the year 1195. Gerona is a little town in the province of
+Catalonia in Spain. But though in Spain, Gerona was not distinguished for
+its philosophers or poets like Granada, Barcelona, or Toledo. Situated as
+it was in the North of Spain, Gerona was under the influence of Franco-
+Jewish sympathies, and thus its boast lay in the great Talmudists that it
+produced. I shall only mention the name of R. Zerahiah Hallevi Gerundi--so-
+called after his native place--whose strictures on the Code of R. Isaac
+Alfasi, which he began as a youth of nineteen years, will always remain a
+marvel of critical insight and independent research. Nachmanides is
+supposed by some authors to have been a descendant of R. Isaac ben Reuben
+of Barcelona, whose hymns are still to be found in certain rituals. The
+evidence for this is insufficient, but we know that he was a cousin of R.
+Jonah Gerundi, not less famous for his Talmudic learning than for his
+saintliness and piety. Nachmanides thus belonged to the best Jewish
+families of Gerona. Various great men are mentioned as his teachers, but
+we have certainty only about two, namely R. Judah ben Yakar, the
+commentator of the prayers, and R. Meir ben Nathan of Trinquintaines. The
+mystic, R. Ezra (or Azriel), is indeed alleged to have been his instructor
+in the Cabbalah, and this is not impossible, as he also was an inhabitant
+of Gerona; but it is more probable that Nachmanides was initiated into the
+Cabbalah by the R. Judah just mentioned, who also belonged to the mystical
+school.
+
+Whoever his masters were, they must have been well satisfied with their
+promising pupil, for he undertook, at the age of fifteen, to write
+supplements to the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi. Nor was it at a much later
+date that he began to compose his work, _The Wars of the Lord_, in which
+he defends this great codifier against the strictures of R. Zerahiah, to
+which we have referred above. I shall in the course of this essay have
+further occasion to speak of this latter work; for the present we will
+follow the career of its author.
+
+Concerning the private life of Nachmanides very little has come down to
+us. We only know that he had a family of sons and daughters. He was not
+spared the greatest grief that can befall a father, for he lost a son; it
+was on the day of the New Year.(68) On the other hand, it must have been a
+great source of joy to him when he married his son Solomon to the daughter
+of R. Jonah, whom he revered as a saint and a man of God. As a token of
+the admiration in which he held his friend, the following incident may be
+mentioned. It seems that it was the custom in Spain to name the first
+child in a family after his paternal grandfather; but Nachmanides ceded
+his right in behalf of his friend, and thus his daughter-in-law's first
+son was named Jonah. Another son of Nachmanides whom we know of was
+Nachman, to whom his father addressed his letters from Palestine, and who
+also wrote Novellae to the Talmud, still extant in MS. But the later
+posterity of Nachmanides is better known to fame. R. Levi ben Gershom was
+one of his descendants; so was also R. Simeon Duran;(69) whilst R. Jacob
+Sasportas, in the eighteenth century,(70) derived his pedigree from
+Nachmanides in the eleventh generation.
+
+As to his calling, he was occupied as Rabbi and teacher, first in Gerona
+and afterwards in Barcelona. But this meant as much as if we should say of
+a man that he is a philanthropist by profession, with the only difference
+that the treasures of which Nachmanides disposed were more of a spiritual
+kind. For his livelihood he probably depended upon his medical practice.
+
+I need hardly say that the life of Nachmanides, "whose words were held in
+Catalonia in almost as high authority as the Scriptures," was not without
+its great public events. At least we know of two.
+
+The one was about the year 1232, on the occasion of the great struggle
+about Maimonides' _Guide of the Perplexed_, and the first book of his
+great Compendium of the Law. The Maimonists looked upon these works almost
+as a new revelation, whilst the Anti-Maimonists condemned both as
+heretical, or at least conducive to heresy.(71) It would be profitless to
+reproduce the details of this sad affair. The motives may have been pure
+and good, but the actions were decidedly bad. People denounced each other,
+excommunicated each other, and did not (from either side) spare even the
+dead from the most bitter calumnies. Nachmanides stood between two fires.
+The French Rabbis, from whom most of the Anti-Maimonists were recruited,
+he held in very high esteem and considered himself as their pupil. Some of
+the leaders of this party were also his relatives. He, too, had, as we
+shall see later on, a theory of his own about God and the world little in
+agreement with that of Maimonides. It is worth noting that Nachmanides
+objected to calling Maimonides "our teacher Moses" (Rabbenu Mosheh),(72)
+thinking it improper to confer upon him the title by which the Rabbis
+honoured the Master of the Prophets. The very fact, however, that he had
+some theory of the Universe shows that he had a problem to solve, whilst
+the real French Rabbis were hardly troubled by difficulties of a
+metaphysical character. Indeed, Nachmanides pays them the rather doubtful
+compliment that Maimonides' work was not intended for them, who were
+barricaded by their faith and happy in their belief, wanting no protection
+against the works of Aristotle and Galen, by whose philosophy others might
+be led astray. In other words, their strength lay in an ignorance of Greek
+philosophy, to which the cultivated Jews of Spain would not aspire.
+Nachmanides was also a great admirer of Maimonides, whose virtues and
+great merits in the service of Judaism he describes in his letter to the
+French Rabbis. Thus, the only way left open to him was to play the part of
+the conciliator. The course of this struggle is fully described in every
+Jewish history. It is sufficient to say that, in spite of his great
+authority, Nachmanides was not successful in his effort to moderate the
+violence of either party, and that the controversy was at last settled
+through the harsh interference of outsiders who well-nigh crushed
+Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists alike.
+
+The second public event in the life of Nachmanides was his Disputation,
+held in Barcelona, at the Court and in the presence of King Jayme I., of
+Aragon, in the year 1263. It was the usual story. A convert to
+Christianity, named Pablo Christiani, who burned with zealous anxiety to
+see his former co-religionists saved, after many vain attempts in this
+direction, applied to the King of Aragon to order Nachmanides to take part
+in a public disputation. Pablo maintained that he could prove the justice
+of the Messianic claims of Jesus from the Talmud and other Rabbinic
+writings. If he could only succeed in convincing the great Rabbi of Spain
+of the truth of his argument, the bulk of the Jews was sure to follow. By
+the way, it was the same Talmud which some twenty years previously was, at
+the instance of another Jewish convert, burned in Paris, for containing
+passages against Christianity. Nachmanides had to conform with the command
+of the king, and, on the 21st of July, 1263, was begun the controversy,
+which lasted for four or five days.
+
+I do not think that there is in the whole domain of literature less
+profitable reading than that of the controversies between Jews and
+Christians. These public disputations occasionally forced the Jews
+themselves to review their position towards their own literature, and led
+them to draw clearer distinctions between what they regarded as religion
+and what as folklore. But beyond this, the polemics between Jews and
+Christians were barren of good results. If you have read one you have read
+enough for all time. The same casuistry and the same disregard of history
+turn up again and again. Nervousness and humility are always on the side
+of the Jews, who know that, whatever the result may be, the end will be
+persecution; arrogance is always on the side of their antagonists, who are
+supported by a band of Knights of the Holy Cross, prepared to prove the
+soundness of their cause at the point of their daggers.
+
+Besides, was there enough common ground between Judaism and thirteenth
+century Christianity to have justified the hope of a mutual understanding?
+The Old Testament was almost forgotten in the Church. The First Person in
+the Trinity was leading a sort of shadowy existence in art, which could
+only be the more repulsive to a Jew on that account. The largest part of
+Church worship was monopolised by devotion to the Virgin Mother, prayers
+to the saints, and kneeling before their relics. And a Jew may well be
+pardoned if he did not entertain higher views of this form of worship than
+Luther and Knox did at a later period. It will thus not be worth our while
+to dwell much on the matter of this controversy, in which the essence of
+the real dispute is scarcely touched. There are only two points in it
+which are worth noticing. The first is that Nachmanides declared the
+Agadoth(73) in the Talmud to be only a series of sermons (he uses this
+very word), expressing the individual opinions of the preacher, and thus
+possessing no authoritative weight. The convert Pablo is quite aghast at
+this statement, and accuses Nachmanides of heterodoxy.
+
+Secondly,--and here I take leave to complete the rather obscure passage in
+the controversy by a parallel in his book, _The Date of Redemption_,(74)
+quoted by Azariah de Rossi--that the question of the Messiah is not of that
+dogmatic importance to the Jews that Christians imagine. For even if Jews
+supposed their sins to be so great that they forfeited all the promises
+made to them in the Scriptures, or that, on some hidden ground, it would
+please the Almighty never to restore their national independence, this
+would in no way alter the obligations of Jews towards the Torah. Nor is
+the coming of the Messiah desired by Jews as an end in itself. For it is
+not the goal of their hopes that they shall be able again to eat of the
+fruit of Palestine, or enjoy other pleasures there; not even the chance of
+the restoration of sacrifices and the worship of the Temple is the
+greatest of Jewish expectations (connected with the appearance of the
+Messiah). What makes them long for his coming is the hope that they will
+then witness, in the company of the prophets and priests, a greater spread
+of purity and holiness than is now possible. In other words, the
+possibility for them to live a holy life after the will of God will be
+greater than now. But, on the other hand, considering that such a godly
+life under a Christian government requires greater sacrifices than it
+would under a Jewish king; and, considering again that the merits and
+rewards of a good act increase with the obstacles that are in the way of
+executing it--considering this, a Jew might even prefer to live under the
+King of Aragon than under the Messiah, where he would perforce act in
+accordance with the precepts of the Torah.
+
+Now there is in this statement much that has only to be looked upon as a
+compliment to the government of Spain. I am inclined to think that if the
+alternative laid before Nachmanides had been a really practical one, he
+would have decided in favour of the clement rule of the Messiah in
+preference to that of the most cruel king on earth. But the fact that he
+repeats this statement in another place, where there was no occasion to be
+over polite to the Government, tends to show, as we have said, that the
+belief in the Messiah was not the basis on which Nachmanides' religion was
+built up.
+
+The result of the controversy is contested by the different parties; the
+Christian writers claim the victory for Pablo, whilst the Jewish documents
+maintain that the issue was with Nachmanides. In any case, "_Der Jude wird
+verbrannt_." For in the next year (1264) all the books of the Jews in
+Aragon were confiscated and submitted to the censorship of a commission,
+of which the well-known author of the _Pugio Fidei_, Raymund Martini, was,
+perhaps, the most important member. The books were not burned this time,
+but had to suffer a severe mutilation; the anti-Christian passages, or
+such as were supposed to be so, were struck out or obliterated.
+Nachmanides' account of the controversy, which he probably published from
+a sense of duty towards those whom he represented, was declared to contain
+blasphemies against the dominant religion. The pamphlet was condemned to
+be burned publicly, whilst the author was, as it seems, punished with
+expulsion from his country. It is not reported where Nachmanides found a
+home during the next three years; probably he had to accept the
+hospitality of his friends, either in Castile or in the south of France;
+but we know that in the year 1267 he left Europe and emigrated to
+Palestine.
+
+Nachmanides was, at this juncture of his life, already a man of about
+seventy. But it would seem as if the seven decades which he had spent in
+the Spanish Peninsula were only meant as a preparation for the three years
+which he was destined to live in the Holy Land, for it was during this
+stage of his life that the greatest part of his _Commentary on the
+Pentateuch_ was written. In this work, as is agreed on all sides, his
+finest thoughts and noblest sentiments were put down.
+
+Before proceeding to speak of his works, let us first cast a glance at his
+letters from Palestine, forming as they do a certain link between his
+former life and that which was to occupy him exclusively for the rest of
+his days. We have three letters, the first of which I shall translate here
+_in extenso_.
+
+The letter was written soon after his arrival at Jerusalem in the year
+1267. It was addressed to his son Nachman, and runs as follows:--
+
+
+    "The Lord shall bless thee, my son Nachman, and thou shalt see the
+    good of Jerusalem. Yea, thou shalt see thy children's children
+    (Ps. cxxviii.), and thy table shall be like that of our father
+    Abraham!(75) In Jerusalem, the Holy City, I write this letter.
+    For, thanks and praise unto the rock of my salvation, I was
+    thought worthy by God to arrive here safely on the 9th of the
+    month of Elul, and I remained there till the day after the Day of
+    Atonement. Now I intend going to Hebron, to the sepulchre of our
+    ancestors, to prostrate myself, and there to dig my grave. But
+    what am I to say to you with regard to the country? Great is the
+    solitude and great the wastes, and, to characterise it in short,
+    the more sacred the places, the greater their desolation!
+    Jerusalem is more desolate than the rest of the country: Judaea
+    more than Galilee. But even in this destruction it is a blessed
+    land. It has about 2000 inhabitants, about 300 Christians live
+    there who escaped the sword of the Sultan. There are no Jews. For
+    since the arrival of the Tartars, some fled, others died by the
+    sword. There are only two brothers, dyers by trade, who have to
+    buy their ingredients from the government. There the Ten Men(76)
+    meet, and on Sabbaths they hold service at their house. But we
+    encouraged them, and we succeeded in finding a vacant house, built
+    on pillars of marble with a beautiful arch. That we took for a
+    synagogue. For the town is without a master, and whoever will take
+    possession of the ruins can do so. We gave our offerings towards
+    the repairs of the house. We have sent already to Shechem to fetch
+    some scrolls of the Law from there which had been brought thither
+    from Jerusalem at the invasion of the Tartars. Thus they will
+    organise a synagogue and worship there. For continually people
+    crowd to Jerusalem, men and women, from Damascus, Zobah
+    (Aleppo),(77) and from all parts of the country to see the
+    Sanctuary and to mourn over it. He who thought us worthy to let us
+    see Jerusalem in her desertion, he shall bless us to behold her
+    again, built and restored, when the glory of the Lord will return
+    unto her. But you, my son, and your brothers and the whole of our
+    family, you all shall live to see the salvation of Jerusalem and
+    the comfort of Zion. These are the words of your father who is
+    yearning and forgetting, who is seeing and enjoying, Moses ben
+    Nachman. Give also my peace to my pupil Moses, the son of Solomon,
+    the nephew of your mother. I wish to tell him ... that there,
+    facing the holy temple, I have read his verses, weeping bitterly
+    over them. May he who caused his name to rest in the Holy Temple
+    increase your peace together with the peace of the whole
+    community."
+
+
+This letter may be illustrated by a few parallels taken from the appendix
+to Nachmanides' _Commentary to the Pentateuch_, which contains some rather
+incoherent notes which the author seems to have jotted down when he
+arrived in Jerusalem. After a lengthy account of the material as well as
+the spiritual glories of the holy city in the past, he proceeds to say:--
+
+
+    "A mournful sight I have perceived in thee (Jerusalem); only one
+    Jew is here, a dyer, persecuted, oppressed and despised. At his
+    house gather great and small when they can get the Ten Men. They
+    are wretched folk, without occupation and trade, consisting of a
+    few pilgrims and beggars, though the fruit of the land is still
+    magnificent and the harvests rich. Indeed, it is still a blessed
+    country, flowing with milk and honey.... Oh! I am the man who saw
+    affliction. I am banished from my table, far removed from friend
+    and kinsman, and too long is the distance to meet again.... I left
+    my family, I forsook my house. There with my sons and daughters,
+    and with the sweet and dear children whom I have brought up on my
+    knees, I left also my soul. My heart and my eyes will dwell with
+    them for ever.... But the loss of all this and of every other
+    glory my eyes saw is compensated by having now the joy of being a
+    day in thy courts (O Jerusalem), visiting the ruins of the Temple
+    and crying over the ruined Sanctuary; where I am permitted to
+    caress thy stones, to fondle thy dust, and to weep over thy ruins.
+    I wept bitterly, but I found joy in my tears. I tore my garments,
+    but I felt relieved by it."
+
+
+Of some later date is his letter from Acra, which may be considered as a
+sort of ethical will, and which has been justly characterised as a eulogy
+of humility. Here is an extract from it:--
+
+
+    "Accustom yourself to speak gently to all men at all times, and
+    thus you will avoid anger, which leads to so much sin.... Humility
+    is the first of virtues; for if you think how lowly is man, how
+    great is God, you will fear Him and avoid sinfulness. On the
+    humble man rests the divine glory; the man that is haughty to
+    others denies God. Look not boldly at one whom you address....
+    Regard every one as greater than thyself.... Remember always that
+    you stand before God, both when you pray and when you converse
+    with others.... Think before you speak.... Act as I have bidden
+    you, and your words, and deeds, and thoughts, will be honest, and
+    your prayers pure and acceptable before God."
+
+
+The third letter is addressed to his son (R. Solomon?) who was staying (in
+the service of the king) in Castile. It is in its chief content a eulogy
+of chastity.(78) Probably Nachmanides had some dread of the dangerous
+allurements of the court, and he begs his son never to do anything of
+which he knows that his father would not approve, and to keep his father's
+image always before his eyes.
+
+As to his works, we may divide them into two classes. The one would
+contain those of a strictly legalistic (Halachic), whilst the other those
+of a more homiletic-exegetical and devotional character (Agadic). As
+already indicated in the preliminary lines of this paper, I cannot dwell
+long on the former class of our author's writings. It consists either of
+Glosses or Novellae to the Talmud, in the style and manner of the French
+Rabbis, or of Compendia of certain parts of the Law after the model set by
+R. Isaac Alfasi or Maimonides, or in defences of the "Earlier Authorities"
+against the strictures made on them by a later generation. A few words
+must be said with regard to these defences; for they reveal that deep
+respect for authority which forms a special feature of Nachmanides'
+writings. His _Wars of the Lord_, in which he defends Alfasi against R.
+Zerahiah of Gerona, was undertaken when he was very young, whilst his
+defence of the author of the _Halachoth Gedoloth_(79) against the attacks
+of Maimonides, which he began at a much more mature age, shows the same
+deference "to the great ones of the past." Indeed, he says in one place,
+"We bow before them (the earlier authorities), and though their words are
+not quite evident to us we submit to them"; or, as he expresses himself
+elsewhere, "Only he who dips (deeply enough) in the wisdom of the 'ancient
+ones' will drink the pure (old) wine." But it would be unjust to the
+genius of Nachmanides to represent him as a blind worshipper of authority.
+Humble and generous in disposition, he certainly would bow before every
+recognised authority, and he would also think it his duty to take up the
+cudgels for him as long as there was even the least chance of making an
+honourable defence. But when this chance had gone, when Nachmanides was
+fully convinced that his hero was in the wrong, he followed no guide but
+truth. "Notwithstanding," he says in his introduction to the defences of
+the _Halachoth Gedoloth_, "my desire and delight to be the disciple of the
+Earlier Authorities, to maintain their views and to assert them, I do not
+consider myself a 'donkey carrying books.' I will explain their way and
+appreciate their value, but when their views are inconceivable to my
+thoughts, I will plead in all modesty, but shall judge according to the
+sight of my eyes. And when the meaning is clear I shall flatter none, for
+the Lord gives wisdom in all times and ages." But, on the other hand,
+there seems to have been a certain sort of literary agnosticism about
+Nachmanides which made it very difficult for him to find the "clear
+meaning." The passage in the _Wars of the Lord_ to the effect "that there
+is in the art (of commenting) no such certain demonstration as in
+mathematics or astronomy," is well known and has often been quoted; but
+still more characteristic of this literary agnosticism is the first
+paragraph of the above-mentioned defences of the _Halachoth Gedoloth_.
+Whilst all his predecessors accepted, on the authority of R. Simlai,(80)
+the number (613) of the commandments as an uncontested fact, and based
+their compositions on it, Nachmanides questions the whole matter, and
+shows that the passages relating to this enumeration of laws are only of a
+homiletical nature, and thus of little consequence. Nay, he goes so far as
+to say, "Indeed the system how to number the commandments is a matter in
+which I suspect all of us (are mistaken) and the truth must be left to him
+who will solve all doubts." We should thus be inclined to think that this
+adherence to the words of the earlier Authorities was at least as much due
+to this critical scepticism as to his conservative tendencies.
+
+The space left to me I shall devote to the second class of his writings,
+in which Nachmanides worked less after given types. These reveal to us
+more of his inner being, and offer us some insight into his theological
+system. The great problem which seems to have presented itself to
+Nachmanides' mind was less how to reconcile religion with reason than how
+to reconcile man with religion. What is man? The usual answer is not
+flattering. He is an animal that owes its existence to the same instinct
+that produces even the lower creatures, and he is condemned, like them, to
+go to a place of worm and maggot. But, may not one ask, why should a
+creature so lowly born, and doomed to so hapless a future, be burdened
+with the awful responsibility of knowing that he is destined "to give
+reckoning and judgment before the King of kings, the Holy One, blessed be
+He"? It is true that man is also endowed with a heavenly soul, but this
+only brings us back again to the antithesis of flesh and spirit which was
+the stumbling-block of many a theological system. Nor does it help us much
+towards the solution of the indicated difficulty; for what relation can
+there be between this _materia impura_ of body and the pure intellect of
+soul? And again, must not the unfavourable condition in which the latter
+is placed through this uncongenial society heavily clog and suppress all
+aspiration for perfection? It is "a house divided against itself," doomed
+to an everlasting contest, without hope for co-operation or even of
+harmony.
+
+The works _The Sacred Letter_ and _The Law of Man_ may be considered as an
+attempt by Nachmanides, if not to remove, at least to relieve the
+harshness of this antithesis. The former, in which he blames Maimonides
+for following Aristotle in denouncing certain desires implanted in us by
+nature as ignominious and unworthy of man, may, perhaps, be characterised
+as a vindication of the flesh from a religious point of view. The contempt
+in which "that Greek," as Nachmanides terms Aristotle, held the flesh is
+inconsistent with the theory of the religious man, who believes that
+everything (including the body, with all its functions) is created by God,
+whose work is perfect and good, without impure or inharmonious parts. It
+is only sin and neglect that disfigure God's creations. I cannot enter
+into any further details of this work, but I may be permitted to remark
+that there is a very strong similarity between the tendency of the _Sacred
+Letter_ and certain leading ideas of Milton. Indeed, if the first two
+chapters of the former were a little condensed and put into English, they
+could not be better summarised than by the famous lines in the _Paradise
+Lost_:--
+
+
+    Whatever hypocrites austerely talk
+    Of purity, and place, and innocence,
+    Defaming as impure what God declares
+    Pure, and commands to some, leaves free to all,
+    Our Maker bids increase; who bids abstain
+    But our destroyer, foe to God and man?
+    Hail, wedded love, mysterious law!...
+    Far be it that I should write thee sin or blame
+    Or think thee unbefitting holiest place,
+    Perpetual fountain of domestic sweets.
+
+
+The second of these two works, the _Law of Man_, may be regarded as a
+sanctification of grief, and particularly of the grief of griefs, death.
+The bulk of the book is legalistic, treating of mourning rites, burial
+customs, and similar topics; but there is much in the preface which bears
+on our subject. For here again Nachmanides takes the opportunity of
+combating a chilling philosophy, which tries to arm us against suffering
+by stifling our emotions. "My son," he says, "be not persuaded by certain
+propositions of the great philosophers who endeavour to harden our hearts
+and to deaden our sensations by their idle comfort, which consists in
+denying the past and despairing of the future. One of them has even
+declared that there is nothing in the world over the loss of which it is
+worth crying, and the possession of which would justify joy. This is an
+heretical view. Our perfect Torah bids us to be joyful in the day of
+prosperity and to shed tears in the day of misfortune. It in no way
+forbids crying or demands of us to suppress our grief. On the contrary,
+the Torah suggests to us that to mourn over heavy losses is equivalent to
+a service of God, leading us, as it does, to reflect on our end and ponder
+over our destiny."
+
+This destiny, as well as Reward and Punishment in general, is treated in
+the concluding chapter of the _Law of Man_, which is known under the title
+of _The Gate of Reward_.(81) Nachmanides does not conceal from himself the
+difficulties besetting inquiries of this description. He knows well enough
+that in the last instance we must appeal to that implicit faith in the
+inscrutable justice of God with which the believer begins. Nevertheless he
+thinks that only the "despisers of wisdom" would fail to bring to this
+faith as full a conviction as possible, which latter is only to be gained
+by speculation. I shall have by and by occasion to refer to the results of
+this speculation. Here we must only notice the fact of Nachmanides
+insisting on the _bodily_ resurrection which will take place after the
+coming of the Messiah, and will be followed by the _Olam Habba_(82) (the
+life in the world to come) of which the Rabbis spoke.
+
+Irrational as this belief may look, it is only a consequence of his
+theory, which, as we have seen, assigns even to the flesh an almost
+spiritual importance. Indeed, he thinks that the soul may have such an
+influence on the body as to transform the latter into so pure an essence
+that it will become safe for eternity. For, as he hints in another place,
+by the continual practising of a thing the whole man, the body included,
+becomes so identified with the thing that we call him after it, just as
+the Holy Singer said: I am prayer,(83) so that--
+
+
+          Oft converse with heavenly habitants
+    Begins to cast a beam on the outward shape,
+    The unpolluted temple of the mind,
+    And turns it by degrees to the soul's essence,
+    Till all be made immortal.
+
+
+But if even the body holds such a high position as to make all its
+instincts and functions, if properly regulated, a service of God, and to
+destine it for a glorious future of eternal bliss and rejoicing in God, we
+can easily imagine what a high place the soul must occupy in the system of
+Nachmanides. To be sure it is a much higher one than that to which
+philosophy would fain admit her. A beautiful parable of the Persian poet
+Yellaladeen (quoted by the late Mr. Lowell) narrates that "One knocked at
+the beloved's door, and a voice asked from within, 'Who is there?' and he
+answered, 'It is I.' Then the voice said, 'This house will not hold me and
+thee,' and the door was not opened. Then went the lover into the desert
+and fasted and prayed in solitude, and after a year he returned and
+knocked again at the door, and again the voice asked 'Who is there?' and
+he said 'It is thyself'; and the door was opened to him." This is also the
+difference between the two schools--the mystical and the philosophical--with
+regard to the soul. With the rationalist the soul is indeed a superior
+abstract intelligence created by God, but, like all His creations, has an
+existence of its own, and is thus separated from God. With the mystic,
+however, the soul is God, or a direct emanation from God. "For he who
+breathes into another thing (Gen. ii. 7) gives unto it something of his
+own breath (or soul)," and as it is said in Job xxxii. 8, "And the soul of
+the Almighty giveth them understanding." This emanation, or rather
+immanence--for Nachmanides insists in another place that the Hebrew term
+employed for it, _Aziluth_,(84) means a permanent dwelling with the thing
+emanating--which became manifest with the creation of man, must not be
+confounded with the moving soul (or the _Nephesh Chayah_),(85) which is
+common to man with all creatures.
+
+It may be remarked here that Nachmanides endows all animals with a soul
+which is derived from the "Superior Powers," and its presence is proved by
+certain marks of intelligence which they show. By this fact he tries to
+account for the law prohibiting cruelty to animals, "all souls belonging
+to God." Their original disposition was, it would seem, according to
+Nachmanides, peaceful and harmless.
+
+
+                    About them frisking played
+    All beasts of earth, since wild, and of all chase
+    In wood or wilderness, forest or den.
+
+
+It was only after man had sinned that war entered into creation, but with
+the coming of the Messiah, when sin will disappear, all the living beings
+will regain their primaeval gentleness, and be reinstituted in their first
+rights.
+
+The special soul of man, however, or rather the "over-soul," was pre-
+existent to the creation of the world, treasured up as a wave in the sea
+or fountain of souls--dwelling in the eternal light and holiness of God.
+There, in God, the soul abides in its ideal existence before it enters
+into its material life through the medium of man; though it must be noted
+that, according to Nachmanides' belief in the Transmigration of souls, it
+is not necessary to perceive in the soul of every new-born child, "a fresh
+message from heaven" coming directly from the fountain-head. Nachmanides
+finds this belief indicated in the commandment of levirate marriage, where
+the child born of the deceased brother's wife inherits not only the name
+of the brother of his actual father, but also his soul, and thus
+perpetuates his existence on earth. The fourth verse of Ecclesiastes ii.
+Nachmanides seems to interpret to mean that the very generation which
+passes away comes up again, by which he tries to explain the difficulty of
+God's visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their children; the latter
+being the very fathers who committed the sins. However, whatever trials
+and changes the soul may have to pass through during its bodily existence,
+its origin is in God and thither it will return in the end, "just as the
+waters rise always to the same high level from which their source sprang
+forth."
+
+It is for this man, with a body so superior, and a soul so sublime--more
+sublime than the angels--that the world was _created_. I emphasise the last
+word, for the belief in the creation of the world by God from nothing
+forms, according to Nachmanides, the first of the three fundamental dogmas
+of Judaism. The other two also refer to God's relation to the world and
+man. They are the belief in God's Providence and his _Yediah_.(86)
+Creation from nothing is for Nachmanides the keynote to his whole
+religion, since it is only by this fact, as he points out in many places,
+that God gains real dominion over nature. For, as he says, as soon as we
+admit the eternity of matter, we must (logically) deny God even "the power
+of enlarging the wing of a fly, or shortening the leg of an ant." But the
+whole Torah is nothing if not a record of God's mastery in and over the
+world, and of His miraculous deeds. One of the first proclamations of
+Abraham to his generation was that God is the Lord (or Master) of the
+world (Gen. xviii. 33). The injunction given to Abraham, and repeated
+afterwards to the whole of Israel (Gen. xvii. 2, and Deut. xviii. 13), to
+be perfect with God, Nachmanides numbers as one of the 613 commandments,
+and explains it to mean that man must have a whole belief in God without
+blemish or reservation, and acknowledge Him possessed of power over nature
+and the world, man and beast, devil and angel, power being attributable to
+Him alone. Indeed, when the angel said to Jacob, "Why dost thou ask after
+my name" (Gen. xxxii. 29), he meant to indicate by his question the
+impotence of the heavenly host, so that there is no use in knowing their
+name, the power and might belonging only to God.
+
+We may venture even a step further, and maintain that in Nachmanides'
+system there is hardly room left for such a thing as nature or "the order
+of the world." There are only two categories of miracles by which the
+world is governed, or in which God's Providence is seen. The one is the
+category of the manifest miracles, as the ten plagues in Egypt, or the
+crossing of the Red Sea; the other is that of the hidden miracles, which
+we do not perceive as such, because of their frequency and continuity. "No
+man," he declares, "can share in the Torah of our Teacher, Moses (that is,
+can be considered a follower of the Jewish religion), unless he believes
+that all our affairs and events, whether they concern the masses or the
+individual, are all miracles (worked by the direct will of God),
+attributing nothing to nature or to the order of the world." Under this
+second order he classes all the promises the Torah makes to the righteous,
+and the punishments with which evil-doers are threatened. For, as he
+points out in many places, there is nothing in the nature of the
+commandments themselves that would make their fulfilment necessarily
+prolong the life of man, and cause the skies to pour down rain, or, on the
+other hand, would associate disobedience to them with famine and death.
+All these results can, therefore, only be accomplished in a supernatural
+way by the direct workings of God.
+
+Thus miracles are raised to a place in the regular scheme of things, and
+the difficulty regarding the possibility of God's interferences with
+nature disappears by their very multiplication. But a still more important
+point is, that, by this unbroken chain of miracles, which unconditionally
+implies God's presence to perform them, Nachmanides arrives at a theory
+establishing a closer contact between the Deity and the world than that
+set forth by other thinkers. Thus, he insists that the term _Shechinah_,
+or _Cabod_(87) (Glory of God), must not be understood, with some Jewish
+philosophers, as something separate from God, or as _glory created_ by
+God. "Were this the case," he proceeds to say, "we could not possibly say,
+'Blessed be the glory of the Lord from his place,' since every mark of
+worship to anything _created_ involves the sin of idolatry." Such terms as
+_Shechinah_, or _Cabod_, can therefore only mean the immediate divine
+presence. This proves, as may be noted in passing, how unphilosophical the
+idea of those writers is who maintain that the rigid monotheism of the
+Jews makes God so transcendental that He is banished from the world. As we
+see, it is just this assertion of His absolute Unity which not only
+suffers no substitute for God, but also removes every separation between
+Him and the world. Hence also Nachmanides insists that the prophecy even
+of the successors of Moses was a direct communion of God with the prophet,
+and not, as others maintained, furnished through the medium of an angel.
+
+The third fundamental dogma, _Yediah_, includes, according to Nachmanides,
+not only the omniscience of God--as the term is usually translated--but also
+His recognition of mankind and His special concern in them. Thus, he
+explains the words in the Bible with regard to Abraham, "For I know him"
+(Gen. xviii. 19), to indicate the special attachment of God's Providence
+to the patriarch, which, on account of his righteousness, was to be
+uninterrupted for ever; whilst in other places we have to understand,
+under God's knowledge of a thing, his determination to deal with it
+compassionately, as, for instance, when Scripture says that God knew
+(Exod. ii. 25), it means that His relation to Israel emanated from His
+attribute of mercy and love. But just as God knows (which means loves) the
+world, He requires also to be recognised and known by it. "For this was
+the purpose of the whole creation, that man should recognise and know Him
+and give praise to His name," as it is said, "Everything that is called by
+my name (meaning, chosen to promulgate God's name), for my glory have I
+created it."
+
+It is this fact which gives Israel their high prerogative, for by
+receiving the Torah they were the first to know God's name, to which they
+remained true in spite of all adversities; and thus accomplished God's
+intention in creating the world. It is, again, by this Torah that the
+whole of Israel not only succeeded in being real prophets (at the moment
+of the Revelation), but also became _Segulah_,(88) which indicates the
+inseparable attachment between God and His people, whilst the righteous
+who never disobey His will become the seat of His throne.
+
+The position of the rest of humanity is also determined by their relation
+to the Torah. "It is," Nachmanides tells us, "a main principle to know
+that all that man contrives to possess of knowledge and wisdom is only the
+fruits of the Torah or the fruits of its fruits. But for this knowledge
+there would be no difference between man and the lower animated species.
+The existence of the civilised nations of the world does not disprove this
+rule both Christians and Mahometans being also the heirs of the Torah. For
+when the Romans gained strength over Israel they made them translate the
+Torah which they studied, and they even accommodated some of their laws
+and institutions to those of the Bible." Those nations, however, who live
+far away from the centre of the world (the Holy Land) and never come into
+contact with Israel are outside the pale of civilisation, and can hardly
+be ranked together with the human species. "They are the isles afar off,
+that have not heard my fame, neither have seen my glory."
+
+What Nachmanides meant by maintaining that all knowledge and wisdom were
+"the fruits of the Torah, or the fruits of these fruits," will be best
+seen from his _Commentary on the Pentateuch_. I have already made use of
+this Commentary in the preceding quotations, but, being the greatest of
+the works of Nachmanides, it calls for some special attention by itself.
+Its general purpose is edification, or as he says, "to appease the mind of
+the students (labouring under persecution and troubles) when they read the
+portion on Sabbaths and festivals, and to attract their heart by simple
+explanations and sweet words." The explanations occupy a considerable
+space. As Dr. Perles has shown in his able essay on this work of
+Nachmanides, our author neglected no resource of philology or archaeology
+accessible in his age which could contribute to establish the "simple
+explanations" on a sound scientific basis. The prominent feature of this
+Commentary, however, is the "sweet words." Indeed, how sweet and soothing
+to his contemporaries must have been such words as we read at the end of
+the "Song of Moses" (Deut. xxxii.): "And behold there is nothing
+conditional in this Song. It is a charter testifying that we shall have to
+suffer heavily for our sins, but that, nevertheless, God will not destroy
+us, being reconciled to us (though we shall have no merits), and forgiving
+our sins for his name's sake alone.... And so our Rabbis said, Great is
+this song, embracing as it does both the past (of Israel) and the future,
+this world and the world to come.... And if this song were the composition
+of a mere astrologer we should be constrained to believe in it,
+considering that all its words were fulfilled. How much more have we to
+hope with all our hearts and to trust to the word of God, through the
+mouth of his prophet Moses, the faithful in all his house, like unto whom
+there was none, whether before him or after him." A part of these sweet
+words may also be seen in the numerous passages in which he attempts to
+account for various laws, and to detect their underlying principles.
+
+For though "the Torah is the expression of God's simple and absolute will,
+which man has to follow without any consideration of reward," still this
+will is not arbitrary, and even that class of laws which are called
+_chukkim_(89) (which means, according to some Jewish commentators,
+motiveless decrees) have their good reasons, notwithstanding that they are
+unfathomable to us. "They are all meant for the good of man, either to
+keep aloof from us something hurtful, or to educate us in goodness, or to
+remove from us an evil belief and to make us know his name. This is what
+they (the Rabbis) meant by saying that commandments have a purifying
+purpose, namely, that man being purified and tried by them becomes as one
+without alloy of bad thoughts and unworthy qualities." Indeed, the soul of
+man is so sensitive to every impurity that it suffers a sort of infection
+even by an unintentional sin. Hence the injunction to bring a _Korban_
+(sacrifice) even in this case; the effect of the _Korban_, as its
+etymology (_Karab_)(90) indicates, is to bring man back to God, or rather
+to facilitate this approach. All this again is, as Nachmanides points out,
+only an affluence from God's mercy and love to mankind. God derives no
+benefit from it. "If he be righteous what can he give thee?" And even
+those laws and institutions which are intended to commemorate God's
+wonders and the creation of the world (for instance, the Passover festival
+and the Sabbath) are not meant for His glorification, or, as Heine
+maliciously expressed it:--
+
+
+    Der Weltkapellenmeister hier oben
+    Er selbst sogar hoert gerne loben
+    Gleichfalls seine Werke....
+
+
+"For all the honour (we give to Him), and the praising of His work are
+counted by Him less than nothing and as vanity to Him." What He desires is
+that we may know the truth, and be confirmed in it, for this makes us
+worthy of finding in Him "our Protector and King."
+
+The lessons which Nachmanides draws from the various Biblical narratives
+also belong to these "sweet words." They are mostly of a typical
+character. For, true as all the stories in the Scriptures are, "the whole
+Torah is," as he tells us (with allusion to Gen. v. 1.), "the book of the
+generations of Adam," or, as we should say, a history of humanity written
+in advance. Thus the account of the six days of the creation is turned
+into a prophecy of the most important events which would occur during the
+succeeding six thousand years, whilst the Sabbath is a forecast of the
+millennium in the seventh thousand, which will be the day of the Lord.
+Jacob and Esau are, as in the old Rabbinic homilies generally, the
+prototypes of Israel and Rome; and so is the battle of Moses and Joshua
+with Amalek indicative of the war which Elijah and the Messiah the son of
+Joseph will wage against Edom (the prototype of Rome), before the Redeemer
+from the house of David will appear.(91) Sometimes these stories convey
+both a moral and a pre-justification of what was destined to happen to
+Israel. So Nachmanides' remarks with reference to Sarah's treatment of
+Hagar (Gen. xvi. 6): "Our mother Sarah sinned greatly by inflicting this
+pain on Hagar, as did also Abraham, who allowed such a thing to pass; but
+God saw her affliction and rewarded her by a son (the ancestor of a wild
+race), who would inflict on the seed of Abraham and Sarah every sort of
+oppression." In this he alluded to the Islamic empires. Nor does he
+approve of Abraham's conduct on the occasion of his coming to Egypt, when
+he asked Sarah to pass as his sister (Gen. xii.). "Unintentionally,"
+Nachmanides says, "Abraham, under the fear of being murdered, committed a
+great sin when he exposed his virtuous wife to such a temptation. For he
+ought to have trusted that God would save both him and his wife.... It is
+on account of this deed that his children had to suffer exile under the
+rule of Pharaoh. There, where the sin was committed, also the judgment
+took place." It is also worth noticing that, in opposition to Maimonides,
+he allows no apology for the attack of Simeon and Levi on the population
+of Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 25). It is true that they were idolaters, immoral,
+and steeped in every abomination; but Jacob and his sons were not
+commissioned with executing justice on them. The people of Shechem trusted
+their word, therefore they ought to have spared them. Hence Jacob's
+protest, and his curse against their wrath, which would have been quite
+unjustified had he looked on the action of his sons as a good work.
+
+Besides these typical meanings, the matters of the Torah have also their
+symbolical importance, which places them almost above the sphere of human
+conception; they are neither exactly what they seem to be nor entirely
+what their name implies, but a reflex from things unseen, which makes any
+human interference both preposterous and dangerous. Of "the things
+_called_ Tree of Life and Tree of Knowledge," Nachmanides tells us that
+their mystery is very great, reaching into higher worlds. Otherwise, why
+should God, who is good and the dispenser of good, have prevented Adam
+from eating the fruit (of the latter), whilst in another place he says:
+"And if thou wilt be worthy, and understand the mystery of the word
+_Bereshith_(92) (with which the Torah begins), thou wilt see that in truth
+the Scripture, though apparently speaking of matters here below (on
+earth), is always pointing to things above (heaven);" for "every glory and
+every wonder, and every deep mystery, and all beautiful wisdom are hidden
+in the Torah, sealed up in her treasures."
+
+It is very characteristic of the bent of Nachmanides' mind, that he is
+perhaps the first Jewish writer who mentions the apocryphal book _The
+Wisdom of Solomon_, which he knew from a Syriac version, and which he
+believed to be genuine. And when we read there (vii. 7-25), "Wherefore I
+prayed and understanding was given to me. I called upon God and the spirit
+of wisdom came upon me.... For God has given me unmistakable knowledge to
+know how the world was made, and the operations of the planets. The
+beginning, ending, and midst of the times, the alterations and the
+turnings of the sun, the changes of the seasons, the natures of the living
+creatures and the furies of the wild beasts, the force of the spirits and
+the reasonings of men, the diversities of plants and the virtues of the
+roots. All such things that are either secret or manifest, them I
+knew"--the wise king was, according to Nachmanides (who quotes the passages
+which I have just cited), speaking of the Torah, which is identical with
+this wisdom, a wisdom which existed before the creation, and by which God
+planned the world. Hence it bears the impression of all the universe,
+whilst on the other hand when it is said, "The king brought me into his
+chambers," those secret recesses of the Torah are meant in which all the
+great mysteries relating to Creation and to the Chariot (Ezekiel i.) are
+hidden.
+
+We must content ourselves with these few sparks struck from the glowing
+fires of these inner compartments, which, imperfectly luminous as my
+treatment has left them, may yet shed some light on the personality of
+Nachmanides, which is the main object of this essay. But I do not propose
+to accompany the mystic into the "chambers of the king," lest we may soon
+get into a labyrinth of obscure terms and strange ways of thinking for
+which the Ariadne thread is still wanting. We might also be confronted by
+the Fifty Gates of Understanding, the Thirty-Two Paths of Wisdom, and the
+Two Hundred and Thirty-One Permutations or Ciphers of the Alphabet, the
+key to which I do not hold. It is also questionable whether it would
+always be worth while to seek for it. When one, for instance, sees such a
+heaping on of nouns (with some Cabbalists) as the Land of Life, the Land
+of Promise, the Lord of the World, the Foundation Stone, Zion, Mother,
+Daughter, Sister, the Congregation of Israel, the Twin Roes, the Bride,
+Blue, End, Oral Law, Sea, Wisdom, etc., meant to represent the same thing
+or attribute, and to pass one into another, one cannot possibly help
+feeling some suspicion that one stands before a conglomerate of words run
+riot, over which the writer had lost all control.
+
+Indeed Nachmanides himself, in the preface to the above-mentioned
+Commentary, gives us the kind advice not to meditate, or rather brood,
+over the mystical hints which are scattered over this work, "speculation
+being (in such matters) folly, and reasoning over them fraught with
+danger." Indeed, the danger is obvious. I have, to give one or two
+instances, already alluded to the theory which accepts the Torah or the
+Wisdom as an agent in the creation of the world. But the mystic pushes
+further, and asks for the Primal Being to which this Wisdom owes its
+origin. The answer given is from the great Nothing, as it is written, And
+the Wisdom shall be found from Nothing.(93) What is intended by this, if
+it means anything, is probably to divest the first cause of every possible
+quality which by its very qualifying nature must be limiting and
+exclusive. Hence, God becomes the Unknowable. But suppose a metaphysical
+Hamlet, who, handling words indelicately, should impetuously exclaim, To
+be or not to be, that is the question?--into what abyss of utter negations
+would he drag all those who despair, by his terrible Nothing.
+
+On the other hand, into what gross anthropomorphisms may we be drawn by
+roughly handling certain metaphors which some Cabbalists have employed in
+their struggling after an adequate expression of God's manifestations in
+His attribute of love, if we forget for a single moment that they are only
+figures of speech, but liable to get defiled by the slightest touch of an
+unchaste thought.
+
+But the greater the dangers that beset the path of mysticism, the deeper
+the interest which we feel in the mystic. In connection with the above-
+mentioned warning, Nachmanides cites the words from the Scriptures, "But
+let not the priests and the people break through to come up unto the Lord,
+lest he break forth upon them" (Exod. xix. 24). Nevertheless, when we read
+in the Talmud the famous story of the four Rabbis(94) who went up into the
+_Pardes_, or Garden of Mystical Contemplation, we do not withhold our
+sympathy, either from Ben Azzai, who shot a glance and died, or from Ben
+Zoma, who shot a glance and was struck (in his mind). Nay, we feel the
+greatest admiration for these daring spirits, who, in their passionate
+attempt to "break through" the veil before the Infinite, hazarded their
+lives, and even that which is dearer than life, their minds, for a single
+glance. And did R. Meir deny his sympathies even to Other One or Elisha
+ben Abuyah, who "cut down the plants"? He is said to have heard a voice
+from heaven, "Return, oh backsliding children, except Other One," which
+prevented his repentance. Poor fallen Acher, he mistook hell for heaven.
+But do not the struggle and despair which led to this unfortunate
+confusion rather plead for our commiseration?
+
+Nachmanides, however, in his gentle way, did not mean to storm heaven.
+Like R. Akiba, "he entered in peace, and departed in peace." And it was by
+this peacefulness of his nature that he gained an influence over posterity
+which is equalled only by that of Maimonides. "If he was not a profound
+thinker," like the author of the _Guide of the Perplexed_, he had that
+which is next best--"he felt profoundly." Some writers of a rather
+reactionary character even went so far as to assign to him a higher place
+than to Maimonides. This is unjust. What a blank would there have been in
+Jewish thought but for Maimonides' great work, on which the noblest
+thinkers of Israel fed for centuries! As long as Job and Ecclesiastes hold
+their proper place in the Bible, and the Talmud contains hundreds of
+passages suggesting difficulties relating to such problems as the creation
+of the world, God's exact relation to it, the origin of evil, free will
+and predestination, none will persuade me that philosophy does not form an
+integral part of Jewish tradition, which, in its historical developments,
+took the shape which Maimonides and his successors gave to it. If
+Maimonides' _Guide_, which he considered as an interpretation of the Bible
+and of many strange sayings in the old Rabbinic homilies in the Talmud, is
+Aristotelian in its tone, so is tradition too; even the Talmud in many
+places betrays all sorts of foreign influences, and none would think of
+declaring it un-Jewish on this ground. I may also remark in passing that
+the certainty with which some writers deprecate the aids which religion
+may receive from philosophy is a little too hasty. For the question will
+always remain, What religion? The religion of R. Moses of Tachau or R.
+Joseph Jabez(95) would certainly have been greatly endangered by the
+slightest touch of speculation, while that of Bachya,(96) Maimonides,
+Jedaiah of Bedres, and Delmedigo undoubtedly received from philosophy its
+noblest support, and became intensified by the union.
+
+But apart from that consideration, the sphere of the activity of these two
+leaders seems to have been so widely different that it is hardly just to
+consider them as antagonists, or at least to emphasise the antagonism too
+much. Maimonides wrote his chief work, the _Guide_, for the few elect,
+who, like Ibn Tibbon(97) for instance, would traverse whole continents if
+a single syllogism went wrong. And if he could be of use to one wise man
+of this stamp, Maimonides would do so at the risk of "saying things
+unsuitable for ten thousand fools." But with Nachmanides, it would seem,
+it was these ten thousand who formed the main object of his tender care.
+They are, as we have seen, cultivated men, indeed "students," having
+enjoyed a proper education; but the happy times of abstract thinking have
+gone, and being under a perpetual strain of persecutions and cares, they
+long for the Sabbath and Festivals, which would bring them both bodily and
+spiritual recreation. They find no fault with religion, a false syllogism
+does not jar on their ears; what they are afraid of is that, being engaged
+as they are, all the six days of work, in their domestic affairs, religion
+may be too good a thing for them. "To appease their minds," to edify them,
+to make life more sweet and death less terrible to them, and to show them
+that even their weaknesses, as far as they are conditioned by nature, are
+not irreconcilable with a holy life, was what Nachmanides strove after.
+Now and then he permits them a glance into the mystical world in which he
+himself loved to move, but he does not care to stifle their senses into an
+idle contemplation, and passes quickly to some more practical application.
+To be sure, the tabernacle is nothing but a complete map of the superlunar
+world; but nevertheless its rather minute description is meant to teach us
+"that God desires us to work."
+
+This tendency toward being useful to the great majority of mankind may
+account for the want of consistency of which Nachmanides was so often
+accused. It is only the logician who can afford to be thoroughgoing in his
+theory, and even he would become most absurd and even dangerous but for
+the redeeming fact "that men are better than their principles." But with
+Nachmanides these "principles" would have proved even more fatal. Could
+he, for instance, have upset authority in the face of the ten thousand?
+They need to be guided rather than to guide. But he does not want them to
+follow either the Gaon or anybody else slavishly, "the gates of wisdom
+never having been shut," whilst on the other hand he hints to them that
+there is something divine in every man, which places him at least on the
+same high level with any authority. Take another instance--his wavering
+attitude between the Maimonists and the Anti-Maimonists, for which he was
+often censured. Apart from other reasons, to which I have pointed above,
+might he not have felt that, in spite of his personal admiration for
+Maimonides' genius, he had no right to put himself entirely on the side
+where there was little room for the ten thousand who were entrusted to his
+guidance, whilst the French Rabbis, with all their prejudices and
+intolerance, would never deny their sympathies to simple emotional folk?
+
+This tender and absorbing care for the people in general may also account
+for the fact that we do not know of a single treatise by Nachmanides of a
+purely Cabbalistic character in the style of the _Book of Weight_, by
+Moses de Leon, or the _Orchard_, by R. Moses Cordovora, or the _Tree of
+Life_ by R. Isaac Loria.(98) The story that attributes to him the
+discovery of the _Zohar_ in a cave in Palestine, from whence he sent it to
+Catalonia, needs as little refutation as the other story connected with
+his conversion to the Cabbalah, which is even more silly and of such a
+nature as not to bear repetition. The _Lilac of Mysteries_(99) and other
+mystical works passed also for a long time under his name, but their claim
+to this honour has been entirely disproved by the bibliographers, and they
+rank now among the _pseudepigraphica_. It is true that R. Nissim, of
+Gerona, said of Nachmanides that he was too much addicted to the belief in
+the Cabbalah, and as a fellow-countryman he may have had some personal
+knowledge about the matter. But as far as his writings go, this belief
+finds expression only in incidental remarks and occasional citations from
+the Bahir,(100) which he never thrusts upon the reader. It was chiefly
+when philosophy called in question his deep sympathies with even lower
+humanity, and threatened to withdraw them from those ennobling influences
+under which he wanted to keep them, that he asserted his mystical
+theories.
+
+Nachmanides' inconsistency has also proved beneficial in another respect.
+For mysticism has, by its over-emphasising of the divine in man, shown a
+strong tendency to remove God altogether and replace Him by the creature
+of His hands. Witness only the theological bubble of Shabbethai
+Tsebi--happily it burst quickly enough--which resulted in mere idolatry (in
+more polite language, Hero Worship) on the one side, and in the grossest
+antinomianism on the other. Nachmanides, however, with a happy
+inconsistency, combined with the belief of man's origin in God, a not less
+strong conviction of man's liability to sin, of the fact that he _does_
+sin--even the patriarchs were not free from it, as we have seen above--and
+that this sin _does_ alienate man from God. This healthy control over
+man's extravagant idea of his own species was with Nachmanides also a
+fruit of the Torah, within the limits of which everything must move, the
+mystic and his aspirations included, whilst its fair admixture of 365 _Do
+not's_ with 248 _Do's_ preserved him from that "holy doing nothing" which
+so many mystics indulged in, and made his a most active life.
+
+Much of this activity was displayed in Palestine, "the land to which the
+providence of God is especially attached," and which was, as with R. Judah
+Hallevi, always "his ideal home." There he not only completed his
+_Commentary on the Pentateuch_, but also erected synagogues, and engaged
+in organising communities, whose tone he tried to elevate both by his
+lectures and by his sermons. His career in Palestine was not a long one,
+for he lived there only about three years, and in 1270 he must already
+have been dead. A pretty legend narrates that when he emigrated to
+Palestine his pupils asked him to give them a sign enabling them to
+ascertain the day of his death. He answered them that on that day a rift
+in the shape of a lamp would be seen in the tombstone of his mother. After
+three years a pupil suddenly noticed this rift, when the mourning over the
+Rabbi began. Thus, stone, or anything else earthly, breaks finally, and
+the life of the master passes into light.
+
+What life meant to him, how deeply he was convinced that there is no other
+life but that originating in God, how deeply stirred his soul was by the
+consciousness of sin, what agonies the thought of the alienation from God
+caused him, how he felt that there is nothing left to him but to throw
+himself upon the mercy of God, and how he rejoiced in the hope of a final
+reunion with Him--of all these sentiments we find the best expression in
+the following religious poem, with which this paper may conclude.
+Nachmanides composed it in Hebrew, and it is still preserved in some
+rituals as a hymn, recited on the Day of Atonement. It is here given in
+the English translation of Mrs. Henry Lucas.(101)
+
+
+    Ere time began, ere age to age had thrilled,
+    I waited in his storehouse, as he willed;
+    He gave me being, but, my years fulfilled,
+        I shall be summoned back before the King.
+
+    He called the hidden to the light of day,
+    To right and left, each side the fountain lay,
+    From out the stream and down the steps, the way
+        That led me to the garden of the King.
+
+    Thou gavest me a light my path to guide,
+    To prove my heart's recesses still untried;
+    And as I went, thy voice in warning cried:
+        "Child! fear thou him who is thy God and King!"
+
+    True weight and measure learned my heart from thee;
+    If blessings follow, then what joy for me!
+    If nought but sin, all mine the shame must be,
+        For that was not determined by the King.
+
+    I hasten, trembling, to confess the whole
+    Of my transgressions, ere I reach the goal
+    Where mine own words must witness 'gainst my soul,
+        And who dares doubt the writing of the King?
+
+    Erring, I wandered in the wilderness,
+    In passion's grave nigh sinking powerless;
+    Now deeply I repent, in sore distress,
+        That I kept not the statutes of the King!
+
+    With worldly longings was my bosom fraught,
+    Earth's idle toys and follies all I sought;
+    Ah! when he judges joys so dearly bought,
+        How greatly shall I fear my Lord and King!
+
+    Now conscience-stricken, humbled to the dust,
+    Doubting himself, in thee alone his trust,
+    He shrinks in terror back, for God is just--
+        How can a sinner hope to reach the King?
+
+    Oh, be thy mercy in the balance laid,
+    To hold thy servant's sins more lightly weighed,
+    When, his confession penitently made,
+        He answers for his guilt before the King.
+
+    Thine is the love, O God, and thine the grace,
+    That folds the sinner in its mild embrace;
+    Thine the forgiveness, bridging o'er the space
+        'Twixt man's works and the task set by the King.
+
+    Unheeding all my sins, I cling to thee;
+    I know that mercy shall thy footstool be:
+    Before I call, oh, do thou answer me,
+        For nothing dare I claim of thee, my King!
+
+    O thou, who makest guilt to disappear,
+    My help, my hope, my rock, I will not fear;
+    Though thou the body hold in dungeon drear,
+        The soul has found the palace of the King!
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+The third letter of Nachmanides to which I have alluded above, is embodied
+in the following will by R. Solomon, son of the martyr Isaac. Neither the
+date nor the country of the testator is known, but style and language make
+it probable that he was a Spanish Jew, and lived in the fourteenth
+century. I give here a translation from the whole document as it is to be
+found in the Manuscripts.
+
+
+    These are the regulations which I, Solomon, the son of the martyr,
+    Rabbi Isaac, the son of R. Zadok, of blessed memory, draw up for
+    myself. That as long as I am in good health, and free from
+    accident, and think of it, I shall not eat before I have studied
+    one page of the Talmud or of its commentaries. Should I transgress
+    this rule intentionally, I must not drink wine on that day, or I
+    shall pay half a _Zehub_(102) to charity. Again, that I shall
+    every week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and once in
+    the Aramaic version. Should I intentionally omit completing the
+    Lesson as above, then I must pay two _Zehubs_ to charity. Again,
+    that I shall every Sabbath take three meals, consisting of bread
+    or fruit. Should I omit to do so, I must give in charity half a
+    _Zehub_. Again, in order to subdue my appetites, and not to enjoy
+    in this world more than is necessary for the maintenance of my
+    body, I must not eat at one meal more than one course of meat, and
+    not more than two courses altogether; nor must I drink more than
+    two cups of wine at one meal, apart from the blessing-cup (over
+    which grace is said), except on Sabbath, Festivals, Chanukah (the
+    Maccabean Dedication Feast), New Moon, and at other religious
+    meals (for instance, wedding-dinners and similar festive
+    occasions). Again, I must not have any regular meal on the day
+    preceding Sabbath or Festivals. I must not have during the day
+    more than one course, so that I shall enter upon the holy day with
+    a good appetite. Should I transgress this resolve intentionally I
+    shall have to fast a day, or to pay two _Zehubs_. Again, that I
+    shall not eat the fish called _burbot_,(103) if I think of it.
+    Again, even on the above-mentioned days, I must not eat more than
+    three courses at a meal, nor drink more than three cups of wine,
+    exclusive of the blessing-cup. Again, ... I must not swear by God,
+    nor mention the name of Heaven without a purpose, nor curse any
+    man in the name of God. Should I, God forbid, transgress it, I
+    must not drink more than one cup of wine on that day exclusive of
+    the blessing-cup. Should I, however, transgress this after dinner,
+    I must abstain from wine the following day. Should I transgress
+    it, I have to pay half a _Zehub_. Again, that I shall get up every
+    night to praise God, to supplicate for His mercy, and to confess.
+    On those nights when confession is not to be said (Sabbaths and
+    Festivals), I shall say hymns and psalms. This I shall do when I
+    am in my house, and in good health, free from any accident. Should
+    I transgress it, I shall drink not more than one cup of wine the
+    following day, except the blessing-cup. I again take upon myself
+    to give in charity the following proportion of my expenditure--from
+    each dress which I shall have made for myself or for one member of
+    my family, costing more than ten _Zehubs_, I must pay one
+    _Pashut_(104) for each ten _Zehubs_. Again, if I should buy an
+    animal, or a slave, or a female slave, or ground, that I shall
+    also pay at the same rate. And if I shall buy clothes for sale,
+    called _fashas_, I shall pay two _Pashuts_ for each garment. As
+    often as I have occasion to say the benediction of thanksgivings
+    for having escaped danger I shall pay a _Zehub_, except when I am
+    travelling [also involving danger in those times!], in which case
+    I shall have to pay a _Zehub_ on my arrival, and two _Pashuts_
+    daily during the journey. Again, from every kind of fish bought
+    for me, costing more than a _Zehub_, I shall pay a _Pashut_ for
+    each _Zehub_. And also, if I shall be deemed worthy by God to
+    marry my children, and to be present at their wedding, to cause
+    them to give to the poor from the dowry brought to them by their
+    wives, whether in money or in kind, at the rate of one per cent.
+    If God will find me worthy of having sons, I must give in charity
+    according to my means at the time.
+
+    I shall also, between New Year and the Day of Atonement in each
+    year, calculate my profits during the past year and (after
+    deducting expenses) give a tithe thereof to the poor. Should I be
+    unable to make an accurate calculation, then I shall give
+    approximately. This tithe I shall put aside, together with the
+    other money for religious (charitable) purpose, to dispose of it
+    as I shall deem best. I also propose to have the liberty of
+    employing the money in any profitable speculation with a view to
+    augmenting it. But in respect of all I have written above I shall
+    not hold myself guilty if I transgress, if such transgression be
+    the result of forgetfulness; but in order to guard against it, I
+    shall read this through weekly.
+
+    I also command my children to take upon themselves as many of the
+    above regulations as may be in their power to observe, and also to
+    bind them (_i.e._ the regulations), from generation to generation,
+    upon their children. And he who carries them out, and even adds to
+    them, at pain of discomfort to himself, shall merit a special
+    blessing. And this is the text of the will which I, the above-
+    mentioned Solomon, draw up for my children, may God preserve them.
+    That they shall pray thrice daily, and endeavour always to utter
+    their prayers with devotion. Again, that this prayer shall be said
+    in the _Beth Hammidrash_, or in the synagogue together with the
+    congregation. Again, that they shall apply all their powers to
+    maintain the synagogues and the houses of study, which our
+    ancestors have built, as well as to continue the endowments
+    established by my ancestors and myself. They must always endeavour
+    to imitate them, so that goodness shall never cease from among
+    them. Again, that they shall always have a chair on which a volume
+    of the Talmud, or some other Talmudical work, shall lie; so that
+    they shall always open a book when they come home. At least, they
+    shall read in any book they like four lines before taking their
+    meal. Again, that they shall every week read the Lesson twice in
+    the Hebrew text, and once in the Aramaic version. Again, to take
+    three meals on the Sabbath....
+
+    Again, that they shall be always modest, merciful, and charitable,
+    for these are the qualities by which the children of Israel are
+    known. Let also all their thoughts and meditations be always
+    directed to the service of the Lord, and be as charitable and
+    benevolent as possible, for this is all that remains to man of his
+    labour. They shall also endeavour to regulate their diet according
+    to the rules laid down by Rabbi Moses (b. Maimon, or Maimonides),
+    so as to fulfil the words of Scripture: "The righteous eateth to
+    the satisfying of his soul." And let them always be careful not to
+    take the name of God in vain, to be honest in all business
+    transactions, and let their yea be always yea. They shall always
+    be under the obligation to train their children to the Study of
+    the Torah, but one shall devote his life exclusively to the study
+    thereof. And it shall be incumbent upon his brothers to support
+    this one, and to invest his moneys, and to provide for him that he
+    and his family may live respectably, so that he be not distracted
+    by worldly cares from his studies. Let also the elder love the
+    younger brothers as their own children, and the younger respect
+    the elder as a parent. Thus they may always bear in mind that they
+    are of a God-fearing family. Let them love and honour scholars,
+    thus to merit the honour of having scholars for their sons and
+    sons-in-law. This will they shall themselves read weekly, and
+    shall also make it incumbent upon their children, from generation
+    to generation, to read weekly, in order to fulfil what is written
+    (Gen. xviii. 19), "For I know him that he will command his
+    children," etc., and also the words of Isaiah (lix. 21), "And this
+    is my covenant," etc. But as often as they shall read this will,
+    they shall also read the two letters below written, which Rabbi
+    Moses ben Nachman sent to his sons, with a view of being
+    serviceable to them in many respects. Should, heaven forbid, they
+    be by any sad accident prevented from fulfilling the injunctions
+    above laid down, they must fine themselves by not drinking wine on
+    that day, or by eating one course less at the dinner, or by giving
+    some fine in charity....
+
+
+And this is the letter which the above-mentioned Rabbi sent from the Holy
+Land to Castile, when his son was staying before the king (in his
+service):--
+
+
+    "... May God bless you and preserve you from sin and punishment.
+    Behold, our master, King David, had a son, wise and of an
+    understanding heart, like unto whom there was never one before or
+    after. Nevertheless he said to him (1 Kings ii. 2): 'And keep the
+    charge of the Lord thy God,' etc. He also said to him: 'And thou,
+    my son, know the God of thy father' (1 Chron. xxviii. 9). Now, my
+    son, if thou wilt measure thyself with Solomon, thou wilt find
+    thyself a worm--not a man, merely an insect; nevertheless, if thou
+    wilt seek God, he will make thee great; and if thou wilt forsake
+    him, thou wilt be turned out and forsaken. My son, be careful that
+    thou read the _Shema_(105) morning and evening, as well as that
+    thou say the daily prayers. Have always with thee a Pentateuch
+    written correctly, and read therein the Lesson for each
+    Sabbath.... 'Cast thy burden upon the Lord,' for the thing which
+    thou believest far from thee is often very near unto thee. Know,
+    again, that thou art not master over thy words, nor hast power
+    over thy hand; but everything is in the hand of the Lord, who
+    formeth thy heart.... Be especially careful to keep aloof from the
+    women [of the court?]. Know that our God hates immorality, and
+    Balaam could in no other way injure Israel than by inciting them
+    to unchastity. [Here come many quotations from Malachi and
+    Ezra.]... My son, remember me always, and let the image of my
+    countenance be never absent from before thine eyes. Love not that
+    which I hate.... Let the words of the Psalmist be always upon thy
+    lips, 'I am a stranger in the earth: hide not thy commandments
+    from me' (Ps. cxix. 19); and God, who is good and the dispenser of
+    good, shall increase thy peace and prolong thy life in peace and
+    happiness, and promote thy honour according to thy wish and the
+    wish of thy father who begat thee, Moses ben Nachman."
+
+
+
+
+
+V. A JEWISH BOSWELL
+
+
+There is a saying in the Talmud "Nothing exists of which there is not some
+indication in the Torah." These words are often quoted, and some modern
+authors have pressed them so far as to find even the discoveries of
+Columbus and the inventions of Watt and Stephenson indicated in the Law.
+This is certainly misapplied ingenuity. But it is hardly an exaggeration
+to maintain that there is no noble manifestation of real religion, no
+expression of real piety, reverence, and devotion, to which Jewish
+literature would not offer a fair parallel.
+
+Thus it will hardly be astonishing to hear that Jewish literature has its
+Boswell to show, more than three centuries before the Scottish gentleman
+came to London to admire his Johnson, and more than four centuries before
+the Sage of Chelsea delivered his lectures on Hero Worship. And this
+Jewish Boswell was guided only by the motives suggested to him in the old
+Rabbinic literature. In this literature the reverence for the great man,
+and the absorption of one's whole self in him, went so far that one Rabbi
+declared that the whole world was only created to serve such a man as
+company.(106)
+
+Again, the fact that, in the language of the Rabbis, the term for studying
+the Law and discussing it is "to attend" or rather "to serve the disciples
+of the Wise" may also have led people to the important truth that the
+great man is not a lecturing machine, but a sort of living Law himself.
+"When the man," said one Rabbi, "has wholly devoted himself to the Torah,
+and thoroughly identified himself with it, it becomes almost his own
+Torah." Thus people have not only to listen to his words but to observe
+his whole life, and to profit from all his actions and movements.
+
+This was what the Jewish Boswell sought to do. His name was Rabbi Solomon,
+of St. Goar, a small town on the Rhine, while the name of the master whom
+he served was R. Jacob, the Levite, better known by his initials Maharil,
+who filled the office of Chief Rabbi in Mayence and Worms successively.
+The main activity of Maharil falls in the first three decades of the
+fifteenth century. Those were troublous times for a Rabbi. For the
+preceding century with its persecution and sufferings--one has only to
+think of the Black Death and its terrible consequences for the Jews--led to
+the destruction of the great Schools, the decay of the study of the Law,
+and to the dissolution of many congregations. Those which remained lost
+all touch with each other, so that almost every larger Jewish community
+had its own _Minhag_ or ritual custom.(107)
+
+It was Maharil who brought some order into this chaos, and in the course
+of time his influence asserted itself so strongly that the rules observed
+by him in the performing of religious ceremonies were accepted by the
+great majority of the Jewish communities. Thus the personality of Maharil
+himself became a standing Minhag, suppressing all the other Minhagim
+(customs).
+
+But there must have been something very strong and very great about the
+personality of the man who could succeed in such an arduous task. For we
+must not forget that the Minhag or custom in its decay degenerates into a
+kind of religious fashion, the worst disease to which religion is liable,
+and the most difficult to cure. It is therefore an irreparable loss both
+for Jewish literature and for Jewish history, that the greatest part of
+Maharil's posthumous writings are no longer extant, so that our knowledge
+about him is very small. But the little we know of him we owe chiefly to
+the communicativeness of his servant, the Solomon of St. Goar whom I
+mentioned above.
+
+Solomon not only gave us the "Customs" of his master, but also observed
+him closely in all his movements, and conscientiously wrote down all that
+he saw and heard, under the name of _Collectanea_. It seems that the bulk
+of these _Collectanea_ was also lost. But in the fragments that we still
+possess we are informed, among other things, how Maharil addressed his
+wife, how he treated his pupils, how careful he was in the use of his
+books, and even how clean his linen was. Is this not out-Boswelling
+Boswell?
+
+The most striking point of agreement between the Boswell of the fifteenth
+and him of the eighteenth century, is that they both use the same passage
+from the Talmud to excuse the interest in trifles which their labours of
+love betrayed. Thus Solomon prefaces his _Collectanea_ with the following
+words: "It is written, His leaf shall not wither. These words were
+explained by our Sages to mean that even the idle talk of the disciples of
+the wise deserves a study. Upon this interpretation I have relied. In my
+love to R. Jacob the Levite, I collected everything about him. I did not
+refuse even small things, though many derided me. Everything I wrote down,
+for such was the desire of my heart."
+
+Thus far Solomon. Now, if we turn to the introduction to Boswell's _Life
+of Johnson_, we read the following sentence: "For this almost
+superstitious reverence, I have found very old and venerable authority
+quoted by our great modern prelate, Secker, in whose tenth sermon there is
+the following passage: 'Rabbi Kimchi, a noted Jewish commentator who lived
+about five hundred years ago, explains that passage in the first Psalm,
+"His leaf also shall not wither" from Rabbins yet older than himself, that
+even the idle talk, so he expressed it, of a good man ought to be
+regarded.' "
+
+Croker's note to this passage sounds rather strange. This editor says:
+"Kimchi was a Spanish Rabbi, who died in 1240. One wonders that Secker's
+good sense should have condescended to quote this far-fetched and futile
+interpretation of the simple and beautiful metaphor, by which the Psalmist
+illustrates the prosperity of the righteous man." Now Kimchi died at least
+five years earlier than Croker states, but dates, we know from Macaulay's
+essay on the subject, were not Croker's strong point. But one can hardly
+forgive the editor of Boswell this lack of sympathy. Had he known what
+strong affinity there was between his most Christian author and the humble
+Jew Solomon, he would have less resented this condescension of Archbishop
+Secker.
+
+As for the Jewish Boswell himself, we know very little about him. The only
+place in which he speaks about his own person is that in which he derives
+his pedigree from R. Eleazar ben Samuel Hallevi (died 1357), and says that
+he was generally called "Der gute (the good) R. Salman." He well deserved
+this appellation. In his Will we find the following injunction to his
+children: "Be honest, and conscientious in your dealing with men, with
+Jews as well as Gentiles, be kind and obliging to them; do not speak what
+is superfluous." And wisdom is surely rare enough to render inappropriate
+a charge of superfluousness against the work of those who in bygone times
+spent their energies in gathering the crumbs that fell from the tables of
+the wise.
+
+
+
+
+
+VI. THE DOGMAS OF JUDAISM
+
+
+The object of this essay is to say about the dogmas of Judaism a word
+which I think ought not to be left unsaid.
+
+In speaking of dogmas it must be understood that Judaism does not ascribe
+to them any saving power. The belief in a dogma or a doctrine without
+abiding by its real or supposed consequences (_e.g._ the belief in
+_creatio ex nihilo_ without keeping the Sabbath) is of no value. And the
+question about certain doctrines is not whether they possess or do not
+possess the desired charm against certain diseases of the soul, but
+whether they ought to be considered as characteristics of Judaism or not.
+
+It must again be premised that the subject, which occupied the thoughts of
+the greatest and noblest Jewish minds for so many centuries, has been
+neglected for a comparatively long time. And this for various reasons.
+First, there is Mendelssohn's assertion, or supposed assertion, in his
+_Jerusalem_, that Judaism has no dogmas--an assertion which has been
+accepted by the majority of modern Jewish theologians as the only dogma
+Judaism possesses. You can hear it pronounced in scores of Jewish pulpits;
+you can read it written in scores of Jewish books. To admit the
+possibility that Mendelssohn was in error was hardly permissible,
+especially for those with whom he enjoys a certain infallibility. Nay,
+even the fact that he himself was not consistent in his theory, and on
+another occasion declared that Judaism _has_ dogmas, only that they are
+purer and more in harmony with reason than those of other religions; or
+even the more important fact that he published a school-book for children,
+in which the so-called Thirteen Articles were embodied, only that instead
+of the formula "I believe," he substituted "I am convinced,"--even such
+patent facts did not produce much effect upon many of our modern
+theologians.(108) They were either overlooked or explained away so as to
+make them harmonise with the great dogma of dogmalessness. For it is one
+of the attributes of infallibility that the words of its happy possessor
+must always be reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the
+unbeliever as gross contradictions.
+
+Another cause of the neglect into which the subject has fallen is that our
+century is an _historical_ one. It is not only books that have their fate,
+but also whole sciences and literatures. In past times it was religious
+speculation that formed the favourite study of scholars, in our time it is
+history with its critical foundation on a sound philology. Now as these
+two most important branches of Jewish science were so long neglected--were
+perhaps never cultivated in the true meaning of the word, and as Jewish
+literature is so vast and Jewish history so far-reaching and eventful, we
+cannot wonder that these studies have absorbed the time and the labour of
+the greatest and best Jewish writers in this century.
+
+There is, besides, a certain tendency in historical studies that is
+hostile to mere theological speculation. The historian deals with
+realities, the theologian with abstractions. The latter likes to shape the
+universe after his system, and tells us how things _ought to be_, the
+former teaches us how they _are_ or _have been_, and the explanation he
+gives for their being so and not otherwise includes in most cases also a
+kind of justification for their existence. There is also the _odium
+theologicum_, which has been the cause of so much misfortune that it is
+hated by the historian, whilst the superficial, rationalistic way in which
+the theologian manages to explain everything which does not suit his
+system is most repulsive to the critical spirit.
+
+But it cannot be denied that this neglect has caused much confusion.
+Especially is this noticeable in England, which is essentially a
+theological country, and where people are but little prone to give up
+speculation about things which concern their most sacred interest and
+greatest happiness. Thus whilst we are exceedingly poor in all other
+branches of Jewish learning, we are comparatively rich in productions of a
+theological character. We have a superfluity of essays on such delicate
+subjects as eternal punishment, immortality of the soul, the day of
+judgment, etc., and many treatises on the definition of Judaism. But
+knowing little or nothing of the progress recently made in Jewish
+theology, of the many protests against all kinds of infallibility, whether
+canonised in this century or in olden times, we in England still maintain
+that Judaism has no dogmas as if nothing to the contrary had ever been
+said. We seek the foundation of Judaism in political economy, in hygiene,
+in everything except religion. Following the fashion of the day to esteem
+religion in proportion to its ability to adapt itself to every possible
+and impossible metaphysical and social system, we are anxious to squeeze
+out of Judaism the last drop of faith and hope, and strive to make it so
+flexible that we can turn it in every direction which it is our pleasure
+to follow. But alas! the flexibility has progressed so far as to classify
+Judaism among the invertebrate species, the lowest order of living things.
+It strongly resembles a certain Christian school which addresses itself to
+the world in general and claims to satisfy everybody alike. It claims to
+be socialism for the adherents of Karl Marx and Lassalle, worship of man
+for the followers of Comte and St. Simon; it carefully avoids the word
+"God" for the comfort of agnostics and sceptics, whilst on the other hand
+it pretends to hold sway over paradise, hell, and immortality for the
+edification of believers. In such illusions many of our theologians
+delight. For illusions they are; you cannot be everything if you want to
+be anything. Moreover, illusions in themselves are bad enough, but we are
+menaced with what is still worse. Judaism, divested of every higher
+religious motive, is in danger of falling into gross materialism. For what
+else is the meaning of such declarations as "Believe what you like, but
+conform to this or that mode of life"; what else does it mean but "We
+cannot expect you to believe that the things you are bidden to do are
+commanded by a higher authority; there is not such a thing as belief, but
+you ought to do them for conventionalism or for your own convenience."
+
+But both these motives--the good opinion of our neighbours, as well as our
+bodily health--have nothing to do with our nobler and higher sentiments,
+and degrade Judaism to a matter of expediency or diplomacy. Indeed, things
+have advanced so far that well-meaning but ill-advised writers even think
+to render a service to Judaism by declaring it to be a kind of enlightened
+Hedonism, or rather a moderate Epicureanism.
+
+I have no intention of here answering the question, What is Judaism? This
+question is not less perplexing than the problem, What is God's world?
+Judaism is also a great Infinite, composed of as many endless Units, the
+Jews. And these Unit-Jews have been, and are still, scattered through all
+the world, and have passed under an immensity of influences, good and bad.
+If so, how can we give an exact definition of the Infinite, called
+Judaism?
+
+But if there is anything sure, it is that the highest motives which worked
+through the history of Judaism are the strong belief in God and the
+unshaken confidence that at last this God, the God of Israel, will be the
+God of the whole world; or, in other words, Faith and Hope are the two
+most prominent characteristics of Judaism.
+
+In the following pages I shall try to give a short account of the manner
+in which these two principles of Judaism found expression, from the
+earliest times down to the age of Mendelssohn; that is, to present an
+outline of the history of Jewish Dogmas. First, a few observations on the
+position of the Bible and the Talmud in relation to our theme.
+Insufficient and poor as they may be in proportion to the importance of
+these two fundamental documents of Judaism, these remarks may nevertheless
+suggest a connecting link between the teachings of Jewish antiquity and
+those of Maimonides and his successors.
+
+I begin with the Scriptures.
+
+The Bible itself hardly contains a command bidding us _to believe_. We are
+hardly ordered, _e.g._, to believe in the existence of God. I say hardly,
+but I do not altogether deny the existence of such a command. It is true
+that we do not find in the Scripture such words as: "You are commanded to
+believe in the existence of God." Nor is any punishment assigned as
+awaiting him who denies it. Notwithstanding these facts, many Jewish
+authorities--among them such important men as Maimonides, R. Judah Hallevi,
+Nachmanides--perceive, in the first words of the Ten Commandments, "I am
+the Lord thy God," the command to believe in His existence.(109)
+
+Be this as it may, there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that the Bible,
+in which every command is dictated by God, and in which all its heroes are
+the servants, the friends, or the ambassadors of God, presumes such a
+belief in every one to whom those laws are dictated, and these heroes
+address themselves. Nay, I think that the word "belief" is not even
+adequate. In a world with so many visible facts and invisible causes, as
+life and death, growth and decay, light and darkness; in a world where the
+sun rises and sets; where the stars appear regularly; where heavy rains
+pour down from the sky, often accompanied by such grand phenomena as
+thunder and lightning; in a world full of such marvels, but into which no
+notion has entered of all our modern true or false explanations--who but
+God is behind all these things? "Have the gates," asks God, "have the
+gates of death been open to thee? or hast thou seen the doors of the
+shadow of death?... Where is the way where light dwelleth? and as for
+darkness, where is the place thereof?... Hath the rain a father? or who
+hath begotten the drops of dew?... Canst thou bind the sweet influences of
+Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?... Canst thou send lightnings, that
+they may go, and say unto thee, Here we are?" (Job xxxviii.). Of all these
+wonders, God was not merely the _prima causa_; they were the result of His
+direct action, without any intermediary causes. And it is as absurd to say
+that the ancient world believed in God, as for a future historian to
+assert of the nineteenth century that it believed in the effects of
+electricity. We _see_ them, and so antiquity _saw_ God. If there was any
+danger, it lay not in the denial of the existence of a God, but in having
+a wrong belief. Belief in as many gods as there are manifestations in
+nature, the investing of them with false attributes, the misunderstanding
+of God's relation to men, lead to immorality. Thus the greater part of the
+laws and teachings of the Bible are either directed against polytheism,
+with all its low ideas of God, or rather of gods; or they are directed
+towards regulating God's relation to men. Man is a servant of God, or His
+prophet, or even His friend. But this relationship man obtains only by his
+conduct. Nay, all man's actions are carefully regulated by God, and
+connected with His holiness. The 19th chapter of Leviticus, which is
+considered by the Rabbis as the portion of the Law in which the most
+important articles of the Torah are embodied, is headed, "Ye shall be
+holy, for I the Lord your own God am holy." And each law therein
+occurring, even those which concern our relations to each other, is _not_
+founded on utilitarian reasons, but is ordained because the opposite of it
+is an offence to the holiness of God, and profanes His creatures, whom He
+desired to be as holy as He is.(110)
+
+Thus the whole structure of the Bible is built upon the visible fact of
+the existence of a God, and upon the belief in the relation of God to men,
+especially to Israel. In spite of all that has been said to the contrary,
+the Bible _does_ lay stress upon belief, where belief is required. The
+unbelievers are rebuked again and again. "For all this they sinned still,
+and believed not for His wondrous work," complains Asaph (Ps. lxxviii.
+32). And belief is praised in such exalted words as, "Thus saith the Lord,
+I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of thine espousals,
+when thou wentest after me in the wilderness, in a land that was not sown"
+(Jer. ii. 2). The Bible, especially the books of the prophets, consists,
+in great part, of promises for the future, which the Rabbis justly termed
+the "Consolations."(111) For our purpose, it is of no great consequence to
+examine what future the prophets had in view, whether an immediate future
+or one more remote, at the end of days. At any rate, they inculcated hope
+and confidence that God would bring to pass a better time. I think that
+even the most advanced Bible critic--provided he is not guided by some
+modern Aryan reasons--must perceive in such passages as, "The Lord shall
+reign for ever and ever," "The Lord shall rejoice in his works," and many
+others, a hope for more than the establishment of the "national Deity
+among his votaries in Palestine."
+
+We have now to pass over an interval of many centuries, the length of
+which depends upon the views held as to the date of the close of the
+canon, and examine what the Rabbis, the representatives of the prophets,
+thought on this subject. Not that the views of the author of the _Wisdom
+of Solomon_, of Philo and Aristobulus, and many others of the Judaeo-
+Alexandrian school would be uninteresting for us. But somehow their
+influence on Judaism was only a passing one, and their doctrines never
+became authoritative in the Synagogue. We must here confine ourselves to
+those who, even by the testimony of their bitterest enemies, occupied the
+seat of Moses.
+
+The successors of the prophets had to deal with new circumstances, and
+accordingly their teachings were adapted to the wants of their times. As
+the result of manifold foreign influences, the visible fact of the
+existence of God as manifested in the Bible had been somewhat obscured.
+Prophecy ceased, and the Holy Spirit which inspired a few chosen ones took
+its place. Afterwards this influence was reduced to the hearing of a Voice
+from Heaven, which was audible to still fewer. On the other hand the
+Rabbis had this advantage that they were not called upon to fight against
+idolatry as their predecessors the prophets had been. The evil inclination
+to worship idols was, as the Talmud expresses it allegorically, killed by
+the Men of the Great Synagogue, or, as we should put it, it was suppressed
+by the sufferings of the captivity in Babylon. This change of
+circumstances is marked by the following fact:--Whilst the prophets mostly
+considered idolatry as the cause of all sin, the Rabbis show a strong
+tendency to ascribe sin to a defect in, or a want of, belief on the part
+of the sinner. They teach that Adam would not have sinned unless he had
+first denied the "Root of all" (or the main principle), namely, the belief
+in the Omnipresence of God. Of Cain they say that before murdering his
+brother he declared: "There is no judgment, there is no judge, there is no
+world to come, and there is no reward for the just, and no punishment for
+the wicked."(112)
+
+In another place we read that the commission of a sin in secret is an
+impertinent attempt by the doer to oust God from the world. But if
+unbelief is considered as the root of all evil, we may expect that the
+reverse of it, a perfect faith, would be praised in the most exalted
+terms. So we read: Faith is so great that the man who possesses it may
+hope to become a worthy vessel of the Holy Spirit, or, as we should
+express it, that he may hope to obtain by this power the highest degree of
+communion with his Maker. The Patriarch Abraham, notwithstanding all his
+other virtues, only became "the possessor of both worlds" by the merit of
+his strong faith. Nay, even the fulfilment of a single law when
+accompanied by true faith is, according to the Rabbis, sufficient to bring
+man nigh to God. And the future redemption is also conditional on the
+degree of faith shown by Israel.(113)
+
+It has often been asked what the Rabbis would have thought of a man who
+fulfils every commandment of the Torah, but does not believe that this
+Torah was given by God, or that there exists a God at all. It is indeed
+very difficult to answer this question with any degree of certainty. In
+the time of the Rabbis people were still too simple for such a diplomatic
+religion, and conformity in the modern sense was quite an unknown thing.
+But from the foregoing remarks it would seem that the Rabbis could not
+conceive such a monstrosity as atheistic orthodoxy. For, as we have seen,
+the Rabbis thought that unbelief must needs end in sin, for faith is the
+origin of all good. Accordingly, in the case just supposed they would have
+either suspected the man's orthodoxy, or would have denied that his views
+were really what he professed them to be.
+
+Still more important than the above cited Agadic passages is one which we
+are about to quote from the tractate Sanhedrin. This tractate deals with
+the constitution, of the supreme law-court, the examination of the
+witnesses, the functions of the judges, and the different punishment to be
+inflicted on the transgressors of the law. After having enumerated various
+kinds of capital punishment, the Mishnah adds the following words: "These
+are (the men) who are excluded from the life to come: He who says there is
+no resurrection from death; he who says there is no Torah given from
+heaven, and the Epikurus."(114) This passage was considered by the Rabbis
+of the Middle Ages, as well as by modern scholars, the _locus classicus_
+for the dogma question. There are many passages in the Rabbinic literature
+which exclude man from the world to come for this or that sin. But these
+are more or less of an Agadic (legendary) character, and thus lend
+themselves to exaggeration and hyperbolic language. They cannot,
+therefore, be considered as serious legal dicta, or as the general opinion
+of the Rabbis.
+
+The Mishnah in Sanhedrin, however, has, if only by its position in a legal
+tractate, a certain _Halachic_ (obligatory) character. And the fact that
+so early an authority as R. Akiba made additions to it guarantees its high
+antiquity. The first two sentences of this Mishnah are clear enough. In
+modern language, and positively speaking, they would represent articles of
+belief in Resurrection and Revelation. Great difficulty is found in
+defining what was meant by the word _Epikurus_. The authorities of the
+Middle Ages, to whom I shall again have to refer, explain the Epikurus to
+be a man who denies the belief in reward and punishment; others identify
+him with one who denies the belief in Providence; while others again
+consider the Epikurus to be one who denies Tradition. But the parallel
+passages in which it occurs incline one rather to think that this word
+cannot be defined by one kind of heresy. It implies rather a frivolous
+treatment of the words of Scripture or of Tradition. In the case of the
+latter (Tradition) it is certainly not honest difference of opinion that
+is condemned; for the Rabbis themselves differed very often from each
+other, and even Mediaeval authorities did not feel any compunction about
+explaining Scripture in variance with the Rabbinic interpretation, and
+sometimes they even went so far as to declare that the view of this or
+that great authority was only to be considered as an isolated opinion not
+deserving particular attention. What they did blame was, as already said,
+scoffing and impiety. We may thus safely assert that reverence for the
+teachers of Israel formed the third essential principle of Judaism.(115)
+
+I have still to remark that there occur in the Talmud such passages as
+"the Jew, even if he has sinned, is still a Jew," or "He who denies
+idolatry is called a Jew." These and similar passages have been used to
+prove that Judaism was not a positive religion, but only involved the
+negation of idolatry. But it has been overlooked that the statements
+quoted have more a legal than a theological character. The Jew belonged to
+his nationality even after having committed the greatest sin, just as the
+Englishman does not cease to be an Englishman--in regard to treason and the
+like--by having committed a heinous crime. But he has certainly acted in a
+very un-English way, and having outraged the feelings of the whole nation
+will have to suffer for his misconduct. The Rabbis in a similar manner did
+not maintain that he who gave up the belief in Revelation and
+Resurrection, and treated irreverently the teachers of Israel, severed his
+connection with the Jewish nation, but that, for his crime, he was going
+to suffer the heaviest punishment. He was to be excluded from the world to
+come.
+
+Still, important as is the passage quoted from Sanhedrin, it would be
+erroneous to think that it exhausted the creed of the Rabbis. The liturgy
+and innumerable passages in the Midrashim show that they ardently clung to
+the belief in the advent of the Messiah. All their hope was turned to the
+future redemption and the final establishment of the Kingdom of Heaven on
+earth. Judaism, stripped of this belief, would have been for them devoid
+of meaning. The belief in reward and punishment is also repeated again and
+again in the old Rabbinic literature. A more emphatic declaration of the
+belief in Providence than is conveyed by the following passages is hardly
+conceivable. "Everything is foreseen, and free will is given. And the
+world is judged by grace." Or, "the born are to die, and the dead to
+revive, and the living to be judged. For to know and to notify, and that
+it may be known that He (God) is the Framer and He the Creator, and He the
+Discerner, and He the Judge, and He the Witness," etc.(116)
+
+But it must not be forgotten that it was not the habit of the Rabbis to
+lay down, either for conduct or for doctrine, rules which were commonly
+known. When they urged the three points stated above there must have been
+some historical reason for it. Probably these principles were controverted
+by some heretics. Indeed, the whole tone of the passage cited from
+Sanhedrin is a protest against certain unbelievers who are threatened with
+punishment. Other beliefs, not less essential, but less disputed, remain
+unmentioned, because there was no necessity to assert them.
+
+It was not till a much later time, when the Jews came into closer contact
+with new philosophical schools, and also new creeds which were more liable
+than heathenism was to be confused with Judaism, that this necessity was
+felt. And thus we are led at once to the period when the Jews became
+acquainted with the teachings of the Mohammedan schools. The Caraites came
+very early into contact with non-Jewish systems. And so we find that they
+were also the first to formulate Jewish dogmas in a fixed number, and in a
+systematic order. It is also possible that their separation from the
+Tradition, and their early division into little sects among themselves,
+compelled them to take this step, in order to avoid further sectarianism.
+
+The number of their dogmas amounts to ten. According to Judah Hadasi
+(1150), who would appear to have derived them from his predecessors, their
+dogmas include the following articles:--1. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 2. The
+existence of a Creator, God; 3. This God is an absolute unity as well as
+incorporeal; 4. Moses and the other prophets were sent by God; 5. God has
+given to us the Torah, which is true and complete in every respect, not
+wanting the addition of the so-called Oral Law; 6. The Torah must be
+studied by every Jew in the original (Hebrew) language; 7. The Holy Temple
+was a place elected by God for His manifestation; 8. Resurrection of the
+dead; 9. Punishment and reward after death; 10. The Coming of the Messiah,
+the son of David.
+
+How far the predecessors of Hadasi were influenced by a certain Joseph
+Albashir (about 950), of whom there exists a manuscript work, "Rudiments
+of Faith," I am unable to say. The little we know of him reveals more of
+his intimacy with Arabic thoughts than of his importance for his sect in
+particular and for Judaism in general. After Hadasi I shall mention here
+Elijah Bashazi, a Caraite writer of the end of the fifteenth century. This
+author, who was much influenced by Maimonides, omits the second and the
+seventh articles. In order to make up the ten he numbers the belief in the
+eternity of God as an article, and divides the fourth article into two. In
+the fifth article Bashazi does not emphasise so strongly the completeness
+of the Torah as Hadasi, and omits the portion which is directed against
+Tradition. It is interesting to see the distinction which Bashazi draws
+between the Pentateuch and the Prophets. While he thinks that the five
+books of Moses can never be altered, he regards the words of the Prophets
+as only relating to their contemporaries, and thus subject to changes. As
+I do not want to anticipate Maimonides' system, I must refrain from giving
+here the articles laid down by Solomon Troki in the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. For the articles of Maimonides are copied by this
+writer with a few slight alterations so as to dress them in a Caraite
+garb.
+
+I must dismiss the Caraites with these few remarks, my object being
+chiefly to discuss the dogmas of the Synagogue from which they had
+separated themselves. Besides, as in everything Caraitic, there is no
+further development of the question. As Bashazi laid them down, they are
+still taught by the Caraites of to-day. I return to the Rabbanites.(117)
+
+As is well known, Maimonides (1130-1205), was the first Rabbanite who
+formulated the dogmas of the Synagogue. But there are indications of
+earlier attempts. R. Saadiah Gaon's (892-942) work, _Creeds and Opinions_,
+shows such traces. He says in his preface, "My heart sickens to see that
+the belief of my co-religionists is impure and that their theological
+views are confused." The subjects he treats in this book, such as
+creation, unity of God, resurrection of the dead, the future redemption of
+Israel, reward and punishment, and other kindred theological subjects
+might thus, perhaps, be considered as the essentials of the creed that the
+Gaon desired to present in a pure and rational form. R. Hannaneel, of
+Kairowan,(118) in the first half of the eleventh century, says in one of
+his commentaries that to deserve eternal life one must believe in _four_
+things: in God, in the prophets, in a future world where the just will be
+rewarded, and in the advent of the Redeemer. From R. Judah Hallevi's
+_Cusari_, written in the beginning of the twelfth century, we might argue
+that the belief in the election of Israel by God was the cardinal dogma of
+the author.(119) Abraham Ibn Daud, a contemporary of Maimonides, in his
+book _The High Belief_,(120) speaks of _rudiments_, among which, besides
+such metaphysical principles as unity, rational conception of God's
+attributes, etc., the belief in the immutability of the Law, etc., is
+included. Still, all these works are intended to furnish evidence from
+philosophy or history for the truth of religion rather than to give a
+definition of this truth. The latter task was undertaken by Maimonides.
+
+I refer to the thirteen articles embodied in his first work, _The
+Commentary to the Mishnah_. They are appended to the Mishnah in Sanhedrin,
+with which I dealt above. But though they do not form an independent
+treatise, Maimonides' remarks must not be considered as merely incidental.
+
+That Maimonides was quite conscious of the importance of this exposition
+can be gathered from the concluding words addressed to the reader: "Know
+these (words) and repeat them many times, and think them over in the
+proper way. God knows that thou wouldst be deceiving thyself if thou
+thinkest thou hast understood them by having read them once or even ten
+times. Be not, therefore, hasty in perusing them. I have not composed them
+without deep study and earnest reflection."
+
+The result of this deep study was that the following Thirteen Articles
+constitute the creed of Judaism. They are:--
+
+1. The belief in the existence of a Creator; 2. The belief in His Unity;
+3. The belief in His Incorporeality; 4. The belief in His Eternity; 5. The
+belief that all worship and adoration are due to Him alone; 6. The belief
+in Prophecy; 7. The belief that Moses was the greatest of all Prophets,
+both before and after him; 8. The belief that the Torah was revealed to
+Moses on Mount Sinai; 9. The belief in the Immutability of this revealed
+Torah; 10. The belief that God knows the actions of men; 11. The belief in
+Reward and Punishment; 12. The belief in the coming of the Messiah; 13.
+The belief in the Resurrection of the dead.
+
+The impulse given by the great philosopher and still greater Jew was
+eagerly followed by succeeding generations, and Judaism thus came into
+possession of a dogmatic literature such as it never knew before
+Maimonides. Maimonides is the centre of this literature, and I shall
+accordingly speak in the remainder of this essay of Maimonists and Anti-
+Maimonists. These terms really apply to the great controversy that raged
+round Maimonides' _Guide of __ the Perplexed_, but I shall, chiefly for
+brevity's sake, employ them in these pages in a restricted sense to refer
+to the dispute concerning the Thirteen Articles.
+
+Among the Maimonists we may probably include the great majority of Jews,
+who accepted the Thirteen Articles without further question. Maimonides
+must indeed have filled up a great gap in Jewish theology, a gap,
+moreover, the existence of which was very generally perceived. A century
+had hardly elapsed before the Thirteen Articles had become a theme for the
+poets of the Synagogue. And almost every country where Jews lived can show
+a poem or a prayer founded on these Articles. R. Jacob Molin (1420) of
+Germany speaks of metrical and rhymed songs in the German language, the
+burden of which was the Thirteen Articles, and which were read by the
+common people with great devotion. The numerous commentaries and homilies
+written on the same topic would form a small library in themselves.(121)
+But on the other hand it must not be denied that the Anti-Maimonists, that
+is to say those Jewish writers who did not agree with the creed formulated
+by Maimonides, or agreed only in part with him, form also a very strong
+and respectable minority. They deserve our attention the more as it is
+their works which brought life into the subject and deepened it. It is not
+by a perpetual Amen to every utterance of a great authority that truth or
+literature gains anything.
+
+The Anti-Maimonists can be divided into two classes. The one class
+categorically denies that Judaism has dogmas. I shall have occasion to
+touch on this view when I come to speak of Abarbanel. Here I pass at once
+to the second class of Anti-Maimonists. This consists of those who agree
+with Maimonides as to the existence of dogmas in Judaism, but who differ
+from him as to what these dogmas are, or who give a different enumeration
+of them.
+
+As the first of these Anti-Maimonists we may regard Nachmanides, who, in
+his famous _Sermon in the Presence of the King_, speaks of three
+fundamental principles: Creation (that is, non-eternity of matter),
+Omniscience of God, and Providence. Next comes R. Abba Mari ben Moses, of
+Montpellier. He wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and is
+famous in Jewish history for his zeal against the study of philosophy. We
+possess a small pamphlet by him dealing with our subject, and it forms a
+kind of prologue to his collection of controversial letters against the
+rationalists of his time.(122) He lays down three articles as the
+fundamental teachings of Religion: 1. Metaphysical: The existence of God,
+including His Unity and Incorporeality; 2. Mosaic: _Creatio ex nihilo_ by
+God--a consequence of this principle is the belief that God is capable of
+altering the laws of nature at His pleasure; 3. Ethical: Special
+Providence--_i.e._ God knows all our actions in all their details. Abba
+Mari does not mention Maimonides' Thirteen Articles. But it would be false
+to conclude that he rejected the belief in the coming of the Messiah, or
+any other article of Maimonides. The whole tone and tendency of this
+pamphlet is polemical, and it is therefore probable that he only urged
+those points which were either doubted or explained in an unorthodox way
+by the sceptics of his time.
+
+Another scholar, of Provence, who wrote but twenty years later than Abba
+Mari--R. David ben Samuel d'Estella (1320)--speaks of the seven pillars of
+religion. They are: Revelation, Providence, Reward and Punishment, the
+Coming of the Messiah, Resurrection of the Dead, _Creatio ex nihilo_, and
+Free Will.(123)
+
+Of authors living in other countries, I have to mention here R. Shemariah,
+of Crete, who flourished at about the same time as R. David d'Estella, and
+is known from his efforts to reconcile the Caraites with the Rabbanites.
+This author wrote a book for the purpose of furnishing Jewish students
+with evidence for what he considered the five fundamental teachings of
+Judaism, viz.: 1. The Existence of God; 2. The Incorporeality of God; 3.
+His Absolute Unity; 4. That God created heaven and earth; 5. That God
+created the world after His will 5106 years ago--5106 (1346 A.C.), being
+the year in which Shemariah wrote these words.(124)
+
+In Portugal, at about the same time, we find R. David ben Yom-Tob Bilia
+adding to the articles of Maimonides thirteen of his own, which he calls
+the "Fundamentals of the Thinking Man." Five of these articles relate to
+the functions of the human soul, that, according to him, emanated from
+God, and to the way in which this divine soul receives its punishment and
+reward. The other eight articles are as follows: 1. The belief in the
+existence of spiritual beings--angels; 2. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 3. The
+belief in the existence of another world, and that this other world is
+only a spiritual one; 4. The Torah is above philosophy; 5. The Torah has
+an outward (literal) meaning and an inward (allegorical) meaning; 6. The
+text of the Torah is not subject to any emendation; 7. The reward of a
+good action is the good work itself, and the doer must not expect any
+other reward; 8. It is only by the "commands relating to the heart," for
+instance, the belief in one eternal God, the loving and fearing Him, and
+not through good actions, that man attains the highest degree of
+perfection.(125) Perhaps it would be suitable to mention here another
+contemporaneous writer, who also enumerates twenty-six articles. The name
+of this writer is unknown, and his articles are only gathered from
+quotations by later authors. It would seem from these quotations that the
+articles of this unknown author consisted mostly of statements emphasising
+the belief in the attributes of God: as, His Eternity, His Wisdom and
+Omnipotence, and the like.(126)
+
+More important for our subject are the productions of the fifteenth
+century, especially those of Spanish authors. The fifteen articles of R.
+Lipman Muhlhausen, in the preface to his well-known _Book of Victory_(127)
+(1410), differ but slightly from those of Maimonides. In accordance with
+the anti-Christian tendency of his polemical book, he lays more stress on
+the two articles of Unity and Incorporeality, and makes of them four. We
+can therefore dismiss him with this short remark, and pass at once to the
+Spanish Rabbis.
+
+The first of these is R. Chasdai Ibn Crescas, who composed his famous
+treatise, _The Light of God_, about 1405. Chasdai's book is well known for
+its attacks on Aristotle, and also for its influence on Spinoza. But
+Chasdai deals also with Maimonides' Thirteen Articles, to which he was
+very strongly opposed. Already in his preface he attacks Maimonides for
+speaking, in his _Book of the Commandments_, of the belief in the
+existence of God as an "affirmative precept." Chasdai thinks it absurd;
+for every commandment must be dictated by some authority, but on whose
+authority can we dictate the acceptance of this authority? His general
+objection to the Thirteen Articles is that Maimonides confounded dogmas or
+_fundamental beliefs_ of Judaism, without which Judaism is inconceivable,
+with beliefs or _doctrines_ which Judaism inculcates, but the denial of
+which, though involving a strong heresy, does not make Judaism impossible.
+He maintains that if Maimonides meant only to count fundamental teachings,
+there are not more than seven; but that if he intended also to include
+doctrines, he ought to have enumerated sixteen. As beliefs of the first
+class--namely, fundamental beliefs--he considers the following articles: 1.
+God's knowledge of our actions; 2. Providence; 3. God's omnipotence--even
+to act against the laws of nature; 4. Prophecy; 5. Free will; 6. The aim
+of the Torah is to make man long after the closest communion with God. The
+belief in the existence of God, Chasdai thinks, is an axiom with which
+every religion must begin, and he is therefore uncertain whether to
+include it as a dogma or not. As to the doctrines which every Jew is bound
+to believe, but without which Judaism is not impossible, Chasdai divides
+them into two sections: (_a_) 1. _Creatio ex nihilo_; 2. Immortality of
+the soul; 3. Reward and Punishment; 4. Resurrection of the dead; 5.
+Immutability of the Torah; 6. Superiority of the prophecy of Moses; 7.
+That the High Priest received from God the instructions sought for, when
+he put his questions through the medium of the Urim and Thummim; 8. The
+coming of the Messiah. (_b_) Doctrines which are expressed by certain
+religious ceremonies, and on belief in which these ceremonies are
+conditioned: 1. The belief in the efficacy of prayer--as well as in the
+power of the benediction of the priests to convey to us the blessing of
+God; 2. God is merciful to the penitent; 3. Certain days in the year--for
+instance, the Day of Atonement--are especially qualified to bring us near
+to God, if we keep them in the way we are commanded. That Chasdai is a
+little arbitrary in the choice of his "doctrines," I need hardly say.
+Indeed, Chasdai's importance for the dogma-question consists more in his
+critical suggestions than in his positive results. He was, as we have
+seen, the first to make the distinction between fundamental teachings
+which form the basis of Judaism, and those other simple Jewish doctrines
+without which Judaism is not impossible. Very daring is his remark, when
+proving that Reward and Punishment, Immortality of the soul, and
+Resurrection of the dead must not be considered as the basis of Judaism,
+since the highest ideal of religion is to serve God without any hope of
+reward. Even more daring are his words concerning the Immutability of the
+Law. He says: "Some have argued that, since God is perfection, so must
+also His law be perfect, and thus unsusceptible of improvement." But he
+does not think this argument conclusive, though the fact in itself (the
+Immutability of the Law) is true. For one might answer that this
+perfection of the Torah could only be in accordance with the intelligence
+of those for whom it was meant; but as soon as the recipients of the Torah
+have advanced to a higher state of perfection, the Torah must also be
+altered to suit their advanced intelligence. A pupil of Chasdai
+illustrates the words of his master by a medical parallel. The physician
+has to adapt his medicaments to the various stages through which his
+patient has to pass. That he changes his prescription does not, however,
+imply that his medical knowledge is imperfect, or that his earlier
+remedies were ignorantly chosen; the varying condition of the invalid was
+the cause of the variation in the doctor's treatment. Similarly, were not
+the Immutability of the Torah a "doctrine," one might maintain that the
+perfection of the Torah would not be inconsistent with the assumption that
+it was susceptible of modification, in accordance with our changing and
+progressive circumstances. But all these arguments are purely of a
+theoretic character; for, practically, every Jew, according to Chasdai,
+has to accept all these beliefs, whether he terms them fundamental
+teachings or only Jewish doctrines.(128)
+
+Some years later, though he finished his work in the same year as Chasdai,
+R. Simeon Duran (1366-1444,) a younger contemporary of the former, made
+his researches on dogmas. His studies on this subject form a kind of
+introduction to his commentary on Job, which he finished in the year 1405.
+Duran is not so strongly opposed to the Thirteen Articles as Chasdai, or
+as another "thinker of our people," who thought them an arbitrary
+imitation of the thirteen attributes of God. Duran tries to justify
+Maimonides; but nevertheless he agrees with "earlier authorities," who
+formulated the Jewish creed in Three Articles--The Existence of God,
+Revelation, and Reward and Punishment--under which Duran thinks the
+Thirteen Articles of Maimonides may be easily classed. Most interesting
+are his remarks concerning the validity of dogmas. He tells us that only
+those are to be considered as heretics who abide by their own opinions,
+though they know that they are contradictory to the views of the Torah.
+Those who accept the fundamental teachings of Judaism, but are led by
+their deep studies and earnest reflection to differ in details from the
+opinions current among their co-religionists, and explain certain passages
+in the Scripture in their own way, must by no means be considered as
+heretics. We must, therefore, Duran proceeds to say, not blame such men as
+Maimonides, who gave an allegorical interpretation to certain passages in
+the Bible about miracles, or R. Levi ben Gershom, who followed certain un-
+Jewish views in relation to the belief in _Creatio ex nihilo_. Only the
+views are condemnable, not those who cherish them. God forbid, says Duran,
+that such a thing should happen in Israel as to condemn honest inquirers
+on account of their differing opinions. It would be interesting to know of
+how many divines as tolerant as this persecuted Jew the fifteenth century
+can boast.(129)
+
+We can now pass to a more popular but less original writer on our theme. I
+refer to R. Joseph Albo, the author of the _Roots_,(130) who was the pupil
+of Chasdai, a younger contemporary of Duran, and wrote at a much later
+period than these authors. Graetz has justly denied him much originality.
+The chief merit of Albo consists in popularising other people's thoughts,
+though he does not always take care to mention their names. And the
+student who is a little familiar with the contents of the _Roots_ will
+easily find that Albo has taken his best ideas either from Chasdai or from
+Duran. As it is of little consequence to us whether an article of faith is
+called "stem," or "root," or "branch," there is scarcely anything fresh
+left to quote in the name of Albo. The late Dr. Loew, of Szegedin, was
+indeed right, when he answered an adversary who challenged him--"Who would
+dare to declare me a heretic as long as I confess the Three Articles laid
+down by Albo?" with the words "Albo himself." For, after all the subtle
+distinctions Albo makes between different classes of dogmas, he declares
+that every one who denies even the immutability of the Law or the coming
+of the Messiah, which are, according to him, articles of minor importance,
+is a heretic who will be excluded from the world to come. But there is one
+point in his book which is worth noticing. It was suggested to him by
+Maimonides, indeed; still Albo has the merit of having emphasised it as it
+deserves. Among the articles which he calls "branches" Albo counts the
+belief that the perfection of man, which leads to eternal life, can be
+obtained by the fulfilling of _one_ commandment. But this command must, as
+Maimonides points out, be done without any worldly regard, and only for
+the love of God. When one considers how many platitudes are repeated year
+by year by certain theologians on the subject of Jewish legalism, we
+cannot lay enough stress on this article of Albo, and we ought to make it
+better known than it has hitherto been.(131)
+
+Though I cannot enter here into the enumeration of the Maimonists, I must
+not leave unmentioned the name of R. Nissim ben Moses of Marseilles, the
+first great Maimonist, who flourished about the end of the thirteenth
+century, and was considered as one of the most enlightened thinkers of his
+age.(132) Another great Maimonist deserving special attention is R.
+Abraham ben Shem-Tob Bibago, who may perhaps be regarded as the most
+prominent among those who undertook to defend Maimonides against the
+attacks of Chasdai and others. Bibago wrote _The Path of Belief_(133) in
+the second half of the fifteenth century, and was, as Dr. Steinschneider
+aptly describes him, a _Denkglaeubiger_. But, above all, he was a believing
+Jew. When he was once asked, at the table of King John II., of Aragon, by
+a Christian scholar, "Are you the Jewish philosopher?" he answered, "I am
+a Jew who believes in the Law given to us by our teacher Moses, though I
+have studied philosophy." Bibago was such a devoted admirer of Maimonides
+that he could not tolerate any opposition to him. He speaks in one passage
+of the prudent people of his time who, in desiring to be looked upon as
+orthodox by the great mob, calumniated the Teacher (Maimonides), and
+depreciated his merits. Bibago's book is very interesting, especially in
+its controversial parts; but in respect to dogmas he is, as already said,
+a Maimonist, and does not contribute any new point on our subject.
+
+To return to the Anti-Maimonists of the second half of the fifteenth
+century. As such may be considered R. Isaac Aramah, who speaks of three
+foundations of religion: _Creatio ex nihilo_, Revelation (?), and the
+belief in a world to come.(134) Next to be mentioned is R. Joseph Jabez,
+who also accepts only three articles: _Creatio ex nihilo_, Individual
+Providence, and the Unity of God.(135) Under these three heads he tries to
+classify the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides.
+
+The last Spanish writer on our subject is R. Isaac Abarbanel. His treatise
+on the subject is known under the title _Top of Amanah_,(136) and was
+finished in the year 1495. The greatest part of this treatise forms a
+defence of Maimonides, many points in which are taken from Bibago. But, in
+spite of this fact, Abarbanel must not be considered a Maimonist. It is
+only a feeling of piety towards Maimonides, or perhaps rather a fondness
+for argument, that made him defend Maimonides against Chasdai and others.
+His own view is that it is a mistake to formulate dogmas of Judaism, since
+every word in the Torah has to be considered as a dogma for itself. It was
+only, says Abarbanel, by following the example of non-Jewish scholars that
+Maimonides and others were induced to lay down dogmas. The non-Jewish
+philosophers are in the habit of accepting in every science certain
+indisputable axioms from which they deduce the propositions which are less
+evident. The Jewish philosophers in a similar way sought for first
+principles in religion from which the whole of the Torah ought to be
+considered as a deduction. But, thinks Abarbanel, the Torah as a revealed
+code is under no necessity of deducing things from each other, for all the
+commands came from the same divine authority, and, therefore, all are
+alike evident, and have the same certainty. On this and similar grounds
+Abarbanel refused to accept dogmatic articles for Judaism, and he thus
+became the head of the school that forms a class by itself among the Anti-
+Maimonists to which many of the greatest Cabbalists also belong. But it is
+idle talk to cite this school in aid of the modern theory that Judaism has
+no dogmas. As we have seen, it was rather an _embarras de richesse_ that
+prevented Abarbanel from accepting the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. To
+him and to the Cabbalists the Torah consists of at least 613 Articles.
+
+Abarbanel wrote his book with which we have just dealt, at Naples. And it
+is Italy to which, after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, we have to
+look chiefly for religious speculation. But the philosophers of Italy are
+still less independent of Maimonides than their predecessors in Spain.
+Thus we find that R. David Messer Leon, R. David Vital, and others were
+Maimonists. Even the otherwise refined and original thinker, R. Elijah
+Delmedigo (who died about the end of the fifteenth century) becomes almost
+impolite when he speaks of the adversaries of Maimonides in respect to
+dogmas. "It was only," he says, "the would-be philosopher that dared to
+question the articles of Maimonides. Our people have always the bad habit
+of thinking themselves competent to attack the greatest authorities as
+soon as they have got some knowledge of the subject. Genuine thinkers,
+however, attach very little importance to their objections."(137)
+
+Indeed, it seems as if the energetic protests of Delmedigo scared away the
+Anti-Maimonists for more than a century. Even in the following seventeenth
+century we have to notice only two Anti-Maimonists. The one is R. Tobijah,
+the Priest (1652), who was of Polish descent, studied in Italy, and lived
+as a medical man in France. He seems to refuse to accept the belief in the
+Immutability of the Torah, and in the coming of the Messiah, as
+fundamental teachings of Judaism.(138) The other, at the end of the
+seventeenth century (1695), is R. Abraham Chayim Viterbo, of Italy. He
+accepts only six articles: 1. Existence of God; 2. Unity; 3.
+Incorporeality; 4. That God was revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai, and that
+the prophecy of Moses is true; 5. Revelation (including the historical
+parts of the Torah); 6. Reward and Punishment. As to the other articles of
+Maimonides, Viterbo, in opposition to other half-hearted Anti-Maimonists,
+declares that the man who denies them is _not_ to be considered as a
+heretic; though he ought to believe them.(139)
+
+I have now arrived at the limit I set to myself at the beginning of this
+essay. For, between the times of Viterbo and those of Mendelssohn, there
+is hardly to be found any serious opposition to Maimonides worth noticing
+here. Still I must mention the name of R. Saul Berlin (died 1794); there
+is much in his opinions on dogmas which will help us the better to
+understand the Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. As the reader has seen, I
+have refrained so far from reproducing here the apologies which were made
+by many Maimonists in behalf of the Thirteen Articles. For, after all
+their elaborate pleas, none of them was able to clear Maimonides of the
+charge of having confounded dogmas or fundamental teachings with
+doctrines. It is also true that the Fifth Article--that prayer and worship
+must only be offered to God--cannot be considered even as a doctrine, but
+as a simple precept. And there are other difficulties which all the
+distinctions of the Maimonists will never be able to solve. The only
+possible justification is, I think, that suggested by a remark of R. Saul.
+This author, who was himself--like his friend and older contemporary
+Mendelssohn--a strong Anti-Maimonist, among other remarks, maintains that
+dogmas must never be laid down but with regard to the necessities of the
+time.(140)
+
+Now R. Saul certainly did not doubt that Judaism is based on eternal
+truths which can in no way be shaken by new modes of thinking or changed
+circumstances. What he meant was that there are in every age certain
+beliefs which ought to be asserted more emphatically than others, without
+regard to their theological or rather logical importance. It is by this
+maxim that we shall be able to explain the articles of Maimonides. He
+asserted them, because they were necessary for his time.
+
+We know, for instance, from a letter of his son and from other
+contemporaries, that it was just at his time that the belief in the
+incorporeality of God was, in the opinion of Maimonides, a little relaxed.
+Maimonides, who thought such low notions of the Deity dangerous to
+Judaism, therefore laid down an article against them. He tells us in his
+_Guide_ that it was far from him to condemn any one who was not able to
+demonstrate the Incorporeality of God, but he stigmatised as a heretic one
+who refused to believe it. This position might be paralleled by that of a
+modern astronomer who, while considering it unreasonable to expect a
+mathematical demonstration of the movements of the earth from an ordinary
+unscientific man, would yet regard the person who refused to believe in
+such movements as an ignorant faddist.
+
+Again, Maimonides undoubtedly knew that there may be found in the
+Talmud--that bottomless sea with its innumerable undercurrents--passages
+that are not quite in harmony with his articles; for instance, the well-
+known dictum of R. Hillel, who said, there is no Messiah for Israel--a
+passage which has already been quoted _ad nauseam_ by every opponent of
+Maimonides from the earliest times down to the year of grace 1896.
+Maimonides was well aware of the existence of this and similar passages.
+But, being deeply convinced of the necessity of the belief in a future
+redemption of _Israel_--in opposition to other creeds which claim this
+redemption exclusively for their own adherents--Maimonides simply ignored
+the saying of R. Hillel, as an isolated opinion which contradicts all the
+consciousness and traditions of the Jew as expressed in thousands of other
+passages, and especially in the liturgy. Most interesting is Maimonides'
+view about such isolated opinions in a letter to the wise men of
+Marseilles. He deals there with the question of free will and other
+theological subjects. After having stated his own view he goes on to say:
+"I know that it is possible to find in the Talmud or in the Midrash this
+or that saying in contradiction to the views you have heard from me. But
+you must not be troubled by them. One must not refuse to accept a
+doctrine, the truth of which has been proved, on account of its being in
+opposition to some isolated opinion held by this or that great authority.
+Is it not possible that he overlooked some important considerations when
+he uttered this strange opinion? It is also possible that his words must
+not be taken literally, and have to be explained in an allegorical way. We
+can also think that his words were only to be applied with regard to
+certain circumstances of his time, but never intended as permanent
+truths.... No man must surrender his private judgment. The eyes are not
+directed backwards but forwards." In another place Maimonides calls the
+suppression of one's own opinions--for the reason of their being
+irreconcilable with the isolated views of some great authority--a moral
+suicide.
+
+By such motives Maimonides was guided when he left certain views hazarded
+in the Rabbinic literature unheeded, and followed what we may perhaps call
+the religious instinct, trusting to his own conscience. We may again be
+certain that Maimonides was clear-headed enough to see that the words of
+the Torah: "And there arose no prophet since in Israel like unto Moses"
+(Deut. xxxiv. 10), were as little intended to imply a doctrine as the
+passage relating to the king Josiah, "And like unto him was there no king
+before him that turned to the Lord with all his heart ... neither after
+him arose there any like him" (2 Kings xxiii. 25). And none would think of
+declaring the man a heretic who should believe another king to be as pious
+as Josiah. But living among followers of the "imitating creeds" (as he
+calls Christianity and Mohammedism), who claimed that their religion had
+superseded the law of Moses, Maimonides, consciously or unconsciously,
+felt himself compelled to assert the superiority of the prophecy of Moses.
+And so we may guess that every article of Maimonides which seems to offer
+difficulties to us contains an assertion of some relaxed belief, or a
+protest against the pretensions of other creeds, though we are not always
+able to discover the exact necessity for them. On the other hand,
+Maimonides did not assert the belief in free will, for which he argued so
+earnestly in his _Guide_. The common "man," with his simple unspeculative
+mind, for whom these Thirteen Articles were intended, "never dreamed that
+the will was not free," and there was no necessity of impressing on his
+mind things which he had never doubted.(141)
+
+So much about Maimonides. As to the Anti-Maimonists, it could hardly
+escape the reader that in some of the quoted systems the difference from
+the view of Maimonides is only a logical one, not a theological. Of some
+authors again, especially those of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries, it is not at all certain whether they intended to oppose
+Maimonides. Others again, as for instance R. Abba Mari, R. Lipman, and R.
+Joseph Jabez, acted on the same principle as Maimonides, urging only those
+teachings of Judaism which they thought endangered. One could now, indeed,
+animated by the praiseworthy example given to us by Maimonides, also
+propose some articles of faith which are suggested to us by the
+necessities of our own time. One might, for instance, insert the article,
+"I believe that Judaism is, in the first instance, a divine religion,
+_not_ a mere complex of racial peculiarities and tribal customs." One
+might again propose an article to the effect that Judaism is a
+proselytising religion, having the mission to bring about God's kingdom on
+earth, and to include in that kingdom all mankind. One might also submit
+for consideration whether it would not be advisable to urge a little more
+the principle that religion means chiefly a _Weltanschauung_ and worship
+of God by means of holiness both in thought and in action. One would even
+not object to accept the article laid down by R. Saul, that we have to
+look upon ourselves as sinners. Morbid as such a belief may be, it would,
+if properly impressed on our mind, have perhaps the wholesome effect of
+cooling down a little our self-importance and our mutual admiration that
+makes all progress among us almost impossible.
+
+But it was not my purpose to ventilate here the question whether
+Maimonides' articles are sufficient for us, or whether we ought not to add
+new ones to them. Nor do I attempt to decide what system we ought to
+prefer for recitation in the Synagogue--that of Maimonides or that of
+Chasdai, or of any other writer. I do not think that such a recital is of
+much use. My object in this sketch has been rather to make the reader
+_think_ about Judaism, by proving that it regulates not only our actions,
+but also our thoughts. We usually urge that in Judaism religion means
+life; but we forget that a life without guiding principles and thoughts is
+a life not worth living. At least it was so considered by the greatest
+Jewish thinkers, and hence their efforts to formulate the creed of
+Judaism, so that men should not only be able to do the right thing, but
+also to think the right thing. Whether they succeeded in their attempts
+towards formulating the creed of Judaism or not will always remain a
+question. This concerns the logician more than the theologian. But surely
+Maimonides and his successors _did_ succeed in having a religion depending
+directly on God, with the most ideal and lofty aspirations for the future;
+whilst the Judaism of a great part of our modern theologians reminds one
+very much of the words with which the author of _Marius the Epicurean_
+characterises the Roman religion in the days of her decline: a religion
+which had been always something to be done rather than something to be
+thought, or believed, or loved.
+
+Political economy, hygiene, statistics, are very fine things. But no sane
+man would for them make those sacrifices which Judaism requires from us.
+It is only for God's sake, to fulfil His commands and to accomplish His
+purpose, that religion becomes worth living and dying for. And this can
+only be possible with a religion which possesses dogmas.
+
+It is true that every great religion is "a concentration of many ideas and
+ideals," which make this religion able to adapt itself to various modes of
+thinking and living. But there must always be a point round which all
+these ideas concentrate themselves. This centre is Dogma.
+
+
+
+
+
+VII. THE HISTORY OF JEWISH TRADITION
+
+
+There is an anecdote about a famous theologian to the effect that he used
+to tell his pupils, "Should I ever grow old and weak--which usually drives
+people to embrace the safer side--and alter my opinions, then pray do not
+believe me." The concluding volume of Weiss's _History of Jewish
+Tradition_(142) shows that there was no need for our author to warn his
+pupils against the dangers accompanying old age. For though Weiss had,
+when he began to write this last volume, already exceeded his three-score
+and ten, and, as we read in the preface, had some misgivings as to whether
+he should continue his work, there is no trace in it of any abatement of
+the great powers of the author. It is marked by the same freshness in
+diction, the same marvellous scholarship, the same display of astonishing
+critical powers, and the same impartial and straightforward way of judging
+persons and things, for which the preceding volumes were so much
+distinguished and admired.
+
+This book, which is recognised as a standard work abroad, is, I fear,
+owing to the fact of its being written in the Hebrew language, not
+sufficiently known in this country. Weiss does not want _our_ recognition;
+we are rather in need of his instruction. Some general view of his
+estimate of Jewish Tradition may, therefore, be of service to the student.
+It is, indeed, the only work of its kind. Zunz has confined himself to the
+history of the Agadah. Graetz gave most of his attention to the political
+side of Jewish history. But comparatively little has been done for the
+Halachah, though Frankel, Geiger, Herzfeld, and others have treated some
+single points in various monographs. Thus it was left for Weiss to write
+the _History of Tradition_, which includes both the Agadah and the
+Halachah. The treatment of this latter must have proved, in consequence of
+the intricate and intractable nature of its materials, by far the more
+difficult portion of his task.
+
+In speaking of the _History_ of Tradition, a term which suggests the
+fluctuating character of a thing, its origin, development, progress, and
+retrogression, we have already indicated that Weiss does not consider even
+the Halachah as having come down from heaven, ready-made, and definitely
+fixed for all time. To define it more clearly, Tradition is, apart from
+the few ordinances and certain usages for which there is no precedent in
+the Bible, the history of interpretation of the Scriptures, which was
+constantly liable to variation, not on grounds of philology, but through
+the subjective notions of successive generations regarding religion and
+the method and scope of its application.
+
+Weiss's standpoint with reference to the Pentateuch is the conservative
+one, maintaining both its unity and its Mosaic authorship. Those passages
+and accounts in the Bible in which the modern critic discerns traces of
+different traditional sources, are for Weiss only indicative of the
+various stages of interpretation through which the Pentateuch had to pass.
+The earliest stage was a very crude one, as may be seen from the case of
+Jephthah's vow, for which only a misinterpretation of certain passages in
+the Pentateuch (Gen. xxii. 2; Num. xxv. 4) could be made responsible. Nor
+was Jephthah, who felt himself bound to carry out his vow, acquainted with
+the provision for dissolving vows(143) that was sufficiently familiar to
+later ages. When, on the other hand, Jeremiah declared sacrifices to be
+altogether superfluous, and said that God did not command Israel, when he
+brought them from the land of Egypt, concerning burnt offerings or
+sacrifices (vii. 22), he was not in contradiction with Leviticus, but
+interpreted the laws contained in this book as a concession to popular
+custom, though not desirable on their own account. This concession,
+whenever it was of a harmless nature, the prophets carried so far as to
+permit altars outside the Tabernacle or Temple, though this was against
+the plain sense of Deuteronomy. Elijah even bewailed their destruction (1
+Kings xix. 10). He and other prophets probably interpreted the law in
+question as directed against the construction and maintenance of several
+chief sanctuaries, but not against sacrificing in different places on
+minor occasions. This is evidently a free interpretation, or rather
+application, of the Law. Occasionally the conception as to when and how a
+law should be applied took a completely negative form. In this manner is
+to be explained the action of Solomon in suspending the Fast of the Day of
+Atonement before the festival he was going to celebrate in honour of the
+consecration of the Temple (1 Kings viii. 65), the king being convinced
+that on this unique occasion the latter was of more religious importance
+than the former. Weiss thinks that the later custom of holding public
+dances in the vineyards on the 10th of Tishri might have had its origin in
+this solemn, but also joyful, festival. Ezekiel, again, though alluding
+more frequently than any other prophet to the laws in the Pentateuch, is
+exceedingly bold in his interpretation of them, as, for instance, when he
+says that _priests_ shall not eat anything that is dead or torn (xliv.
+31), which shows that he took the verses in Exod. xxii. 30, and Deut. xiv.
+20, to have been meant only as a good advice to the laymen to refrain from
+eating these unclean things, but not as having for them the force of a
+real commandment.
+
+Starting from this proposition, that there existed always some sort of
+interpretation running side by side with the recognised Scriptures, which
+from the very looseness of its connection with the letter of the Scripture
+could claim to be considered a thing independent in itself, and might
+therefore be regarded as the _Oral Law_, in contradistinction to the
+_Written Law_, the author passes to the age of the Second Temple, the
+period to which the rest of the first volume is devoted. In these pages
+Weiss reviews the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, the ordinances of the Men
+of the Great Synagogue, the institutions of the Scribes, the Lives of the
+so-called Pairs,(144) the characteristics of the three sects, the
+Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes, and the differences between the schools
+of Shammai and Hillel. To each of these subjects Weiss gives his fullest
+attention, and his discussions of them would form perfect monographs in
+themselves. To reproduce all the interesting matter would mean to
+translate the whole of this portion of his work into English. I shall only
+draw attention to one or two points.
+
+First, this liberal interpretation was active during the whole period
+referred to. Otherwise no authority could have abolished the _lex
+talionis_, or have permitted war on Sabbath, or made the condition that no
+crime should be punished without a preceding warning (which was chiefly
+owing to the aversion of the Rabbis to the infliction of capital
+punishment), or have sanctioned the sacrificing of the Passover when the
+14th of Nisan fell on Sabbath. Indeed Shemaiah and Abtalyon, in whose name
+Hillel communicated this last law, were called the Great
+Interpreters.(145)
+
+Secondly, as to the so-called _laws given to Moses on Sinai_.(146) Much
+has been said about these. The distinction claimed for them by some
+scholars, viz. that they were never contested, is not tenable, considering
+that there prevailed much difference of opinion about some of them. Nor is
+the theory that they were ancient religious usages, dating from time
+immemorial, entirely satisfactory. For though the fact may be true in
+itself, this could not have justified the Rabbis in calling them all
+Sinaitic laws, especially when they were aware that not a few of them were
+contested by certain of their colleagues, a thing that would have been
+quite impossible if they had a genuine claim to Mosaic authority. But if
+we understand Weiss rightly these laws are only to be considered as a
+specimen of the whole of the Oral Law, which was believed to emanate, both
+in its institutional and in its expository part, from the same authority.
+The conviction was firmly held that everything wise and good, be it
+ethical or ceremonial in its character, whose effect would be to
+strengthen the cause of religion, was at least potentially contained in
+the Torah, and that it only required an earnest religious mind to find it
+there. Hence the famous adage that "everything which any student will
+teach at any future time was already communicated to Moses on Mount
+Sinai"; or the injunction that any acceptable truth, even if discovered by
+an insignificant man in Israel, should be considered as having the
+authority of a great sage or prophet, or even of Moses himself. The
+principle was that the words of the Torah are "fruitful and multiply."
+
+It will probably be said that the laws of clean and unclean, and such
+like, have proved rather too prolific; but if we read Weiss carefully, we
+shall be reminded that it was by the same process of propagation that the
+Rabbis developed from Deut. xxii. 8, a whole code of sanitary and police-
+laws which could even now be studied with profit; from the few scanty
+civil laws in Exod. xxi., a whole _corpus juris_, which might well excite
+the interest and the admiration of any lawyer; and from the words "And
+thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children," a complete school-
+system on the one hand, and on the other the _resume_ of a liturgy that
+appears to have sufficed for the spiritual needs of more than fifty
+generations of Israelites.
+
+Before we pass to the age of the Tannaim,(147) the subject of Weiss's
+second volume, we must take account of two important events which have
+greatly influenced the further development of Tradition. I refer to the
+destruction of the Temple and the rise of Christianity. With the former
+event Judaism ceased to be a political commonwealth, and if "the nation
+was already in the times of Ezra converted into a church,"--an assertion,
+by the way, which has not the least basis in fact,--it became the more so
+after it had lost the last remains of its independence. But it was a
+church without priests, or, since such a thing, as far as history teaches
+us, has never existed, let us rather call it a Synagogue.
+
+From this fact diverse results flowed. A Synagogue can exist not only
+without priests, but also without sacrifices, for which prayer and charity
+were a sufficient substitute. With the progress of time also many
+agricultural laws, as well as others relating to sacerdotal purity,
+gradually became obsolete, though they lingered on for some generations,
+and, as a venerable reminiscence of a glorious time, entered largely into
+Jewish literature. This disappearance of so many laws and the weakening of
+the national element, however, required, if Judaism was to continue to
+exist, the strengthening of religion from another side. The first thing
+needed was the creation of a new religious centre which would not only
+replace the Temple to a certain degree, but also bring about a greater
+solidarity of views, such as would render impossible the ancient
+differences that divided the schools of Hillel and Shammai. The creator of
+this centre was R. Johanan ben Zaccai, who founded the school of Jamnia,
+and invested it with the same authority and importance as the Sanhedrin
+had enjoyed during Temple times. The consciousness that they were standing
+before a new starting-point in history, with a large religious inheritance
+from the past, actuated them not only to collect the old traditional laws
+and to take stock of their religious institutions, but also to give them
+more definite shape and greater stability. As many of these traditions
+were by no means undisputed, the best thing was to bring them under one or
+other heading of the Scriptures. This desire gave the impulse to the
+famous hermeneutic schools of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael.
+
+The next cause that contributed to give a more determinate expression to
+the Law was the rise of Christianity. This is not the place to give an
+account of the views which the Rabbis entertained of Christianity. Suffice
+it to say they could not see in the destruction of the Law its fulfilment.
+They also thought that under certain conditions it is not only the letter
+that killeth, but also the spirit, or rather that the spirit may sometimes
+be clothed in a letter, which, in its turn, will slay more victims than
+the letter against which the loudest denunciations have been levelled.
+Spirit without letter, let theologians say what they will, is a mere
+phantasm. However, the new sect made claims to the gift of prophecy,
+which, as they thought, placed them above the Law. It would seem that this
+was a time of special excitement. The student of the Talmud finds that
+such marvels as predicting the future, reviving the dead, casting out
+demons, crossing rivers dry-shod, curing the sick by a touch or prayer,
+were the order of the day, and performed by scores of Rabbis. Voices from
+heaven were often heard, and strange visions were frequently beheld.
+Napoleon I. is said to have forbidden the holy coat of Treves to work
+miracles. The Jewish legislature, however, had no means of preventing
+these supernatural workings; but when the Rabbis saw their dangerous
+consequences, they insisted that miracles should have no influence on the
+interpretation and development of the Law. Hence the saying with regard to
+Lev. xxvii. 34, that no prophet is authorised to add a new law. And when
+R. Eliezer b. Hyrkanos (about 120 A.C.) thought to prove the justice of
+his case by the intervention of miracles, the majority answered that the
+fact of this or that variation, effected at his bidding, in the
+established order of nature, proved nothing for the soundness of his
+argument. Nay, they even ignored the _Bath-Kol_(148) (the celestial
+voice), which declared itself in favour of R. Eliezer, maintaining that
+the Torah having once been given to mankind, it is only the opinion of the
+majority that should decide on its interpretation and application. Very
+characteristic is the legend connected with this fact. When one of the
+Rabbis afterwards met Elijah and asked him what they thought in heaven of
+the audacity of his colleagues, the prophet answered, "God rejoiced and
+said, my children have conquered me."
+
+Into such discredit did miracles fall at that period, whilst the opinion
+of the interpreting body, or the Sanhedrin, became more powerful than
+ever. These were merely dogmatical consequences. But new laws were enacted
+and old ones revived, with the object of resisting Christian influences
+over the Jews. To expand the Oral Law, and give it a firm basis in the
+Scriptures, were considered the best means of preserving Judaism intact.
+"Moses desired," an old legend narrates, "that the Mishnah also (that is
+Tradition) should be written down;" but foreseeing the time when the
+nations of the world would translate the Torah into Greek, and would
+assert their title to rank as the Children of God, the Lord refused to
+permit tradition to be recorded otherwise than by word of mouth. The claim
+of the Gentiles might then be refuted by asking them whether they were
+also in possession of "the Mystery." The Rabbis therefore concentrated
+their attention upon "the Mystery," and this contributed largely towards
+making the expository methods of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael, to which I have
+above referred, the main object of their study in the schools.
+
+It would, however, be a mistake to think that the Sanhedrin now spent
+their powers in "enforcing retrograde measures and creating a strange
+exegesis." I especially advise the student to read carefully that
+admirable chapter (VII., of Vol. II.) in which Weiss classifies all the
+Ordinances, "Fences," Decrees, and Institutions, dating both from this and
+from earlier ages, under ten headings, and also shows their underlying
+principles. The main object was to preserve the Jewish religion by
+strengthening the principle of Jewish nationality, and to preserve the
+nationality by the aid of religion. But sometimes the Rabbis also
+considered it necessary to preserve religion against itself, so to speak,
+or, as they expressed it, "When there is time to work for the Lord, they
+make void thy Torah." This authorised the _Beth Din_(149) to act in
+certain cases against the letter of the Torah. "The welfare of the World"
+was another great consideration. By "World" they understood both the
+religious and the secular world. From a regard to the former resulted such
+"Fences" and Ordinances as were directed against "the transgressors," as
+well as the general injunction to "keep aloof from what is morally
+unseemly, and from whatever bears any likeness thereto." In the interests
+of the latter--the welfare of the secular world--they enacted such laws as
+either tended to elevate the position of women, or to promote the peace
+and welfare of members of their own community, or to improve the relations
+between Jews and their Gentile neighbours. They also held the great
+principle that nothing is so injurious to the cause of religion as
+increasing the number of sinners by needless severity. Hence the
+introduction of many laws "for the benefit of penitents," and the maxim
+not to issue any decree which may prove too heavy a burden to the majority
+of the community. The relaxation of certain traditional laws was also
+permitted when they involved a serious loss of property, or the sacrifice
+of a man's dignity. Some old decrees were even permitted to fall into
+oblivion when public opinion was too strong against them, the Rabbis
+holding that it was often better for Israelites to be unconscious sinners
+than wilful transgressors. The _Minhag_, or religious custom, also played
+an important part, it being assumed that it must have been first
+introduced by some eminent authority; but, if there was reason to believe
+that the custom owed its origin to some fancy of the populace, and that it
+had a pernicious effect on the multitude, no compunction was felt in
+abolishing it.
+
+Very important it is to note that the Oral Law had not at this period
+assumed a character of such rigidity that all its ordinances, etc., had to
+be looked upon as irremovable for all times. With those who think
+otherwise, a favourite quotation is the administratory measure laid dawn
+in Tractate _Evidences_,(150) I. 5, where we read that no _Beth Din_ has
+the right of annulling the dicta of another _Beth Din_, unless it is
+stronger in numbers (having a larger majority) and greater in wisdom than
+its fellow tribunal. Confess with becoming modesty that the world is
+always going downhill, decreasing both in numbers and in wisdom, and the
+result follows that any decision by the earlier Rabbis is fixed law for
+all eternity. Weiss refutes such an idea not only as inconsistent with the
+nature of Tradition, but also as contradictory to the facts. He proves by
+numerous instances that the Rabbis did abolish ordinances and decrees
+introduced by preceding authorities, and that the whole conception is
+based on a misunderstanding. For the rule in question, as Weiss clearly
+points out, originally only meant that a _Beth Din_ has no right to undo
+the decrees of another _contemporary Beth Din_, unless it was justified in
+doing so by the weight of its greater authority. This was necessary if a
+central authority was to exist at all. Weiss is indeed of opinion that the
+whole passage is a later interpolation from the age of R. Simeon b.
+Gamaliel II., when certain Rabbis tried to emancipate themselves from the
+authority of the Patriarch. But it was not meant that the decision of a
+_Beth Din_ should have perpetual binding power for all posterity. This was
+left to the discretion of the legislature of each generation, who had to
+examine whether the original cause for maintaining such decision still
+existed.
+
+The rest of this volume is for the greater part taken up with complete
+monographs of the Patriarchs and the heads of the schools of that age,
+whilst the concluding chapters give us the history of the literature, the
+Midrash, Mechilta, Siphra, Siphre, Mishnah, etc., which contain both the
+Halachic and the Agadic sayings emanating from these authorities.
+
+With regard to these Patriarchs, I should like only to remark that Weiss
+defends them against the charge made by Schorr and others, who accuse them
+of having assumed too much authority on account of their noble descent,
+and who describe their opponents as the true friends of the people. Weiss
+is no lover of such specious phrases. The qualifications required for the
+leadership of the people were a right instinct for the necessities of
+their time, a fair amount of secular knowledge, and, what is of chief
+importance, an unbounded love and devotion to those over whose interests
+they were called to watch. These distinctions, as Weiss proves, the
+descendants of Hillel possessed in the highest degree. It is true that
+occasionally, as for instance in the famous controversy of R. Gamaliel II.
+with R. Joshua b. Hananiah, or that of R. Simeon b. Gamaliel II. with R.
+Nathan and R. Meir, they made their authority too heavily felt;(151) but
+this was again another necessity of those troubled times, when only real
+unity could save Israel.
+
+However, Weiss is no partisan, and the love he lavishes on his favourite
+heroes does not exhaust his resources of sympathy and appreciation for
+members of the other schools. Weiss is no apologist either, and does not
+make the slightest attempt towards explaining away even the defects of R.
+Akiba in his somewhat arbitrary method of interpretation, which our author
+thinks much inferior to the expository rules of R. Ishmael; but this does
+not prevent him from admiring his excellences.
+
+Altogether it would seem that Weiss thinks R. Akiba more happy in his
+quality as a great saint than in that of a great exegete. What is most
+admirable is the instinct with which Weiss understands how to emphasise
+the right thing in its right place. As an indication of the literary
+honesty and marvellous industry of our author, I would draw attention to
+the fact that the sketch of R. Akiba and his school alone is based on more
+than two thousand quotations scattered over the whole area of the Rabbinic
+literature; but he points in a special note to a sentence attributed to R.
+Akiba, which presents the whole man and his generation in a single stroke.
+I refer to that passage in Tractate _Joys_,(152) in which R. Akiba speaks
+of the four types of sufferers. He draws the comparison of a king
+chastising his children; the first son maintains stubborn silence, the
+second simply rebels, the third supplicates for mercy, and the fourth (the
+best of sons) says: "Father, proceed with thy chastisement, as David said,
+Wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity and cleanse me from my sin" (Ps. li.
+4). This absolute submission to the will of God, which perceives in
+suffering only an expression of His fatherly love and mercy, was the ideal
+of R. Akiba.
+
+The great literary production of this period was the Mishnah, which,
+through the high authority of its compiler, R. Judah the Patriarch, his
+saintliness and popularity, soon superseded all the collections of a
+similar kind, and became the official text-book of the Oral Law. But a
+text requires interpretation, whilst other collections also demanded some
+attention. This brings us to the two _Talmuds_, namely, the Talmud of
+Jerusalem and the Talmud of Babylon, the origin and history of which form
+the subject of Weiss's third volume.
+
+Here again the first chapters are more of a preliminary character, giving
+the student some insight into the labyrinth of the Talmud. The two
+chapters entitled "The instruments employed in erecting the great
+Edifice," and the "Workmanship displayed by the Builders," give evidence
+of almost unrivalled familiarity with the Rabbinical literature, and of
+critical powers of the rarest kind. Now these instruments were by no means
+new, for, as Weiss shows, the Amoraim employed in interpreting the Mishnah
+the same explanatory rules that are known to us from the School of R.
+Ishmael as "the Thirteen Rules by which the Torah is explained," though
+they appear in the Talmud under other names, and are in reality only a
+species of Midrash. Besides this there comes another element into play. It
+was the exaggerated awe of all earlier authorities that endeavoured to
+reconcile the most contradictory statements by means of a subtle dialectic
+for which the schools in Babylon were especially famous. There were
+certainly many opponents of this system, and from the monographs which
+Weiss gives on the various heads of the western and eastern schools we see
+that not all followed this method, and some among them even condemned it
+in the strongest words. However, it cannot be denied that there is a
+strong scholastic feature in the Talmud, which is very far from what we
+should look for in a trustworthy exegesis. Thus we must not always expect
+to find in the Talmud the true meaning of the sayings of their
+predecessors, and it is certain that a more scientific method in many
+cases has led to results the very opposite of those at which the later
+Rabbis have arrived. This fact was already recognised in the sixteenth
+century, though only in part, by R. Yom-Tob Heller and others. Only he
+insisted that in this matter a line must be drawn between theory and
+practice. But Weiss gives irrefragable proofs that even this line was
+often overstepped by the greatest authorities, though they remained always
+within the limits of Tradition. Indeed, as Weiss points out, not every
+saying to be found in the Talmud is to be looked upon as representing
+Tradition; for there is much in it which only gives the individual opinion
+or is merely an interpolation of later hands; nor does the Talmud contain
+the _whole_ of Tradition, this latter proceeding and advancing with the
+time, and corresponding to its conditions and notions. As we read Weiss,
+the conviction is borne in upon us that there was a Talmud before, and
+another after _The Talmud_.
+
+Much space in this volume is given to the Agadah and the so-called
+"Teachers of the Agadah." Weiss makes no attempt at apology for that which
+seems to us strange, or even repugnant in this part of the Rabbinic
+literature. The greatest fault to be found with those who wrote down such
+passages as appear objectionable to us is, perhaps, that they did not
+observe the wise rule of Johnson, who said to Boswell on a certain
+occasion, "Let us get serious, for there comes a fool." And the fools
+unfortunately did come in the shape of certain Jewish commentators and
+Christian controversialists, who took as serious things which were only
+the expression of a momentary impulse, or represented the opinion of some
+isolated individual, or were meant simply as a piece of humorous by-play,
+calculated to enliven the interest of a languid audience. But on the other
+hand, as Weiss proves, the Agadah contains also many elements of real
+edification and eternal truths as well as abundant material for building
+up the edifice of dogmatic Judaism. Talmudical quotations of such a nature
+are scattered by thousands over Weiss's work, particularly in those
+chapters in which he describes the lives of the greatest Rabbinical
+heroes. But the author lays the student under special obligations by
+putting together in the concluding pages of this volume some of these
+sentences, and classifying them under various headings. I give here a few
+extracts. For the references to authorities I must direct the reader to
+the original:--
+
+"The unity of God is the keystone of dogmatic Judaism. The Rabbis give
+Israel the credit of having proclaimed to the world the unity of God. They
+also say that Israel took an oath never to change Him for another God.
+This only God is eternal, incorporeal, and immutable. And though the
+prophets saw Him in different aspects, He warned them that they must not
+infer from the visions vouchsafed to them that there are different Gods.
+'I am the first,' He tells them, which implies that he had no father, and
+the words, 'There is no God besides me,' mean that he has no son. Now,
+this God, the God of Israel, is holy in every thinkable way of holiness.
+He is merciful and gracious, as it is said, 'And I will be gracious to
+whom I will be gracious,' even though he who is the recipient of God's
+grace has no merit of his own. 'And I will show mercy to whom I will show
+mercy,' that is, even to those who do not deserve it. His attributes are
+righteousness, loving-kindness, and truth. God speaks words of eternal
+truth, even as He himself is the eternal life. All that the Merciful One
+does is only for good, and even in the time of His anger He remembers His
+graciousness, and often suppresses His attribute of judgment before His
+attribute of mercy. But with the righteous God is more severe than with
+the rest of the world, and when His hand falls in chastening on His saints
+His name becomes awful, revered, and exalted. This God of Israel, again,
+extends His providence over all mankind, and especially over Israel. By
+His eye everything is foreseen, yet freedom of choice is given, and the
+world is judged by grace, yet all according to the works wrought. Hence,
+know what is above thee, a seeing eye and a hearing ear, and that all thy
+deeds are written in a book.
+
+"They [the Rabbis] believed that God created the world out of nothing,
+without toil and without weariness. This world was created by the
+combination of His two attributes, mercy and justice. He rejoices in His
+creation, and if the Maker praises it, who dares to blame it? And if He
+exults in it, who shall find a blemish in it? Nay, it is a glorious and a
+beautiful world. It is created for man, and its other denizens were all
+meant but to serve him. Though all mankind are formed after the type of
+Adam, no one is like his fellow-man (each one having an individuality of
+his own). Thus he is able to say, 'For my sake, also, was the world
+created'; and with this thought his responsibilities increase. But the
+greatest love shown to man is that he was created in the image of God. Man
+is a being possessed of free will, and, though everything is given on
+pledge, whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow. Everything is in
+the gift of Heaven except the fear of God. In man's heart abide both the
+evil inclination and the good inclination; and the words of Scripture,
+'Thou shalt not bow down before a strange god,' point to the strange god
+who is within man himself, who entices him to sin in this world, and gives
+evidence against him in the next. But the Holy One--blessed be He!--said, 'I
+have created the evil inclination, but I have also created its antidote,
+the Torah.' And when man is occupied with the Torah and in works of
+charity, he becomes the master of the evil inclination; otherwise, he is
+its slave. When man reflects the image of God, he is the lord of creation,
+and is feared by all creatures; but this image is defaced by sin, and then
+he has no power over the universe, and is in fear of all things.
+
+"Another principle of Judaism is the belief in reward and punishment. 'I
+am the Lord, your God,' means, 'it is I who am prepared to recompense you
+for your good actions, and to bring retribution upon you for your evil
+deeds.' God does not allow to pass unrewarded even the merit of a kind and
+considerate word. By the same measure which man metes out, it shall be
+meted out to him. Because thou drownedst others, they have drowned thee,
+and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves be drowned. Though
+it is not in our power to explain either the prosperity of the wicked or
+the affliction of the righteous, nevertheless know before whom thou
+toilest, and who thy employer is, who will pay thee the reward of thy
+labour. Here at thy door is a poor man standing, and at his right hand
+standeth God. If thou grantest his request, be certain of thy reward; but
+if thou refusest, think of him who is by the side of the poor, and will
+avenge it on thee. 'God seeketh the persecuted' to defend him, even though
+it be the wicked who is persecuted by the righteous. The soul of man is
+immortal, the souls of the righteous being treasured up under the throne
+of God. Know that everything is according to the reckoning, and let not
+thy imagination give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge
+for thee, for perforce thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and
+thou livest perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt
+in the future have to give account and reckoning before the Supreme King
+of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.
+
+"The advent of the Messiah is another article of the belief of the Rabbis.
+But if a man tell thee that he knows when the redemption of Israel will
+take place, believe him not, for this is one of the unrevealed secrets of
+the Almighty. The mission of Elijah is to bring peace into the world,
+while the Messiah, in whose days Israel will regain his national
+independence, will lead the whole world in repentance to God. On this, it
+is believed, will follow the resurrection of the dead.
+
+"Another main principle in the belief of the Rabbis is the election of
+Israel, which imposes on them special duties, and gives them a peculiar
+mission. Beloved are Israel, for they are called the children of God, and
+His firstborn. 'They shall endure for ever' through the merit of their
+fathers. There is an especial covenant established between God and the
+tribes of Israel. God is their father, and He said to them, My children,
+even as I have no contact with the profanity of the world, so also
+withdraw yourselves from it. And as I am holy, be ye also holy. Nay,
+sanctify thyself by refraining even from that which is not forbidden thee.
+There is no holiness without chastity.
+
+"The main duty of Israel is to sanctify the name of God, for the Torah was
+only given that His great name might be glorified. Better is it that a
+single letter of the law be cast out than that the name of Heaven be
+profaned. And this also is the mission of Israel in this world: to
+sanctify the name of God, as it is written, 'This people have I formed for
+myself, that they may show forth my praise.' Or, 'And thou shalt love the
+Lord thy God,' which means, Thou shalt make God beloved by all creatures,
+even as Abraham did. Israel is the light of the world; as it is said, 'And
+nations shall walk by thy light.' But he who profanes the name of Heaven
+in secret will suffer the penalty thereof in public; and this whether the
+Heavenly Name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness.
+
+"Another duty towards God is to love Him and to fear Him. God's only
+representative on earth is the God-fearing man. Woe unto those who are
+occupied in the study of the Torah, but who have no fear of God. But a
+still higher duty it is to perform the commandments of God from love. For
+greater is he who submits to the will of God from love than he who does so
+from fear.
+
+"Now, how shall man love God? This is answered in the words of Scripture,
+'And these words shall be upon thy heart.' For by them thou wilt recognise
+Him whose word called the world into existence, and follow His divine
+attributes.
+
+"God is righteous; be ye also righteous, O Israel. By righteousness the
+Rabbis understand love of truth, hatred of lying and backbiting. The seal
+of the Holy One, blessed be He, is Truth, of which the actions of man
+should also bear the impress. Hence, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay, nay.
+He who is honest in money transactions, unto him this is reckoned as if he
+had fulfilled the whole of the Torah. Greater is he who earns his
+livelihood by the labour of his hands than even the God-fearing man;
+whilst the righteous judge is, as it were, the companion of God in the
+government of the world. For upon three things the world stands: upon
+truth, upon judgment, upon peace; as it is said, 'Judge ye the truth and
+the judgment of peace in your gates.' But he who breaks his word, his sin
+is as great as if he worshipped idols; and God, who punished the people of
+the time of the Flood, will also punish him who does not stand by his
+word. Such a one belongs to one of the four classes who are not admitted
+into the presence of the Shechinah; these are the scoffers, the hypocrites
+(who bring the wrath of God into the world), the liars, and the
+slanderers. The sin of the slanderer is like that of one who would deny
+the root (the root of all religion, _i.e._ the existence of God). The
+greatest of liars, however, is he who perjures himself, which also
+involves the sin of profanation of the name of God. The hypocrite, who
+insinuates himself into people's good opinions, who wears his phylacteries
+and is enwrapped in his gown with the fringes, and secretly commits sins,
+equally transgresses the command, 'Thou shalt not take the name of the
+Lord thy God in vain.'
+
+"God is gracious and merciful; therefore man also should be gracious and
+merciful. Hence, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself,' which is a
+main principle in the Torah. What is unpleasant to thyself, do not unto
+thy neighbour. This is the whole Torah, to which the rest is only to be
+considered as a commentary. And this love is also extended to the
+stranger, for as it is said with regard to Israel, 'And thou shalt love
+thy neighbour as thyself,' so is it also said, 'And thou shalt love him
+(the stranger) as thyself.' And thus said God to Israel, 'My beloved
+children, Am I in want of anything that I should request it of you? But
+what I ask of you is that you should love, honour, and respect one
+another.' Therefore, love mankind, and bring them near to the Torah. Let
+the honour of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own. Condemn not thy
+fellow-man until thou art come into his place, and judge all men in the
+scale of merit. Say not 'I will love scholars, but hate their disciples;'
+or even, 'I will love the disciples, but hate the ignorant,' but love all,
+for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer. Indeed, during the
+age of the second Temple, men studied the Torah and the commandments, and
+performed works of charity, but they hated each other, a sin that
+outweighs all other sins, and for which the holy Temple was destroyed. Be
+careful not to withdraw thy mercy from any man, for he who does so rebels
+against the kingdom of God on earth. Walk in the ways of God, who is
+merciful even to the wicked, and as He is gracious alike to those who know
+Him, and to those who know Him not, so be thou. Indeed, charity is one of
+the three pillars on which the world is based. It is more precious than
+all other virtues. The man who gives charity in secret is greater even
+than Moses our teacher. An act of charity and love it is to pray for our
+fellow-man, and to admonish him. 'Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy
+neighbour, and not suffer sin upon him' (Lev. xix. 18), means it is thy
+duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be, even if he be thy
+superior; for Jerusalem was only destroyed for the sin of its people in
+not admonishing one another. The man whose protest would be of any weight,
+and who does not exercise his authority (when any wrong is about to be
+committed), is held responsible for the whole world.
+
+"Peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love. Be of the disciples
+of Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace. Let every man be cautious in
+the fear of God; let him ever give the soft answer that turneth away
+wrath; let him promote peace, not only among his own relatives and
+acquaintances, but also among the Gentiles. For (the labour of) all the
+prophets was to plant peace in the world. Be exceeding lowly of spirit,
+since the hope of man is but the worm. Be humble as Hillel, for he who is
+humble causes the Divine presence to dwell with man. But the proud man
+makes God say, 'I and he cannot dwell in the same place.' He who runs
+after glory, glory flees from him, and he who flees from glory, glory
+shall pursue him. Be of those who are despised rather than of those who
+despise; of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors; be of those who
+bear their reproach in silence and answer not.
+
+"Another distinctive mark of Judaism is faith in God, and perfect
+confidence in Him. Which is the right course for a man to choose for
+himself? Let him have a strong faith in God, as it is said, 'Mine eye
+shall be upon the faithful (meaning those possessing faith in God) of the
+land.' And so also Habakkuk based the whole Torah on the principle of
+faith, as it is said, 'And the just shall live by his faith' (ii. 4). He
+who but fulfils a single commandment in absolute faith in God deserves
+that the Holy Spirit should rest on him. Blessed is the man who fears God
+in private, and trusts in Him with all his heart, for such fear and trust
+arms him against every misfortune. He who puts his trust in the Holy One,
+blessed be He, God becomes his shield and protection in this world and in
+the next. He who has bread in his basket for to-day, and says, 'What shall
+I have to eat to-morrow?' is a man of little faith. One consequence of
+real faith is always to believe in the justice of God's judgments. It is
+the duty of man to thank God when he is visited with misfortune as he does
+in the time of prosperity. Therefore, blessed is the man who, when visited
+by suffering, questions not God's justice. But what shall he do? Let him
+examine his conduct and repent.
+
+"For repentance is the greatest prerogative of man. Better is one hour of
+repentance and good deeds in this world than the whole life of the world
+to come. The aim of all wisdom is repentance and good deeds. The place
+where the truly penitent shall stand is higher than that of the righteous.
+Repentance finds its special expression in prayer; and when it is said in
+Scripture, 'Serve God with all thy heart,' by this is meant, serve Him by
+prayer, which is even greater than worship by means of sacrifices. Never
+is a prayer entirely unanswered by God. Therefore, even though the sword
+be on a man's neck, let him not cease to supplicate God's mercy. But
+regard not thy prayer as a fixed mechanical task, but as an appeal for
+mercy and grace before the All-Present; as it is said, 'For He is gracious
+and full of mercy, slow to anger, abounding in loving-kindness, and
+repenteth him of the evil.' "
+
+The last two volumes of Weiss's work deal with the history of Tradition
+during the Middle Ages, that is, from the conclusion of the Talmud to the
+compilation of the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro. I have already
+indicated that with Weiss Tradition did not terminate with the conclusion
+of the Talmud. It only means that a certain undefinable kind of
+literature, mostly held in dialogue form and containing many elements of
+Tradition, was at last brought to an end. The authorities who did this
+editorial work were the so-called _Rabbanan Saburai_(153) and the
+_Gaonim_, whose lives and literary activity are fully described by Weiss.
+But, while thus engaged in preserving their inheritance from the past,
+they were also enriching Tradition by new contributions, both the Saburai
+and the Gaonim having not only added to and diminished from the Talmud,
+but having also introduced avowedly new ordinances and decrees, and
+created new institutions.
+
+Now, it cannot be denied that a few of these ordinances and decrees had a
+reforming tendency (see the second and twentieth chapters of vol. iv.); in
+general, however, they took a more conservative turn than was the case in
+the previous ages. This must be ascribed to the event of the great schism
+within the Rabbinical camp itself. I refer to the rise of Caraism, which
+took place during the first half of the eighth century.
+
+There is probably no work in which the Halachic or legalistic side of this
+sect is better described than in this volume of Weiss. I regret that I am
+unable to enter into its details. But I cannot refrain from pointing to
+one of the main principles of the Caraites. This was "Search the
+Scriptures." Now this does not look very dissimilar from the principle
+held by the Rabbis. For what else is the Talmud, but a thorough searching
+through the Bible for whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances?
+The light which the Caraites applied to the searching of the Scriptures
+was the same which illumined the paths of the Rabbis' investigations. They
+employed most of the expository rules of the Tannaite schools. The fact is
+that they were only determined to find something different from what the
+Rabbis found in the Scriptures. They wanted to have gloomy Sabbaths and
+Festivals, and discovered authority for it in the Bible; they wanted to
+retain most of the dietary laws which had their root only in Tradition,
+but insisted on petty differences which they thought might be inferred
+from the Scriptures, and they created a new "order of inheritance," and
+varied the forbidden degrees in marriage, in all which the only merit was
+that they were in contradiction to the interpretation of the Rabbis. They
+also refused to accept the Liturgy of Rabbinical Judaism, but never
+succeeded in producing more than a patch-work from verses of the Bible,
+which, thus recast, they called a prayer-book. There were undoubtedly
+among their leaders many serious and sincere men, but they give us the
+impression of prigs, as for instance, Moses Darai, when he reproaches the
+Rabbinical Jews for having an "easy religion," or Israel Hammaarabi, when
+he recommended his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering of animals,
+as having the special advantage that his decisions were always on the more
+stringent side. Those who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land were by the
+Caraites canonised as "mourners." The Rabbanite R. Judah Hallevi also
+visited the ruins of Jerusalem, but he did something more than "mourn and
+sigh and cry," he became a God-intoxicated singer, and wrote the "Zion-
+Elegy." The novel terminology which they use in their exegetical and
+theological works, was only invented to spite the Rabbanites, and marks
+its authors as pedants. On the other hand, it is not to be denied that
+their opponents did not employ the best means to conciliate them. The
+Middle Ages knew no other remedy against schism than excommunication, and
+the Gaonim were the children of their time. Nor were the arguments which
+the latter brought forward in defence of Tradition always calculated to
+convince the Caraites of their error. When R. Saadiah, in his apology for
+the institution of the Second Day of the Festival,(154) went the length of
+assigning to it a Sinaitic origin, he could only succeed in making the
+Caraites more suspicious of the claims of Tradition than before. In a
+later generation one of his own party, R. Hai Gaon, had to declare his
+predecessor's words a "controversial exaggeration." The zeal which some of
+the Gaonim showed in their defence of such works as the _Chambers_ and the
+_Measure of the Stature_(155) was a not less unfortunate thing, for it
+involved the Rabbanites in unnecessary responsibilities for a new class of
+literature of doubtful origin, which in succeeding centuries was disowned
+by the best minds in Judaism.
+
+The Gaonic period, to which we also owe the rise of the Massorah and the
+introduction of points in the text of the Bible--of which Weiss treats
+fully in the twenty-third and twenty-fourth chapters of vol. iv.--comes to
+an end with the death of R. Hai. The famous schools of Sura and
+Pumbeditha, over which these two Gaonim presided, fell into decay, and
+Babylon ceased to be the centre of Judaism. To be more exact, we should
+say that Judaism had no longer any real centre. Instead of dwelling in one
+place for centuries, we now have to be perpetually on our journey,
+accompanying our authors through all the inhabited parts of the
+world--France, Italy, Spain, Germany, with an occasional trip to Africa and
+Russia. There we shall meet with the new schools, each of which, though
+interpreting the same Torah, occupied with the study of the same Talmud,
+and even conforming more or less to the same mode of life, has an
+individuality and character of its own, reflecting the thought and habits
+of the country which it represents. Thus "geographical Judaism" becomes a
+factor in history which no scholar can afford to neglect. It is true that
+Judaism never remained entirely unbiassed by foreign ideas, and our author
+points in many a place to Persian, Greek, and Roman influences on
+Tradition; still, these influences seem to have undergone such a thorough
+"Judaization" that it is only the practised eye of the scholar that is
+able to see through the transformation. But it requires no great skill to
+discriminate between the work produced by a Spanish and that of a French
+Rabbi. Though both would write in Hebrew, they betray themselves very soon
+by the style, diction, and train of thought peculiar to each country. The
+Spaniard is always logical, clear, and systematising, whilst the French
+Rabbi has very little sense of order, is always writing occasional notes,
+has a great tendency to be obscure, but is mostly profound and critical.
+Hence the fact that whilst Spain produced the greatest codifiers of the
+law, we owe to France and Germany the best commentaries on the Talmud.
+What these codes and commentaries meant for Judaism the student will find
+in Weiss's book, and still more fully in his admirable essays on Rashi
+(Solomon b. Isaac), Maimonides, and R. Jacob Tam (published in his
+periodical, _Beth Talmud_, and also separately). It is enough for us here
+only to notice the fact of the breadth of Tradition, which could include
+within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics, Maimonides,
+Solomon b. Gabirol, and Abn Ezra on one side, and the simple "non-
+questioning" Rabbenu Gershom, Rashi, and Jacob Tam on the other.
+
+The last three centuries, which occupy our author's attention in the fifth
+volume, are not remarkable for their progress. The world lives on the
+past. The rationalists write treatises on Maimonides' philosophical works,
+whilst the German Talmudists add commentary to commentary. It is, indeed,
+the reign of authority, "modified by accidents." Such an accident was the
+struggle between the Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists, or the rise of the
+Cabbalah, or the frequent controversies with Christians, all of which
+tended to direct the minds of people into new channels of thought. But
+though this period is less original in its work, it is not on that account
+less sympathetic. One cannot read those beautiful descriptions which Weiss
+gives of R. Meir of Rothenburg and his school, or of R. Asher and his
+descendants, without feeling that one is in an atmosphere of saints, who
+are the more attractive the less they were conscious of their own
+saintliness. The only mistake, perhaps, was that the successors of these
+"Chassidim or pious men of Germany" looked on many of the religious
+customs that were merely the voluntary expression of particularly devout
+souls as worthy of imitation by the whole community, and made them
+obligatory upon all.
+
+This brings us to the question of the Code already mentioned (by R. Joseph
+Caro), with which Weiss's work concludes. I have already transgressed the
+limits of an essay, without flattering myself that I have done anything
+like justice to the greatest work on Jewish Tradition which modern Jewish
+genius has produced. But I should not like the reader to carry away with
+him the false impression that our author shares in the general cry, "Save
+us from the Codifiers." Weiss, himself a Rabbi, and the disciple of the
+greatest Rabbis of the first half of this century, is quite aware of the
+impossibility of having a law without a kind of manual to it, which brings
+the fluid matter into some fixed form, classifying it under its proper
+headings, and this is what we call codifying the law. And thus he never
+passes any attempt made in this direction without paying due tribute to
+its author--be it Maimonides or Caro. But however great the literary value
+of a code may be, it does not invest it with the attribute of
+infallibility, nor does it exempt the student or the Rabbi who makes use
+of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and
+subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied
+to Tradition. Indeed, Weiss shows that Maimonides deviated in some cases
+from his own code, when it was required by circumstances.
+
+Nor do I know any modern author who is more in favour of strong authority
+than Weiss. His treatment of the struggle between the Patriarch R.
+Gamaliel and his adversaries, which I have touched on above, proves this
+sufficiently. What Weiss really objects to, is a _weak_ authority--I mean
+that phonograph-like authority which is always busy in reproducing the
+voice of others without an opinion of its own, without originality,
+without initiative and discretion. The real authorities are those who,
+drawing their inspiration from the past, also understand how to reconcile
+us with the present and to prepare us for the future.
+
+
+
+
+
+VIII. THE DOCTRINE OF DIVINE RETRIBUTION IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE
+
+
+"Blessed be he who knows." These are the words with which Nachmanides, in
+his classical treatise, _Gate of Reward_, dismisses a certain theory of
+the Gaonim with regard to this question; after which he proceeds to
+expound another theory, which seems to him more satisfactory. This mode of
+treatment implies that, unsatisfactory as the one or other theory may
+appear to us, it would be presumptuous to reject either entirely, there
+being only One who knows the exact truth about the great mystery. But we
+may indicate our doubt about one doctrine by putting by its side another,
+which we may affirm to be not more absolutely true, but more probable.
+This seems to have been the attitude, too, of the compilers of the ancient
+Rabbinical literature, in which the most conflicting views about this
+grave subject were embodied. Nor did the Synagogue in general feel called
+upon to decide between these views. There is indeed no want of theodicies,
+for almost every important expounder of Job, as well as every Jewish
+philosopher of note, has one with its own system of retribution. Thus
+Judaism has no fixed doctrine on the subject. It refused a hearing to no
+theory, for fear that it should contain some germ of truth, but on the
+same ground it accepted none to the exclusion of the others.
+
+These theories may, perhaps, be conveniently reduced to the two following
+main doctrines that are in direct opposition to each other, whilst all
+other views about the subject will be treated as the more or less logical
+results of the one or other doctrine.
+
+1. There is no death without (preceding) sin, nor affliction without
+(preceding) transgression.(156) This view is cited in the name of R. Ammi,
+who quoted in corroboration the verses Ez. xviii. 20, and Ps. lxxxix. 33.
+Though this Rabbi flourished towards the end of the third century, there
+is hardly any doubt that his view was held by the authorities of a much
+earlier date. For it can only be under the sway of such a notion of
+Retribution that the Tannaim were so anxious to assign some great crime as
+the antecedent to every serious calamity by which mankind was visited. The
+following illustrations will suffice:--"Pestilence comes into the world for
+capital crimes mentioned in the Torah, which are not brought before the
+earthly tribunal.... Noisome beasts come into the world for vain swearing
+and for profanation of the name (of God). Captivity comes upon the world
+for strange worship and incest, and for shedding of blood and for (not)
+giving release to the land." As an example of the misfortune befalling the
+individual I will merely allude to a passage in another tractate of the
+Talmud, according to which leprosy is to be regarded as the penalty for
+immorality, slander, perjury, and similar sins.(157)
+
+If we were now to complement R. Ammi's view by adding that there is no
+happiness without some preceding merit--and there is no serious objection
+to making this addition--then it would resolve itself into the theory of
+Measure for Measure, which forms a very common standard of reward and
+punishment in Jewish literature. Here are a few instances:--"Because the
+Egyptians wanted to destroy Israel by water (Exod. i. 22), they were
+themselves destroyed by the waters of the Red Sea, as it is said,
+Therefore I will _measure_ their former work into their bosom (Is. lxv.
+7);" whilst, on the other hand, we read, "Because Abraham showed himself
+hospitable towards strangers, providing them with water (Gen. xviii. 4),
+God gave to his children a country blessed with plenty of water (Deut.
+viii. 1)." Sometimes this form of retribution goes so far as to define a
+special punishment to that part of the body which mostly contributed to
+the committing of the sin. Thus we read, "Samson rebelled against God by
+his eyes, as it is said, Get her (the Philistine woman) for me, for she
+pleases _my eyes_ (Judg. xvi. 21); therefore his _eyes_ were put out by
+the Philistines (Judg. xviii. 9)"; whilst Absalom, whose sinful pride
+began by his _hair_ (2 Sam. xiv. 25), met his fate by his _hair_ (2 Sam.
+xviii. 9).(158) Nahum of Gemzo himself explained his blindness and the
+maimed condition of his arms and legs as a consequence of a specific
+offence in having neglected the duty of succouring a poor man. Addressing
+the dead body of the suppliant who perished while Nahum was delaying his
+help, he said, "Let my eyes (which had no pity for your pitiful gaze)
+become blind; may my hands and legs (that did not hasten to help thine)
+become maimed, and finally my whole body be covered with boils."(159)
+"This was the hand that wrote it," said Cranmer at the stake; "therefore
+it shall first suffer punishment."
+
+It is worth noticing that this retribution does not always consist in a
+material reward, but, as Ben Azzai expressed it: "The reward of a command
+is a command, and the reward of a transgression is a transgression."(160)
+So again: "Because Abraham showed himself so magnanimous in his treatment
+of the king of Sodom, and said, I will not take from thee a thread;
+therefore, his children enjoyed the privilege of having the command of
+Zizith, consisting in putting a thread or fringe in the border of their
+garments." In another passage we read, "He who is anxious to do acts of
+charity will be rewarded by having the means enabling him to do so."(161)
+In more general terms the same thought is expressed when the Rabbis
+explained the words, Ye shall sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy
+(Lev. xi. 44), to the effect that if man takes the initiative in holiness,
+even though in a small way, Heaven will help him to reach it to a much
+higher degree.(162)
+
+Notwithstanding these passages, to which many more might be added, it
+cannot be denied that there are in the Rabbinical literature many passages
+holding out promises of _material_ reward to the righteous as well as
+threatening the wicked with _material_ punishment. Nor is there any need
+of denying it. Simple-minded men--and such the majority of the Rabbis
+were--will never be persuaded into looking with indifference on pain and
+pleasure; they will be far from thinking that poverty, loss of children,
+and sickness are no evil, and that a rich harvest, hope of posterity, and
+good health, are not desirable things. It _does_ lie in our nature to
+consider the former as curses and the latter as blessings; "and if this be
+wrong there is no one to be made responsible for it but the Creator of
+nature." Accordingly the question must arise, How can a just and
+omnipotent God allow it to happen that men should suffer innocently? The
+most natural suggestion towards solving the difficulty would be that we
+are _not_ innocent. Hence R. Ammi's assertion that affliction and death
+are both the outcome of sin and transgression; or, as R. Chanina ben Dossa
+expressed it, "It is not the wild beast but sin which kills."(163)
+
+We may thus perceive in this theory an attempt "to justify the ways of God
+to man." Unfortunately it does not correspond with the real facts. The cry
+wrung from the prophets against the peace enjoyed by the wicked, and the
+pains inflicted on the righteous, which finds its echo in so many Psalms,
+and reaches its climax in the Book of Job, was by no means silenced in the
+times of the Rabbis. If long experience could be of any use, it only
+served to deepen perplexity. For all this suffering of the people of God,
+and the prosperity of their wicked persecutors, which perplexed the
+prophets and their immediate followers, were repeated during the death-
+struggle for independence against Rome, and were not lessened by the
+establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion. The only comfort
+which time brought them was, perhaps, that the long continuance of
+misfortune made them less sensible to suffering than their ancestors were.
+Indeed, a Rabbi of the first century said that his generation had by
+continuous experience of misery become as insensible to pain as the dead
+body is to a prick of a needle.(164) The anaesthetic effect of long
+suffering may, indeed, help one to endure pain with more patience, but it
+cannot serve as an apology for the deed of the inflictors of the pain. The
+question, then, how to reconcile hard reality with the justice of God,
+remained as difficult as ever.
+
+The most important passage in Rabbinical literature relating to the
+solution of this problem is the following:--With reference to Exod. xxxiii.
+13, R. Johanan said, in the name of R. Jose, that, among other things,
+Moses also asked God to explain to him the method of his Providence, a
+request that was granted to him. He asked God, Why are there righteous
+people who are prosperous, and righteous who suffer; wicked who are
+prosperous and wicked who suffer? The answer given to him was, according
+to the one view, that the prosperity of the wicked and the suffering of
+the righteous are a result of the conduct of their ancestors, the former
+being the descendants of righteous parents and enjoying their merits,
+whilst the latter, coming from a bad stock, suffer for the sins of those
+to whom they owe their existence. This view was suggested by the
+Scriptural words, "Keeping mercy for thousands (of generations) ...
+visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children" (Exod. xxxiv. 7),
+which were regarded as the answer to Moses' question in the preceding
+chapter of Exodus.(165) Prevalent, however, as this view may have been in
+ancient times, the Rabbis never allowed it to pass without some
+qualification. It is true that they had no objection to the former part of
+this doctrine, and they speak very frequently of the "Merits of the
+Fathers" for which the remotest posterity is rewarded; for this could be
+explained on the ground of the boundless goodness of God, which cannot be
+limited to the short space of a lifetime. But there was no possibility of
+overcoming the moral objection against punishment of people for sins they
+have not committed.
+
+It will suffice to mention here that, with reference to Joshua vii. 24,
+25, the Rabbis asked the question, If he (Achan) sinned, what
+justification could there be for putting his sons and daughters to death?
+And by the force of this argument they interpreted the words of the
+Scriptures to mean that the children of the criminal were only compelled
+to be present at the execution of their father.
+
+Such passages, therefore, as would imply that children have to suffer for
+the sins of their parents are explained by the Rabbis as referring to
+cases in which the children perpetuate the crimes of their fathers.(166)
+The view of R. Jose, which I have already quoted, had, therefore, to be
+dropped, and another version in the name of the same Rabbi is accepted.
+According to this theory the sufferer is a person either "entirely wicked"
+or "not perfectly righteous," whilst the prosperous man is a person either
+"perfectly righteous," or "not entirely wicked."
+
+It is hardly necessary to say that there is still something wanting to
+supplement this view, for the given classification would place the not
+entirely wicked on the same level with the perfectly righteous, and on a
+much higher level than the imperfectly righteous, who are undoubtedly far
+superior. The following passage may be regarded as supplying this missing
+something:--"The wicked who have done some good work are as amply rewarded
+for it in _this_ world as if they were men who have fulfilled the whole of
+the Torah, so that they may be punished for their sins in the next world
+(without interruption); whilst the righteous who have committed some sin
+have to suffer for it (in this world) as if "they were men who burned the
+Law," so that they may enjoy their reward in the world to come (without
+interruption).(167) Thus the real retribution takes place in the next
+world, the fleeting existence on earth not being the fit time either to
+compensate righteousness or to punish sin. But as, on the one hand, God
+never allows "that the merit of any creature should be cut short," whilst,
+on the other hand, He deals very severely with the righteous, punishing
+them for the slightest transgression; since, too, this reward and
+punishment are only of short duration, they must take place in this short
+terrestrial existence. There is thus established a sort of divine economy,
+lest the harmony of the next world should be disturbed.
+
+Yet another objection to the doctrine under discussion remains to be
+noticed. It is that it justifies God by accusing man, declaring every
+sufferer as more or less of a sinner. But such a notion, if carried to its
+last consequences, must result in tempting us to withhold our sympathies
+from him. And, indeed, it would seem that there were some non-Jewish
+philosophers who argued in this way. Thus a certain Roman official is
+reported to have said to R. Akiba, "How can you be so eager in helping the
+poor? Suppose only a king, who, in his wrath against his slave, were to
+set him in the gaol, and give orders to withhold from him food and drink;
+if, then, one dared to act to the contrary, would not the king be angry
+with him?"(168) There is some appearance of logic in this notion put into
+the mouth of a heathen. The Rabbis, however, were inconsistent people, and
+responded to the appeal which suffering makes to every human heart without
+asking too many questions. Without entering here into the topic of charity
+in the Rabbinic literature, which would form a very interesting chapter, I
+shall only allude now to the following incident, which would show that the
+Rabbis did not abandon even those afflicted with leprosy, which, according
+to their own notion, given above, followed only as a punishment for the
+worst crimes. One Friday, we are told, when the day was about to darken,
+the Chassid Abba Tachnah was returning home, bearing on his shoulders the
+baggage that contained all his fortune; he saw a leprous man lying on the
+road, who addressed him: "Rabbi, do me a deed of charity and take me into
+the town." The Rabbi now thought, "If I leave my baggage, where shall I
+find the means of obtaining subsistence for myself and my family? But if I
+forsake this leprous man I shall commit a mortal sin." In the end, he
+allowed the good inclination to prevail over the evil one, and first
+carried the sufferer to the town.(169) The only practical conclusion that
+the Rabbis drew from such theories as identify suffering with sin were for
+the sufferer himself, who otherwise might be inclined to blame Providence,
+or even to blaspheme, but would now look upon his affliction as a reminder
+from heaven that there is something wrong in his moral state. Thus we read
+in tractate _Berachoth_:(170) "If a man sees that affliction comes upon
+him, he ought to inquire into his actions, as it is said, Let us search
+and try our ways, and turn again to the Lord (Lam. iii. 40)." This means
+to say that the sufferer will find that he has been guilty of some
+offence. As an illustration of this statement we may perhaps consider the
+story about R. Huna, occurring in the same tractate.(171) Of this Rabbi it
+is said that he once experienced heavy pecuniary losses, whereupon his
+friends came to his house and said to him, "Let the master but examine his
+conduct a little closer." On this R. Huna answered, "Do you suspect me of
+having committed some misdeed?" His friends rejoined, "And do you think
+that God would pass judgment without justice?" R. Huna then followed their
+hint, and found that he did not treat his tenant farmer so generously as
+he ought. He offered redress, and all turned out well in the end.
+Something similar is to be found in the story of the martyrdom of R.
+Simeon ben Gamaliel and R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Of these Rabbis we are told
+that on their way to be executed the one said to the other, "My heart
+leaves me, for I am not aware of a sin deserving such a death"; on which
+the other answered, "It might have happened that in your function as judge
+you sometimes--for your own convenience--were slow in administering
+justice."(172)
+
+But even if the personal actions of the righteous were blameless, there
+might still be sufficient ground for his being afflicted and miserable.
+This may be found in his relations to his kind and surroundings, or, to
+use the term now more popular, by reason of human solidarity. Now, after
+the above remarks on the objections entertained by the Rabbis against a
+man's being punished for the sins of others, it is hardly necessary to say
+that their idea of solidarity has little in common with the crude notions
+of it current in very ancient times. Still, it can hardly be doubted that
+the relation of the individual to the community was more keenly felt by
+the Rabbis than by the leaders in any other society, modern or ancient.
+According to the view given by an ancient Rabbi whose name is unknown, it
+would, indeed, seem that to them the individual was not simply a member of
+the Jewish commonwealth, or a co-religionist, but a limb of the great and
+single body "Israel," and that as such he communicated both for good and
+evil the sensations of the one part to the whole. In the _Midrash_, where
+a parallel is to be found to this idea, the responsibility of the
+individual towards the community is further illustrated by R. Simeon ben
+Yochai, in the following way: "It is," we read there, "to be compared to
+people sitting on board a ship, one of the passengers of which took an awl
+and began to bore holes in the bottom of the vessel. Asked to desist from
+his dangerous occupation, he answered, 'Why, I am only making holes on my
+own seat,' forgetting that when the water came in it would sink the whole
+ship." Thus the sin of a single man might endanger the whole of humanity.
+It was in conformity with the view of his father that R. Eliezer, the son
+of R. Simeon (ben Yochai) said, "The world is judged after the merits or
+demerits of the majority, so that a single individual by his good or bad
+actions can decide the fate of his fellow-creatures, as it may happen that
+he is just the one who constitutes this majority."(173) Nor does this
+responsibility cease with the man's own actions. According to the Rabbis
+man is responsible even for the conduct of others--and as such liable to
+punishment--if he is indifferent to the wrong that is being perpetrated
+about him, whilst an energetic protest from his side could have prevented
+it. And the greater the man the greater is his responsibility. He may
+suffer for the sins of his family which is first reached by his influence;
+he may suffer for the sins of the whole community if he could hope to find
+a willing ear among them, and he may even suffer for the sins of the whole
+world if his influence extend so far, and he forbear from exerting it for
+good.(174) Thus the possibility is given that the righteous man may suffer
+with justice, though he himself has never committed any transgression.
+
+As a much higher aspect of this solidarity--and as may have already
+suggested itself to the reader from the passage cited above from the
+anonymous Rabbi--we may regard the suffering of the righteous as an
+atonement for the sins of their contemporaries. "When there will be
+neither Tabernacle nor the Holy Temple," Moses is said to have asked God,
+"what will become of Israel?" Whereupon God answers, "I will take from
+among them the righteous man whom I shall consider as pledged for them,
+and will forgive all their sins;" the death of the perfect man, or even
+his suffering being looked upon as an expiation for the shortcoming of his
+generation.(175)
+
+It is hardly necessary to remind the reader of the affinity of this idea
+with that of sacrifices in general, as in both cases it is the innocent
+being which has to suffer for the sins of another creature. But there is
+one vital point which makes all the difference. It is that in our case the
+suffering is not enforced, but is a voluntary act on the part of the
+sacrifice, and is even desired by him. Without entering here on the often-
+discussed theme of the suffering of the Messiah, I need only mention the
+words of R. Ishmael who, on a very slight provocation, exclaimed, "I am
+the atonement for the Jews," which means that he took upon him all their
+sins to suffer for them.(176) This desire seems to have its origin in
+nothing else than a deep sympathy and compassion with Israel. To suffer
+_for_, or, at least _with_ Israel was, according to the Rabbis, already
+the ideal of Moses. He is said, indeed, to have broken the Two Tables with
+the purpose of committing some sin, so that he would have either to be
+condemned together with Israel (for the sin of the golden calf), or to be
+pardoned together with them.(177) And this conduct was expected not only
+from the leaders of Israel, but almost from every Jew. "When Israel is in
+a state of affliction (as, for instance, famine) one must not say, I will
+rather live by myself, and eat and drink, and peace be unto thee, my soul.
+To those who do so the words of the Scriptures are to be applied: And in
+that day did the Lord God of Hosts call to weeping and to mourning, ...
+and behold joy and gladness.... Surely this iniquity shall not be purged
+out from you till ye die" (Is. xxii. 12-14). Another passage is to the
+effect that, when a man shows himself indifferent to the suffering of the
+community, there come the two angels (who accompany every Jew), put their
+hands on his head, and say, "This man who has separated himself shall be
+excluded from their consolations."(178)
+
+We might now characterise this sort of suffering as the chastisement of
+love (of the righteous) to mankind, or rather to Israel. But we must not
+confuse it with the Chastisement of Love often mentioned in the Talmud,
+though this idea also seems calculated to account for the suffering of the
+righteous. Here the love is not on the side of the sufferer, but proceeds
+from him who inflicts this suffering. "Him," says R. Huna, "in whom God
+delights he crushes with suffering." As a proof of this theory the words
+of Is. liii. 10 are given, which are interpreted to mean: him whom the
+Lord delights in He puts to grief. Another passage, by the same authority,
+is to the effect that where there is no sufficient cause for punishment
+(the man being entirely free from sin), we have to regard his suffering as
+a chastisement of love, for it is said: "Whom the Lord loveth He
+correcteth" (Proverbs iii. 11).(179) To what purpose He corrects him may,
+perhaps, be seen from the following passage: "R. Eleazar ben Jacob says:
+If a man is visited by affliction he has to be thankful to God for it: for
+suffering draws man to, and reconciles him with God, as it is said: For
+whom God loveth he correcteth."(180)
+
+It is in conformity with such a high conception that affliction, far from
+being dreaded, becomes almost a desirable end, and we hear many Rabbis
+exclaim, "Beloved is suffering," for by it fatherly love is shown to man
+by God; by it man obtains purification and atonement, by it Israel came in
+possession of the best gifts, such as the Torah, the Holy Land, and
+eternal life.(181) And so also the sufferer, far from being considered as
+a man with a suspected past, becomes an object of veneration, on whom the
+glory of God rests, and he brings salvation to the world if he bears his
+affliction with joyful submission to the will of God.(182) Continuous
+prosperity is by no means to be longed after, for, as R. Ishmael taught,
+"He who has passed forty days without meeting adversity has already
+received his (share of the) world (to come) in this life."(183) Nay, the
+standing rule is that the really righteous suffer, whilst the wicked are
+supposed to be in a prosperous state. Thus, R. Jannai said, "We (average
+people) enjoy neither the prosperity of the wicked nor the afflictions of
+the righteous,"(184) whilst his contemporary, Rab, declared that he who
+experiences no affliction and persecution does not belong to them (the
+Jews).(185)
+
+2. The second main view on Retribution is that recorded by the Rabbis as
+in direct opposition to that of R. Ammi. It is that there is suffering as
+well as death without sin and transgression. We may now just as well infer
+that there is prosperity and happiness without preceding merits. And this
+is, indeed, the view held by R. Meir. For in contradiction to the view
+cited above, R. Meir declares that the request of Moses to have explained
+to him the mysterious ways of Providence was _not_ granted, and the answer
+he received was, "And I will shew mercy on whom I will shew mercy" (Exod.
+xxxiii. 19), which means to say, even though he to whom the mercy is shown
+be unworthy of it. The old question arises how such a procedure is to be
+reconciled with the justice and omnipotence of God. The commentaries try
+to evade the difficulty by suggesting some of the views given above, as
+that the real reward and punishment are only in the world to come, or that
+the affliction of the righteous is only chastisement of love, and so on.
+From the passages I am about to quote, however, one gains the impression
+that some Rabbis rather thought that this great problem will indeed not
+bear discussion or solution at all. Thus we have the legend: "The angels
+said to God, why have you punished Adam with death? He answered, On
+account of his having transgressed my commandment (with regard to the
+eating of the tree of knowledge). But why had Moses and Aaron to die? The
+reply given to them is the words, Eccl. ix. 2: 'All things come alike to
+all; there is one event to the righteous and to the wicked, to the good
+and to the clean and to the unclean.' "(186) Another legend records, "When
+Moses ascended to heaven, God showed him also the great men of futurity.
+R. Akiba was sitting and interpreting the law in a most wonderful way.
+Moses said to God: Thou hast shown me his worth, show me also his reward;
+on which he is bidden to look back. There he perceives him dying the most
+cruel of deaths, and his flesh being sold by weight. Moses now asks: Is
+this the reward of such a life? whereupon God answers him: Be silent; this
+I have determined."(187)
+
+It is impossible not to think of the fine lines of the German poet:--
+
+
+    Warum schleppt sich blutend, elend,
+    Unter Kreuzlast der Gerechte,
+    Waehrend gluecklich als ein Sieger
+    Trabt auf hohem Ross der Schlechte?
+
+    Also fragen wir bestaendig,
+    Bis man uns mit einer Handvoll
+    Erde endlich stopft die Maeuler--
+    Aber ist das eine Antwort?
+
+
+Still, one might perhaps suggest that these passages when examined a
+little closer, not only contain a rebuke to man's importunity in wanting
+to intrude into the secrets of God, but also hint at the possibility that
+even God's omnipotence is submitted to a certain law--though designed by
+His own holy will--which He could not alter without detriment to the whole
+creation. Indeed, in one of the mystical accounts of the martyrdom of R.
+Akiba and other great Rabbis, God is represented as asking the sufferers
+to accept His hard decree without protest, unless they wish Him to destroy
+the whole world. In another place again, we read of a certain renowned
+Rabbi, who lived in great poverty, that once in a dream he asked the
+divine Shechinah how long he would have still to endure this bitter
+privation? The answer given to him was: "My son, will it please you that I
+destroy the world for your sake?"(188) It is only in this light that we
+shall be able to understand such passages in the Rabbinic literature as
+that God almost suffers Himself when He has to inflict punishment either
+on the individual or on whole communities. Thus God is represented as
+mourning for seven days (as in the case when one loses a child) before He
+brought the deluge on the world; He bemoans the fall of Israel and the
+destruction of the Temple, and the Shechinah laments even when the
+criminal suffers his just punishment. And it is not by rebelling against
+these laws that He tries to redeem His suffering. He himself has recourse
+to prayer, and says: "May it be my will that my mercy conquer my wrath,
+that my love over-rule my strict justice, so that I may treat my children
+with love."(189) If now man is equal to God, he has nevertheless, or
+rather on that account, to submit to the law of God without any outlook
+for reward or punishment; or, as Antigonos expressed it, "Be not as slaves
+that minister to the Lord with a view to receive recompense."(190)
+Certainly it would be hazardous to maintain that Antigonos's saying was a
+consequence of this doctrine; but, at any rate, we see a clear tendency to
+keep the thought of reward (in spite of the prominent part it holds in the
+Bible) out of view. Still more clearly is it seen when, with reference to
+Ps. cxii., "Blessed is the man ... that delighteth greatly in his
+commandments," Rabbi Eleazar remarks that the meaning is that the man
+desires only to do His commandments, but he does not want the rewards
+connected with them.(191) This is the more remarkable, as the whole
+contents of this psalm are nothing else than a long series of promises of
+various rewards, so that the explanation of Rabbi Eleazar is in almost
+direct contradiction to the simple meaning of the words. On the other
+hand, also, every complaint about suffering must cease. Not only is
+affliction no direct chastisement by God in the way of revenge; but even
+when it would seem to us that we suffer innocently, we have no right to
+murmur, as God himself is also suffering, and, as the Talmud expresses it,
+"It is enough for the slave to be in the position of his master."(192)
+
+This thought of the compassion--in its strictest sense of fellow-
+suffering--of God with His creatures becomes a new motive for avoiding sin.
+"Woe to the wicked," exclaims a Rabbi, "who by their bad actions turn the
+mercy of God into strict justice."(193) And the later mystics explain
+distinctly that the great crime of sin consists in causing pain, so to
+speak, to the Shechinah. One of them compared it with the slave who abuses
+the goodness of his master so far as to buy with his money arms to wound
+him. But, on the other hand, it becomes, rather inconsistently, also a new
+source of comfort; for, in the end, God will have to redeem Himself from
+this suffering, which cannot be accomplished so long as Israel is still
+under punishment.(194) Most interesting is the noble prayer by a Rabbi of
+a very late mystical school: "O God, speedily bring about the redemption.
+I am not in the least thinking of what I may gain by it. I am willing to
+be condemned to all tortures in hell, if only the Shechinah will cease to
+suffer."(195)
+
+If we were now to ask for the attitude of the Synagogue towards these two
+main views, we should have to answer that--as already hinted at the opening
+of this paper--it never decided for the one or the other. R. David Rocca
+Martino dared even to write a whole book in Defence of Adam proving that
+he committed no sin in eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge against
+the literal sense of the Scriptures, which were also taken by the Rabbis
+literally.(196) By this he destroyed the prospects of many a theodicy, but
+it is not known to me that he was severely rebuked for it. It has been
+said by a great writer that the best theology is that which is not
+consistent, and this advantage the theology of the Synagogue possesses to
+its utmost extent. It accepted with R. Ammi the stern principle of divine
+retribution, in as far as it makes man feel the responsibility of his
+actions, and makes suffering a discipline. But it never allowed this
+principle to be carried so far as to deny the sufferer our sympathy, and
+by a series of conscious and unconscious modifications, he passed from the
+state of a sinner into the zenith of the saint and the perfectly righteous
+man. But, on the other hand, the Synagogue also gave entrance to the very
+opposite view which, abandoning every attempt to account for suffering,
+bids man do his duty without any hope of reward, even as God also does
+His. Hence the remarkable phenomenon in the works of later Jewish
+moralists, that, whilst they never weary of the most detailed accounts of
+the punishments awaiting the sinner and the rewards in store for the
+righteous, they warn us most emphatically that our actions must not be
+guided by these unworthy considerations, and that our only motive should
+be the love of God and submission to His holy will.
+
+Nor must it be thought that the views of the Rabbis are so widely
+divergent from those enunciated in the Bible. The germ of almost all the
+later ideas is already to be found in the Scriptures. It only needed the
+process of time to bring into prominence those features which proved at a
+later period most acceptable. Indeed, it would seem that there is also a
+sort of domestication of religious ideas. On their first association with
+man there is a certain rude violence about them which, when left to the
+management of untutored minds, would certainly do great harm. But, let
+only this association last for centuries, during which these ideas have to
+be subdued by practical use, and they will, in due time, lose their former
+roughness, will become theologically workable, and turn out the greatest
+blessing to inconsistent humanity.
+
+
+
+
+
+IX. THE LAW AND RECENT CRITICISM(197)
+
+
+Professor Toy's work, _Judaism and Christianity_, gives an admirable
+conspectus of the results of the modern critical school in their bearing
+on the genesis of Christianity. The author takes various important
+doctrines of Christianity, traces them back to their origin in
+Israelitism, pursues their course through their various phases in Judaism,
+until they reach their final development in the teaching of Jesus and His
+disciples, which, in the author's judgment, is the consummation of that
+which the prophets and their successors had to give to the world. Laying
+so much stress as Professor Toy does on the saying, "By their fruits shall
+ye know them," he ought also, perhaps, to have told us what, in the course
+of time, has become of these several doctrines. For when, for instance,
+with regard to the doctrine of original sin, he remarks that "in certain
+systems of Christian theology the human race is involved in the
+condemnation of the first man" (p. 185, n. 1); or that, in the New
+Testament, "the demand for a mediating power between God and humanity is
+pushed to the farthest point which thought can occupy consistently with
+the maintenance of the absoluteness of the one Supreme Deity" (p. 121), he
+is rather evading a difficulty than answering it. Such elaboration would,
+however, have been outside the scope of Professor Toy's book, which claims
+only to be a sketch of the progress of thought from the Old Testament to
+the New. For his own solution of the indicated difficulty, Toy, to judge
+from his liberal standpoint, would probably refer us to Dr. Hatch's
+Hibbert lectures; the issue of such an appeal must, I imagine, remain for
+long doubtful and disputed.
+
+A delightful characteristic of Toy's book is its transparent clearness and
+sobriety, which will make it interesting reading, even to those who are
+acquainted with the writer's authorities in their original sources. Almost
+entirely new, as well as most suggestive, is the justice which Toy does to
+the law in recognising it as a factor for good in the history of religion.
+In this point Toy is not only up to his date, but beyond it. It is true
+that even the Pharisees have made some advance in the estimation of the
+liberal school. They are no longer condemned _en masse_ as so many
+hypocrites. It is even admitted that there were a few honest men among
+them, such as Rabban Gamaliel, the teacher of Paul, or R. Akiba, the
+patriot of Bethar. We are now too polite to be personal. But with regard
+to the law, on the other hand, there is at present a markedly opposite
+tendency. The general idea seems to be that, as the doctrine of the
+resurrection of Christ must be loosely interpreted in a spiritual sense,
+it must logically have been preceded by a universal spiritual death, and
+the germs of the disease which brought this death about are to be sought
+for in the law. Hence the strained efforts to discover in the law the
+source of all religious evil,--cant, hypocrisy, formalism, externalism,
+transcendentalism, and as many "isms" more, of bad reputation.
+
+It was probably with this current representation of the law in view that
+Toy, when speaking of the Levitical legislation, and of its fixing "men's
+minds on ceremonial details which, in some cases, it put into the same
+category and on the same level with moral duties," asks the question:
+"Would there not thence result a dimming of the moral sense and a
+confusion of moral distinctions? The ethical attitude of a man who could
+regard a failure in the routine of sacrifice as not less blameworthy than
+an act of theft cannot be called a lofty one" (p. 186). The answer which
+he gives is more favourable than such a leading question would induce us
+to expect. He tells us that, "in point of fact, the result was different"
+(_ibid_). "The Levitical law is not to be looked on as a mere extension
+and organisation of the ritual.... Its ritual was, in great part, the
+organised expression of the consciousness of sin" (p. 226). Of the law in
+general Toy says that it had "larger consequences than its mere details
+would suggest," for it "cultivated the moral sense of the people into
+results above its mechanical prescriptions," and "it developed the sense
+of sin, as Paul points out" (Gal. iii. 19), "and therewith a freer
+feeling, which brought the soul into more immediate contact with God" (p.
+227); whilst in another place he reminds us "that much of the law is
+moral, and that no one could fail to see a spiritual significance beneath
+its letter" (p. 245), and he even admits that "the great legal schools
+which grew up in the second century, if we may judge by the sayings of the
+teachers which have come down to us, did not fail to discriminate between
+the outward and the inward, the ceremonial and the moral" (p. 186).
+
+These and similar passages will suffice to show that Toy's estimate of the
+law is a very different one from that of Smend and his school. However, it
+must not be supposed that he is not on the look-out for the germs of the
+disease. He must find these germs somewhere, or else the progress, which
+his book is intended to illustrate, would be difficult to detect. And thus
+he repeats the old accusations, though not without modification.
+
+Professor Toy's objections may, perhaps, be summed up in the passage in
+which he represents the Jewish law as "an attempt to define all the
+beliefs and acts of life" (p. 239), or as "the embodiment of devotion to a
+fixed rule of belief and conduct" (p. 237). Toy does not entirely condemn
+this system, and even speaks of it as a "lofty attempt" (p. 239); but, on
+the whole, he considers that it must have resulted in bad theology, as
+well as in doubtful conduct. Without following Professor Toy over the
+whole area of his investigations, which would require a volume for itself,
+I will only take the opportunity of making a few general remarks upon the
+nature and character of this legal system, which seems to hold the key to
+the spiritual history of Judaism.
+
+First, as to its theology, Toy's description of the law as an attempt to
+define all the _beliefs_ of life--an assertion which is also made by
+Schuerer--is not wholly accurate. For such an attempt was never made by
+Judaism. The few dogmas which Judaism possesses, such as the Existence of
+God, Providence, Reward, and Punishment--without which no revealed religion
+is conceivable--can hardly be called a creed in the modern sense of the
+term, which implies something external and foreign to man's own knowledge,
+and received only in deference to the weight of authority. To the Jew of
+the Christian era, these simpler dogmas were so self-evident that it would
+have cost him the greatest effort _not_ to believe them. Hence the fact
+that, whilst there have come down to us so many controverted points
+between the Sadducees and Pharisees with regard to certain juristic and
+ritual questions, we know of only one of an essentially dogmatic
+character, viz. the dispute concerning the Resurrection.
+
+It is thus difficult to imagine to what Professor Toy can be alluding when
+he speaks of the "interest they (the Jews) threw into the discussion and
+determination of minutiae of faith" (p. 241). Discussions upon _minutiae_ of
+faith are only to be read in the works of the later schoolmen (as Saadiah,
+Maimonides and their followers), in which such subtle problems as _Creatio
+ex nihilo_, the origin of evil, predestination, free will and similar
+subjects are examined; but this period is very distant from that with
+which Toy is concerned. The older schools and the so-called houses of
+Shammai and Hillel, most of whose members were the contemporaries of the
+Apostles, show very little predilection for such _minutiae_. Their
+discussions and differences of opinion about ritual matters are very
+numerous, scattered as they are over the whole of the ancient Rabbinic
+literature, but I can only remember two of a metaphysical character, or
+touching upon the _minutiae_ of faith. The one, dealing with the efficacy
+of certain sacrifices, discusses whether it only extends to the remission
+of the pending punishment for sins, or also includes their purification
+and washing away; the other considers the question whether it would not
+have been better for man not to have been created.(198) But this latter
+controversy, which is said to have lasted for two years and a half, by no
+means led to any big metaphysical or theological system, but only to the
+practical advice that, as we have been created, we ought to be watchful
+over our conduct. It is, indeed, a noteworthy feature of Judaism that
+theological speculations have never resulted in the formulation of any
+imposing or universal doctrine, but usually in divers ceremonial
+practices. To give one illustration: according to Professor Toy (p. 210)
+the conclusion which the author of 1 Tim. ii. 11-14 draws from the fact
+that woman was the immediate agent of the introduction of sin was the
+subordination of her sex. The Rabbis also noticed the same fact, and in
+their less abstract language speak of woman as having brought death and
+grief into the world; but the conclusion which they drew was that since
+woman had extinguished the "light of the world," she ought to atone for it
+by lighting the candles for the Sabbath.(199) Nor is Toy quite correct
+when he maintains that the conception of the Memra as Creator and Lord,
+etc., and as "representative of the immediate divine activity," did not
+keep its hold on Jewish thought, having been discarded in the later
+literature (p. 104). For the Shechinah of the Talmud, the _Metatron_(200)
+of the Gaonic-mystical literature, the Active Intelligence of the
+philosophical schools, as well as the Ten Sephiroth(201) (Emanations) of
+the Cabbalists, all owe their existence to the same theosophic scruples
+and subtleties in which the Logos of Philo and the Memra(202) of the
+Targums originated. Thus, they always kept--though under various
+forms--their hold on the Jewish mind. Judaism was always broad enough to
+accommodate itself to these formulae, which for the one may mean the most
+holy mysteries, and for the other empty and meaningless catchwords. The
+objection--in fact, the active opposition--of the Synagogue began when these
+possible or impossible explanations of the universe tended to transgress
+the bounds of abstract speculation, and, passing over into real concrete
+beings, to be worshipped as such. An instance from comparatively modern
+times might be found in one of the vagaries of the followers of the
+Pseudo-Messiah, Shabbethai Tsebi. For many generations the controversy had
+raged among the Cabbalists, whether the first of the above-mentioned Ten
+Emanations (called by some _Original Adam_, by others, _Crown_(203)) is to
+be considered as a part of the Deity or as something separate, and so to
+speak, having a reality in itself. The danger of establishing a Being near
+the Deity, having an existence of its own and invested with divine
+attributes, could not have escaped the thoughtful, and there are indeed
+some indications to this effect. The Synagogue as such, however, remained
+during the whole controversy strictly neutral, and allowed these
+theosophists to fight in the air as much as they liked. But the moment
+that the sect of Shabbethai Tsebi identified the incarnate Original Adam
+with their leader, and worshipped him as a sort of God-Messiah, the
+Synagogue at once took up a hostile attitude against those who separated
+God from His world, and, declaring Shabbethai Tsebi and his followers to
+be apostates, excluded them from Judaism for ever.
+
+Nor can it be proved that legalism or nomism has ever tended to suppress
+the spiritual side of religion, either in respect of consciousness of sin,
+or of individual love and devotion. With an equal logic quite the opposite
+might be argued. Professor Toy tells us himself that it is no "accident
+that along with this more definite expression of ethical-religious law we
+find the first traces of a more spiritual conception of righteousness in
+the 'new heart' of Jeremiah and Ezekiel" (p. 235), whilst in another
+passage we read that "a turning point is marked by the Deuteronomist
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel, who announce the principles of individual
+responsibility and inwardness of obedience" (p. 184). Now, two things are
+certain; first, that Ezekiel urges the necessity of the new heart as well
+as of individual responsibility more keenly than any of his predecessors;
+secondly, that in Ezekiel the legalistic tendency is more evident than in
+Deuteronomy and Jeremiah. The logical conclusion would thus be that the
+higher ideals of religion are not only not inconsistent with legalism, but
+are the very outcome of it, and the so-called Priestly Code, by the very
+fact of its markedly legalistic tendency, should be considered as a step
+in the right direction. The latter assertion sounds like a paradox, but it
+will seem less so when the prevailing characteristic of this portion of
+the Pentateuch, as given even by Kuenen, who is by no means a champion of
+the Law, is borne in mind. "The centre of gravity," according to the great
+Dutch critic, "lies for the priestly author elsewhere than for the
+prophet; it lies in man's attitude, not towards his fellow-men, but
+towards God; not in his social, but in his personal life" (_Hibbert
+Lectures_, p. 161). It is here that we seem to strike the keynote of the
+_Weltanschauung_ of the Priestly Legislation. In it man is more than a
+social being. He has also an individual life of his own, his joys and
+sorrows, his historical claims, his traditions of the past, and his hopes
+for the future--and all these have to be brought under the influence of
+religion, and to become sanctified through their relation to God. Hence,
+the work of the Priestly narrator and legislator opens with a cosmogony of
+his own, in which we find the grand theological idea of man being created
+in the Divine image; hence, too, his religious conception of the history
+of the nation and the control claimed by him over all the details of human
+life, which became with him so many opportunities for the worship of God.
+To him, God is not a mere figurehead; He not only reigns, but governs.
+Everywhere,--in the temple, in the judge's seat, in the family, in the
+farm, and in the market-place,--His presence is felt in enforcing the laws
+bearing His _imprimatur_, "I am the Lord thy God." By thus diffusing
+religion over the whole domain of human life--not confining it to the
+social institutions which are represented only by a few personages, such
+as the king, the princes, the priests, the judges or elders--they made it
+the common good of the whole people, and the feeling of personal
+responsibility for this good became much deeper than before. Thus it came
+to pass that whilst, during the first temple, the apostasy of kings and
+aristocracy involved the entire people, so that the words "And he (the
+king) did evil in the sight of the Lord," embrace the whole nation, during
+the second temple it was no longer of much consequence which side the
+political leaders took. Both during the Hellenistic persecutions, as well
+as afterwards in the struggles of some Maccabean kings with the Pharisees,
+the bulk of the people showed that they considered religion as their own
+personal affair, not to be regulated by the conscience of either priest or
+prince. It is true that this success may be largely ascribed to such
+contemporary religious factors as the Synagogue with its minimum of form,
+the Scribes with their activity as teachers, and the Psalmists with their
+divine enthusiasm; but the very circumstance that these factors arose and
+flourished under the influence of the Priestly Code would suffice to prove
+that its tendency was not so sacerdotal as some writers would have us
+believe. Jewish tradition indeed attributes the composition of the daily
+public prayers, as well as of others for private worship, to the very men
+whom modern biblical criticism holds responsible for the introduction of
+the Priestly Code. Now this fact may perhaps be disputed, but there is
+little doubt that the age in which these prayers were composed was one of
+flourishing legalism. Nor is there any proof that the synagogues and their
+ritual were in opposition to the temple. From the few documents belonging
+to this period, it is clear that there was no opposition to the legalistic
+spirit by which the Priestly Code was actuated. This would prove that
+legalism meant something more than tithes and sacrifices for the benefit
+of the priests.
+
+Nor is it true that the legal tendency aimed at narrowing the mind of the
+nation, turning all its thoughts into the one direction of the law. Apart
+from the fact that the Torah contained other elements besides its
+legalism, the prophets were not forgotten, but were read and interpreted
+from a very early age. It was under the predominance of the Law that the
+Wisdom literature was composed, which is by no means narrow or one-sided,
+but is even supposed by some critics to contain many foreign elements. In
+the book of Job, the great problems of man's existence are treated with a
+depth and grandeur never equalled before or since. This book alone ought
+partly to compensate the modern school for the disappearance of prophecy,
+which is usually brought as a charge against the Law. Then, too, the
+Psalms, placed by the same school in the post-exilic period, are nothing
+but another aspect of prophecy, with this difference, perhaps, that in the
+Prophets God speaks to man, while in the Psalms it is man who establishes
+the same communion by speaking to God. There is no reason why the critical
+school, with its broad conception of inspiration, and with its insistence
+that prophecy does _not_ mean prediction, should so strongly emphasise
+this difference. If "it is no longer as in the days of Amos, when the Lord
+Yahveh did nothing without revealing his counsel to his servants the
+prophets," there is in the days of the Psalmists nothing in man's heart,
+no element in his longings and meditations and aspirations, which was not
+revealed to God. Nay, it would seem that at times the Psalmist hardly ever
+desires the revelation of God's secrets. Let future events be what they
+may, he is content, for he is with God. After all his trials, he exclaims,
+"And yet I am continually with thee; thou hast taken hold of my right
+hand. According to thy purpose wilt thou lead me, and afterwards receive
+me with glory. Whom have I (to care for) in heaven? and possessing thee, I
+have pleasure in nothing upon earth. Though my flesh and my heart should
+have wasted away, God would for ever be the rock of my heart and my
+portion" (Ps. lxxiii. 23-26). How an age producing a literature containing
+passages like these--of which Wellhausen in his _Abriss_ (p. 95) justly
+remarks, that we are not worthy even to repeat them--can be considered by
+the modern school as wanting in intimate relation to God and inferior to
+that of the prophets is indeed a puzzle.
+
+Now a few words as to the actual life under the Law. Here, again, there is
+a fresh puzzle. On the one side, we hear the opinions of so many learned
+professors, proclaiming _ex cathedra_, that the Law was a most terrible
+burden, and the life under it the most unbearable slavery, deadening body
+and soul. On the other side we have the testimony of a literature
+extending over about twenty-five centuries, and including all sorts and
+conditions of men, scholars, poets, mystics, lawyers, casuists, schoolmen,
+tradesmen, workmen, women, simpletons, who all, from the author of the
+119th Psalm to the last pre-Mendelssohnian writer--with a small exception
+which does not even deserve the name of a vanishing minority--give
+unanimous evidence in favour of this Law, and of the bliss and happiness
+of living and dying under it,--and this, the testimony of people who were
+actually living under the Law, not merely theorising upon it, and who
+experienced it in all its difficulties and inconveniences. The Sabbath
+will give a fair example. The law of the Sabbath is one of those
+institutions the strict observance of which was already the object of
+attack in early New Testament times. Nevertheless, the doctrine proclaimed
+in one of the Gospels--that the son of man is Lord also of the Sabbath--was
+also current among the Rabbis. They, too, taught that the Sabbath had been
+delivered into the hand of man (to break, if necessary), and not man
+delivered over to the Sabbath.(204) And they even laid down the axiom that
+a scholar who lived in a town, where among the Jewish population there
+could be the least possibility of doubt as to whether the Sabbath might be
+broken for the benefit of a dangerously sick person, was to be despised as
+a man neglecting his duty; for, as Maimonides points out, the laws of the
+Torah are not meant as an infliction upon mankind, "but as mercy, loving-
+kindness, and peace."(205)
+
+The attacks upon the Jewish Sabbath have not abated with the lapse of
+time. The day is still described by almost every Christian writer on the
+subject in the most gloomy colours, and long lists are given of minute and
+easily transgressed observances connected with it, which, instead of a day
+of rest, would make it to be a day of sorrow and anxiety, almost worse
+than the Scotch Sunday as depicted by continental writers. But it so
+happens that we have the prayer of R. Zadok, a younger contemporary of the
+Apostles, which runs thus: "Through the love with which Thou, O Lord our
+God, lovest Thy people Israel, and the mercy which Thou hast shown to the
+children of Thy covenant, Thou hast given unto us in love this great and
+holy Seventh Day."(206) And another Rabbi, who probably flourished in the
+first half of the second century, expresses himself (with allusion to
+Exod. xxxi. 13: Verily my Sabbaths ye shall keep ... that ye may know that
+I am the Lord that doth sanctify you)--"The Holy One, blessed be He, said
+unto Moses, I have a good gift in my treasures, and Sabbath is its name,
+which I wish to present to Israel. Go and bring to them the good
+tidings."(207) The form again of the Blessing over the Sanctification-
+cup(208)--a ceremony known long before the destruction of the Second
+Temple--runs: "Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, who hast sanctified us by
+Thy commandments, and hast taken pleasure in us, and in love and grace
+hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an inheritance." All these Rabbis
+evidently regarded the Sabbath as a gift from heaven, an expression of the
+infinite mercy and grace of God which He manifested to His beloved
+children.
+
+And the gift was, as already said, a _good_ gift. Thus the Rabbis
+paraphrase the words in the Scripture "See, for that the Lord hath given
+you the Sabbath" (Exod. xvi. 29): God said unto Israel behold the gem I
+gave you, My children I gave you the Sabbath for your good. Sanctify or
+honour the Sabbath by choice meals, beautiful garments; delight your soul
+with pleasure and I will reward you (for this very pleasure); as it is
+said: "And if thou wilt call the Sabbath a delight and the holy of the
+Lord honourable (that is honouring the Sabbath in this way) ... then shalt
+thou delight thyself in the Lord" (Is. lviii. 13, 14).(209)
+
+The delight of the Sabbath was keenly felt. Israel fell in love with the
+Sabbath, and in the hyperbolic language of the Agadah the Sabbath is
+personified as the "Bride of Israel," whilst others called it "Queen
+Sabbath,"(210) and they are actually jealous of a certain class of semi-
+proselytes who, as it seems, were willing to observe the Sabbath, but
+declined to submit to the covenant of Abraham. The Gentile Sabbath-
+keepers--who, like all the nations of the world, envy Israel their
+Sabbath--the Rabbis considered as shameless intruders deserving
+punishment.(211) No, it was Israel's own Queen or Bride Sabbath whose
+appearance in all her heavenly glory they were impatiently awaiting. Thus
+we are told of R. Judah b. Ilai that when the eve of the Sabbath came "he
+made his ablutions, wrapped himself up in his white linen with fringed
+borders looking like an angel of the Lord of Hosts," thus prepared for the
+solemn reception of Queen Sabbath. Another Rabbi used to put on his best
+clothes, and arise and invite the Sabbath with the words: "Come in Bride,
+come in."(212) What the Bride brought was peace and bliss. Nay, man is
+provided with a super soul for the Sabbath, enabling him to bear both the
+spiritual and the material delights of the day with dignity and
+solemnity.(213) The very light (or expression) of man's face is different
+on Sabbath, testifying to his inward peace and rest. And when man has
+recited his prayers (on the eve of the Sabbath) and thus borne testimony
+to God's creation of the world and to the glory of the Sabbath, there
+appear the two angels who accompany him, lay their hands on his head and
+impart to him their blessing with the words: "And thine iniquity is taken
+away and thy sin purged" (Is. vi. 7).(214) For nothing is allowed to
+disturb the peace of the Sabbath; not even "the sorrows of sin," though
+the Sabbath had such a solemn effect on people that even the worldly man
+would not utter an untruth on the Day of the Lord. Hence it was not only
+forbidden to pray on Sabbath for one's own (material) needs, but
+everything in the liturgy of a mournful character (as for instance the
+confession of sin, supplication for pardon) was carefully avoided. It was
+with difficulty, as the Rabbis say, that they made an exception in the
+case of condoling with people who had suffered loss through the death of
+near relatives. There is no room for morbid sentiment on Sabbath, for the
+blessing of the Lord maketh rich, and He addeth no sorrow with it (Prov.
+x. 22).(215) The burden of the Sabbath prayers is for peace, rest,
+sanctification, and joy (through salvation) and praise of God for this
+ineffable bliss of the Sabbath.
+
+Such was the Sabbath of the old Rabbis and the same spirit continued
+through all ages. The Sabbath was and is still celebrated by the people
+who did and do observe it, in hundreds of hymns, which would fill volumes,
+as a day of rest and joy, of pleasure and delight, a day in which man
+enjoys some foretaste of the pure bliss and happiness which are stored up
+for the righteous in the world to come. Somebody, either the learned
+professors, or the millions of the Jewish people, must be under an
+illusion. Which it is I leave to the reader to decide.
+
+It is also an illusion to speak of the burden which a scrupulous care to
+observe six hundred and thirteen commandments must have laid upon the Jew.
+Even a superficial analysis will discover that in the time of Christ many
+of these commandments were already obsolete (as for instance those
+relating to the tabernacle and to the conquest of Palestine), while others
+concerned only certain classes, as the priests, the judges, the soldiers,
+the Nazirites, or the representatives of the community, or even only one
+or two individuals among the whole population, as the King and the High-
+Priest. Others, again, provided for contingencies which could occur only
+to a few, as for instance the laws concerning divorce or levirate
+marriages, whilst many--such as those concerning idolatry, and incest, and
+the sacrifice of children to Moloch--could scarcely have been considered as
+a practical prohibition by the pre-Christian Jew; just as little as we can
+speak of Englishmen as lying under the burden of a law preventing them
+from burning widows or marrying their grandmothers, though such acts would
+certainly be considered as crimes. Thus it will be found by a careful
+enumeration that barely a hundred laws remain which really concerned the
+life of the bulk of the people. If we remember that even these include
+such laws as belief in the unity of God, the necessity of loving and
+fearing Him, and of sanctifying His name, of loving one's neighbour and
+the stranger, of providing for the poor, exhorting the sinner, honouring
+one's parents and many more of a similar character, it will hardly be said
+that the ceremonial side of the people's religion was not well balanced by
+a fair amount of spiritual and social elements. Besides, it would seem
+that the line between the ceremonial and the spiritual is too often only
+arbitrarily drawn. With many commandments it is rather a matter of opinion
+whether they should be relegated to the one category or the other.
+
+Thus, the wearing of Tephillin(216) or phylacteries has, on the one hand,
+been continually condemned as a meaningless superstition, and a pretext
+for formalism and hypocrisy. But, on the other hand, Maimonides, who can
+in no way be suspected of superstition or mysticism, described their
+importance in the following words: "Great is the holiness of the
+Tephillin; for as long as they are on the arm and head of man he is humble
+and God-fearing, and feels no attraction for frivolity or idle things, nor
+has he any evil thoughts, but will turn his heart to the words of truth
+and righteousness." The view which R. Johanan, a Palestinian teacher of
+the third century, took of the fulfilment of the Law, will probably be
+found more rational than that of many a rationalist of to-day. Upon the
+basis of the last verse in Hosea, "The ways of the Lord are right, and the
+just shall walk in them, but the transgressors shall fall therein," he
+explains that while one man, for instance, eats his paschal lamb with the
+purpose of doing the will of God who commanded it, and thereby does an act
+of righteousness, another thinks only of satisfying his appetite by the
+lamb, so that his eating it (by the very fact that he professes at the
+same time to perform a religious rite) becomes a stumbling-block for
+him.(217) Thus all the laws by virtue of their divine authority--and in
+this there was in the first century no difference of opinion between Jews
+and Christians--have their spiritual side, and to neglect them implies, at
+least from the individual's own point of view, a moral offence.
+
+The legalistic attitude may be summarily described as an attempt to live
+in accordance with the will of God, caring less for what God is than for
+what He wants us to be. But, nevertheless, on the whole this life never
+degenerated into religious formalism. Apart from the fact that during the
+second temple there grew up laws, and even beliefs, which show a decided
+tendency towards progress and development, there were also ceremonies
+which were popular with the masses, and others which were neglected. Men
+were not, therefore, the mere soulless slaves of the Law; personal
+sympathies and dislikes also played a part in their religion. Nor were all
+the laws actually put upon the same level. With a happy inconsistency men
+always spoke of heavier and slighter sins, and by the latter--excepting,
+perhaps, the profanation of the Sabbath--they mostly understood ceremonial
+transgressions. The statement made by Professor Toy (p. 243), on the
+authority of James (ii. 10), that "the principle was established that he
+who offended in one point was guilty of all," is hardly correct; for the
+passage seems rather to be laying down a principle, or arguing that
+logically the law ought to be looked upon as a whole, than stating a fact.
+The fact was that people did not consider the whole law as of equal
+importance, but made a difference between laws and laws, and even spoke of
+certain commandments, such as those of charity and kindness, as
+outweighing all the rest of the Torah. It was in conformity with this
+spirit that in times of great persecution the leaders of the people had no
+compunction in reducing the whole Law to the three prohibitions of
+idolatry, of incest, and of bloodshed. Only these three were considered of
+sufficient importance that men should rather become martyrs than
+transgress them.
+
+These, then, are some of the illusions and misrepresentations which exist
+with regard to the Law. There are many others, of which the complete
+exposure would require a book by itself. Meanwhile, in the absence of such
+a book to balance and correct the innumerable volumes upon the other side,
+Professor Toy has done the best he could with existing materials, and
+produced a meritorious work deserving of wide recognition and approval.
+
+
+
+
+
+X. THE HEBREW COLLECTION OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
+
+
+The Hebrew collection in the British Museum forms one of the greatest
+centres of Jewish thought. It is only surpassed by the treasures which are
+contained in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. The fame of these magnificent
+collections has spread far and wide. It has penetrated into the remotest
+countries, and even the Bachurim (_alumni_) of some obscure place in
+Poland, who otherwise neither care nor know anything about British
+civilisation, have a dim notion of the nature of these mines of Jewish
+learning.
+
+All sorts of legends circulate amongst them about the "millions" of books
+which belong to the "Queen of England." They speak mysteriously of an
+autograph copy of the Book of Proverbs, presented to the Queen of Sheba on
+the occasion of her visit to Jerusalem, and brought by the English troops
+as a trophy from their visit to Abyssinia, which is still ruled by the
+descendants of that famous lady. They also talk of a copy of the Talmud of
+Jerusalem which once belonged to Titus, afterwards to a Pope, was
+presented by the latter to a Russian Czar, and taken away from him by the
+English in the Crimean war; of a manuscript of the book _Light is
+Sown_,(218) which is so large that no shelf can hold it, and which
+therefore hangs on iron chains. How they long to have a glance at these
+precious things! Would not a man get wiser only by looking at the
+autograph of the wisest of men?
+
+But even the students of Germany and Austria, who are inaccessible to such
+fables, and by the aid of Zedner's, Steinschneider's, and Neubauer's
+catalogues have a fair notion of our libraries, cherish the belief that
+they would gain in scholarship and wisdom by examining these grand
+collections. How often have I been asked by Jewish students abroad: "Have
+you really been to the British Museum? Have you really seen this or that
+rare book or manuscript? Had you not great difficulties in seeing them? Is
+not the place where these heaps of jewels are treasured up always crowded
+by students and visitors?"
+
+Yet how little does our English public know of these wonderful things! We
+are fairly interested in Graeco-Roman art. We betray much curiosity about
+the different Egyptian dynasties. We look with admiration at the cuneiform
+inscriptions in the Nimrod room. We do not even grudge a glance at the
+abominable idols of the savage tribes. But as to the productions of Jewish
+genius,--well, it is best to quote here the words of Heine, who ridiculed
+this indifference to everything that is Jewish, in the following lines:--
+
+
+    Alte Mumien, ausgestopfte,
+    Pharaonen von AEgypten,
+    Merowinger Schattenkoen'ge,
+    Ungepuderte Perticken,
+
+    Auch die Zopfmonarchen China's
+    Porzellanpagodenkaiser--
+    Alle lernen sie answendig,
+    Kluge Maedchen, aber, Himmel!
+
+    Fragt man sie nach grossen Namen,
+    Aus dem grossen Goldzeitalter
+    Der arabisch-althispanisch
+    Juedischen Poetenschule,
+
+    Fragt man nach dem Dreigestirn
+    Nach Jehuda ben Halevy,
+    Nach dem Salomon Gabirol
+    Und dem Moses Iben Esra.
+
+    Fragt man nach dergleichen Namen,
+    Dann mit grossen Augen schaun
+    Uns die Kleinen an--alsdann
+    Stehn am Berge die Ochsinnen.
+
+
+Now Heine goes on to advise his beloved one to study the Hebrew language.
+It would be indeed the best remedy against this indifference. But this is
+so radical a cure that one cannot hope that it will be made use of by
+many. A few remarks in English, trying to give some notion of the Hebrew
+collection in the British Museum, may, therefore, not be considered
+altogether superfluous.
+
+The Hebrew collection in the Museum may be divided into two sections:
+Printed Books, and Manuscripts. The number of the printed books amounted
+in the year 1867, in which Zedner concluded his catalogue, to 10,100
+volumes. Within the last twenty-eight years about 5000 more have been
+added.
+
+This enormous collection has grown out of very small beginnings. The
+British Museum was first opened to the public in the year 1759. Amongst
+the 500,000 volumes which it possessed at that time only a single Jewish
+work, the _editio princeps_ of the Talmud (Bomberg, Venice, 1520-1523) was
+to be found on its shelves. According to an article by Zedner in the
+_Hebraeische Bibliographie_ (ii. p. 88), this copy of the Talmud once
+belonged to Henry VIII. But very soon the Museum was enriched by a small
+collection of Hebrew books, presented to it by Mr. Solomon da Costa,
+surnamed Athias, who had emigrated to England from Holland. The
+translation of the Hebrew letter with which the donor accompanied his
+present to the Trustees of the Museum was first published in the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_, February 1760, and was afterwards republished by
+the Rev. A. L. Green, in an article in the _Jewish Chronicle_, 1859. I
+shall only reproduce here the passage relating to the history of this
+collection. After expressing his gratitude to the "crowning city, the city
+of London, in which he dwelt for fifty-four years in ease and quietness
+and safety," and telling us that he bequeaths these books to the British
+nation as a token of his gratitude, Da Costa proceeds to say that they are
+180 books, which had been gathered and bound for Charles II., with
+valuable bindings and marked with the king's own cipher. These books were
+intended as a present from the London Jewish community to Charles for
+certain privileges which he had bestowed on them. The sudden death of the
+king seems to have frustrated the intention of the first donors. The books
+were scattered, and Da Costa had to collect them again.
+
+Small as this collection is, it is most valuable on account of its
+including many early editions of Venice, Constantinople, Naples, etc. The
+original letter of Da Costa, with a full list of the 180 books, is
+preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (Additional, 4710-11).
+
+Of still greater importance is the Michaelis collection. It consists of
+4420 volumes, and was bought by the Trustees of the Museum in 1848. Other
+successive acquisitions, especially the purchase of a large number of
+printed books from the Almanzi collection, brought the Museum into
+possession of one of the most complete and one of the largest Hebrew
+libraries in the world.
+
+After the foregoing remarks on the quantity of this collection, I shall
+now attempt to give some idea of its quality. The following table, taken
+from the Preface of Zedner's _Catalogue_, shows its manifold contents:--
+
+
+    1. Bibles, 1260
+    2. Commentaries on the Bible, 510
+    3. Talmud, 730
+    4. Commentaries on the Talmud, 700
+    5. Codes of Law, 1260
+    6. Decisions, 520
+    7. Midrash, 160
+    8. Cabbalah, 460
+    9. Sermons, 400
+    10. Liturgies, 1200
+    11. Divine Philosophy, 690
+    12. Scientific works, 180
+    13. Grammars, Dictionaries, 450
+    14. History, Geography, 320
+    15. Poetry, Criticism, 770
+
+
+The reader can see that almost every branch of human thought, religious
+and secular, is amply represented in this collection. Looking at this
+table from a geographical point of view, we may perhaps classify the
+authors in the following way:--France and Germany in the Middle Ages,
+Poland and the East in modern times, are represented by the fourth, fifth,
+and sixth classes. The Rabbis of Spain and Italy would probably excel in
+the last five classes. In the productions of classes eight and nine all
+the before-mentioned countries would have an equal share. English Judaism,
+by reason of its large number of occasional prayers and wedding hymns
+(Zedner, pp. 472, 652), may perhaps be represented in the last class
+(criticism excluded). We in England are a pious, devotional people, and
+leave the thinking to others.
+
+But what is still more welcome to the student is the fact that all these
+branches of Jewish learning are represented in the British Museum by the
+best editions. It would be a rather tedious task to enumerate here all the
+early editions of which this collection can boast. There is hardly any
+Hebrew book of importance from the Bible down to the Code of R. Joseph
+Caro of which the Museum does not possess the first printed edition. There
+are also many books and editions in the Museum of which no second copy is
+known to be in existence. An enumeration of these rare books and editions
+would require long lists, the perusal of which would be rather trying. But
+I shall say a few words to show the importance of such early editions for
+the student. They possess, first, the advantage of being free from the
+misprints which crept in with every fresh republication. The art of
+editing books in a correct and scientific way is of a very recent date.
+And even Hebrew literature does not find that support from the public
+which would enable scholars to edit Jewish books in such a way as Roman
+and Greek classics are prepared by Oxford and Cambridge students. A new
+edition of a Hebrew book meant therefore an addition of new mistakes and
+misprints. And it is only by examining the _editiones principes_ that the
+scholar finds his way out of these perplexities.
+
+Another advantage is the fact that these early editions escaped the hand
+of the censor, whose office was not introduced till a comparatively late
+date. The same advantage is also possessed by the Hebrew books published
+at Constantinople, Salonica, and other Mohammedan cities. Only Christian
+countries indulged in the barbarous pleasure of burning and disfiguring
+Jewish books. It is one of the most touching points in the life of R.
+David Oppenheim, of Prague, who spent all his life and fortune in
+collecting Hebrew works, and whose collection now forms one of the
+greatest ornaments of the Bodleian Library, that he was not allowed by the
+censor to enjoy the use of his treasures. He had to put them under the
+protection of Lipman Cohen, his father-in-law in Hanover, many hundreds of
+miles from his own home. With the exception of the Bible hardly any Jewish
+books escaped mutilation. In certain Christian countries some books were
+not allowed to be published at all; of others, again, whole chapters had
+to be omitted, while of others many passages had to be expunged. The words
+Roman, Greek, Gentile, were strictly forbidden, and had to be changed into
+Turks, Arabs, Samaritans, or worshippers of the stars and planets. One can
+imagine what confusion such stupid alterations caused. Fancy what blunders
+would have been committed in history if the old chroniclers had been
+compelled to change the Pope into the Grand Turk or the Shah of Persia,
+the Christian rulers into as many califs and pashas, or Rome and Athens
+into Pekin and Mecca!
+
+It may perhaps be interesting to learn that Jews sometimes imitated their
+bitter enemies in this work of mutilation. Thus in the later editions of
+the _Book of Genealogies_ by Abraham Zacuto,(219) a passage was left out
+reproducing the evidence given by the widow of Moses de Leon to the effect
+that the cabbalistic work, the Zohar, was a forgery manufactured by her
+poor dear husband. Another omission of this kind is to be found in the
+Code of R. Joseph Caro, mentioned above. Here the earliest editions
+declare, in the heading of section 605, "a certain religious usage" to be
+"a custom of folly." In the republications, the last three words were left
+out. From such nonsensical omissions and changes only the earliest
+editions, which are abundant in the Museum, were exempt.
+
+A remarkable feature about the books of this Hebrew collection also is
+that many of them are provided in the margin with manuscript notes by
+their former possessors. These often happen to bear very great names in
+literature. I shall only mention here R. Jacob Emden, Almanzi, Michael,
+Gerundi, and Heidenheim. Of the works written by R. Jacob Emden, the
+Museum possesses an almost complete author's copy with abundant
+corrections, notes, and emendations by the author himself. His works are
+still very popular among Polish and Russian Jews, especially his Prayer-
+Book, and his Responses. It would be advisable for publishers in these
+countries to avail themselves of this copy on the occasion of a new
+edition. Of Christian scholars I should name here Isaac Casaubon. A rather
+amusing mistake occurs in Ben-Jacob's _Treasure of Books_ in connection
+with this name. Among the many valuable copies of Kimchi's grammatical
+work _Perfection_,(220) possessed by the Museum, there is included one
+which belonged to Casaubon, and is full of notes by him. The author of the
+_Treasure_ speaks of a _Perfection_ with notes by Rabbi Yitzchak Kasuban.
+I was at first at a loss to guess who that Rabbi Casaubon might be. When
+examining Zedner I found it was no other than the famous Christian
+scholar, Isaac Casaubon. It is not known that Casaubon's ambition lay in
+this direction. But when Philo was regarded as a Father of the Church, Ben
+Gabirol quoted for many centuries as a Mohammedan philosopher, why should
+not Casaubon obtain for once the dignity of a Rabbi?
+
+After having given the reader some notion of the collection of printed
+works, I should like now to invite him to accompany me through the
+Manuscript Department of the Museum. But I am afraid that I shall make a
+bad guide here; for the Museum is still without a descriptive catalogue of
+the Hebrew manuscripts, which is the only means of enabling the student to
+obtain a general view of the number and nature of these works. The
+manuscript catalogue of Dukes goes only as far as 1856. It was, as we
+shall soon see, just after this time that the Museum made its largest and,
+to a certain degree also, its most valuable acquisitions in Hebrew
+manuscripts. The following remarks must, therefore, not be taken as the
+result of a systematic study of this collection, which would be quite
+impossible without the aid of a catalogue. They rest partly on the
+descriptions given of a certain number of manuscripts in the catalogue by
+Dukes, but for the greater part on occasional glances at this or that MS.
+
+As to the history of the collection, it has grown out of small beginnings
+just as that of printed books. The collection of Dr. Sloane, which laid
+the foundation of the Museum Library, contained only nine Hebrew MSS.
+Later acquisitions, as the Harleian collection, the Cottonian collection,
+the Royal collection, and many other smaller collections marked as
+Additional up to 1854, increased the number of the Hebrew manuscripts to
+232. Of much more importance was the Almanzi collection, bought by the
+trustees of the Museum in 1865, and consisting of 335 MSS. Of succeeding
+acquisitions I shall mention here only the Yemen MSS., which were brought
+to this country by the famous Shapira. The number of Hebrew MSS. at the
+present day is said to exceed one thousand. But we must not forget that
+many MSS. contain more than one work; in some cases even three or four, so
+that the number of Hebrew works is far greater still.
+
+I shall now speak of the nature and importance of these MSS. As to their
+contents they may be easily grouped under the following headings: Biblical
+MSS., Commentaries (to the Bible) and Super-Commentaries, parts of the
+Talmud and their Commentaries, Theology, Philosophy and Ethics, Massorah,
+Grammar and Lexicography, Cabbalah, Poetry, Mathematics, Astronomy,
+Astrology and Magic, Historical and Polemical Literature, etc. All these
+branches of theological and secular learning and even of human folly are
+fairly represented in the collection of Hebrew MSS. in the Museum, though
+often only by a part or a fragment of a work.
+
+Thus the Babylonian Talmud is to be found only in two MSS. (Harl. 5508 and
+Add. 25,717) both of them including 11 Tractates, hardly a third part of
+the whole work. Indeed poor "Rabbinus Talmud" had to go to the _auto de
+fe_ on so many occasions that one cannot wonder if only disjointed limbs
+are to be found of him in libraries. The only complete MS. copy which
+escaped this vandalism is that in the Royal Library in Munich, from which
+Mr. Rabbinowicz has edited his monumental work, _Variae Lectiones of the
+Talmud_.
+
+All other libraries, Oxford included, have to be satisfied with fragments.
+Still worse, as it is seen, fared the Jerusalem Talmud, and excepting the
+well-known copy in Leyden from which the Venice edition was prepared, not
+even fragments of this Talmud are to be found in the majority of
+libraries. To my knowledge it is only the British Museum which can boast
+of the Jerusalem Talmud in MS. extending over _Order of Seeds_ and one
+tractate of _Order of Festivals_(221) (Or. 2122-24) with commentaries of
+R. Solomon Syrillo, the first few pages of which were edited by Dr.
+Lehmann of Mayence. The Museum also possesses a great part of the Tosephta
+extending over 14 Tractates (Add. 27,296). Of Midrashim we find in the
+Museum two excellent manuscripts of the Genesis _Rabbah_, one of the
+Leviticus _Rabbah_, and one of the _Siphra_ and the _Siphre_ (Add. 27,169
+and 16,406), besides two copies of the Midrash _Haggadol_ and other
+Aagadic collections brought from Yemen. The _Midrash_ by Machir b. Abba
+Mari to the minor prophets included in the Harleian collection (5704) is
+unique. Of Liturgies, besides a great number of MSS. representing the most
+peculiar rites, I shall mention the Machzor(222) Vitri (Add. 27,200-1)
+composed by the disciples of R. Solomon b. Isaac, and forming in itself
+almost a small library. For, apart from the prayers for festivals and week
+days which gave it its title, it includes, besides the _Sayings of the
+Fathers_ with a large commentary, three of the Minor Tractates of the
+Talmud, many responses by German and French Rabbis, and a whole series of
+religious hymns by German and Spanish authors, and many other literary
+pieces. Cabbalah is represented by various valuable writings of the pre-
+Zoharistic time (see for instance Add. 15,299) and the works of R. Moses
+de Leon and R. Abraham Abulafia. Of Poetry, I shall point here to the
+Tarshish of R. Moses Ibn Ezra, the Makames by Judah Al Charisi (Add.
+27,122), and the Divan of R. Abraham of Bedres (Add. 27,188). Of works
+relating to grammar and lexicography, I may refer to a Codex (Add. 27,214)
+which contains the lexicon of R. Menahem ben Saruk, which is considered as
+the oldest Hebrew MS. in the Museum, dating from the year 1091. Of
+historical works, I mention the chronicle of R. Joseph the Priest (Add.
+27,122) and the letter of R. Sherira Gaon (Arundel 51), the oldest
+existing copy of this work (1189), which was edited by Dr. Neubauer in his
+_Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles_.
+
+These examples will suffice to show the significance of the MSS.
+collection of this Library. And the student may rest assured that in
+whatever branch of Jewish thought he is interested, he will always find in
+the Museum some Hebrew manuscript useful for his purpose.
+
+I ought now to say a few words as to the value of this collection of
+manuscripts. Now, if the work contained in a MS. has never been edited, as
+for instance the Machzor Vitri(223) and so many others, its value is
+established by the mere fact of its existence. For those who published
+MSS. were not always guided by the best literary motives. And while they
+published and republished many books of which one edition would have been
+more than enough, many other works of the greatest importance for Jewish
+literature and history remained in manuscript. As an instance, it will
+suffice to mention here the Zohar, which has passed through twenty-four
+editions since the sixteenth century, whilst the earliest Jewish Midrash,
+the _Pessikta de Rab Kahana_, had to linger in the libraries till the year
+1868, when it was edited by Mr. S. Buber. Thus there are still many pearls
+of Jewish literature which exist only in MS. Likewise most publishers were
+careless in their choice of the manuscript from which our editions have
+been prepared. Almost the whole of Jewish literature will have to be re-
+edited before a scientific study of it will be possible. But such critical
+editions can only be obtained by the aid of the MSS. not yet made use of,
+in which better readings are to be found. From this fact even those MSS.
+the contents of which have been several times reprinted, as for instance
+the MSS. of the Midrash _Rabbah_, gain the greatest literary importance.
+And the more MSS. the editor of a work has at his disposal, the more
+certain is he of being able to furnish us with a good text.
+
+But even when the whole of Jewish literature lies before the student in
+the best of texts, there will still remain a great charm about
+manuscripts. Printed books, like the great mass of the modern society for
+which they are prepared, are devoid of any originality. They interest us
+only as classes, and it is very seldom that they have a story of their own
+to tell. It is quite different with manuscripts, where the fact of their
+having been produced by a living being invests them with a certain kind of
+individuality. This is specially the case with Hebrew MSS., which were not
+copied by men shut up in cloisters, but by sociable people living in the
+world and sharing its joys and sorrows. Even women were employed in this
+art, and I remember to have read in some MS. or catalogue a postscript by
+the lady copyist, which, if I remember rightly, ran as follows: "I beseech
+the reader not to judge me very harshly when he finds that mistakes have
+crept into this work; for when I was engaged in copying it God blessed me
+with a son, and thus I could not attend to my business properly."
+
+To be sure, some of these copyists were curious folk. Their mind as well
+as that of the world around them must have been of a peculiar constitution
+hardly conceivable to us. Take, for example, Benjamin, the copyist of a
+certain Machzor in the Museum (Add. 11,639). This Machzor was written in
+times of bitter persecution. The copyist, who was himself a learned man,
+alludes in one place to the sufferings which the Jews in a certain French
+town had to undergo in the year 1276. On one of them, the martyr R.
+Samson, Benjamin the copyist composed a lamentation written in a most
+mournful strain. But this lamentation is followed by a wine-song, one of
+the jolliest and wildest parodies for the feast of Purim.
+
+Speaking of this Machzor I should like to remark that it forms one of the
+greatest ornaments of the Museum. Besides including the whole of the
+Pentateuch, the above-mentioned Tarshish by R. Moses Ibn Ezra, and many
+other smaller literary pieces which would require a small volume to
+describe them properly, this MS. is most richly illuminated, and contains
+very many illustrations. The subjects of these illustrations are biblical,
+sometimes also apocryphal, such as--Adam and Eve in Paradise, Noah in the
+Ark, Abraham meeting the angels, Sarah behind the door listening to the
+conversation of her husband with his guests, Moses with the rod in his
+hands dividing the Red Sea, Samson riding on the back of a lion, Solomon
+on his throne, Daniel in the lion's den, the king Ahasuerus holding out
+the golden sceptre to Esther, Judith addressing Holofernes, the Leviathan,
+the mythical bird Bar Yochni, and many other similar subjects. In passing
+I recommend these illustrations and illuminations to the attention of the
+artist as the most worthy examples of Jewish ecclesiastical art,--if there
+is such a thing as a special Jewish art. The artist will find the Museum
+best suited for this purpose, its collection being considered as the
+richest of the kind. Besides this Machzor I must also allude to the
+illuminated Bible (Or. 2226-28) written in Lisbon for R. Judah Alchakin--it
+is said to be one of the finest specimens of such works--and the
+illuminated Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, executed for R. Joseph of the
+famous Yachya family, also thought to be most artistically done. The
+liturgies for the Passover Eve service will also offer to the artist a
+rich harvest, especially Codex, Add. 27,210, which the wealthy Lady Rosa
+Galico presented to her son-in-law on his wedding-day, and Codex, Add.
+14,762, even the binding of which is considered as an artistic curiosity.
+
+Leaving now these marvels to the appreciation of the artist, the greatest
+wonder which suggests itself to us is how the Jews could maintain such a
+cultured taste in such unhappy times, and get the means of satisfying it.
+These reflections about the owners present themselves the more strongly to
+our mind when we meet with one of those old Jewish prayer-books, which in
+many cases formed the whole religious and literary treasure of the family.
+In their fly-leaves, in which the births and deaths of successive
+generations are very often registered, the _spiritus familiaris_ seems to
+be still haunting the pages. When you turn them over and see the service
+for Passover Eve, are you not bound to think of the anxiety with which
+these poor creatures engaged in this ceremony lest they might be attacked
+suddenly by a fanatic mob? must you not ask how they could bear life under
+such circumstances? And when you turn a few more pages and arrive at the
+prayers read for the dead, must you not ask how did they die? Were they
+perhaps burnt alive _ad majorem Dei gloriam_, or torn to pieces by a
+"saintly mob"? Take again the illuminated copies of the Bible and the
+Mishneh Torah, both of which were finished only a few years before the
+great expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal, times when the earth
+already "burnt under their feet, and the heaven was also very unkind to
+them." And nevertheless Jews were still, as these MSS. show us,
+cultivating science and art. Another instance of such a devotion to
+science in spite of the unfavourable times may be seen from a colophon to
+Codex Or. 39. It contains the book _Nissim_, a philosophical treatise on
+the fundamental teachings of Judaism, together with a philosophical
+commentary on the Pentateuch by R. Nissim of Marseilles, a contemporary of
+R. Solomon ben Adereth in the thirteenth century. The Museum copy was
+written by R. Jacob, the son of David, who also added some annotations to
+the book. At the end he says: "I have copied this book _Nissim_ for my own
+use, that I may study in it, I and my children and my grandchildren.... I
+have finished it to-day, Sunday, the 28th of Ab, 5333 (1573), at Venice,
+in the year of the expulsion which befell us on account of our sins." Now,
+only observe this poor R. Jacob, who has to go through all these horrors,
+yet is still occupied in copying MSS. for his own pleasure, and in
+meditating on the most complicated problems of philosophy and religion.
+
+But it is not always stories of this heroic nature that the MSS. tell us.
+They betray also very much of the instability of human affairs and their
+weakness. You find in many copies the words that they must not "be sold or
+given in mortgage." But scarcely a generation has passed away, and they
+are already in the possession of a new owner, who writes the same
+injunction to be broken again by his children in their turn. In Codex
+27,122, we find commendatory letters for a worthy poor man, who is so
+unhappy as to have two grown-up daughters, and not to have the means of
+supplying them with marriage portions. Indeed, he must have been very
+poor, not possessing even a book in his house, or else his troubles could
+not have been so great. For in Codex Harl. 5702, we find the owner saying:
+"To eternal memory that I have acquired this _Third Book of Avicena_ from
+the hands of my father-in-law, R. Jekuthiel, as a part of my dowry."
+
+As a sign of human weakness I give the following two instances. There lies
+before me a cabbalistic Codex (Add. 27,199), which acquired some notoriety
+from the fact of its having been copied by the famous grammarian, R.
+Elijah Levita, for his pupil Cardinal Aegidius. At the end of this MS. we
+read: "I (Levita) have finished (the copying of) this book on Wednesday,
+the day of Hoshana Rabba,(224) 5277 (1516), on which day I have seen my
+head in the shadow of the moon. Praised be God (for it), for now I am sure
+not to die in the following year." These words relate to a well-known
+superstition, according to which, when a man is going to die in the course
+of the next year his shadow disappears from him on the preceding Hoshana
+Rabba. But is it not humiliating to see that the great Levita, who was
+superior to many prejudices of his time, and taught Christians Hebrew, and
+who denied the antiquity of the vowels in the Bible, which was considered
+by the great majority of his contemporaries as a mortal heresy--is it not
+humiliating to see this enlightened man trembling for his life on this
+night, and anxiously observing his shadow? Another Codex lies before me
+(Add. 17,053), containing the Novellae to three tractates of the Talmud.
+Its owner must accordingly have been a learned man. But in the fly-leaf of
+this MS. we read the following words: "Memorandum--Thursday, the 25th of
+Sivan, 5295 (1535), I have taken an oath in the presence of R. David Ibn
+Shushan and R. Moses de Castro, etc., not to play (cards) any more." I
+might perhaps suggest on this occasion that in our days when all sorts of
+Judaisms are circulating, a cooking Judaism, a racing Judaism, a muscular
+Judaism, and so many Judaisms more--it would be interesting to take up also
+the subject of playing Judaism, and to write its history.
+
+In conclusion I shall mention the colophon to Codex Harl. 5713, which may
+have some interest for the English reader. It runs: "I have written it in
+honour of the noble and pious, etc., Humphrey Wanley, the noble Librarian
+of my Lord Treasurer. May his glory be increased. In the year 5474 (1714)
+in the holy community of London, under the reign of the noble and happy
+Queen Anne. May the Lord increase her splendour and glory." The signature
+of the copyist is "Aaron the son of Moses, born in the city of Navaschadok
+in Poland." By the way, we learn from this signature that the immigration
+of Polish Jews into this country had already begun in the time of Queen
+Anne, and perhaps still earlier.
+
+Thus everything in a MS., the arrangement of the matter, the remarks of
+the owners, the signature of the copyist, sets the reader thinking, and
+contributes many a side-light to the history of the Jews.
+
+
+
+
+
+XI. TITLES OF JEWISH BOOKS
+
+
+It is now more than half a century since Isaac Reggio in his edition of
+Elijah Delmedigo's _Examination of Religion_, made the remark that this
+book adds to its other merits that of bearing a title corresponding to its
+contents,--a merit that is very rare in Jewish books. Reggio proceeds to
+give a few specimens confirming his assertion, and concludes his remarks
+with a eulogy on Delmedigo, who in this respect also had the courage to
+differ from his contemporaries. Zunz also once wrote an article on titles
+of books. But this article unfortunately appeared in some German
+periodical which the British Museum does not possess, and I could not even
+succeed in ascertaining whether Zunz treats at all of titles of Hebrew
+books, nor am I aware that the subject has been taken up by any other
+scholar, Isaac D'Israeli's few notes on the subject in his _Curiosities of
+Literature_ being scarcely worth mention. It seems to me, however,
+interesting enough to deserve some illustration, though I can by no means
+hope to be complete.
+
+The titles of the books contained in the Bible need not be discussed here;
+information concerning them is to be found in every critical introduction
+to the Old Testament. The Rabbinical works dating from antiquity also
+offer little opportunity for reflection on their titles. The Talmud, as a
+work, has no title at all; for Talmud simply means "teaching" or "study."
+Sometimes it is termed ShaSS, an abbreviation of _Shisha Sedarim_,(225)
+meaning the Six Orders or divisions contained in the Mishnah. This last
+word means, according to some authors, "Repetition." Other Tannaitic
+collections of laws or expositions of the Scriptures are called "the Book"
+(Siphra), "the Books" (Siphre), or "Additions" (Tosephta to the Mishnah).
+The word _Baraitha_(226) means the external Mishnah that enjoyed less
+authority than the Mishnah of R. Judah the Patriarch. Some approach to
+titles we find in the names given to the different tractates included in
+the Mishnah, as _Berachoth_, because it treats of Benedictions,
+_Peah_(227) (Corner) which contains the particulars concerning the law in
+Lev. xix. and so forth. Of the few works quoted in the Talmud it will
+suffice to mention the _Seder Olam_, the Order of the World, the name of
+which is very suitable to the chronological contents of the book. In
+general, I may observe that as long as the law which prohibited the
+writing down of the Oral teachings was in force, there hardly existed
+Jewish books. But where there are no books there is also no need for
+titles. The few titles, however, which can be proved to be historical are
+simple and to the point. It is not till about the beginning of the Middle
+Ages, when this prohibitive law had, for reasons not to be explained here,
+been abolished, that we can speak of Hebrew books. But here also the
+Title-confusion begins.
+
+In order that we may have some general view of the thousands of titles
+that are catalogued by the Jewish bibliographers, it will perhaps be well
+to arrange them under the following six classes:--
+
+I. _Simple titles_, that have no other object than that of indicating the
+subject matter of the book. These are, as we have just seen, the only kind
+of titles known to antiquity. The few books which the Gaonim left us bear
+such simple titles as could have served as models to later generations.
+Among them may be mentioned the _Halachoth_ or collection of Laws, _Creeds
+and Opinions_, by R. Saadiah Gaon, the _Book on Buying and Selling_, by R.
+Hai Gaon, containing the laws relating to commercial transactions. It may
+be noticed that this last book is one of the best arranged in Jewish
+literature, and displays more systematising powers than even the Code of
+Maimonides. The greatest part of the literary activity of the Gaonim
+consists in their Responsa, in which they gave decisions on ritual
+questions, or explanations of difficult passages in the Talmud. The titles
+borne by the various collections of those Responsa belong to a period
+later than the author's. The great majority of the books produced by the
+Franco-German school may also be included in this class. They are termed
+"Commentaries," "Additions" or "Glosses," "Novellae," or "Confirming
+Proofs," and similar modest titles which show both their relation to, and
+dependence on, another older authority. The largest collection of
+Midrashim we possess bears the simple title "Bag."(228) Many of the
+Responsa satisfy themselves with the words "Questions to, and Answers by."
+
+II. _Titles taken from the first word with which the book begins_, or from
+the first word of the Scriptural verse occurring first in the book. This
+class is strongly represented by the Midrashim. Thus the Midrash to the
+Song of Songs is also quoted as the Midrash _Chazitha_,(229) "Midrash,
+Seest thou" (the first text with which this Midrash deals being Proverbs
+xxii. 28). The Midrash to the Psalms is called Midrash _Shocher Tob_,(230)
+"Midrash, He that diligently seeketh the good" (Prov. xi. 37). The Midrash
+containing the legendary story of the wars of the sons of Jacob with the
+Canaanites is quoted as Midrash _V'yisseu_,(231) "Midrash, And they
+journeyed," as the story begins with the verse from Gen. xxxv. 5. And this
+is the case with the titles of many other Midrashim. Whether the work
+cited under the strange name of _Meat on Coals_ did not begin with those
+words, containing some law relating to the salting of meat, I do not
+venture to decide. Under this class we may also arrange those books that
+are called after a phrase which is often used in the book, _e.g._, the
+Midrash _Yelamdenu_ (He may teach us), or the _Vehizhir_, "And He
+commanded us," almost every paragraph in these books beginning with the
+phrases mentioned.(232) Probably all the books belonging to this class
+received from the hands of their authors or compilers no titles at all.
+The student who had to quote them gave them names after the phrase or word
+which first caught his eye. In later centuries this class disappears
+almost entirely (see, however, Ben-Jacob's _Treasure_, p. 201, No. 827).
+
+III. _Pompous titles._ The largest contributions to this class were made
+by the mystical writers. Books which profess to know what is going on in
+the heavens above and the earth beneath cannot possibly be satisfied with
+modest titles. Thus we have the "Book of Brightness" (Zohar), "the shining
+book" (Bahir), "the Confidential Shepherd" (Moses).(233) The books which
+the Zohar quotes bear such titles as the Book of Adam, the Book of Enoch.
+The only excuse for the Zohar is that the manufacturing of such books with
+pseudo-epigraphical titles had already begun in antiquity. It is not,
+however, till the Gaonic period that a whole apocryphal literature
+suddenly emerges which perplexes the Gaonim themselves. No one is spared.
+Angels, patriarchs, and martyrs are called upon to lend their names to
+these books. What one resents most is that history came within the range
+of the forger's activity. There is, for instance, the Josippon, which
+professes to be written by Josephus, the well-known Jewish historian of
+the first century. But in spite of all the care taken by the author to
+disguise himself in the garb of antiquity, the Josippon is a forgery of
+the ninth or tenth century. Of a similar kind is the Book of Jasher,
+containing legendary stories relating to Biblical personages. It pretends
+to be identical with the Book of Jasher quoted in Joshua x. 13 and 2 Sam.
+i. 18. Some sixty years ago a certain Mr. Samuel of Liverpool had the
+misfortune to make himself ridiculous by maintaining the pretensions of
+this book; for, indeed, it does not require much knowledge of the Agadic
+literature to see that the Book of Jasher is only a compilation of
+comparatively late Midrashim.
+
+IV. _Titles suggested by other Titles._ As an instance of this we may take
+Maimonides' great Code of Law, which bears the title _Mishneh Torah_. The
+importance of the book made it the object of study for hundreds of
+scholars, who wrote their commentaries and glosses on it. Among the titles
+of the commentaries such Title-genealogies may be discovered as Maggid
+_Mishneh_, _Mishneh_ Lammelech; which last word again suggested such
+titles as Emek ha-_Melech_, Shaar ha-_Melech_, and so on.(234)
+
+The same process may be observed in other standard works, the importance
+of which made them a subject of investigation and interpretation as the
+"Prepared Table," one of the glosses to which is called _Mappah_,
+"Tablecloth," whilst others provided it with the _Shewbread_ and with _New
+Fruit_.
+
+V. _Euphemistic Titles_, as "The Tractate of Joys," treating of funeral
+ceremonies and kindred subjects. It does not seem that this title was
+known to antiquity, but it is certain that already the earlier authorities
+quoted it by this name. "The Book of Life" (the German Jewish title of
+which is _Alle Dinim, von Freuden_), is the name of a very popular book
+containing the prayers to be read in the house of mourning as well as in
+the cemetery, which is also called the House of Life.
+
+VI. _Titles taken from the Bible_, or Fancy Titles. This is the largest
+class of all, though it was utterly unknown in antiquity. It will be,
+perhaps, convenient to arrange this class of titles under the following
+sub-divisions. (_a_) Titles taken from the Bible, but also fulfilling the
+purpose of indicating the name of the author. For instance, "Seed of
+Abraham" (Ps. cv. 6), is the title of nine different books, the name of
+whose authors happened to be Abraham; "And Isaac entreated" (Gen. xxv.
+21), is by Isaac Satanow on the Prayers; "Then Isaac sowed" (_ibid._ xxvi.
+12), edited by R. Isaac Perles, contains an index to the Zohar. "Jacob
+shall take root" (Is. xxvii. 6) is the name of a book on Grammar and
+Massorah by R. Jacob Bassani. R. Joseph of Posen left two collections of
+sermons and commentaries on the Pentateuch, of which the one is called
+"And Joseph nourished" (Gen. xlvii. 12), the other "And Joseph gathered"
+(_ibid._ 14). Authors with the name of Judah are represented among others
+by such titles as "And this of Judah" (Deut. xxxiii.7), a treatise on the
+laws concerning the killing of animals; or "Judah shall go up" (Judges i.
+2), a pamphlet containing a collection of prayers to be said on a journey.
+"Moses began" (Deut. i. 5) forms the title of three different books on
+various subjects, the authors of which had the name Moses. "Moses shall
+rejoice," a phrase occurring in the morning prayer for Sabbaths, is also
+the title of two books, the authors of which were named Moses. The "Rod of
+Aaron" enjoyed, as it seems, a goodly popularity; there are four bearing
+this name, not to speak of a fifth, "The Rod of Aaron brought forth buds"
+(Exod. xvii. 23), which is the name of a collection of Responsa by R.
+Aaron ben Chayim. But other Rods also were fashionable; there are, besides
+the five Rods of Moses, also Rods of Ephraim, Dan, Judah, Joseph,
+Naphtali, and Manasseh. By authors of the name of David we find books with
+the title "And David said," or a "Prayer of David," and other phrases
+occurring in the Psalms relating to David; whilst the "Tower of David"
+became the stronghold of other writers, and the "Shield of David"
+protected as many as nine more. The "Chariot of Solomon" (Cant. iii. 9)
+adorns the title-pages of five books by authors named Solomon. The Caraite
+Solomon Troki was so fond of that title that he called his two polemical
+treatises "He made himself a chariot," while R. Solomon of Mir's
+collection of sermons has the title, "This Bed which is Solomon's" (Cant.
+iii. 7). As to family names, there were not many authors in the enjoyment
+of that luxury (especially among the German Jews), but we find them
+indicating the fact of their being Priests or Levites. Among such books
+are the collection of Responsa, by R. Raphael Cohen, which has the title
+"And the Priest shall come again" (Lev. xiv. 39), and the Cabbalistic
+treatise by R. Abraham Cohen, of Lask, with the title "And the Priest
+shall reckon unto him" (Lev. xxvii. 18). Probably the author deals with
+numbers. R. Hirsch Horwitz, the Levite, called his Novellae to the Talmud
+"The Camp of Levi." The title "The Service of the Levite" (with allusion
+to Exodus xxxviii. 21) is borne by five other books by authors who were
+Levites. And there may be found hundreds of books with titles suggesting
+the Priestly or Levitical descent of their authors. Most anxious is Joseph
+Ibn Kaspi (Joseph the Silvern, so called after his native place
+Argentiere, in the south of France) to provide most of his numerous books
+with some Biblical titles combined with silver, as a "Bowl of Silver"
+(Numb. vii. 13), or "Points of Silver" (Song of Songs i. 11), or "Figures
+of Silver" (Prov. xxv. 10), and other similar phrases. On the other hand
+Azulai manages to indicate at least one of his three Hebrew names, Chayim
+Joseph David, in most of his works, of which the number exceeds seventy,
+as Chayim Shaal,(235) "He asked Life" (Ps. xxi. 4), or "The knees of
+Joseph" (alluding to Gen. xlviii. 12), and "Truth unto David" (Ps. cxxxii.
+11).
+
+(_b_) The Tabernacle with its furniture was also a great favourite with
+many authors. There are not only six tabernacles (two on Cabbalah, two on
+grammar, and two on Talmudical subjects), but also three "Arks of the
+Testimony," two "Altars of gold," two "Tables of Shewbread," four
+"Candlesticks of the Light," two "Sockets of Silver," and two "Pillars of
+Silver." Others again preferred the vestments of the priests as the "Plate
+of Judgment," the "Robe of the Ephod," the "Mitre of Aaron," the "Plate of
+Gold," the "Bell and Pomegranate," "Wreathen Chains," and the "Arches of
+Gold." Many of these books were written by authors claiming to be priests.
+(_c_) But besides the canonical, other costumes were also fashionable. R.
+Mordecai Yafeh composed ten books, every one of them bearing the name of
+some garment or apparel, as "Apparel of Royalty," "Apparel of Blue,"
+"Apparel of White," and so the whole suit with which Mordecai went out
+from the presence of the king (Esther viii. 15). These ten works range
+from codifications of the law and occasional sermons to philosophy,
+astronomy, and Cabbalah. By other writers we have three "Coats of many
+colours" (Gen. xxxvii. 4), one "Bridal Attire," and the "Thread of
+Scarlet" is not missing. (_d_) The ingredients for incense as well as
+other articles used in the Tabernacle or in the Temple were also fancied
+by some authors, and we have two books with the title of "Principal
+Spices," two "Pure Myrrh," three "Arts of the Apothecary," one "Oil of
+Holy Ointment," five "Meat Offerings mingled or dry," three or four "Flour
+of the Meat Offering," and also one "Two Young Pigeons" (Bene Yonah) by R.
+Jonah Zandsopher. But the appetite of the authors did not stop at these
+holy things. It extended also to such lay articles as "Spiced Wine,"
+"Juice of Pomegranate" (Cant. viii. 2), "Forests of Honey," the "Book of
+the Apple," and "Seven Kinds of Drink."
+
+(_e_) Field and flock also suggested to Hebrew writers as well as to Mr.
+Ruskin such titles as "The Fruit of the Hand," the "Rose of Sharon," the
+"Lily of the Valleys," or "The Shepherds' Tents," and "In the Green
+Pastures" (Ps. xxiii. 2).
+
+The specimens given for every class may with very little trouble be
+doubled and redoubled. But it is not my intention to reproduce here whole
+catalogues. Reggio thinks all such titles, which do not correspond with
+the context of the book, absurd and confusing. He suggests that the Jews
+followed in this respect the Arabic writers. There is no doubt that Reggio
+is not altogether wrong in his complaint. Almost all the titles included
+in class vi., as the reader might have observed, never indicate to the
+student the subject of which the books treat. How can one guess that the
+Responsa, the Dance of Mahanaim (two companies), is of a polemical nature
+against the tendencies of reform? This list may be lengthened by hundreds
+of titles. But even these incomprehensible titles are better than the
+_Chad Gadyah Lo Israel_ (One Kid No Israel),(236) the un-Hebrew title of a
+pamphlet trying to prove the un-Jewish origin of the well-known folk-song
+sung on Passover Eve. But, on the other hand, it must not be overlooked
+that even this class has, though not always, something suggestive and even
+practical about it. The "Choice of Pearls" is undoubtedly more attractive
+than the prosaic "Collection of Proverbs and Sayings," which is what the
+book contains. "Understanding of the Seasons" (1 Chr. xii. 32), sounds
+also better than the simple "Collection of Sermons on different
+occasions." "The Lips of those who Sleep" recommends itself as a very
+suggestive title for a catalogue, especially when one thinks of the Agadic
+explanation given to Cant. vii. 10, according to which the study of the
+book of a departed author makes the lips of the dead man to speak. Such
+titles as "Bunch of Lilies" for a collection of poems are still usual with
+us. Such a title as the "Jealousy Offering," or the "Law of Jealousies,"
+in polemical literature is very appropriate for its subject. R. Jacob
+Emden, who named one of his pamphlets "Rod for the fool's back" (Prov.
+xxvi. 3), will be envied for his choice by many a controversialist even
+to-day. Wittily devised is the pun-title, "City of Sihon" for a
+mathematical book by R. Joseph Tsarphathi, alluding to Numb. xxi. 27, "For
+Hesbon (reckoning) is the City of Sihon."
+
+Other titles were probably intended more as mottoes than titles. "Go forth
+and behold, ye daughters of Zion" (Cant. iii. 11), is put in the title-
+page of R. Jacob's German-Jewish paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which was
+written chiefly for the use of ladies. "Let another man praise thee and
+not thine own mouth, a stranger and not thine own lips" (Prov. xxvii. 2),
+forms the title of a book extending over only one and a half page in
+quarto. It contains letters by seven Rabbis (among them R. Liva of Prague)
+recommending the Ascetic, R. Abraham Wangos, who has a daughter to marry,
+and wants also to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, as deserving the
+support of his brethren.
+
+There is also another objection to these titles. It is that they seem
+sometimes not quite consonant with our notions of modesty. Thus we have
+"Desirable and Sweet" on astronomy, "Sweeter than Honey" or "He shall
+comfort us," and many others of this kind. But it must not be thought that
+we have a right to infer from the title to the author. There is, indeed,
+an anecdote that three authors were rather too little careful about the
+choice of their titles, namely Maimonides in calling his Code _Mishneh
+Torah_ (which is the traditional title of the Book of Deuteronomy), R.
+Moses Alshech in calling his homiletical commentaries _Torah_ of Moses,
+and R. Isaiah Horwitz in calling his book _Shene Luchoth ha-Berith_ (The
+Two Tables of the Covenant). These authors, as the story goes, had for
+their punishment that their works are never quoted by the titles they gave
+to them, the former two being usually cited as Rambam or Alshech, whilst
+the last is more known by its abbreviated title of SHeLa(237) than by its
+full name.
+
+I do not remember where I have read this story, but I am quite sure that
+its pious author would have been more careful about repeating it had he
+known that this accusation against Maimonides was a favourite topic with
+apostates, who thought to hit Judaism in the person of its representative
+Maimonides. But, as R. Solomon Duran in his polemical work remarks,
+Maimonides was too much of a truly great man to find any satisfaction in
+such petty vanity. Nor do I believe that even the character of less-known
+authors can in any way be impugned by the seemingly conceited titles of
+their books; just as on the other hand the humility of the author is not
+proved by calling his book "The Offering of the Poor," or other modest
+titles. The fancy title was in common use, and was therefore a commonplace
+with no significance whatever. The real disadvantage of such titles lies
+in the fact that, as already pointed out, they conceal from the student
+the contents of the book which he might otherwise consult in the course of
+his researches.
+
+Did these authors perhaps foresee that there would come a time in which
+index-knowledge would pass for deep scholarship? and did they thus by
+using these obscure titles try to put a check on the dabblers who speak
+the more of a book the less they have read of its contents? If this be the
+case we can only admire their foresight.
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. THE CHILD IN JEWISH LITERATURE
+
+
+"I saw a Jewish lady only yesterday with a child at her knee, and from
+whose face towards the child there shone a sweetness so angelical that it
+seemed to form a sort of glory round both. I protest I could have knelt
+before her, too, and adored in her the divine beneficence in endowing us
+with the maternal _storge_ which began with our race and sanctifies the
+history of mankind." These words, which are taken from Thackeray's
+_Pendennis_, may serve as a starting-point for this paper. The fact that
+the great student of man perceived this glory just round the head of a
+Jewish lady rouses in me the hope that the small student of letters may,
+with a little search, be able to discover in the remains of our past many
+similar traces of this divine beneficence and sanctifying sentiment.
+Certainly the glimpses which we shall catch from the faded leaves of
+ancient volumes, dating from bygone times, will not be so bright as those
+which the novelist was so fortunate as to catch from the face of a lady
+whom he saw but the previous day. The mothers and fathers, about whom I am
+going to write in this essay, have gone long ago, and the objects of their
+anxiety and troubles have also long ago vanished. But what the subject
+will lose in brightness, it may perhaps gain in reality and intensity. A
+few moments of enraptured devotion do not make up the saint. It is a whole
+series of feelings and sentiments betrayed on different occasions,
+expressed in different ways, a whole life of sore troubles, of bitter
+disappointments, but also moments of most elevated joys and real
+happiness.
+
+And surely these manifestations of the divine beneficence, which appear in
+their brightest glory in the literature of every nation when dealing with
+the child, shine strongest in the literature of the Jewish nation. In it,
+to possess a child was always considered as the greatest blessing God
+could bestow on man, and to miss it as the greatest curse. The patriarch
+Abraham, with whom Israel enters into history, complains--"Oh Lord, what
+wilt Thou give me, seeing I go childless!"
+
+The Rabbis regarded the childless man as dead, whilst the Cabbalist in the
+Middle Ages thought of him who died without posterity as of one who had
+failed in his mission in this world, so that he would have to appear again
+on our planet to fulfil this duty. To trace out the feelings which
+accompanied the object of their greatest anxiety, to let them pass before
+the reader in some way approaching to a chronological order, to draw
+attention to some points more worthy of being emphasised than others, is
+the aim of this essay.
+
+I said that I propose to treat the subject in chronological order. I meant
+by this that I shall follow the child in the different stages through
+which it has to pass from its birth until it ceases to be a child and
+attains its majority. This latter period is the beginning of the
+thirteenth year in the case of a female, and the beginning of the
+fourteenth year in the case of a male. I shall have occasion later on to
+examine this point more closely.
+
+But there is the embryo-period which forms a kind of preliminary stage in
+the life of the child, and plays a very important part in the region of
+Jewish legends. Human imagination always occupies itself most with the
+things of which we know least. And so it got hold of this semi-existence
+of man, the least accessible to experience and observation, and surrounded
+it by a whole cycle of legends and stories. They are too numerous to be
+related here. But I shall hint at a few points which I regard as the most
+conspicuous features of these legends.
+
+These legends are chiefly based on the notion of the pre-existence of the
+soul on the one hand, but on the other hand they are a vivid illustration
+of the saying of the Fathers, "Thou art born against thy will." Thus the
+soul, when it is brought before the throne of God, and is commanded to
+enter into the body, pleads before Him: "O Lord, till now have I been holy
+and pure; bring me not into contact with what is common and unclean."
+Thereupon the soul is given to understand that it was for this destiny
+alone that it was created. Another remarkable feature is the warning given
+to man before his birth that he will be responsible for his actions. He is
+regularly sworn in. The oath has the double purpose of impressing upon him
+the consciousness of his duty to lead a holy life, and of arming him
+against the danger of allowing a holy life to make him vain. As if to
+render this oath more impressive, the unborn hero is provided with two
+angels who, besides teaching him the whole of the Torah, take him every
+morning through paradise and show him the glory of the just ones who dwell
+there. In the evening he is taken to hell to witness the sufferings of the
+reprobate. But such a lesson would make free will impossible. His future
+conduct would only be dictated by the fear of punishment and hope of
+reward. And the moral value of his actions also depends, according to
+Jewish notions, upon the power to commit sin. Thus another legend records:
+"When God created the world, He produced on the second day the angels with
+their natural inclinations to do good, and the absolute inability to
+commit sin. On the following days again He created the beasts with their
+exclusively animal desires. But He was pleased with neither of these
+extremes. If the angels follow my will, said God, it is only on account of
+their impotence to act in the opposite direction. I shall therefore create
+man, who will be a combination of both angel and beast, so that he will be
+able to follow either the good or evil inclination. His evil deeds will
+place him beneath the level of animals, whilst his noble aspirations will
+enable him to obtain a higher position than angels." Care is therefore
+taken to make the child forget all it has seen and heard in these upper
+regions. Before it enters the world an angel strikes it on the upper lip,
+and all his knowledge and wisdom disappear at once. The pit in the upper
+lip is a result of this stroke, which is also the cause why children cry
+when they are born.
+
+As to the origin of these legends, the main features of which are already
+to be found in the Talmud, I must refer the reader to the researches of
+Loew and others.(238) Here we have only to watch the effect which these
+legends had upon the minds of Jewish parents. The newly born child was in
+consequence looked upon by them as a higher being, which, but a few
+seconds before, had been conversing with angels and saints, and had now
+condescended into our profane world to make two ordinary mortals happy.
+The treatment which the child experienced from its parents, as well as
+from the whole of the community, was therefore a combination of love and
+veneration. One may go even further and say that the belief in these
+legends determines greatly the destination of the child. What other
+destination could a being of such a glorious past have than to be what an
+old German Jewish poem expressed in the following lines:--
+
+
+    Geboren soll es wehren
+    Zu Gottes Ehren.
+
+
+"The child should be born to the honour of God." The mission of the child
+is to glorify the name of God on earth. And the whole bringing up of the
+child in the old Jewish communities was more or less calculated to this
+end. The words of the Bible, "And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of
+priests," were taken literally. Every man felt it his duty to bring up his
+children, or at least one member of his family, for this calling. How they
+carried out this programme we shall see later on.
+
+Now, regarding almost every infant as a predestined priest, and thinking
+of it as having received a certain preparation for this calling before it
+came into this world, we cannot wonder that the child was supposed to show
+signs of piety from the days of its earliest existence, and even earlier.
+Thus we read that even the unborn children joined in with the chorus on
+the Red Sea and sang the Song (of Moses). David, again, composed Psalms
+before perceiving the face of this world. On the Day of Atonement they
+used to communicate to the unborn child, through the medium of its mother,
+that on this great day it had to be satisfied with the good it had
+received the day before. And when a certain child, afterwards named
+Shabbethai, refused to listen to such a request, R. Johanan applied to it
+the verse from the Psalm, "The wicked are estranged from the womb."
+Indeed, Shabbethai turned out a great sinner. It will perhaps be
+interesting to hear what his sin was. It consisted in forestalling the
+corn in the market and afterwards selling it to the poor at a much higher
+price. Of a certain child the legend tells that it was born with the word
+_emeth_ (truth) engraved on its fore-head. Its parents named it
+Amiti,(239) and the child proved to be a great saint.
+
+The priest, however, could not enter into his office without some
+consecration. As the first step in this consecration of the child we may
+consider the Covenant of Abraham. But this was prefaced by a few other
+solemn acts which I must mention. One of the oldest ceremonies connected
+with the birth of a child was that of tree-planting. In the case of a boy
+they planted a cedar, in that of a girl a pine; and on their marriage they
+cut branches from these trees to form the wedding-canopy. Other rites
+followed, but they were more of a medical character, and would be better
+appreciated by the physician. In the Middle Ages superstition played a
+great part. To be sure, I have spoken of saints; but we ought not to
+forget that saints, too, have their foolish moments, especially when they
+are fighting against hosts of demons, the existence of which is only
+guaranteed by their own over-excited brains. Jewish parents were for many
+centuries troubled by the fear of Lilith,(240) the devil's mother, who was
+suspected of stealing children and killing them. The precautions they took
+to prevent this atrocity were as foolish as the object of their fear. I do
+not intend to enumerate here all these various precautions. Every country
+almost has its own usages and charms, one more absurd than the other. It
+will suffice to refer here to the most popular of these charms, in which
+certain angels are invoked to protect the child against its dangerous
+enemy Lilith. But of whatever origin they may be, Judaism could do better
+without them. The only excuse for their existence among us is to my mind
+that they provoked the famous Dr. Erter to the composition of one of the
+finest satires in the Hebrew language.
+
+Of a less revolting character was the so-called ceremony of the "Reading
+of the Shema."(241) It consisted in taking all the little children of the
+community into the house of the newly-born child, where the teacher made
+them read the Shema, sometimes also the ninety-first Psalm. The fact that
+little children were the chief actors in this ceremony reconciles one a
+little to it despite its rather doubtful origin. In some communities these
+readings took place every evening up to the day when the child was brought
+into the covenant of Abraham. In other places they performed the ceremony
+only on the eve of the day of the _Berith Milah_(242) (Ceremony of the
+Circumcision). Indeed, this was the night during which Lilith was supposed
+to play her worst tricks, and the watch over the child was redoubled.
+Hence the name "Wachnacht," or the "Night of Watching." They remained
+awake for the whole night, and spent it in feasting and in studying
+certain portions of the Bible and the Talmud, mostly relating to the event
+which was to take place on the following day. This ceremony was already
+known to Jewish writers of the thirteenth century. Nevertheless, it is
+considered by the best authorities on the subject to be of foreign origin.
+Quite Jewish, as well as entirely free from superstitious taint, was the
+visit which was paid to the infant-boy on the first Sabbath of his
+existence. It was called "Shalom Zachar,"(243) probably meaning "Peace-
+boy," in allusion to a well-known passage in the Talmud to the effect that
+the advent of a boy in the family brings peace to the world.
+
+At last the dawn of the great day of the Berith came. I shall, however,
+only touch here on the social aspects of this rite.
+
+Its popularity began, as it seems, in very early times. The persecutions
+which Israel suffered for it in the times of Antiochus Epiphanes, "when
+the princes and elders mourned, the virgins and the young men were made
+feeble, and the beauty of women was changed, and when certain women were
+put to death for causing their children to be circumcised," are the best
+proof of the attachment of the people to it. The repeated attempts against
+this law, both by heathen and by Christian hands, only served to increase
+its popularity. Indeed R. Simeon ben Eleazar characterised it as the law
+for which Israel brought the sacrifice of martyrdom, and therefore held
+firmly by it. In other words they suffered for it, and it became endeared
+to them. R. Simeon ben Gamaliel declares it to be the only law which
+Israel fulfils with joy and exultation. As a sign of this joy we may
+regard the eagerness and the lively interest which raised this ceremony
+from a strictly family affair to a matter in which the whole of the
+community participated. Thus we find that already in the times of the
+Gaonim the ceremony was transferred from the house of the parents to the
+synagogue. Here it took place after the prayers, in the presence of the
+whole congregation. The synagogue used to be specially illuminated in
+honour of the event. Certain pieces of the daily prayer, of a rather
+doleful nature, such as the confession of sins, were omitted, lest the
+harmony of the festival should be disturbed. As a substitute for these
+prayers, various hymns suitable for the occasion were composed and
+inserted in the liturgy for the day. As the most prominent members among
+those present figured the happy father of the child and the medical man
+who performed the ceremony, usually called the Mohel or Gozer,(244) both
+wearing their festal garments and having certain privileges, such as being
+called up to the Reading of the Law and chanting certain portions of the
+prayers. It is not before the tenth century that a third member suddenly
+emerges to become almost as important as the father of the child. I refer
+to the _Sandek_ or Godfather. In some countries he was also called the
+Baal Berith (Master of the Covenant). In Italy they seemed to have had two
+Sandeks. This word was for a long time supposed to be the Greek word
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. But it is now proved beyond doubt that it is a corruption of the
+word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} used in the Greek church for godfather. In the church he
+was the man who lifted the neophyte from the baptismal waters. Among the
+Jews, the office of the Sandek was to keep the child on his knees during
+the performance of the rite. The Sandek's place was, or is still, near the
+seat of honour, which is called the Throne of Elijah, who is supposed to
+be the angel of the covenant. Other angels, too, were believed to
+officiate at this rite. Thus the angel Gabriel is also said to have
+performed the office of Sandek to a certain child. According to other
+sources the archangel Metatron himself attended. Probably it was on this
+account that later Rabbis admonished the parents to take only a pious and
+good Jew as Sandek for their children. Christian theologians also declared
+that no good Christian must render such a service to a Jew. The famous
+Buxtorf had to pay a fine of 100 florins for having attended the Berith of
+a child, whose father he had employed as reader when editing the well-
+known Basel Bible. The poor reader himself, who was the cause of Buxtorf's
+offence, was fined 400 florins. Of an opposite case in which a Jew served
+as godfather to a Christian child, we find a detailed account in Schudt's
+_Merkwuerdigkeiten der Juden_, a very learned and very foolish book. When
+the father was summoned before the magistrate, and was asked how he dared
+to charge a Jew with such a holy Christian ceremony, he coolly answered,
+because he knew that the Jew would present him with a silver cup. As to
+the present, I have to remark that with the Jews also the godfather was
+expected to bestow a gift on the child. In some communities he had to
+defray the expenses of the festival-dinner, of which I shall speak
+presently. In others, again, he had also to give a present to the mother
+of the child.
+
+Much older than the institution of the Sandek is the festival-dinner just
+alluded to, which was held after the ceremony. Jewish legend supplies many
+particulars of the dinner the patriarch Abraham gave at the Berith of his
+son Isaac. This is a little too legendary, but there is ample historical
+evidence that such meals were already customary in the times of the Second
+Temple. The Talmud of Jerusalem gives us a detailed account of the
+proceedings which took place at the Berith dinner of Elisha ben Abuyah,
+who afterwards obtained a sad celebrity as Acher. Considering that
+Elisha's birth must have fallen within the first decades after the
+destruction of the Temple, and that these sad times were most unsuitable
+for introducing new festivals, we may safely date the custom back to the
+times of the Temple. The way in which the guests entertained themselves is
+also to be gathered from the passage referred to. First came the dinner,
+in which all the guests participated; afterwards the great men of
+Jerusalem occupied one room, indulging there in singing, hand clapping,
+and dancing. The scholars again, who apparently did not belong to the
+great men, were confined to another room, where they employed themselves
+in discussing biblical subjects. In later times special hymns, composed
+for this festival, were inserted in the grace after dinner. After the
+dinner, sermons or speeches used also to be given, the contents of which
+were usually made up of reflections on biblical and Talmudical passages
+relating to the event of the day. Sometimes they consisted of a kind of
+learned puns on the name which the child received on this occasion.
+
+With this meal the first consecration of the child-priest was concluded.
+In some places they used to come to the father's house on the third day
+after the circumcision with the purpose of making inquiries after the
+child's health. In the case when the child was the first-born the ceremony
+of "redeeming the child"(245) in accordance with Exodus xiii. used to take
+place. The details of this ceremony are to be found in almost every
+prayer-book, and there is nothing fresh to add. But perhaps I may be
+allowed to draw attention to another distinction that the first-born
+received in the Middle Ages. I refer to an account given by the author of
+the book, _The Ordinance of the Law_,(246) who flourished in the
+thirteenth century. He says: Our predecessors made the rule to destine
+every first-born to God, and before its birth the father had to say, "I
+take the vow that if my wife presents me with a son, he shall be holy unto
+the Lord, and in His Torah he shall meditate day and night." On the eighth
+day after the Berith Milah they put the child on cushions, and a Bible on
+its head, and the elders of the community, or the principal of the
+college, imparted their blessings to it. These first-born sons formed,
+when grown up, the chief contingent of the Yeshiboth (Talmudical
+Colleges), where they devoted the greatest part of their lives to the
+study of the Torah. In later centuries the vow was dropped, but from the
+abundance of the Yeshiboth in Poland and elsewhere it seems as if almost
+every child was considered as having no other calling but the study of the
+Torah. Indeed, the growing persecutions required a strengthening of the
+religious force.
+
+With these ceremonies the first act of consecration ended in the case
+where the new-born child was a boy. I will now refer to the ceremony of
+the name-giving, which was common to males and females. In the case of the
+former this ceremony was connected with the Berith Milah. The oldest
+formula, which is already to be found in the _Ritual Rab Amram Gaon_, is
+composed in Aramaic. It is, like many prayers in that language, a most
+beautiful composition, and very suitable for the occasion. Our present
+Hebrew prayer is far less beautiful, and dates from a much later age. In
+some countries the ceremony of naming was repeated in the house of the
+parents. It took place on the Sabbath, when the mother returned home from
+her first visit to the synagogue after her recovery. Here the friends and
+relatives of the family assembled, and after arranging themselves round
+the cradle of the child they lifted it three times, shouting the new name
+at every lifting. This name was the so-called "profane" name, whilst the
+name it received in the synagogue was the "sacred" or Hebrew name. The
+ceremony concluded with the usual festival-dinner. By the way, there was
+perhaps a little too much feasting in those days. The contemporary Rabbis
+tried indeed to suppress some of the banquets, and put all sorts of
+restrictions on dinner-hunting people. But considering the fact that, as
+Jews, they were excluded from every public amusement, we cannot grudge
+them the pleasure they drew from these semi-religious celebrations. For
+people of an ascetic disposition it was, perhaps, the only opportunity of
+enjoying a proper meal. In the same way, in our days, the most severe
+father would not deny his lively daughter the pleasure of dancing or
+singing charitably for the benefit of suffering humanity. The ceremony
+described was known to the authors of the Middle Ages by the name of
+_Holle Kreish_. These words are proved by Dr. Perles to be of German
+origin, and based on some Teutonic superstition into the explanation of
+which I cannot enter here.
+
+Of much more importance was the ceremony of name-giving in the case of a
+girl, it being the only attention the female child received from the
+synagogue. The usages varied. In some countries the name was given on the
+first Sabbath after the birth of the child. The father was "called up to
+the Reading of the Law," on which followed the formula, "He who blessed
+our ancestors Abraham," etc., "may He also bless," etc., including the
+blessing and announcement of the child's name. After the prayer the
+congregation assembled in the house of the parents to congratulate them.
+In other countries the ceremony took place on the Sabbath when the mother
+attended the synagogue after the recovery. The ceremony of Holle Kreish
+seems to have been especially observed in the case of a girl.
+
+Though the feasting was now over for the parents, the child still lived in
+a holiday atmosphere for a long time. In the legend of the "Ages of Man"
+the child is described in the first year of its existence as a little
+prince, adored and petted by all. The mother herself nourished and tended
+the child. Although the Bible already speaks of nurses, many passages in
+the later Jewish literature show a strong aversion to these substitutes
+for the mother. In the event of the father of the child dying, the mother
+was forbidden to marry before her suckling infant reached the age of two
+years, lest a new courtship might lead to the neglect of the child.
+
+More difficult is it to say wherein the other signs of loyalty to the
+little prince consisted; as, for instance, whether Jews possessed anything
+like lullabies to soothe the little prince into happy and sweet slumber.
+At least I am not aware of the existence of such songs in the ancient
+Jewish literature, nor are they quoted by mediaeval writers. The
+"Schlummerlied," by an unknown Jewish bard, about which German scholars
+wrote so much, contains more heathen than Jewish elements. From the
+protest in _The Book of the Pious_, against using non-Jewish cradle-songs,
+it seems that little Moshechen was lulled to sleep by the same tunes and
+words as little Johnny. The only Jewish lullaby of which I know, is to be
+found in the work of a modern writer who lived in Russia. How far its
+popularity goes in that country I have no means of ascertaining. This
+jingle runs as follows:--
+
+
+    O! hush thee, my darling, sleep soundly my son,
+    Sleep soundly and sweetly till day has begun;
+    For under the bed of good children at night
+    There lies, till the morning, a kid snowy white.
+    We'll send it to market to buy Sechora,(247)
+    While my little lad goes to study Torah.
+    Sleep soundly at night and learn Torah by day,
+    Then thou'lt be a Rabbi when I have grown gray.
+    But I'll give thee to-morrow ripe nuts and a toy,
+    If thou'lt sleep as I bid thee, my own little boy.(248)
+
+
+But naturally the holiday atmosphere I spoke of was very often darkened by
+clouds resulting from the illness of the child. Excepting small-pox, the
+child was subject to most of those diseases which so often prove fatal to
+our children. These diseases were known under the collective name of "the
+difficulties (or the pain) of bringing up children." These difficulties
+seem to have been still greater in Palestine, where one of the old Rabbis
+exclaimed that it was easier to see a whole forest of young olive trees
+grow up than to rear one child.(249) To avoid so mournful a subject, I
+refrain from repeating the touching stories relating to the death of
+children. The pain was the more keenly felt since there was no other way
+of explaining the misfortune which befell the innocent creature than that
+it had suffered for the sins of the parents; and the only comfort the
+latter had was that the child could not have lost much by its being
+removed from this vale of tears at such an early period. A remarkable
+legend describes God Himself as giving lessons so many hours a day to
+these prematurely deceased children.(250) Indeed, to the mind of the old
+Rabbis, the only thing worth living for was the study of the Law.
+Consequently the child that suffered innocently could not have a better
+compensation than to learn Torah from the mouth of the Master of masters.
+
+But even when the child was healthy, and food and climate proved congenial
+to its constitution, there still remained the troubles of its spiritual
+education. And to be sure it was not an easy matter to bring up a
+"priest." The first condition for this calling was learning. But learning
+cannot be acquired without honest and hard industry. It is true that R.
+Akiba numbers wisdom among the virtues which are hereditary from father to
+son. Experience, however, has shown that it is seldom the case, and the
+Rabbis were already troubled with the question how it happens that
+children so little resemble their fathers in respect of learning.
+
+Certainly Jewish legends can boast of a whole series of prodigies. Thus a
+certain Rabbi is said to have been so sharp as to have had a clear
+recollection of the mid-wife who made him a citizen of this world. Ben
+Sira again, instantly after his birth, entertains his terrified mother
+with many a wise and foolish saying, refuses the milk she offers him, and
+asks for solid food. A certain Nachman was born with a prophecy on his
+lips, predicting the fate of all nations on earth, as well as fixing the
+date for the advent of the Messiah. The youngest of seven sons of Hannah,
+who became martyrs under the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, was according
+to one version aged two years, six months, six hours, and thirty minutes.
+But the way in which he defied the threats of the tyrant was really worthy
+of one of seventy. R. Judah de Modena is said to have read the lesson from
+the prophets in the synagogue at the age of two years and a half. A famous
+Cabbalist, Nahum, at the age of three, gave a lecture on the decalogue
+that lasted for three days. The Chassidim pretended of one of their
+Zaddikim that he remembered all that he had been taught by the angels
+before his birth, and thus excused their Zaddik's utter neglect of
+studying anything. Perhaps I may mention in this place a sentence from
+Schudt, which may reconcile one to the harmless exaggerations of the
+Chassidim. It relates to a case where a Jewish girl of six was taken away
+by a Christian with the intention of baptising her, for he maintained that
+this was the wish and pleasure of the child. Probably the little girl
+received her instruction from the Christian servant of the house, as has
+happened many times. Schudt proves that this wish ought to be granted in
+spite of the minority of the child. He argues: As there is a maxim, "What
+is wanting in years may be supplied by wickedness," why could not also the
+reverse be true that "What is wanting in years can be supplied by grace"?
+Of a certain R. Meshullam, again, we know that he preached in the
+synagogue at Brody, at the age of nine, and perplexed the chief Rabbi of
+the place by his deep Talmudical learning. As the Rabbi had a daughter of
+seven, the cleverness exhibited by the boy Rabbi did not end without very
+serious consequences for all his life.
+
+Happily all these prodigies or children of grace are only exceptional. I
+say happily, for the Rabbis themselves disliked such creatures. They were
+more satisfied with those signs of intelligence that indicate future
+greatness. The following story may serve as an instance:--R. Joshua ben
+Hananiah once made a journey to Rome. Here he was told that amongst the
+captives from Jerusalem there was a child with bright eyes, its hair in
+ringlets, and its features strikingly beautiful. The Rabbi made up his
+mind to redeem the boy. He went to the prison and addressed the child with
+a verse from Isaiah, "Who gave Jacob for a spoil and Israel to the
+robbers?" On this the child answered by continuing the second half of the
+same verse, "Did not the Lord, He against whom we have sinned? For they
+would not walk in His ways, neither were they obedient unto His law"
+(Isaiah xlii. 24). The Rabbi was so delighted with this answer, that he
+said: "I am sure he will grow up to be a teacher in Israel. I take an oath
+to redeem him, cost what it may." The child was afterwards known under the
+name of R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Such children were ideals of the Rabbis,
+but they hated the baby scholar, who very often grew impertinent and
+abused his elders. The Rabbis much preferred the majority of those tiny
+creatures, who are characterised by the already mentioned legends on the
+"Ages of Men" as little animals playing, laughing, crying, dancing, and
+committing all sorts of mischief.
+
+But these children must be taught. Now, there is the well-known advice of
+Judah ben Tema, who used to say that the child at five years was to be
+taught Scripture, at ten years Mishnah, at thirteen to fulfil the Law,
+etc. This saying, incorporated in most editions in the fifth Chapter of
+the _Sayings of the Fathers_, is usually considered as the programme of
+Jewish education. But, like so many programmes, this tells us rather how
+things ought to have been than how they were. In the times of the Temple,
+the participation of the youth in religious actions began at the tenderest
+age. As soon as they were able to walk a certain distance with the support
+of their parents, the children had to accompany them on their pilgrimages
+to Jerusalem. In the Sabbatical year they were brought to the Temple, to
+be present at the reading of Deuteronomy by the king.(251) The period at
+which the child's allegiance to the Synagogue began is still more
+distinctly described. Of the many Talmudical passages relating to this
+question, I shall select the following quotation from a later Midrash,
+because it is the most concise. In allusion to Leviticus xix. 23, 24,
+concerning the prohibition of eating the fruits of a tree in the first
+three years, this Midrash goes on to say: "And this is also the case with
+the Jewish child. In the first three years the child is unable to speak,
+and therefore is exempted from every religious duty, but in the fourth
+year all its fruits shall be holy to praise the Lord, and the father is
+obliged to initiate the child in religious works." Accordingly the
+religious life of the child began as soon as it was able to speak
+distinctly, or with the fourth year of its life. As to the character of
+this initiation we learn from the same Midrash and also from other
+Talmudical passages, that it consisted in teaching the child the verses,
+"Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God _is_ One" (Deut. vi. 4), and "Moses
+commanded us a Torah, the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob" (Deut.
+xxxiii. 4). It was also in this year that the boys began to accompany
+their parents to the synagogue, carrying their prayer-books. At what age
+the girls first came out--not for their first party, but with the purpose
+of going to the synagogue--is difficult to decide with any degree of
+certainty. But if we were to trust a rather doubtful reading in Tractate
+_Sopherim_,(252) we might maintain that their first appearance in the
+synagogue was also at a very tender age. I hope that they behaved there
+more respectfully than their brothers, who played and cried instead of
+joining in the responses and singing with the congregation. In some
+communities they proved so great a nuisance that a certain Rabbi declared
+it would be better to leave them at home rather than to have the devotion
+of the whole congregation disturbed by these urchins. Another Rabbi
+recommended the praiseworthy custom of the Sephardim,(253) who confined
+all the boys in the synagogue to one place, and set a special overseer by
+their side, with a whip in his hands, to compel them to keep quiet and to
+worship with due devotion.
+
+A strange custom is known among the Arabian and Palestinian Jews under the
+name of _Chalaka_. It means the first hair-cutting of the boy after his
+fourth birthday. As on this occasion loyalty to the Scripture is shown by
+not touching the "corners" (Lev. xix. 17), the whole action is considered
+a religious ceremony of great importance. In Palestine it usually takes
+place on the second day of the Feast of the Passover when the counting of
+the seven weeks begins. On this day friends and relatives assemble at the
+house of the parents. Thither the boy is brought, dressed in his best
+garments, and every one of the assembly is entrusted with the duty of
+cutting a few hairs, which is considered a great privilege. The ceremony
+is as usual followed by a dinner given to the guests. The Jews in Safed
+and Tiberias perform the ceremony with great pomp in the courtyard
+surrounding the (supposed) grave of R. Simeon ben Yochai, in one of the
+neighbouring villages.
+
+Another custom already mentioned in the Talmud, but which quite
+disappeared in later times, is that of weighing the child. It would be
+worth reviving if performed in the way in which the mother of Doeg ben
+Joseph did it. This tender-hearted mother weighed her only son every day,
+and distributed among the poor, in gold, the amount of the increased
+weight of her child.
+
+I pass now to the second great consecration of the boy,--the rites
+performed on the day when the boy went to school for the first time. This
+day was celebrated by the Jews, especially in the Middle Ages, in such a
+way as to justify the high esteem in which they held the school. The
+school was looked upon as a second Mount Sinai, and the day on which the
+child entered it as the Feast of Revelation. Of the many different
+customs, I shall mention here that according to which this day was fixed
+for the Feast of Weeks. Early in the morning, while it was still dark, the
+child was washed and dressed carefully. In some places they dressed it in
+a "gown with fringes." As soon as day dawned the boy was taken to the
+synagogue, either by his father or by some worthy member of the community.
+Arrived at their destination, the boy was put on the Almemor, or reading-
+dais, before the Scroll of the Law, from which the narrative of the
+Revelation (Exod. xx. 2-26) was read as the portion of the day. From the
+synagogue the boy was taken to the house of the teacher, who took him into
+his arms. Thereupon a slate was brought, containing the alphabet in
+various combinations, the verse, "Moses has commanded," etc. in Deut.
+xxxiii. 4, the first verse of the Book of Leviticus, and the words, "The
+Torah will be my calling." The teacher then read the names of the letters,
+which the boy repeated. After the reading, the slate was besmeared with
+honey, which the boy licked off. This was done in allusion to Ezekiel iii.
+3, where it is said: "And it (the roll) was in my mouth as honey for
+sweetness." The boy was also made to eat a sweet cake, on which were
+written passages from the Bible relating to the importance of the study of
+the Torah. The ceremony was concluded by invoking the names of certain
+angels, asking them to open the heart of the boy, and to strengthen his
+memory. By the way, I am very much afraid that this invocation was
+answerable for the abolition of this ceremony. The year in which this
+ceremony took place is uncertain, probably not before the fifth, nor later
+than the seventh, according to the good or bad health of the child.
+
+The reverence for the child already hinted at was still further increased
+when the boy entered the school. "The children of the house (school) of
+the master" is a regular phrase in Jewish literature. It is on their pure
+breath that the existence of the world depends, and it is their merit that
+justifies us in appealing to the mercy of God. Words of Scripture, uttered
+by them quite innocently, were considered as oracles; and many a Rabbi
+gave up an undertaking on account of a verse pronounced by a schoolboy,
+who hardly understood its import. Take only one instance: R. Johanan was
+longing to see his friend Mar Samuel in Babylon. After many disturbances
+and delays, he at last undertook the journey. On the way he passed a
+school where the boys were reciting the verse from 1 Samuel xxviii. 3,
+"And Samuel died." This was accepted by him as a hint given by Providence
+that all was over with his friend.
+
+Especially famous for their wisdom and sharpness were the children of
+Jerusalem. Of the many illustrative stories given in the Midrash to
+Lamentations, let the following suffice: R. Joshua was one day riding on
+his donkey along the high road. As he passed a well, he saw a little girl
+there, and asked her to give him some water. She accordingly gave water to
+him and to his animal. The Rabbi thanked her with the words: "My daughter,
+you acted like Rebecca." "To be sure," she answered, "I acted like
+Rebecca; but you did not behave like Eleazar." I must add that there are
+passages in Jewish literature from which, with a little ingenuity, it
+might be deduced that Jewish babies are the most beautiful of their kind.
+The assertion made by a monk that Jewish children are inferior to
+Christian children is a dreadful libel. The author of the _Old
+Victory_,(254) in whose presence this assertion was made, was probably
+childless, or he would have simply scratched out the eyes of this
+malicious monk, instead of giving a mystical reason for the superior
+beauty of any other children than his own.
+
+Another point to be emphasised is that the boys were not confined all day
+long to the close air of the schoolroom. They had also their hours of
+recreation. This recreation consisted chiefly, as one can imagine, in
+playing. Their favourite game was the ball, boys as well as girls being
+fond of this form of amusement. They did not deny themselves this pleasure
+even on festivals. They were also fond of the kite and games with nuts, in
+which their mothers also took part. Letter-games and riddles also occupied
+their minds in the recreation hours. The angel Sandalphon,(255) who also
+bears in the Cabbalah the name of "Boy," was considered by the children as
+their special patron, and they invoked him in their plays, addressing to
+him the words: "Sandalphon, Lord of the forest, protect us from pain."
+Speaking generally, there are very few distinctively Jewish games. From
+the researches of Zunz, Guedemann, and Loew on this subject, it is clear
+that the Jews always adopted the pastimes of the peoples among whom they
+dwelt.
+
+But it must not be thought that there was too much playing. Altogether,
+Jewish education was far from spoiling the children. And though it was
+recommended--if such recommendation were necessary--to love children more
+than one's own soul, the Rabbis strongly condemned that blind partiality
+towards our own offspring, which ends in burdening our world with so many
+good-for-nothings. The sad experience of certain biblical personages
+served as a warning for posterity. Even from the quite natural behaviour
+of Jacob towards his son Joseph, which had the best possible results in
+the end, they drew the lesson that a man must never show to one of his
+children marks of greater favour than to the others. In later times they
+have been even anxious to conceal this love altogether, and some Rabbis
+went so far as to refrain from kissing their children. The severity of
+Akabya ben Mahalaleel is worth mentioning, if not imitating. When this
+Rabbi, only a few minutes before his death, was asked by his son to
+recommend him to his friends and colleagues, the answer the poor boy
+received was: "Thy conduct will recommend thee to my friends, or will
+estrange thee from them." Another Rabbi declared (with reference to Prov.
+xxviii. 27) that it is life-giving to a youth to teach him temperance in
+his diet, and not to accustom him to meat and wine. R. Judah, the Pious,
+in the Middle Ages, gives the advice to rich parents to withdraw their
+resources from their sons if they lead a disorderly life. The struggle for
+their existence, and the hardship of life, would bring them back to God.
+When the old Rabbi said that poverty is a most becoming ornament for
+Israel, his remark was probably suggested by a similar thought. And many a
+passage in the Rabbinic literature gives expression to the same idea as
+that in Goethe's divine lines:--
+
+
+    Wer nie sein Brot mit Thraenen ass,
+    Wer nie die kummervollen Naechte
+    Auf seinem Bette weinend sass,
+    Der kennt Euch nicht, Ihr himmlischen Maechte.
+
+
+I have spoken of a kingdom of priests, but there is one great disadvantage
+of such a polity. One or two priests in a community may be sustained by
+the liberality of the congregation. But if a community consisted of only
+priests, how could it then be maintained? Besides, the old Jewish ideal
+expected the teacher to be possessed of a divine goodness, imparting his
+benefits only as an act of grace. Salaries, therefore, either for teaching
+or preaching, or for giving ritual decisions, were strongly forbidden. The
+solution of the question put by the Bible, "And if ye shall say, What
+shall we eat?" is to be found in the law that every father was obliged to
+teach his son a handicraft, enabling him to obtain a living.
+
+I have now to speak of the time when childhood is brought to a conclusion.
+It is, as I stated above, in the case of a girl at the beginning of the
+thirteenth year, and in that of a boy at the beginning of the fourteenth
+year. As a reason for this priority I will reproduce the words of R.
+Chisda, who said that God has endowed woman with a greater portion of
+intelligence than man, and therefore she obtains her maturity at an
+earlier period than man does. A very nice compliment, indeed; but like all
+compliments it is of no practical consequence whatever. It is not always
+the wiser who get the best of it in life. Whilst the day on which the girl
+obtained her majority passed unnoticed either by her or by her family, it
+was marked in the case of the boy as the day on which he became a Son of
+the Law,(256) and was signalised by various rites and ceremonies, and by
+the bestowing on him of beautiful presents. I miss only the wig, which
+used to form the chief ornament of the boy on this happy day.
+
+Less known, however, is the origin of this ceremony, and the reason for
+fixing its date. It cannot claim a very high antiquity. I may remark that
+in many cases centuries elapse before an idea or a notion takes practical
+shape and is crystallised into a custom or usage, and still longer before
+this custom is fossilised into a law or fixed institution. As far as the
+Bible goes, there is not the slightest indication of the existence of such
+a ceremony. From Lev. xxvii. 5, and Num. xiv. 29, it would rather seem
+that it was not before the twentieth year that the man was considered to
+have obtained his majority, and to be responsible for his actions. It was
+only in the times of the Rabbis, when Roman influence became prevalent in
+juristic matters at least, that the date of thirteen, or rather the
+_pubertas_, was fixed as giving the boy his majority. But it would be a
+mistake to think that before having obtained this majority the boy was
+considered as under age in every respect. Certainly the law made every
+possible effort to connect him with the synagogue, and to initiate him in
+his religious duties long before the age of thirteen.
+
+We have seen that the boy's first appearance in the synagogue was at the
+beginning of the fourth year. We have noticed the complaints about his
+troublesome behaviour. But how could we expect the poor child to be
+attentive to things which quite surpassed the intellectual powers of his
+tender age? There was no better reason for this attendance either in the
+Temple or in the synagogue than that the parents might be rewarded by God
+for the trouble of taking their children there. These cares, by the way,
+fell most heavily upon the women. The mother of R. Joshua enjoyed this
+burden so much that she carried her boy, when still in the cradle, to the
+"House of Study of the Law," in order that his ears might be accustomed to
+the sound of the Torah. In later times there was another excuse for taking
+the little children to the synagogue. They were there allowed to sip the
+wine of the Sanctification Cup,(257) which was the exclusive privilege of
+the children; an easy way of worshipping, but, as you can observe, it is a
+method that they enjoy and understand most excellently. They did not less
+enjoy and understand the service with which they were charged on the day
+of "The Rejoicing of the Law."(258) On this feast they were provided with
+flags, which they carried before the bearers of the Torah, who feasted
+them after the service with sweets. Another treat was that of being called
+up on this day to the Torah, a custom that is still extant. In the Middle
+Ages they went in some countries so far as to allow these little fellows
+who did not wear caps "to be called up" to say the blessings over the Law
+bare-headed. A beautiful custom was that every Sabbath, after finishing
+the weekly lesson and dressing the Scroll of the Law, the children used to
+come up to the Almemor and kiss the Torah. Leaving the synagogue they
+kissed the hands of the scholars. At home the initiation began with the
+blessing the child received on every eve of the Sabbath, and with its
+instruction in "Hear O Israel" and other verses as already mentioned.
+Short prayers, consisting of a single sentence, were also chosen for
+children of this age. The function of the child on the eve of the first
+day of Passover is well known. Besides the putting of the four questions
+for the meaning of the strange ceremony (Exod. xiii. 14), the boy had also
+to recite, or rather to sing, the "Praise."(259) But I am afraid that they
+enjoyed better the song of "One Kid," which was composed or rather adapted
+for their special entertainment from an old German poem.
+
+Within three or four years after entering the synagogue, and with the
+growth of intellect and strength, the religious duties of the boy
+increased, and became of a more serious character. He had not only to
+attend the school, which was troublesome enough, but he was also expected
+to attend the services more regularly, and to gain something by it. Yet
+the Rabbis were not so tyrannical as to put unjust demands on the patience
+of the child. The voice of God on Mount Sinai, the Rabbis said, was
+adapted to the intellect and powers of all who witnessed the
+Revelation--adapted, as the Midrash says, to the powers of old and young,
+children and women. It was in accordance with this sentiment that the
+Rabbis suited their language to the needs of the less educated classes.
+Thus we read in the Tractate _Sopherim_ that according to the law the
+portion of the week, after having been recited in Hebrew, must be
+translated into the language of the vernacular for the benefit of the
+unlearned people, the women, and the children. Another consideration
+children experienced from the Rabbis was that at the age of nine or ten
+the boy was initiated into the observance of the Day of Atonement by
+fasting a few hours. Lest, however, this good work might be overdone, and
+thus endanger the child's health, the sage R. Acha used to tell his
+congregation after the Addition-Prayer "My brethren, let every one of you
+who has a child go home and make it eat." In later centuries, when the
+disease of small-pox became so fatal, some Rabbis declared it to be the
+duty of every father to leave the town with his children as soon as the
+plague showed itself. The joy with which the Rabbis hailed Dr. Jenner's
+discovery deserves our recognition. None of them perceived in vaccination
+a defiance of Providence. R. Abraham Nansich, from London, wrote a
+pamphlet to prove its lawfulness. The Cabbalist Buzagli disputed Dr.
+Jenner's priority, but nevertheless approved of vaccination. R. Israel
+Lipschuetz declared that the Doctor acquired salvation by his new remedy.
+
+With his advancing age, not only the boy's duties but also his rights were
+increased. An enumeration of all these rights would lead me too far, but I
+shall mention the custom which allowed the boy the recital of
+"Magnified"(260) and "Bless ye"(261) in the synagogue. Now this privilege
+is restricted to the orphan boy. It is interesting to hear that girls were
+also admitted to recite the Magnified in the synagogue, in cases where
+their parents left no male issue. I have myself witnessed such a case. In
+some countries the boy had the exclusive privilege of reading the prayers
+on the evenings of the festivals and Sabbaths. R. Samson ben Eleazar, in
+the fifteenth century, received his family name Baruch Sheamar(262) from
+the skill with which he recited this prayer when a boy. He chanted it so
+well that he was called by the members of the community Master Baruch
+Sheamar. As to the question whether the boy, while under age, might
+lawfully be considered as one of the Ten when such a quorum was required,
+or one of the three in the case of grace after meals, I can only say that
+the authorities never agreed in this respect. Whilst the one insisted upon
+his having obtained his majority, the other was satisfied with his showing
+such signs of intelligence as would enable him to participate in the
+ceremony in question. Here is an instance of such a sign. Abaye and Raba,
+the two celebrated heroes of the Babylonian Talmud, were sitting at the
+table of Rabbah. Before saying grace he asked them, "Do you know to whom
+these prayers are addressed?" Thereupon one boy pointed to the roof,
+whilst the other boy went out and pointed to the sky. The examiner was
+satisfied with their answer.
+
+The privilege of putting on the phylacteries forms now in most countries
+the chief distinction of "The Son of the Law"; in olden times, however,
+every boy had claim to it as soon as he showed himself capable of behaving
+respectfully when wearing the holy symbol. It even happened that certain
+honours of the synagogue were bestowed on boys, though under age. We
+possess a copy of a Jewish epitaph dating from about the third century,
+which was written in Rome for a boy of eight years, who is there
+designated as archon. The fact is the more curious, as on the other hand
+the Palestinian R. Abuha, who lived in the same century, maintained that
+no man must be elected as Warden before he has achieved his fiftieth year.
+That boys were admitted to preach in the synagogue I have already
+mentioned.(263)
+
+From all these remarks it will easily be seen that in olden times the boy
+enjoyed almost all the rights of majority long before the day of his being
+"The Son of the Law." The condition of the novice is hardly
+distinguishable from that of the initiated priest. The Talmud, the Gaonim,
+and even R. Isaac Alfasi and Maimonides knew neither the term "The Son of
+the Law" (in our sense of the word) nor any ceremony connected with it.
+There is only one slight reference to such an institution, recorded in the
+Tractate _Sopherim_, with the quotation of which I shall conclude this
+paper. We read there: "In Jerusalem there was the godly custom to initiate
+the children at the _beginning_ of the thirteenth year by fasting the
+whole Day of Atonement. During this year they took the boy to the priests
+and learned men that they might bless him, and pray for him that God might
+think him worthy of a life devoted to the study of the Torah and pious
+works." For, this author says, "they were beautiful, and their lives
+harmonious and their hearts directed to God."
+
+
+
+
+
+XIII. WOMAN IN TEMPLE AND SYNAGOGUE
+
+
+The learned Woman has always been a favourite subject with Jewish
+students; and her intellectual capabilities have been fully vindicated in
+many an essay and even fair-sized book. Less attention, however, has been
+paid to woman's claims as a devotional being whom the Temple, and
+afterwards the Synagogue, more or less recognised. At least it is not
+known to me that any attempt has been made to give, even in outline, the
+history of woman's relation to public worship. It is needless to say that
+the present sketch, which is meant to supply this want in some measure,
+lays no claim to completeness; but I venture to hope that it will help to
+direct the attention of the friends of research to the matter, and that it
+may induce others to deal more fully with the subject and do it the
+justice it deserves.
+
+The earliest allusion to women's participation in _public_ worship, is
+that in Exodus xxxviii. 8, to the women who assembled to minister at the
+door of the "tent of meeting," of whose mirrors the lavers of brass were
+made (cf. 1 Sam. ii. 22). Philo, who is not exactly enamoured of the
+emancipation of women, and seeks to confine them to the "small state," is
+here full of their praise. "For," he says, "though no one enjoined them to
+do so, they of their own spontaneous zeal and earnestness contributed the
+mirrors with which they had been accustomed to deck and set off their
+beauty, as the most becoming first-fruits of their modesty, and of the
+purity of their married life, and, as one may say, of the beauty of their
+souls." In another passage Philo describes the Jewish women as "competing
+with the men themselves in piety, having determined to enter upon a
+glorious contest, and to the utmost extent of their power to exert
+themselves so as not to fall short of their holiness."
+
+It is, however, very difficult to ascertain in what this ministry of women
+consisted. The Hebrew term "Zobeoth"(264) would suggest the thought of a
+species of religious Amazons, who formed a guard of honour round the
+Sanctuary. Some commentators think that the ministry consisted in
+performing religious dances accompanied by various instruments. The
+Septuagint again speaks "of the women who fasted by the doors of the
+Tabernacle." But most of the old Jewish expositors, as well as Onkelos,
+conceive that the women went to the tent of meeting to pray. Ibn Ezra
+offers the interesting remark, "And behold, there were women in Israel
+serving the Lord, who left the vanities of this world, and not being
+desirous of beautifying themselves any longer, made of their mirrors a
+free offering, and came to the tabernacle every day to pray and to listen
+there to the words of the commandments." When we find that in 1 Sam. i.
+12, "Hannah continued to pray before the Lord," she was only doing there
+what many of her sisters did before and after her. We may also judge that
+it was from the number of these noble women, who made religion the aim of
+their lives, that the "twenty-two" heroines and prophetesses sprang who
+form part of the glory of Jewish history. Sometimes it even happened that
+their husbands derived their religious inspiration from them. Thus the
+husband of the prophetess Deborah is said to have been an unlettered man.
+But his wife made him carry to the Sanctuary the candles which she herself
+had prepared, this being the way in which she encouraged him to seek
+communion with the righteous.
+
+The language in which the husband of the "Great Woman" of Shunem addresses
+his wife: "Wherefore wilt thou go to him" (the prophet)? "it is neither
+New Moon nor Sabbath" (2 Kings iv. 23), proves that on Festivals and
+Sabbaths the women used to attend some kind of worship, performed by the
+prophet, though we cannot say in what this worship consisted. The New Moon
+was especially a woman's holiday, and was so observed even in the Middle
+Ages, for the women refrained from doing work on that day. The explanation
+given by the Rabbis is that when the men broke off their golden earrings
+to supply material for the golden calf, the women refused to contribute
+their trinkets, for which good behaviour a special day of repose was
+granted to them. Some Cabbalists even maintain that the original
+worshippers of the golden calf continue to exist on earth, their souls
+having successively migrated into various bodies, while their punishment
+consists in this, that they are ruled over by their wives. Rather
+interesting as well as complimentary to women is the remark which the
+Rabbis made with regard to the "Great Woman." As will be remembered, it is
+_she_ who says, "I perceive that this (Elisha) is a holy man of God" (2
+Kings iv. 19). In allusion to this verse the Talmud says: "From this fact
+we may infer that woman is quicker in recognising the worth of a stranger
+than man."
+
+The great woman, or women, continued to pray and to join in the public
+worship also after the destruction of the first Temple. Thus Esther is
+reported by tradition to have addressed God in a long extempore prayer
+before she presented herself before the throne of Ahasuerus to plead her
+people's cause; and women were always enjoined to attend the reading of
+the Book of Esther. When Ezra read the Law for the first time, he did so
+in the presence of the men and the women (Neh. viii. 3). In the Book of
+the Maccabees we read of "The women girt with sackcloth ... and the
+maidens that ran to the gates.... And all holding their hands towards
+heaven made supplication." In the Judith legend, mention is also made of
+"Every man and woman ... who fell before the Temple, and spread out their
+sackcloth before the face of the Lord ... and cried before the God of
+Israel." In the second Temple, the women, as is well known, possessed a
+court reserved for their exclusive use. There the great illuminations and
+rejoicings on the evening of the Feast of Tabernacles used to be held. On
+this occasion, however, the women were confined to galleries specially
+erected for them. It was also in this Women's Hall that the great public
+reading of certain portions of the Law by the king, once in seven years,
+used to take place, and women had also to attend at the function. On the
+other hand, it is hardly necessary to say that women were excluded from
+performing any important service in the Temple. If we were to trust a
+certain passage in the "Chapters of R. Eliezer," we might perhaps conclude
+that during the first Temple, the wives of the Levites formed a part of
+the choir, but the meaning of the passage is too obscure and doubtful for
+us to be justified in basing on it so important an inference. Nor can the
+three hundred maidens who were employed for the weaving of the curtains in
+the Temple, be looked upon as having stood in closer connection with the
+Temple, or as having formed an order of women-priests or girl-devotees (as
+one might wrongly be induced to think by certain passages in Apocryphal
+writings of the New Testament). But on the other hand, it is not
+improbable that their frequent contact with the Sanctuary of the nation
+produced in them that religious enthusiasm and zeal which may account for
+the heroic death which--according to the legend--they sought and found after
+the destruction of the Temple. It is to be remarked that, according to the
+law, women were even exempted from putting their hands on the head of the
+victim, which formed an important item in the sacrificial worship. It is,
+however, stated by an eye-witness, that the authorities permitted them to
+perform this ceremony if they desired to do so, and that their reason for
+this concession was "to give calmness of the spirit, or satisfaction, to
+women."
+
+Still greater, perhaps, was "the calmness of spirit" given to women in the
+synagogue. We find in ancient epitaphs that such titles of honour were
+conferred upon them as "Mistress of the Synagogue," and "Mother of the
+Synagogue," and, though they held no actual office in the Synagogue, it is
+not improbable that they acquired these titles by meritorious work
+connected with a religious institution, viz.: Charity. There was, indeed,
+a tendency to exclude women from the synagogue at certain seasons, but
+almost all the authorities protest against it, many of them declaring such
+a notion to be quite un-Jewish. Some Jewish scholars even think that the
+ancient synagogues knew of no partition for women. I am rather inclined to
+think that the synagogue took for its model the arrangements in the
+Temple, and thus confined women to a place of their own. But, whether they
+sat side by side with the men or occupied a special portion of the
+edifice, there can be no doubt that the Jewish women were great synagogue-
+goers. To give only one instance. One Rabbi asks another: Given the case
+that the members of the synagogue are all descendants of Aaron, to whom
+then would they impart their blessing? The answer is, to the women who are
+there.
+
+Of the sermon they were even more fond than their husbands. Thus one woman
+was so much interested in the lectures of R. Meir, which he was in the
+habit of giving every Friday evening, that she used to remain there so
+long that the candles in her house burnt themselves out. Her lazy husband,
+who stopped at home, so strongly resented having to wait in the dark, that
+he would not permit her to cross the threshold until she gave some offence
+to the preacher, which would make him sure that she would not venture to
+attend his sermons again.
+
+The prayers they said were the Eighteen Benedictions which were prescribed
+by the Law. But it would seem that occasionally they offered short prayers
+composed by themselves as suggested by their personal feelings and needs.
+Thus, to give one instance, R. Johanan relates that one day he observed a
+young girl fall on her face and pray: "Lord of the world, Thou hast
+created Paradise, Thou hast created hell, Thou hast created the wicked,
+Thou hast created the righteous; may it be Thy will that I may not serve
+as a stumbling-block to them." The fine Hebrew in which the prayer is
+expressed, and the notion of the responsibility of Providence for our
+actions, manifest a high degree of intelligence and reflection. It would
+also seem that some women went so far in their religious sensibility as to
+lead a regular ascetic life, and, according to the suggestion of some
+scholars, even took the vow of celibacy. Of these the Rabbis did not
+approve, and stigmatised them as the "destroyers of the world." Perhaps it
+was just at this period that Judaism could not afford to give free play to
+those morbid feelings, degenerating into religious hysterics, which led
+some to join rival sects, and others to abandon themselves to the gross
+immorality we read of in the history of the Gnostics.
+
+The same circumstances may have been the cause of public opinion being led
+to accept the view of R. Eliezer, who thought it inadvisable--it would seem
+on moral grounds--to permit woman to study the Law. This opinion was
+opposed to that of Ben Azzai, who considered it incumbent upon every
+father to teach his daughter Torah. But justified as the advice of R.
+Eliezer may have been in his own time, it was rather unfortunate that
+later generations continued to take it as the guiding principle for the
+education of their children. Many great women in the course of history
+indeed became law-breakers and studied Torah; but the majority were
+entirely dependent on men, and became in religious matters a sort of
+appendix to their husbands, who by their good actions insured salvation
+also for them, and sometimes the reverse. Thus there is a story about a
+woman which, put into modern language, would be to the effect that she
+married a minister and copied his sermons for him; he died, and she then
+married a cruel usurer, and kept his accounts for him.
+
+The fact that women were exempted from certain affirmative laws, which
+become operative only at special seasons--_e.g._, the taking of the palm
+branch on the Feast of Tabernacles--must also have contributed to weaken
+their position as a religious factor in Judaism. The idea that women
+should vie with men in the fulfilment of every law, became even for the
+Rabbis a notion connected only with the remotest past. This is the
+impression one gains when reading the legend about Michal, the daughter of
+Saul, putting on phylacteries, or the wife of the prophet Jonah making a
+pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the three Festivals. It would indeed seem as if
+women were led to strive for the satisfaction of their religious wants in
+another direction. Yet it was said of Jewish women, "The daughters of
+Israel were stringent and laid certain restrictions on themselves." They
+were also allowed to form a quorum by themselves for the purpose of saying
+the Grace, but they could not be counted along with males for this end. It
+was also against the early notion of the dignity of the congregation that
+women should perform any public service for men.
+
+One privilege was left to women--that of weeping. In Judges xi. 40, we read
+of the daughters of Israel that went yearly to lament the daughter of
+Jephthah; while in 2 Chronicles xxxv. 25, we are told how "all the singing
+men and the singing women spake of Josiah in their lamentations." Of this
+privilege they were not deprived, and if they were not allowed to sing any
+longer, they at least retained the right to weep as much as they pleased.
+Even in later times they held a public office as mourning women at
+funerals. In the Talmud fragments of compositions by women for such
+occasions are to be found. Indeed, woman became in these times the type of
+grief and sorrow. She cannot reason, but she feels much more deeply than
+man. Here is one instance from an old legend: Jeremiah said, "When I went
+up to Jerusalem (after the destruction of the Temple) I lifted my eyes and
+saw there a lonely woman sitting on the top of the mountain, her dress
+black, her hair dishevelled, crying, 'Who will comfort me?' I approached
+her and spake to her, 'If thou art a woman, speak to me. If thou art a
+ghost, begone.' She answered, 'Dost thou not know me?... I am the Mother,
+Zion.' "
+
+In general, however, the principle applied to women was: The king's
+daughter _within the palace_ is all glorious (Psalm xlv. 14), but _not_
+outside of it. In the face of the "Femina in ecclesia taceat," which was
+the ruling maxim with other religions, Jewish women could only feel
+flattered by this polite treatment by the Rabbis, though it meant the same
+thing. We must not think, however, that this prevented them from attending
+the service of the synagogue. According to the Tractate _Sopherim_, even
+"the little daughters of Israel were accustomed to go to the synagogue."
+In the same tractate we find it laid down as "a duty to translate for them
+the portion (of the Law) of the week, and the lesson from the prophets"
+into the language they understand. The "King's daughter" occasionally
+asserted her rights without undue reliance on the opinion of the
+authorities. And thus being ignorant of the Hebrew language women prayed
+in the vernacular, though this was at least against the letter of the law.
+And many famous Rabbis of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries express
+their wonder that the "custom of women praying in other (non-Hebrew)
+languages extended over the whole world." It is noteworthy that they did
+not suppress the practice, but on the contrary, they endeavoured to give
+to the Law such an interpretation as would bring it into accord with the
+general custom. Some even recommended it, as, for example, the author of
+_The Book of the Pious_, who gives advice to women to learn the prayers in
+the language familiar to them.
+
+At about the same period a lengthy controversy was being waged by the
+commentators of the Talmud and the codifiers, about woman's partaking in
+the fulfilment of the laws for special seasons, from which, as already
+remarked, they were exempted. To the action itself there could not be much
+objection, but the difficulty arose when women also insisted on uttering
+the blessing. Now the point at issue was whether they could be permitted
+to say, for instance, "Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, etc., who hast
+sanctified us by Thy Commandments, and _hast commanded us_, concerning the
+taking of the Palm branch," since in reality the women had _not_ been
+commanded to do it. To such logical and systematic minds as Maimonides and
+R. Joseph Caro, the difficulty was insurmountable, and they forbade women
+to use the formula; but with the less consistent majority women carried
+their point. Rather interesting is the answer received by R. Jacob, of
+Corbeil, with regard to this question. This Rabbi is said to have enjoyed
+the mysterious power which enabled him to appeal in cases of doubt to the
+celestial authorities. Before them he put also this women's case for
+decision. Judgment was communicated to him in the verse from the
+Scriptures, "In all that Sarah saith unto Thee, hearken unto her voice"
+(Gen. xxi. 12). Nor was it unknown for a pious Jew to compose a special
+hymn for his wife's use in honour of the Sabbath.
+
+How long this custom of women praying in the vernacular lasted, we have no
+means of ascertaining. Probably was already extinct about the end of the
+fifteenth century. For R. Solomon Portaleone, who lived in the sixteenth
+century, already regrets the abolition of "this beautiful and worthy
+custom." "When they prayed in the vernacular," he says, "they understood
+what they were saying, whilst now they only gabble off their prayers." As
+a sort of compromise we may regard the various "Supplications";(265) they
+form a kind of additional prayers supplementary to the ordinary liturgy,
+and are written in German. Chiefly composed by women, they specially
+answer the needs of the sex on various occasions. These prayers deserve a
+full description by themselves, into which I cannot enter here; I should
+like only to mention that in one of these collections in the British
+Museum, a special supplication is added for servant-maids, and if I am not
+quite mistaken, also one for their mistresses.
+
+It is also worth noticing that the manuals on the "Three Women's
+Commandments" (mostly composed in German, sometimes also in rhymes),
+contained much more than their titles would suggest. They rather served as
+headings to groups of laws, arranged under each commandment. Thus the
+first (about certain laws in Lev. xii. and xv.) becomes the motto for
+purity in body and soul; the second (the consecration of the first cake of
+the dough) includes all matters relating to charity, in which women were
+even reminded to encourage their newly married husbands not to withhold
+from the poor the tithes of the bridal dowry, as well as of their future
+yearly income; whilst the third (the lighting of the Sabbath lamp) becomes
+the symbol for spiritual light and sweetness in every relation of human
+life.
+
+As another compromise may also be considered the institution of
+"Vorsugern" (woman-reader) or the "Woilkennivdicke" (the well-knowing one)
+who reads the prayers and translates them into the vernacular for the
+benefit of her less learned sisters. In Poland and in Russia, even at the
+present time, such a woman-reader is to be found in every synagogue, and
+from what I have heard the institution is by no means unknown in London.
+The various prayer-books containing the Hebrew text as well as the Jewish-
+German translation, which appear in such frequent editions in Russia, are
+mostly intended for the use of these praying women. Not uninteresting is
+the title-page of R. Aaron Ben Samuel's Jewish-German translations and
+collections of prayers which appeared in the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. He addressed the Jewish public in the following terms: "My dear
+brethren, buy this lovely prayer-book or wholesome tonic for body and
+soul, which has never appeared in such German print since the world began;
+and make your wives and children read it often, thus they will refresh
+their bodies and souls, for this light will shine forth into your very
+hearts. As soon as the children read it they will understand their
+prayers, by which they will enjoy both this world and the world to come."
+
+An earlier translator of the prayer-book addresses himself directly to the
+"pious women" whom he invites to buy his book, "in which they will see
+very beautiful things." Recent centuries seem, on the whole, to have been
+distinguished for the number of praying-women they produced. The virtues
+which constituted the claim of women to religious distinction were
+modesty, charity, and daily attendance at the synagogue morning and
+evening. In the memorial books of the time hundreds of such women are
+noticed. Some used also to spin the "Fringes," which they presented to
+their friends; others fasted frequently, whilst "Old Mrs. Hechele" not
+only attended the synagogue every day, and did charity to poor and rich,
+but also understood the art of midwifery, which she practised in the
+community without accepting payment for her services. According to R. Ch.
+J. Bachrach women used also to say the "Magnified" prayer in the synagogue
+when their parents left no male posterity.
+
+In bringing to a close this very incomplete sketch, perhaps I ought to
+notice the confirmation of girls introduced during this century in some
+communities in Germany, which the "Reformed" Rabbis recommended, but of
+which the "Orthodox" Rabbis disapproved. It would be well if in the heat
+of such controversies both sides would remember the words of R. Zedekiah
+b. Abraham, of Rome, who with regard to a certain difference of opinion on
+some ritual question, says: "Every man receives reward from God for what
+he is convinced is the right thing, if this conviction has no other motive
+but the love of God."
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. THE EARLIEST JEWISH COMMUNITY IN EUROPE
+
+
+Roman Judaism has disappeared from our guide-books. Civilisation has
+levelled down the walls of the Ghetto, and its former inhabitants are not
+any longer "a people that dwell alone." But with this well-deserved
+destruction a good deal of the interest was also destroyed which the
+traveller used to attach to "the peculiar people" enclosed in that
+terrible slum of Rome.
+
+Still, if there is anything eternal in the "eternal city," which was
+neither reconstructed by the Caesars, nor improved upon by the Popes, it is
+the little Jewish community at Rome. It has survived the former; it has
+suffered for many centuries under the latter, and, partaking in the
+general revival which has come upon the Italian nation, it may still be
+destined for a great future. Indeed, the history of the relation of Israel
+to Rome is so old that it is not lacking even in legendary elements. On
+the day on which King Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh, the Rabbis
+narrate, there came down the angel Gabriel. He put a reed into the sea,
+which, by means of the slime that adhered to it, formed itself, in the
+course of time, into a large island, on which the city of Rome was
+built--an event with which the troubles of Israel began. These were the
+evil consequences of the first _mesalliance_. Even more unfortunate for
+Israel (and it is not impossible that this is the meaning of the legend)
+were the results of that spiritual mixed marriage between Judaism and
+paganism which took place at a much later period, whereat a blunt soldier,
+who sympathised with neither, and "who dealt in salvation as he dealt in
+provinces," acted as best man. As a fact, the parties concerned never
+understood each other properly. The declaration of love, and the final
+proposal, were made in an Alexandrine jargon, strange to both, the
+obscurities of which only grew with the commentaries each successive
+generation added to them. Under such circumstances, a happy union was not
+to be expected, and the family quarrel which fills the annals of civilised
+Europe soon broke out. Judaism, more particularly Roman Judaism, witnessed
+this struggle from the beginning, and its fortunes were greatly dependent
+on the chance which of these two elements, the Jewish or the pagan, won
+the ascendency.
+
+However, I am theologising too much, whilst I am deviating from the
+subject of these lines. Nor could I think of giving here, even in outline,
+the history of the oldest Jewish community in Europe. This has been
+already admirably done by Dr. A. Berliner, who has made the history of the
+Jews of Rome the subject of his studies for nearly a quarter of a century.
+I intend only to reproduce here, in a stray fashion, some of those
+impressions and reflections which, I am certain, must occur to every
+Jewish traveller in Italy.
+
+Now I do not think for a moment that we Jews should have a point of view
+of our own for looking at things and men in this paradise of Europe. It
+would be as silly to have a Jewish Baedeker as to think of orthodox
+mathematics or an ecclesiastical logic or a racial morality--though
+unfortunately there exist such things. But on the other hand, if we have
+not, like the fox in the fable, left our heart at home, let us not do
+violence to our feelings by passing over everything Jewish, over sights
+which might remind us of our history, with a certain indifference which
+would be affected on our part. We are not all little Goethes, nor even
+little Ruskins, and our artistic enjoyment is hardly so intense as to shut
+our hearts against impressions which force themselves upon us either by
+the way of remembrance of the past, or even as a living contrast in the
+present.
+
+It so happened that my first visit to the Vatican was on a Friday. After
+doing my work in the Vatican Library, which is open till noon, I went into
+the adjoining Church of St. Peter.
+
+One should be, like the angel of death in the legend, full of eyes,
+properly to see all the wonders of art and marvels of architecture at
+which human genius and piety laboured busily through centuries, in
+adorning the grandest of sacred buildings in the world. But there is
+Baedeker or Murray serving at least as a pair of good spectacles to the
+layman, and it was by their aid that I made my round in St. Peter. But lo,
+whilst you are observing the celebrated Pieta by Michael Angelo, and,
+according to the instruction of your guides, admiring both the grief of
+the Mother and the death of the Son, you notice in its vicinity a little
+column, surrounded by rails to which the pilgrims approach with a certain
+awe; for "Tradition affirms it to have been brought from Jerusalem."
+Naturally, one is instantly reminded of the report, given by the famous
+traveller of Tudela, of the curiosities of Rome, which among other things
+records, "That there are also to be seen in St. Giovanni in Porta Latina
+(probably meant for Lateran) the two brazen pillars, constructed by King
+Solomon of blessed memory, whose name, Solomon, the son of David, is
+engraved upon each; of which he was also told that every year about the
+9th of Ab (the anniversary of the destruction of Jerusalem), these pillars
+sweat so much that water runs down from them." So far Benjamin of Tudela
+in the twelfth century. In our days pillars weep no longer, and even of
+men it is considered a special sign of good breeding to behave pillar-
+like; but a sigh is still permissible at the sight of this temple-column,
+which in its captivity symbolises, not less than the Pieta, the grief of a
+whole people. Of course, not possessing on the spot either the _Itinerary_
+or even Urlick, one is unable to establish the connection between these
+two traditions and their claim to authenticity. Perhaps one may even
+comfort oneself on the same ground on which the famous cure tried to
+appease his flock who were sobbing bitterly at his telling them the
+Passion story. He exclaimed: "My children, do not weep so much; it
+happened long ago, and even perhaps is not quite true."
+
+However, the Vatican is the last place in the world to exercise your
+critical faculties; you are so deeply absorbed in seeing, that you have no
+time to think. So on I went, from aisle to aisle, from niche to niche,
+from chapel to chapel, looking, staring, and admiring, till of a sudden my
+eyes were struck by a large statue, on which the words, "Thou shalt have
+no other God before me," are engraved. There I stood before a question of
+exegesis, where one is permitted to use his right senses without any
+regard to the aesthetic side. Yet not all the manifold expositions of the
+Decalogue, nor all the talk about the subjective-objective, the absolute
+and the real, with which metaphysicians have tried to confuse the notion
+of the Unity of God, will reconcile one to the meaning which Mediaeval Art
+has impressed upon the Ten Commandments. The truth has to be sought
+elsewhere, and thus my thoughts were turned to the synagogue, and thither
+I went.
+
+The day was already drawing to its close, and, by a marvellous
+coincidence, I arrived at the synagogue just as the congregation was
+intoning the words: "The Lord is one, and His name is one to His renown
+and glory." Here was sound, simple exegesis, though sadly lacking in the
+illustrative matter in which the Vatican is so rich. But what need was
+there of any real or artificial "aid to the believer," in the presence of
+such a living faith, as enabled this little community to maintain its
+protesting position in the teeth of the mistress of the world! And this
+even at a time, when it only required a hint from the successors of the
+old Roman Emperors to make the whole world renounce its right of thinking
+and judging, and, were we to believe Herr Janssen, even to feel perfectly
+happy in this torpor.
+
+But, by the way, are our own times much better? As I write these lines
+(October 1893) I hear that a Bill has been brought into the German Diet,
+asking that the Talmud should be submitted to a Commission (which _en
+passant_, has been sitting in unbroken session in that country since the
+days of Pfefferkorn in the fifteenth century) with the purpose of
+examining its contents, while in the Vatican the very pupils of Loyola are
+offering every convenience and comfort to the student who should care to
+devote his time to Rabbinic literature. Does not the work of a great
+number of our poets, historians, theologians, and so-called seers in this
+blessed century of ours, in many respects prove but a strained effort to
+destroy the few humanitarian principles which were established a few
+generations ago, as well as to deify every brutal warrior who was
+successful in his day? Again, is the national idea so much sublimer, so
+much grander, than that of a universal religion, that we would willingly
+permit the former to employ the means which have been denied to the latter
+as inhuman and barbarous? Every age has its own idolatry, and the eternal
+wandering Jew will always be the chosen victim of the Moloch in fashion.
+
+Let us, however, return to the synagogue, which withstood many a cruelty,
+both ancient and modern. The place where the synagogue stands is near the
+Ghetto, now called Piazza di Scuola. It is, besides a few other communal
+houses, the only building left there,--all those narrow, dirty, and
+typhoid-breeding streets which formed the old Ghetto having been
+demolished by a sage and humane government, which by this action wiped out
+the last stain from its history. There, on this vast blank is the
+synagogue, a comparatively small, insignificant building, laden with heavy
+age and looking down on her children whom she has been nursing, consoling,
+and protecting for centuries, but who, now grown old, have forsaken her
+and scattered to all the ends of the city. Of all her former acquaintances
+there appears to be left only father Tiber, who would seem to be murmuring
+to her many an old tale of the times before she was called into existence.
+And if he listened to the special prayers recited within her walls by the
+deputies of the Jewish communities, when preparing themselves to go to the
+court of the Pope, the Tiber heard many a sigh and cry, wrung out from the
+heart of a Jewish captive who, preferring death to slavery even under the
+masters of the world, found his last repose in its waters. But
+insignificant as this synagogue appears, she proved the spiritual bulwark
+against all the attacks of the time, and you admire her brave resistance
+all the more when you look at that multitude of churches and cloisters in
+the closest vicinity of the Ghetto, impressing you as so many
+intrenchments, all directing their missiles and weapons against this
+humble, defenceless building, threatening it with death and destruction.
+One of these churches, probably founded by some Jewish convert, who gained
+in it both salvation and a good living, bears on its gates in Hebrew
+letters the inscription: "I have spread out my hands all the day unto a
+rebellious people, which walketh in the way that was not good, after their
+own thoughts. A people that provoketh me to anger continually to my face"
+(Isaiah lxv. 2, 3). Menace is followed by persuasion, the cited verses
+being accompanied by the Latin words: "Indulgentia plenaria quotodiana
+perpetua pro vivis et defunctis." Theologians who like to quarrel most
+about things they can know least, have for ages discussed the question,
+whether prayers for the dead are of any use; here the matter is decided by
+a simple advertisement. It is not to be denied that one would enjoy the
+fortunes accumulated by one's late sinner of an uncle all the better for
+being sure that a few pennyworths of prayer enable the legatee to make
+one's benefactor in Hades comfortable and happy.
+
+The thought is very consoling indeed, and it is not to be wondered at that
+the Roman synagogue could not entirely withstand its temptations, and
+introduced into the offering-blessing after one is called up to the Torah,
+the words: "To the advancing of the soul of the departed." Of course much
+of this tendency may be attributed to the Ford Jabbok,(266) which was and
+is still very popular in that country; but the fact that the author of
+this Jewish "Book of the Dead" was an Italian (from Modena), shows clearly
+that there was some Catholic influence at work, from which even the
+fellow-countrymen of Azariah de Rossi and Judah Messer Leon could not
+entirely emancipate themselves.
+
+I ought to have spoken of Roman synagogues, since the building in the
+Ghetto to which I have been constantly alluding comprises four prayer-
+houses devoted to Spanish and Italian rites. It says much for Roman
+Judaism, that they did not consider ritual differences of such importance
+as to prevent them from forming one community for all charitable and
+congregational purposes. In Verona and in Modena some congregations even
+retained the German rite, which their ancestors who immigrated from the
+Rhine provinces brought with them, whilst they accepted the Spanish
+pronunciation. I wish that the Anglo-Jewish community could see their way
+to imitate their example. Not that I think for a moment that the Spanish
+pronunciation is more correct than the German. Each system has its own
+mistakes and corruptions; and it is more than probable that the prophet
+Isaiah, or even the author of Ecclesiastes, would be as little able to
+follow the prayers in Bevis Marks as in Duke's Place. But since the non-
+Jewish scientific world has, though only by pure accident, accepted the
+Spanish way of reading the Hebrew, I should like to see this trifling
+difference of _Ba_ruch over _Bu_ruch at last disappear, by pronouncing the
+camets-vowel _a_ instead of _o_, and accepting similar little changes,
+which are of no real importance to us.
+
+The inside of these synagogues is even more simple than their outside. I
+was told that the synagogue which was burned down last winter, and which
+also formed a part of this building, could boast of many fine decorations
+and carvings, etc., but I could observe nothing of the kind in the
+synagogues I had occasion to frequent. Nor is there much of natural
+decorum in them, and they reconcile one perfectly to the worst of the
+Small Synagogues elsewhere. I venture to think that in this respect, too,
+we have to recognise Catholic influence. It was, I think, one of the
+leaders in the Oxford Movement who expressed his delight at seeing in
+Italy a woman poorly-dressed coming into the church, who, after putting
+down the basket from her back, kneels before one of the many altars and
+says her prayers. A good deal of this familiarity in the place of worship
+may also be noticed in the Roman synagogues, where I have seen a woman
+come into the partition for men, notwithstanding their having a separate
+gallery, without bonnet or hat on her head, and with an infant in her
+arms, and listen there to the prayers, till she walked home with her
+husband. The other people were also very restless, coming and going often,
+whilst, as soon as the reading of the Law was over, the greater part of
+the worshippers left the synagogue. It was not a very delightful sight. A
+minus of decorum does not always mean a plus of devotion; just as little
+as a maximum of respectability and stiffness are to be taken as signs of
+true piety.
+
+It is not uninteresting to notice that the Roman synagogue, in spite of
+its old traditions, did not entirely shut itself against modern reforms.
+Among them there is that of "calling up the people to the Torah" by the
+simple formula, "Let the Priest" (or "the Levite") "step forth,"(267) and
+so on, not mentioning either names or titles, which I should like to
+recommend most strongly to our congregations. I hope that no man will
+suspect me of such heresy as that of questioning the wisdom of the
+Synagogue Regulations. But I am inclined to think that the business of
+conferring the degrees of _Rabbi_, "Associate" or "Master," does not
+exactly fall within the sphere of activity of the Wardens. The matter
+could only be decided by a proper Board of examination. As the Council is
+not provided with such a Board, nor is every aspirant to this honour
+prepared to undergo the examination required, the wisest course would be
+to give up titles altogether, calling up all people alike in the way
+indicated.
+
+The robes the ministers wear (somewhat similar to those of the Greek
+clergy), are probably also an innovation of modern date,--the old orthodox
+Rabbis looking at any special vestment for the Preacher or Reader with the
+same feeling of disgust which the old Puritans entertained for surplice or
+mitre. But the principle of "The Beauty of Holiness" proved too strong for
+resistance, and it was only a pardonable vanity when the reformers applied
+it to their own persons; "Vanity of vanities," saith the preacher, so
+often, that he gets rather to like it. This vanity is greatly redeemed by
+the fact that the preacher does not grudge his uniform to his humbler
+brother, the beadle, who is in most cases to be distinguished from the
+officiating ministry only by the brass-plate on his breast, on which the
+word "Servant" is engraved. Considering the great confusion arising from
+the meaningless "Reverend" and the universal white neck-tie, such a label,
+indicating the proper office of the bearer, might, perhaps, prove as
+useful among the English Jews as it is among the Jews of Rome.
+
+It was with a pupil of the Rabbinical College, in company with his
+friends, that I took my first walk through ancient Rome. I felt attracted
+to him by his striking face of that peculiar fine Jewish type, which is
+more common among the Jews in the East than among us. And when he was
+reading the lesson from the Prophets in the synagogue, where I made his
+acquaintance, he reminded me of that Jewish boy with bright eyes, black
+curls, and features strikingly beautiful walking as a captive from
+Jerusalem through the streets of Rome some seventeen centuries ago, whose
+proficiency in the words of Isaiah caused his redemption. It would be an
+exaggeration to say that my companion's remarks were very instructive from
+an artistic point of view. Being born and bred in Rome, he passed with
+utter indifference many objects which we are bidden to admire, whilst at
+others he actually shouted out "Image," or made some other prosaic remark.
+But in a country where one is determined to play the heathen for so many
+weeks, to worship superannuated deities, to get into raptures at every
+reminiscence of superseded and vanishing religions, and to be delighted at
+the sights of "greasy saints and martyrs hairy," there can be no great
+harm in being called back to one's true nature.
+
+The feelings crowding upon one, when entering that part of the ancient
+city which probably was in the mind of the Rabbis when they spoke of
+"Guilty Rome," are of a conflicting nature. Every stone and every brick
+there saw the humiliation of Israel, in every theatre and every circus the
+Jew served as a comic figure, and was held up to ridicule, whilst there
+was, perhaps, hardly a single lane or gate through which those who
+resented the yoke of the "anti-Semites of Antiquity" did not pass, in
+order to "be butchered to make a Roman holiday." What concerns a Jew most
+in this perished world of ruins, and at the same time causes him the
+deepest grief, is the triumphal arch of Titus, "commemorating the defeat
+of the Jews, and dedicated to him by his successor, Domitian." Enough has
+been said and written about it both by antiquarians and theologians, the
+former admiring the workmanship of the reliefs, the latter perceiving in
+it a proof of the fulfilment of the well-known passages in the New
+Testament about the destruction of the Temple, which came to pass in spite
+of the efforts made by Titus to save it. Those who have read Bernay's
+essay on the "Chronik des Sulpicius Severus" know that the behaviour of
+"the delight of the human species" on that occasion is rather open to
+doubt, and it is more probable that, instead of trying to rescue it, he
+commanded that it should be set on fire. Josephus, who witnessed the shame
+of his compatriots and co-religionists, has left us a full account of the
+triumphal procession. Only a flunkey like Josephus could maintain that
+calm indifference with which he describes the events of the "bitter day,"
+the perusal of which makes one's blood boil. His description fairly agrees
+with the famous relief on the arch, showing that part of the procession in
+which the table with the shewbread, the candlestick with the seven lamps,
+and the golden trumpets figure as the chief objects. The only thing which
+we miss is the "Law of the Jews," which, according to Josephus, was
+carried in the triumph as "the last of all the spoils." Was it only an
+oversight of the artist, or had he no place for it, or is it Josephus who
+committed the error, mistaking some other object for the Scroll of the
+Law? I dearly hope that this last was the case, and that Heine was under
+the impulse of a true and real and poetic inspiration when he wrote
+(speaking of the Holy Scripture to which he owed his conversion): "The
+Jews, who appreciate the value of precious things, knew right well what
+they did when, at the burning of the second temple they left to their fate
+the golden and silver implements of sacrifice, the candlesticks and lamps,
+even the breastplate of the High Priest adorned with great jewels, but
+saved the Bible. This was the real treasure of the temple, and, thanks be
+to God! it was not left a prey to the flames, nor to the fury of Titus
+Vespasian, the wretch, who, as the Rabbi tells us, met with so dreadful a
+death."
+
+However, there were others who brought the glad tidings of the Old
+Testament to Rome long before there existed a New one. And this is, on the
+other side, what makes Rome a sort of Terra Sancta even to the Jew. It is
+true that we have not to look for the footprints of the prophets, for whom
+even tradition never claimed "the gift of missionary-travelling." But
+might not the ground there have received a sort of consecration by the
+fact that it was traversed by the ambassadors of Judas Maccabaeus (about
+161 B.C.) "to make a league of amity and confederacy" with the Roman
+Senate? Of the embassy of Simon the Maccabee (about 140 B.C.) there is
+actual historical evidence that they began to propagate in Rome the Jewish
+religion. Some seventy or eighty years later the Jews had already their
+own quarter in Rome, with their own synagogues, which they were in the
+habit of visiting, "most especially on the sacred Sabbath days, when they
+publicly cultivate their national philosophy." That many of the oldest
+teachers of Israel, the Tannaim, went to Rome as deputies, and that one of
+them (R. Mathia ben Chares) founded a school there early in the second
+century, is also an authenticated fact. One would like to know what they
+taught, and in what way they expounded their _national philosophy_. Most
+of all one would like to know what were the spiritual means they employed
+in their proselytising work, in which they were, according to the
+testimony of history, so successful. Did they preach in the streets? Or
+did they hold public controversies? Or did they even send out Epistles
+which, in form at least, served as a model to apostles of another creed?
+How many a problem would be solved; how many a miracle would disappear;
+how many a book would become superfluous, if we could obtain certainty
+about these points! The Talmud tells us little, almost nothing, about
+these important things, whilst we get from the Roman writers only sneers
+and raillery. To these respectable Romans the Jews were only a mob of
+unlettered atheists. Indeed, to a good orthodox heathen, a religion
+without images and statues, with a God without a pedigree and without a
+theogony, was an impossible thing. Those poor metaphysicians!
+
+However, why dwell so long on a past world? A famous Rabbi once exclaimed:
+"If a man would ask thee, 'Where is thy God?' answer him: 'In the great
+city of Rome.' " The underlying idea was the mystical notion that wherever
+Israel had to migrate, they were accompanied by the Divine presence. And
+Rome was, in the times of the Rabbis, the point to which the streams of
+Jewish migration from the Holy Land chiefly converged. But now, instead of
+to Rome, might we not point to London and New York as centres of Jewish
+migrations?
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+This Index contains the most important names of persons, titles of books,
+technical terms and Hebrew words occurring in the text. In the notes to
+the text, the Hebrew words are for the most part given also in Hebrew
+characters.
+
+Abarbanel, Isaac, 173, 174
+
+Abaye, 311
+
+_Ab Beth Din_, 84
+
+Abba Mari b. Moses, 165, 179
+
+Abba Tachnah, the Chassid, 221
+
+Abraham, Baalshem's father-in-law, 7
+
+Abraham, son of Elijah Wilna, 88
+
+Abraham of Bedres, 262
+
+Abraham Abulaphia, 262
+
+Abraham Ibn Daud, 162
+
+Abraham Ibn Ezra, 50, 52, 64, 71, 210, 314
+
+Abraham b. Shem--Tob Bibago, 172, 173
+
+Abtalyon, 186
+
+Abuha, 311
+
+Acha, 310
+
+_Acher_, 292
+
+_Adam, Primal_, 239
+
+_Agadah_, pl. _Agadoth_, 64, 105, 183, 197
+
+_Agadic_, 110, 156, 157, 193, 262, 279
+
+_Ages of Man_, 295
+
+Akabyah b. Mahalaleel, 305
+
+Akiba, 70, 84, 130, 188, 190, 194, 220, 227, 228, 234
+
+_Almemor_, 302
+
+Ammi, 214, 217, 226, 231
+
+_Amora_, pl. _Amoraim_, 17, 84, 195
+
+Amram Gaon, 293
+
+Anna of Kaidon, wife of Elijah Wilna, 82
+
+Anselm, St., of Canterbury, 79
+
+Antigonos of Socho, 229
+
+Anti-Maimonists, 133
+
+Aristotle, 79, 167
+
+Aryeh Leb, son of Elijah Wilna, 88
+
+_Ascension of Elijah_, 75
+
+Asher b. Jechiel, 210
+
+Assideans, 64
+
+_Ayil Meshulash_, 81
+
+Azariah de Rossi, 66, 71, 105, 333
+
+_Aziluth_, 117
+
+Azulai, 277
+
+_Baalshem_, Israel, 3-12, 14-35, 73
+
+Bachrach, Ch. J., 325
+
+_Bachur_, pl. _Bachurim_, 95, 97
+
+Bachya, 131
+
+_Baraitha_, 271
+
+_Baruch Sheamar_, 311
+
+Bashazi, 161
+
+_Bath-Kol_, 190
+
+Beer of Mizriez, 11, 37
+
+Beer, Peter, 66
+
+Ben Azzai, 130, 216, 319
+
+Benjamin of Tudela, 329
+
+Ben-Jacob, 259
+
+Ben Sira, 297
+
+Ben Zoma, 130
+
+_Bereshith_, 127
+
+_Berith Milah_, 288, 292, 293
+
+Berliner, A., 327
+
+Bernays, Isaak, 337
+
+_Beth Din_, 191-193
+
+_Beth Hammidrash_, 7, 16, 84, 139
+
+_Beth Talmud_, 210
+
+_Biccurim_, 58
+
+Bloch, Samson, 51
+
+Bodek, A., 51
+
+_Book of Brightness_ (_see_ Zohar)
+
+_Book of the Pious_, 295, 322
+
+_Book of Victory_, 167
+
+_Book of Weight_, 133
+
+Boswell, 142, 197
+
+Buckle, 96
+
+_Burbot_, 138
+
+Buzagli, the Cabbalist, 310
+
+Cabbalah, Cabbalists, 99, 128, 129, 133, 210, 283, 315
+
+_Cabod_, 120, 121
+
+Caraites, 48, 160, 161, 207, 208
+
+Casaubon, Isaac, 259
+
+_Chagigah_, 77
+
+_Chakhamim_, 57
+
+_Chambers_, the, 208
+
+Chanina b. Dossa, 217
+
+_Chanukah_, 138
+
+_Chapters of R. Eliezer the Great_, 68, 69, 316
+
+Chasdai Ibn Crescas, 167-173, 180
+
+_Chassidim_, Chassid, Chassidic, Chassidism, 1-4, 11, 12, 14-16, 21, 22,
+            25-27, 30, 33, 35-41, 43-45, 53, 73, 90, 298
+
+Chayim Vital, 99
+
+Chayim Walosin, 85, 87, 94
+
+Chisda, 307
+
+_Chukkim_, 124
+
+_Code of the Law_, by Caro, 75, 92, 206, 211, 257
+
+_Collectanea_, 144
+
+_Commentary on the Pentateuch_, by Nachmanides, 107, 108, 123, 135
+
+_Creeds and Opinions_, by Saadiah Gaon, 162
+
+_Crown_, 239
+
+_Cusari_, 162
+
+_Date of the Redemption_, 105
+
+David Rocca Martino, 230
+
+David Messer Leon, 174
+
+David b. Samuel d'Estella, 165, 166
+
+David b. Yom-Tob Bilia, 166.
+
+_Defence of Adam_, 230
+
+Delmedigo, 71, 131, 175
+
+_Disputation_, by Nachmanides, 103
+
+Dukes, L., 260
+
+_Eighteen Benedictions_, 83
+
+Eleazar, 229
+
+Eleazar b. Jacob, 225
+
+Eliezer, father of Baalshem, 5
+
+Eliezer b. Hyrkanos, 189, 319
+
+Eliezer b. Samuel Hallevi, 145
+
+Eliezer b. Simeon, 223
+
+Elijah Levita, 268
+
+Elijah Wilna, 57, 73-77, 81-92, 96, 97
+
+Elisha b. Abuyah, 33, 130, 292
+
+Emden, Jacob, 10, 259
+
+_Epikurus_, 157
+
+_Erech Millin_, 66
+
+Erter, Isaac, 51, 59, 288
+
+Essenes, 64, 185
+
+_Examination of the World_, 97
+
+Eybeschuetz, J., 10
+
+Ezra, or Azriel, the mystic, 100
+
+_Faithful City_, the, 75
+
+Fichte, 51
+
+Finn, 75
+
+_Ford Jabbok_, 333
+
+Frankists, 10
+
+Frankl, Z., 65, 97
+
+Fuerst, J., 66
+
+Gamaliel I., 234
+
+Gamaliel II., 194, 212
+
+_Gaon_, pl. _Gaonim_, 73, 76-78, 97, 98, 206, 208, 209, 289, 312
+
+_Garden of Mystical Contemplation_, 129
+
+_Gate of Reward_, 115, 213
+
+Geiger, A., 66
+
+_Gemara_, 78
+
+Gershon, brother-in-law of Baalshem, 8, 9
+
+Ghetto, 326, 331-333
+
+Gnostics, 64
+
+Goethe, 57, 73, 306, 328
+
+_Gozer_, 290
+
+Graetz, 65, 97, 99, 183
+
+_Great Interpreters_, 186
+
+Green, A. L., 255
+
+_Guide of the Perplexed_, 49, 68, 97, 102, 130, 131, 179
+
+_Guide of the Perplexed of the Time_, 60, 67
+
+Hadasi, Judah, 160, 161
+
+Hai Gaon, 77, 208, 209, 272
+
+_Halachah_, pl. _Halachoth_, 64, 66, 183
+
+_Halachic_, 57, 92, 110, 157, 193, 207
+
+_Halachoth Gedoloth_, 111, 112
+
+Hannaneel of Kairwan, 162
+
+Hegel, 51, 54, 64, 65
+
+Heine, 59, 124, 254
+
+_High Belief_, 162
+
+Hillel the Great, 185, 186, 188, 193, 237
+
+Hillel, R., 177
+
+_History of Jewish Tradition_, 65, 182
+
+_Hithlahabuth_, 32
+
+_Holle Kreisch_, 294, 295
+
+Huna, 221, 225
+
+Isaac Alfasi, 13, 100, 101, 111, 312
+
+Isaac Aramah, 173
+
+Isaac Loria, 76, 133
+
+Isaac b. Ruben, 100
+
+Ishmael, 188, 190, 224
+
+Ishmael b. Elishah, 222, 299
+
+Israel Baalshem (_see_ Baalshem, Israel)
+
+Jacob of Corbeil, 322
+
+Jacob Dubna, 91
+
+Jacob the Levite, or Maharil, 143, 144
+
+Jacob Sasportas, 101, 102
+
+Jacob Tam, 210
+
+Jannai, 226
+
+Jedaiah of Bedres, 97, 131
+
+_Jerusalem_, by Mendelssohn, 147
+
+Johanan, 249, 287, 303, 318
+
+Johanan b. Zaccai, 48, 188
+
+Jonah Gerundi, 100, 101
+
+Jonah, son of Nachmanides, 101
+
+Jose, 218, 219
+
+Joseph Albashir, 160
+
+Joseph Albo, 171, 172
+
+Joseph Caro, 75, 92, 206, 211, 322
+
+Joseph Jabez, 131, 173, 179
+
+Joshua b. Hananiah, 194, 299, 304, 308
+
+Jost, M., 66
+
+Judah Alcharisi, 262
+
+Judah Hallevi, 13, 34, 152, 162, 208
+
+Judah b. Ilai, 246
+
+Judah Messer Leon, 333
+
+Judah de Modena, 298
+
+Judah the Patriarch, 63, 195
+
+Judah the Pious, 306
+
+Judah b. Tema, 299
+
+Judah b. Yakar, 100
+
+_Karab_, 124
+
+_Kilayim_, 87
+
+Kimchi, D., 145
+
+_Korban_, 124
+
+Krochmal, Nachman, 44, 46, 48-68, 71, 72
+
+Kuenen, 240
+
+_Law of Man_, 113-115
+
+_Laws unto Moses on Mount Sinai_, 64
+
+Lessing, 73
+
+Letteris, M., 56, 57
+
+Levi b. Gershom, 97, 101, 171
+
+_Light of God_, 167
+
+_Lilac of Mysteries_, 133
+
+_Lilith_, 287, 288
+
+Lipman of Muehlhausen, 167, 179
+
+Liva of Prague, 78
+
+Lowell, R., 116
+
+Loew, L., 171, 285, 305
+
+Lucas, Mrs. Henry, 135
+
+Macaulay, 89
+
+_Maggid_, 19
+
+_Magnified_, 310
+
+Maimonides, or Moses b. Maimon, 13, 48, 49, 68, 70, 78, 97, 100, 102, 103,
+            111, 126, 130, 133, 140, 161-168, 170-181, 210, 211, 249, 274,
+            280, 281, 312, 322
+
+Maimonists, Anti-Maimonists, 163-165, 173, 210
+
+Mar Samuel, 84
+
+Mathia b. Chares, 339
+
+_Measure of the Stature_, 208
+
+_Mechilta_, 58, 81, 193
+
+Meheram Schiff, 16
+
+Meir, 130, 194, 226, 318
+
+Meir b. Nathan of Trinquintaines, 100
+
+Meir of Rothenburg, 210
+
+_Memra_, 238
+
+_Men of the Great Synagogue_, 64, 185
+
+_Menachoth_, 86
+
+Mendelssohn, Moses, 48, 58, 73, 147, 151, 176
+
+_Metatron_, 238
+
+_Midrash_, pl. _Midrashim_, 61, 64, 71, 81, 193, 195, 222, 262, 272, 273,
+            304
+
+Milton, 114
+
+_Minhag_, pl. _Minhagim_, 143, 192
+
+_Minim_, 64
+
+Minor Tractates, 81
+
+_Mishnah_, 57, 64, 66, 76, 78, 82, 85, 87, 91, 157, 190, 193, 195, 271
+
+Mistress of the Synagogue, 317
+
+Moses Cordevora, 133
+
+Moses Ibn Ezra, 262
+
+Moses de Leon, 18, 133, 258, 262
+
+Moses of Tachau, 131
+
+_Mother Zion_, 321
+
+Nachman, son of Nachmanides, 101
+
+Nachmanides, or Moses b. Nachman, 99-141, 213
+
+Nahum of Gemzo, 215
+
+_Nasi_, 84
+
+Nathan, 194
+
+_Nephesh Chayah_, 117
+
+Neubauer, Dr. A., 263
+
+_Night of Watching_, 288
+
+Nissim of Gerona, 133
+
+Nissim of Marseilles, 267
+
+_Olam Habba_, 115
+
+_Old Victory_, 304
+
+Oral Law, 10
+
+_Orchard_, the, 133
+
+_Ordinance of the Law_, 293
+
+Pablo Christiano, 103, 105, 106
+
+_Pairs_, the, 185
+
+_Paradise Lost_, 114
+
+_Pardes_, 129
+
+_Pashut_, 138
+
+_Path of Belief_, 172
+
+Perles, J., 99, 123, 294
+
+Pharisees, 64, 185, 237, 241
+
+Philo, 52, 64, 154, 238
+
+_Pilpul Pilpulist_, 13, 78
+
+Plato, 78
+
+_Pugio Fidei_, 107
+
+Raba, 311
+
+_Rabbanan Saburai_, 206
+
+Rabbah, 311
+
+Rabbenu, 13
+
+_Rabbenu Mosheh_, 103
+
+Rabbinowicz, R. N. N., 261
+
+Raimund Martini, 107
+
+Rapoport, Solomon Leb, 50, 53, 56, 66
+
+Reggio, Isaac, 270
+
+_Roots_, the, 171
+
+Ruskin, 328
+
+Saadiah Gaon, 48, 162, 108, 272
+
+_Sacred Letter_, 113
+
+Sadducees, 64, 185, 237
+
+Salman the Good, 145
+
+_Sambatyon_, 95
+
+_Sanctification-cup_, 245
+
+Sandalphon, 305
+
+_Sandek_, 290
+
+Sanhedrin, the, 188, 190, 191
+
+Saul Berlin, 176, 180
+
+_Sayings of the Fathers_, _Aboth_, 262, 299
+
+Schelling, 51
+
+Schiller, 73
+
+_Schlummerlied_, 295
+
+Schorr, O., 193
+
+Schudt, 291, 298
+
+_Sechorah_, 296
+
+_Seder Nezikin_, 58
+
+_Seder Olam_, 81, 92
+
+_Seder Taharoth_, 58
+
+_Segulah_, 122
+
+_Sephardim_, 301
+
+_Sepher_, 13
+
+_Sephiroth_, Ten, 238
+
+_Sermon in the Presence of the King_, by Nachmanides, 165
+
+Shabbethai Tsebi, 134, 239
+
+_Shalom Zachar_, 289
+
+Shammai, 185, 188, 237
+
+_Shechinah_, 120, 121, 228-230
+
+_Shema_, reading of the, 141, 288
+
+Shemaiah, 186
+
+Shemariah of Crete, 166
+
+Sherira Gaon, 263
+
+Shiphluth, 30
+
+_Simchah_, 31
+
+Simeon Duran, 101, 170, 171
+
+Simeon b. Eleazar, 289
+
+Simeon b. Gamaliel, 222
+
+Simeon b. Gamaliel II., 193, 194
+
+Simeon b. Yochai, 18, 223
+
+Simlai, 112
+
+_Siphra_, 58, 81, 91, 193, 262
+
+_Siphre_, 58, 81, 91, 193, 262
+
+Solomon b. Adereth, 70, 267
+
+Solomon b. Gabirol, 210
+
+Solomon of St. Goar, 143-145
+
+Solomon b. Isaac, Rashi, 13, 210
+
+Solomon b. Isaac b. Zadok, 137
+
+Solomon Ladier, 43
+
+Solomon Portaleone, 323
+
+Solomon, son of Nachmanides, 110
+
+Solomon Syrillo, 262
+
+Solomon Wilna, 75
+
+_Son of the Law_, 307, 312
+
+_Sopherim_, 64
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 97
+
+Steinschneider, M., 99, 172
+
+_Taanith_, 58
+
+_Talmid Chaber_, 52
+
+_Talmid Chakam_, 7
+
+Talmud (of Jerusalem or Babylon), 16, 19, 33, 49, 52, 57-59, 64, 76, 78,
+            81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 96, 101, 104, 105, 111, 129, 131,
+            140, 151, 155, 158, 195, 196, 206, 207, 209, 210, 238, 252,
+            254-256, 261, 262, 271, 272, 277
+
+_Tanna_, pl. _Tannaim_, 17, 84, 187
+
+_Tephillin_, 249
+
+Thackeray, 282
+
+Thirteen Articles of the Creed, 148, 163, 164, 170, 176, 179
+
+_Thirteen Rules_ (of Interpretation), 195
+
+Tobijah, the Priest, 175
+
+_Tosephta_, 81, 82, 92, 262, 271
+
+Toy, Prof., 233-239, 251
+
+_Tractate Berachoth_, 221, 271
+
+_Tractate Evidences_, 192
+
+_Tractate Joys_, 194
+
+_Tractate Sanhedrin_, 156, 157, 159
+
+_Tractate Sopherim_, 301, 312, 321
+
+_Tree of Life_, the, 133
+
+Troki, Solomon, 161
+
+_Variae Lectiones_ (of the Talmud), 261
+
+Viterbo, Abraham Chayim, 175, 176
+
+_Vorsugerin_, 324
+
+_Wars of the Lord_, 101
+
+_Watchman_, the, 59
+
+Weiss, T. H., 65, 97, 99, 182, 183, 185-187, 191-197, 206, 207, 209-212
+
+Wellhausen, 243
+
+_Wisdom of Solomon_, 127, 154
+
+_Woilkennivdicke_, 324
+
+_Yediah_, 119
+
+_Yeshibah_, pl. _Yeshiboth_, 94-96, 293
+
+Yom-Tob Heller, 196
+
+_Zaddik_, pl. _Zaddikim_ (Zaddikism), 36-44, 53, 298
+
+Zadoc, 245
+
+_Zebachim_, 86
+
+Zedner, 254-256
+
+_Zehub_, 137-139
+
+Zerahiah Hallevi of Gerona (or Gerondi), 100, 101, 111
+
+_Zion-Elegy_, 208
+
+_Zobeoth_, 314
+
+_Zohar_, 18, 19, 71, 91, 133, 258
+
+Zunz, Leopold, 44, 52, 56, 60, 65, 73, 97, 183, 279, 305
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 SUBJOINED IS A LIST OF SELECTED AUTHORITIES ON THE SUBJECT OF THE
+      CHASSIDIM.--_Historical and Bibliographical Works_: Graetz (xi.
+      including the polemical literature quoted in the Appendix), Jost,
+      Peter Beer, M. Bodek ({~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, Lemberg, 1865), A. Walden ({~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, Warschau, 1864), Finn ({~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Wilna, 1860), D.
+      Kahana ({~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} in the periodical {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, iv.), Zederbaum ({~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~},
+      Odessa, 1868). _Essays and Satires_: T. Erter ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Wien, 1858), S.
+      Szanto (_Jahrbuch fuer Israeliten_, p. 108-178, 1867), A. Gottlober
+      (in his periodical {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, iii.), L. Loew (Ben Chananjah, ii.),
+      Rudermann ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, vi.), Rapoport ({~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Lemberg, 1873, p. 10),
+      Froehlich ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, Warschau, 1876, p. 63 _seq._), S. Maimon
+      (_Autobiographie_, Berlin, 1792). Compare also the Hebrew novels by
+      P. Smolensky, L. Gordon, M. Brandstaetter, A. Gottlober and B.
+      Horowitz (German). _Occasional references_ to the liturgy or the
+      system of the Chassidim in the "Responses" of R. Ezechiel Landau,
+      Moses Sopher, E. Flekeles and T. Steinhart, and in the works of
+      Israel Samostsch, Salomon Chelma and Chayim Walosin. Compare also
+      Zunz (_Gottesdienstliche Vortraege_, p. 477) and L. Loew (_Mannheimer
+      Album_, Wien, 1874), Senior Sachs ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, i. 61) and B. L. Zeitlin
+      ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, Paris, 1846). The best book on the whole subject is E.
+      Zweifel's work {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} (Zitomyr 1868, three parts), which I
+      strongly recommend to students. The books written by the Chassidim
+      would amount to more than 200. They are catalogued by Bodek and
+      Walden. I shall only draw the attention of the student to the works
+      of Beer, Salomon Ladier, and Mendel Witipsker on one side, who
+      developed the theory of the Immanence, and those of Nachman Braslaw
+      and Melech Liezensker, who, on the other hand, carried the theory of
+      Zaddikism to its utmost consequences. The student will find a fair
+      collection of sayings and sentences arranged according to
+      theological subjects in the books {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} and {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} (Anon.,
+      Lemberg, 1876).
+
+    2 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "pious ones" (Ps. xxxvii. 28, lxx. 2, etc.). The reader is
+      probably acquainted with the term from the Maccabean history (1
+      Macc. ii. 42, vii. 13), in which the strict party, opposed to all
+      Hellenistic influence, are called "Assideans" [R.V. "Hasidaeans"],
+      Gr. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}.
+
+    3 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "The Master of the Name," a term usually applied to
+      exorcists, who cast out devils and performed other miracles through
+      adjuration by the name of God (or angels). The unbelieving Rabbis
+      maintained indeed that in his exorcisms Baalshem employed "impure
+      names" (of devils), whilst the Chassidim, on the other hand,
+      declared that their Master never used "names" at all, his miracles
+      being performed by the divine in Baalshem to which all nature owes
+      obedience. Occasionally the Chassidim call him {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} (The Man
+      of Good Name), in allusion to Eccles. vii. 1, shortened by some into
+      _Besht_.
+
+    4 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}--"House of Research" or of "study" (of the Law), but in
+      which also divine service is held thrice a day.
+
+    5 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}--"Disciple of the Wise," the usual title of a scholar or
+      student.
+
+    6 A Jewish sect, so called after their founder Jacob Leibovicz Frank,
+      who was himself one of the apostles of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai
+      Tsebi of Smyrna in Turkey. Among his other doctrines he taught also
+      a sort of Trinity, consisting of the Holy Ancient One, the Holy King
+      or the Messiah, and a feminine person in the Godhead, in which he,
+      like his master, represented the Second Person. The sect ultimately
+      abolished the Law, and, after many controversies with the Rabbinic
+      Jews, went over to Catholicism, the dominant religion in Poland, by
+      which they were soon absorbed. Eybeschuetz, chief Rabbi of Prague and
+      Hamburg, was suspected by Emden to be a secret adherent of
+      Shabbethai Tsebi, which was tantamount to apostasy from Judaism.
+      Eybeschuetz protested. The litigants excommunicated each other, and
+      the Rabbis divided into two camps, taking sides either with Emden or
+      with his antagonist.
+
+    7 The works of Maimonides or Moses b. Maimon (1135-1204) are too many
+      to be enumerated here. The most important are the _Guide of the
+      Perplexed_ ({~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}) and his _Compendium of the Law_ ({~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}). Judah Hallevi or Abul Hassan flourished in the first half of
+      the twelfth century. He is well known as a poet by his _Divan_ and
+      as a deep religious thinker by his _Cusari_. The former contains
+      also many songs of a secular nature. Isaac Alfasi (died 1103) is
+      best known by his Compendium of the Talmud, which was so greatly
+      admired by his contemporaries that they declared it could never have
+      been composed "without the aid of the Holy Spirit." R. Solomon b.
+      Isaac, also called by his initials Rashi (1040-1105), is well known
+      by his commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud.
+
+    8 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}.
+
+    9 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, _Sepher_.
+
+   10 The Hebrew word is {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, meaning subtle discussion and sharp
+      distinction. The word is closely related to {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} or {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, which
+      means "pepper" or "seasoning."
+
+   11 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL PE~} = R. Meir Shiff, whose _novellae_ on the Talmud are of a
+      very subtle kind, and were very popular with the students of this
+      work.
+
+   12 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}--{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "The Repeaters," and "The Interpreters." The sayings
+      and statements of the former are embodied in the Mishnah, a work
+      compiled by R. Judah the Saint about 220 A.C., and covering a period
+      of about 250 years (30 B.C.-220 A.C.). The latter occupied
+      themselves mainly with the interpretation of the Mishnah, and their
+      discussions and controversies are incorporated in the Talmud of
+      Jerusalem and that of Babylon, and extend over the period from
+      220-500 A.C. The Talmud of Jerusalem is mostly the product of the
+      schools of Palestine. The Talmud of Babylon is a growth of that
+      country. The authorities of this latter Talmud being far away from
+      the place where the first great Rabbis lived and laboured, their
+      traditions are naturally not so historically reliable as those of
+      the Talmud of Jerusalem. The authorities of Palestine were also
+      simpler in their method of interpretation. These again are followed
+      by the Babylonian schools of new interpreters (of the Talmud).
+
+   13 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, an expression that goes back as far as to the _Zohar_.
+
+   14 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, "Brightness." Cf. Dan. xii. 3,--the authors of "The Brightness"
+      pretending to be the _Maskilim_ or "Wise Ones" mentioned in this
+      verse.
+
+   15 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   16 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   17 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   18 {~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}, pl. {~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   19 R. Johanan b. Zaccai was a contemporary of the Apostles, and died
+      about 110 A.D. He belonged to the peace party in opposition to the
+      Zealots, and obtained permission from the Roman government to
+      establish the school of Jamnia, which, after the destruction of the
+      Temple, became the centre of Jewish religious life. See also p. 188.
+
+   20 R. Saadiah Gaon was born in Egypt in 892, and died as the head of
+      the school of Sura in Babylon in 942. He is known by his
+      translations of and commentaries on the Bible, and many other works,
+      especially his philosophical treatise _Creeds and Opinions_. He was
+      also a great controversialist. Most of his polemical writings are
+      directed against the Caraites ({~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}) or "Scripturalists," a Jewish
+      sect founded by Anan in the eighth century. They protested against
+      the Oral Law, and denied Tradition. On the title "Gaon," see note 1
+      to Elijah Wilna.
+
+   21 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, _Moreh Nebuchim_, generally considered to be the
+      greatest philosophical work by any Jewish thinker.
+
+   22 R. Abraham Ibn Ezra, who spent some time in London, died about 1161.
+      He is best known by his commentaries on the Bible. He was the first
+      writer who doubted the unity of the book of Isaiah.
+
+   23 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+   24 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, meaning "sages" and "scribes," but used by
+      later writers in the sense given in the text.
+
+   25 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, dealing with the laws relating to the firstfruits which were
+      brought to the temple (Ex. xxiii. 19). The processions formed by the
+      pilgrims are very vividly described after the said tractate by
+      Delitzsch in his _Iris_, p. 190 _sq._ (English ed.). See also by the
+      same author, _Juedisches Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu_, p. 66 _seq._
+
+   26 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Fast," or {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Fasts."
+
+   27 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, "Order of Damages," treating of the civil law of the
+      Jews, the procedure of courts of justice, and kindred subjects. This
+      Order also includes the tractate {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, _Aboth_ or "Sayings of the
+      Fathers," which is very important for the study of Rabbinic doctrine
+      and ethics.
+
+   28 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Order of Purities," dealing with the laws regarding
+      Levitical purity.
+
+   29 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} (or {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}), {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}. These three works form the
+      oldest Rabbinic commentary on Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
+      Deuteronomy. The authorities cited in these commentaries all belong
+      to the period of the Tannaim. See above, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+      Constituting as they do, to a certain extent, one of the sources
+      used by the _Gemara_, they are naturally indispensable for a
+      scientific study of the Talmud.
+
+   30 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "_Hatsophe_," a spirited satire against the orthodox and
+      especially against the then prevailing belief in the transmigration
+      of souls taught by the mystical schools. The book is written in the
+      purest biblical Hebrew.
+
+   31 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+   32 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, pl. {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} (_Midrashim_), "Research," "Researches," a name
+      usually applied to the homiletical part of the Rabbinic literature.
+      The most important collection of this kind is the _Midrash Rabbah_
+      to the Pentateuch. The usual way of quoting it is _Genesis Rabbah_,
+      _Exodus Rabbah_, and so on.
+
+   33 See above, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote
+      on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   34 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Heretics," applied to the first Christians, and more so to
+      certain Gnostic sects.
+
+   35 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, see below, p. 186 and _note_. [Transcriber's Note:
+      The footnote on "laws given to Moses on Sinai."]
+
+   36 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} or {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}--{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "rule," "method,"--"narrative." The former deals
+      with the legal side of the Scriptures, and is thus more of a
+      juristic nature; the latter represents a collection of homilies
+      having mostly as their text the historical and exhortatory parts of
+      the Bible, and is thus more of an edifying character. The
+      theological side of Judaism, as well as its ideal aspirations and
+      Messianic hopes, find their expression in the Agadah. The two words
+      are also used as adjectives, as _Halachic_ (legalistic, juristic,
+      and obligatory) and _Agadic_ (poetic, edifying, and hyperbolic).
+
+   37 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, a sort of encyclopaedia to the Talmud, of which only the
+      first letter appeared.
+
+   38 Menahem Azariah de Rossi, an Italian Jew who flourished in the first
+      half of the sixteenth century. His great work, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, _Meor
+      Enayim_, "Light of the Eyes," is the first attempt made by a Jew to
+      submit the statements of the Talmud to a critical examination, and
+      to question the value of tradition in its historical records.
+
+   39 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+   40 Italian Jews of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The one,
+      Elijah Delmedigo, wrote an Examination of Religion, whilst his
+      grandson, Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, wrote various pamphlets of a
+      deeply sceptical character. See Geiger's Introduction to his _Melo
+      Chofnayim_ (Berlin, 1840).
+
+   41 {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, "The Great One." The authorities of the Babylonian schools
+      after the sixth century were also called the Gaonim ({~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}),
+      "[their] Eminences." The title was also given afterwards to great
+      Rabbis distinguished for their learning.
+
+   42 R. Joseph Caro (1488-1575) lived in Safed. The title of his code is
+      {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}, _Prepared Table_. This is a code of the Oral Law compiled
+      from the Rabbinic literature.
+
+   43 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, containing an account of the Jewish worthies of that
+      city.
+
+   44 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}.
+
+   45 A famous mystic of the sixteenth century, from Safed, who was the
+      more admired the less his pupils understood him.
+
+   46 Hai was the last of the authorities called Gaon. With his death
+      (1038) the schools of Babylon fell into decay and soon disappeared.
+
+   47 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, treating of the voluntary offerings brought by the pilgrims
+      to Jerusalem.
+
+   48 {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Perfection or Supplementary Explanations." By this is
+      understood the interpretation given to the Mishnah by the schools in
+      Palestine and Babylon. See above, note 12 to the Chassidim.
+      [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   49 See Dean Church's _St. Anselm_, from which this story is taken.
+
+   50 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Addition" (to the Mishnah), but also containing only the
+      sayings and discussions of the period of the Tannaim.
+
+   51 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Order of the World," dealing with the Chronology of the
+      Bible, and dating from about the end of the second century.
+
+   52 These "Minor Tractates" include, among others, treatises on
+      proselytes, on the laws concerning funerals, the writing of the Law,
+      and the like. Others are more of an edifying nature, treating of
+      good manners, conduct, etc.
+
+   53 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   54 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Eighteen." They are recited thrice a day, and form the
+      original germ of the prayers, from which a very rich liturgy
+      developed in the course of time.
+
+   55 The titles of the old authorities from 70 B.C. to 500 A.C. See
+      above, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on
+      the Tannaim and Amoraim.]
+
+   56 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, "Prince," or "Patriarch," religious head, of the
+      Jews (not political), and "Father (or president) of the Court of
+      Justice."
+
+   57 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Sacrifices," "Offerings." They treat of the laws
+      relating to sacrifices and meal-offerings.
+
+   58 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, the laws relating to diverse seeds and garments of diverse
+      sorts. Cf. Deut. xxii. 9-11.
+
+   59 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}, "Teller," a sort of travelling preacher.
+
+   60 {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}, "palm branch." Cf. Lev. xxiii. 40.
+
+   61 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "High School," or "Academy," in which the Rabbinic literature
+      is studied.
+
+   62 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   63 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, a mythical river which is supposed to stop its course on
+      Sabbath.
+
+   64 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, sing. {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, "Young man," by which term the Jews usually
+      understand the _alumni_ of their Talmudical schools.
+
+   65 Levi b. Gershom (1286-1344) is generally regarded as the greatest
+      successor of Maimonides. Besides his rationalistic commentaries on
+      the Bible, he wrote various treatises on metaphysics, mathematics,
+      astronomy, medicine, etc.
+
+   66 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   67 In Steinschneider's _Catalogue of the Bodleian Library_, under the
+      name of Moses Nachmanides, pp. 1947-1965, all the works which are
+      ascribed to this author are put together, and also discussed as to
+      their authenticity. There are only to be added the new edition of
+      the _Derasha_ by Jellinek (Vienna, 1872), in which the variants from
+      Schorr's MS. ({~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~}, viii. 162) are already incorporated; a new
+      edition of the {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, and the commentary to Is. lii.-liii. by
+      Steinschneider (Berlin, 1860); a _Sermon_ for the New Year, ed. by
+      H. Berliner (_Libanon_, v. 564); and another Sermon at a wedding
+      (?), ed. by Schorr (_Hechalus_, xii. 3). For the literature on
+      Nachmanides, besides the references given by Steinschneider, in his
+      _Catalogue_, and the Addenda, p. cxviii. (cf. also the pedigree in
+      the _Catalogue_ 2305), see also Graetz, _Geschichte_, vii., pp.
+      112-143, and p. 147 _seq._; Michael, {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, No. 1125, and Weiss,
+      {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}, v. 4 _seq._; Perles' _Monatsschrift_, 1860, p. 175;
+      Zomber, _ibid._ 421; and Z. Frankel, _ibid._ 1868, p. 449, and _The
+      Jewish Quarterly Review_, iv. 245 _seq._ For Nachmanides'
+      disputation we have to add M. Loeb in the _Revue des Etudes Juives_,
+      xv. 1 _seq._, and xviii. 52 (about Abner), and Dr. Neubauer's Essay
+      on Jewish Controversy in the _Expositor_, vol. vii. (third series),
+      p. 98 _seq._, with the references given there. See also his article
+      on the Bahir and the Zohar in _The Jewish Quarterly Review_, iv.
+      357. With regard to Nachmanides' mystical system see the references
+      to S. Sachs (whose remarks are most suggestive), Krochmal, and
+      Jellinek in Steinschneider, col. 1949 and 1964, Perles'
+      _Monatsschrift_, 1858, p. 83 _seq._, and Steinschneider in the Heb.
+      _Bibliographie_, i. 34. See also Professor Kaufmann's _Die
+      Geschichte der Attributenlehre_, and the references given in the
+      index under this name. The _Novellae_ by his son R. Nachman, alluded
+      to in the text, are in the University Library, Cambridge (Add. 1187,
+      2). The {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} is extant in the British Museum, MS. Add. 26,894,
+      and the passage quoted by De Rossi is to be found on p. 163_b_, but
+      a few words are erased by the censor. As to the poem given at the
+      end of this paper, see Zunz, _Synagogale Poesie_, p. 478; Landshut,
+      _Amude ha-Abodah_ _s.v._, the references in Sachs' _Religioese Poesie
+      der Juden_, and Luzzatto in the _Ozar Nechmad_, ii. 27. Compare also
+      Professor Cheyne's _The Origin of the Psalter_, p. 421.
+
+   68 New Year's Day, on the first of Tishri. It is in autumn.
+
+   69 A famous Rabbi of the fifteenth century, known by his various
+      casuistical and philosophical works.
+
+   70 Chiefly known through his controversial writings against the
+      adherents of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai Tsebi. He was for some
+      time the Rabbi of the Portuguese congregation in London.
+
+   71 The main objections of the opponents of Maimonides were directed
+      against his rationalistic notions of Revelation, and his
+      allegorising interpretation of the Scriptures, which amounted in
+      some places to a denial of miracles. He was also suspected of having
+      denied bodily resurrection. A history of Jewish rationalism is still
+      a desideratum. I am certain that it would prove at least as
+      interesting as Reuter's _Geschichte der religioesen Aufklaerung im
+      Mittelalter_ (Berlin, 1845-60).
+
+   72 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   73 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Homilies." See above, p. 64 and _note_.
+
+   74 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "The end of the Redemption," that is the time when the
+      advent of the Messiah is to be expected.
+
+   75 This patriarch is famous in Jewish legend for his hospitality. See
+      Beer's _Leben Abrahams_, pp. 37 and 56.
+
+   76 This is the quorum necessary to form a congregation ({~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}) for the
+      purpose of holding divine service.
+
+   77 By _Zobah_, or _Aram Zobah_, the Jews of the Middle Ages usually
+      understood Aleppo. See Benjamin of Tudela's _Itinerary_, i. 88, ii.
+      124 (London and Berlin, 1840-41).
+
+   78 See below, p. 141, where a full translation of the letter is given.
+
+   79 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, a compendium of the Law, dating from the ninth
+      century, by R. Simon Caro.
+
+   80 R. Simlai flourished in Palestine in the third century. He is best
+      known as an Agadic teacher and a great controversialist. According
+      to him, 613 commandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai, of
+      which 365 are prohibitive laws, whilst the remaining 248 are
+      positive injunctions.
+
+   81 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, "Treatise on Reward (and Punishment)."
+
+   82 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}.
+
+   83 Ps. cix. 4; {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   84 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+   85 {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}.
+
+   86 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Knowledge," "Foreknowledge," "Omniscience."
+
+   87 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}, {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+   88 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}. See Exod. xix. 5.
+
+   89 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+   90 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}, {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+   91 According to a Jewish tradition (the date of which is uncertain) the
+      advent of the Messiah, the Son of David, will be preceded by that of
+      the Messiah, the Son of Joseph. The latter will perish in the battle
+      against Gog and Magog (the Antichrist of Jewish literature), but
+      will soon be brought back to life on the appearance of the former.
+      Cf. G. H. Dalman's _Der leidende und der sterbende Messias der
+      Synagoge_ (Berlin, 1881).
+
+   92 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "In the beginning," Gen. i. 1.
+
+   93 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}; Job xxvii. 12.
+
+   94 _Chagigah_ 14_b_. The activity of these four Rabbis falls chiefly in
+      the second century. R. Akiba died as a martyr in the Hadrianic
+      persecution (about 130). Elisha b. Abuyah, the apostate, was usually
+      called {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, _Acher_, "the other one."
+
+   95 The former lived in the twelfth, the latter in the sixteenth,
+      century. They are both known for their hostility to philosophy.
+
+   96 Bachya wrote in the eleventh century a famous book called {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, _The Duties of the Heart_. For the others see above, p. 13
+      and _note_, p. 49 and _note_, p. 102 and _note_, p. 97 and _note_,
+      p. 71 and _note_. They all belong to the rationalistic school.
+
+   97 A younger contemporary of Maimonides, who translated the _Guide_
+      from Arabic into Hebrew.
+
+   98 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}. See above, p. 18. R. Moses Cordovora, the author of the
+      {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, lived in Safed in the sixteenth century. For R. Isaac Loria,
+      the author of the {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL TSADI~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, see above, note 5 to Elijah Wilna.
+
+   99 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  100 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, a forgery by a Provencal Jew of the thirteenth century,
+      who attributed it to a Rabbi of the first century.
+
+  101 This hymn is now incorporated in her excellent little book, _Songs
+      of Zion_, pp. 13-15.
+
+  102 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}, a gold piece. The country and the date of the writer not being
+      certain, it is impossible to determine the value of this coin.
+
+  103 The lawfulness of eating this fish (= sturgeon?) was contested for
+      many centuries, and the controversy still continues.
+
+  104 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}, a smaller coin than the Zehub.
+
+  105 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}, "Hear," the verses from Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, and Num. xv.
+      37-41, recited twice a day by the Jews.
+
+  106 _Sabbath_, 30_b_.
+
+  107 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}, pl. {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} (_Minhagim_), applied usually to those ritual
+      customs and ceremonies for which there is no distinct authority in
+      the Scriptures or even in the Talmud.
+
+  108 _Jerusalem_, in Mendelssohn's _Saemmtliche Werke_ (Vienna, 1838),
+      especially from p. 264 onwards, and a letter by him published in
+      Frankel-Graetz's _Monatsschrift_, 1859, p. 173. For Mendelssohn's
+      position, see Graetz's _Geschichte_, xi. 86 _seq._, especially p. 88
+      and note 1; Kayserling, _Leben und Werke_ of M., 2d ed., p. 394;
+      Steinheim, _Moses Mendelssohn_ (Hamburg, 1840), p. 30 _seq._;
+      Holdheim, _Moses Mendelssohn_ (Berlin, 1859), p. 18 _seq._; Leopold
+      Loew's pamphlet, _Juedische Dogmen_ (Pesth, 1871).
+
+  109 See the Commentaries on Maimonides' {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, especially R. Simeon
+      Duran's {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}; cf. also ancient and modern commentaries on
+      Exod. xx. 2.
+
+  110 See _Siphra_ (ed. Weiss), pp. 86_b_, 93_b_.
+
+  111 _Baba Bathra_, 14_b_; cf. Fuerst's _Kanon_, p. 15.
+
+  112 See _Sanhedrin_, 38_b_, and _Pseudo-Jonathan_ to Gen. iv. 8.
+
+  113 _Mechilta_, 33_b_.
+
+  114 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}, Lat. Epicurus.
+
+  115 See _Mishnah_, _Sanhedrin_, x. e, � 1, and Talmud, _ibid._ 90_a_ and
+      _b_, and Rabbinowicz's _Variae Lectiones_, ix. p. 247 notes. Besides
+      the ordinary commentaries on the Talmud, account must also be taken
+      of the remarks of Crescas, Duran, Albo, and Abarbanel on the
+      subject. Cf. also Kaempf in the _Monatsschrift_ (1863), p. 144
+      _seq._; Oppenheim, _ibid._ (1864), p. 144; Friedmann in the _Beth
+      Talmud_, i. p. 210 _seq._ See also Talmudical Dictionaries, _s.v._
+      {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}. The explanation I have adopted agrees partly with
+      Friedmann's and partly with Oppenheim's views.
+
+  116 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iii. � 9, and iv. � 22.
+
+  117 See {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~} (Jovslow, 1835), p. 48. In my exposition of the
+      dogmas of the Caraites I have mainly followed the late Dr. Frankl's
+      article "Karaiten" in Ersch u. Gruber's _Encyclopaedie_ (sec. ii.
+      vol. xxxvi. pp. 12-18). See also his _Ein mutazilitischer Kalam_ and
+      his _Beitraege zur Literaturgeschichte der Karaeer_ (Berlin, 1887) on
+      Bashazi. Cf. also Jost's _Geschichte_, ii. c. 13.
+
+  118 Kairowan was one of the greatest centres of Jewish learning in North
+      Africa during that period.
+
+  119 See, however, Professor D. Kaufmann's note in the _Jewish Quarterly
+      Review_, i. p. 441. From this it would seem that the creed of R.
+      Judah Hallevi may be formulated in the following articles:--The
+      conviction of the existence of God, of His eternity, of His guidance
+      of our fathers, of the Divine Origin of the Law, and of the proof of
+      all this, the pledge or token of its truth, the exodus from Egypt.
+
+  120 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, _Emunah Ramah_, pp. 44 and 69; cf. Gulmann,
+      _Monatsschrift_, 1878, p. 304.
+
+  121 For the various translations of the Thirteen Articles which were
+      originally composed in Arabic, see Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col.
+      1887. Cf. Rosin, _Ethik des Maimonides_, p. 30; Weiss, _Beth
+      Talmud_, i. p. 330, and _Ben Chananjah_, 1863, p. 942, and 1864, pp.
+      648 and 697, and Landshut, {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, p. 231.
+
+  122 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}. See pp. 1-16.
+
+  123 See _Hammaskir_, viii. pp. 63 and 103.
+
+  124 See Steinschneider, _Cat. Muenchen_, No. 210.
+
+  125 See the Collection {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}, by Ashkenazi, pp. 56_b_ _seq._
+
+  126 See Albo, c. iii. Probably identical with the author mentioned by
+      Duran, 13_b_.
+
+  127 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, "Sepher Nizzachon."
+
+  128 See {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~} (ed. Johannisburg), preface, and pp. 20_a_, 44_b_, 59_b_,
+      and elsewhere. The style of this author is very obscure. Cf. Joel's
+      pamphlet on this author (Breslau, 1874).
+
+  129 See the first pages of the {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} (Leghorn, 1758), and his {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, pp. 13
+      _seq._
+
+  130 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, _Ikkarim_, "Fundamentals."
+
+  131 See _Ikkarim_, i. c. 23, and Maimonides' _Commentary on the Mishnah_
+      (end of tractate Maccoth). On Albo compare Schlesinger's
+      Introduction and notes to the _Ikkarim_, Joel's pamphlet, p. 82;
+      Paulus, _Monatsschrift_, 1874, p. 463, and Bruell's _Jahrb._ iv. p.
+      52.
+
+  132 I know his work from a MS. in the British Museum, Orient. 39.
+
+  133 {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, _Derech Emunah_. Cf. Steinschneider, _Monatsschrift_,
+      1883, p. 79 _seq._
+
+  134 See {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}, gate 55.
+
+  135 See his {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} and {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  136 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  137 See {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, ed. Reggio, p. 28.
+
+  138 See {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} (Venice, 1707), 16_a_ and 23_a_. His language is very
+      vague.
+
+  139 See the Collection by Ashkenazi (as above, note 18), p. 29_b_.
+
+  140 See his {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, p. 331.
+
+  141 See Weiss's admirable monograph on Maimonides, published in the
+      _Beth Talmud_, i.
+
+  142 The Hebrew title of the work is {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}.
+
+  143 That is, vows of an ascetic nature (not vows or oaths enforced by a
+      court of justice), which the tribunal could annul when there was
+      sufficient reason for it.
+
+  144 The ten Rabbis who are named as the bearers of tradition during the
+      period between 170 and 30 B.C. The "pair" in each case is supposed
+      to have consisted of the president and the vice-president of the
+      Sanhedrin for the time being. See, however, Kuenen, _Gesammelte
+      Schriften_, p. 49 _seq._
+
+  145 {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+  146 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}. They amount, in the whole of Rabbinic literature,
+      to about forty, of which more than ten concern the preparation of
+      the phylacteries, whilst others relate to the libations of water at
+      the Feast of Tabernacles and similar subjects.
+
+  147 This is the time when the school of R. Johanan b. Zaccai began its
+      activity. Others place the Tannaitic age in Hillel's time (30 B.C.).
+
+  148 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  149 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, lit. "Court of Justice," as above, note 16 to Elijah Wilna,
+      but it means also a sort of permanent Synod, in which of course
+      justice was also administered as a part of religion.
+
+  150 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Evidences given by Witnesses." The tractate consists mostly
+      of a number of laws attested by various Rabbis as having come down
+      to them as old traditions.
+
+  151 The family of Hillel, which was supposed to be descended from the
+      house of David, supplied the Jews with patriarchs for many
+      generations. Gamaliel II. flourished about 120 A.C., whilst Simon b.
+      Gamaliel's activity as Patriarch falls about 160 A.C.
+
+  152 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, _Semachoth_. It is a euphemistic title, the tractate dealing
+      with the laws relating to funeral ceremonies and mourning.
+
+  153 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, "Elucidators" or "Explainers." The heads of the schools in
+      Babylon during the fifth and sixth centuries were so designated.
+
+  154 The Rabbinic Jews of the dispersion add one day to each festival,
+      and thus celebrate the Passover eight days, the Feast of Weeks two
+      days, etc. The custom arose out of the uncertainty about the first
+      day of the month, the prerogative of fixing the New Moon resting
+      with the great _Beth Din_ in Palestine, which had not always the
+      means of communicating in time the evidence given before them that
+      the New Moon had been seen by qualified witnesses. The prerogative
+      was abolished in the fourth century, and the calendar fixed for all
+      future time, but the additional day is still kept by the Rabbinic
+      Jews as the "Custom of their Fathers."
+
+  155 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, "Chambers (of Heaven)" and the "Measure of the
+      Stature," mystical works in which occasionally gross
+      anthropomorphisms are to be found. Their authorship is unknown.
+
+  156 _Sabbath_, 55_a_.
+
+  157 _Sayings of the Fathers_ (ed. C. Taylor), v. 12-15. See also
+      _Sabbath_, 32 _seq._, and _Mechilta_ (ed. Friedman), 95_b_.
+      _Arachin_, 16_a_.
+
+  158 See _Mechilta_, 25_a_, 32_b_. _Gen. Rabbah_, ch. 48, and _Tossephta
+      Sotah_, iv. 7, and parallels.
+
+  159 _Taanith_, 21_a_.
+
+  160 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iv. 5.
+
+  161 _Baba Bathra_, 9_b_.
+
+  162 _Yoma_, 39_a_.
+
+  163 _Berachoth_, 33_a_.
+
+  164 _Sabbath_, 13_b_.
+
+  165 _Berachoth_, 7_a_.
+
+  166 See _Mechilta_, 68_b_, and parallels. _Siphra_, 112_b_. _Pessikta_
+      of R. Kahana, 167_b_. Cp. _Sanhedrin_, 44_a_.
+
+  167 _Aboth_ de R. Nathan, 40_a_, 59_b_, and 62_b_.
+
+  168 _Baba Bathra_, 10_a_.
+
+  169 _Eccles. Rabbah_, ix. 7.
+
+  170 5_a_.
+
+  171 7_b_.
+
+  172 See _Mechilta_, 95_b_, and parallels.
+
+  173 See _Kiddushin_, 40_b_. _Mechilta_, 63_b_. _Lev. Rabbah_, iv.
+
+  174 See _Sabbath_, 54_a_.
+
+  175 _Exodus Rabbah_, c. 35, and parallels.
+
+  176 See _Negaim_, ii. 1.
+
+  177 _Exod. Rabbah_, c. 46.
+
+  178 _Taanith_, 11_a_.
+
+  179 See _Berachoth_, 5_a_.
+
+  180 _Tanchuma_, {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, � 2. Cp. _Mechilta_, 72_b_.
+
+  181 _Siphre_, 73_b_, and parallels.
+
+  182 _Taanith_, 8_a_.
+
+  183 _Arachin_, 16_b_.
+
+  184 _Sayings of the Fathers_, iv. 15.
+
+  185 See _Chagigah_, 5_a_.
+
+  186 _Sabbath_, 55_a_.
+
+  187 _Menachoth_, 29_b_.
+
+  188 _Taanith_, 25_a_.
+
+  189 _Gen. Rabbah_, xxvii.; _Pessikta_, 136_b_; _Sanhedrin_, vi. 5;
+      _Berachoth_, 7_a_.
+
+  190 _Sayings of the Fathers_, i. 3, p. 27, ed. Taylor. See also note 8.
+
+  191 _Abodah Zarah_, 19_a_; _Siphre_, 79_b_.
+
+  192 _Berachoth_, 58_b_.
+
+  193 See _Exod. R._, 30, and parallels.
+
+  194 See {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, i. 9.
+
+  195 See {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, 33_b_.
+
+  196 See _Sabbath_, 55_b_, and _Siphra_, 27_a_.
+
+  197 _Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of the Progress of Thought from
+      Old Testament to New Testament_, by C. H. Toy, Professor in Harvard
+      University. London, 1890.
+
+  198 See _Pessikta_ of R. Kahana, 61_b_, and parallels, and _Erubin_,
+      13_b_.
+
+  199 Tal. Jer., _Sabbath_, 5_b_.
+
+  200 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, the name of an angel, already found in the Talmud, but
+      playing a more important part in the _Book of Chambers_, where he is
+      identified with Enoch. The etymology of the word is doubtful, some
+      authors considering it to be of Persian origin (_Mithra_); others
+      again deriving it from the Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+  201 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  202 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}, "The Word," sometimes substituted for God. See J. Levy's
+      _Chaldaeisches Woerterbuch_, _s.v._
+
+  203 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  204 _Mechilta_, 104_a_.
+
+  205 See Tal. Jer., _Yoma_, 45_b_. Cf. Maimonides, _Mishneh Torah_, {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}.
+
+  206 _Tosephta Berackoth_, iii. 7.
+
+  207 _Sabbath_, 10_b_. The name of the Rabbi is not given, but the fact
+      that R. Simeon b. Gamaliel (160 A.C.) already refers to this
+      interpretation makes it clear that its anonymous author must have
+      lived at least a generation before.
+
+  208 {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}.
+
+  209 See _Midrash_ to the Psalms xcii. and _Deut. Rabbah_ iii. The Rabbis
+      perceived in the words {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~} (Isa. lviii. 13), a command to
+      make the Sabbath a day of pleasure, whilst the word {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL PE~} was
+      understood by them to mean "needs," "wants," or "business" (_not_
+      "pleasure"). Cf. _Sabbath_, 113_a_ and _b_.
+
+  210 See _Gen. Rabbah_, xi. (and parallels), and _Sabbath_, 119_a_.
+
+  211 See _Maaseh Torah_ (ed. Schoenblum) and _Deut. Rabbah_, i.
+
+  212 _Sabbath_, 25_b_ and 119_a_.
+
+  213 _Betsah_, 16_a_. Cf. Baer's notes in his _Prayer-Book_, p. 203
+      _seq._
+
+  214 See _Sabbath_, 119_b_, and _Gen. Rabbah_, xi.
+
+  215 See _Sabbath_, 10_b_, and _Gen. Rabbah_, _ibid._
+
+  216 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  217 _Nazir_, 23_b_.
+
+  218 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} by R. Isaac b. Moses of Vienna (thirteenth century), mostly
+      on legal subjects.
+
+  219 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, Yuchasin.
+
+  220 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, Miklal.
+
+  221 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}, the former treating of the agricultural laws of the
+      Bible, the latter of those relating to the Sabbath, Passover, and
+      other festivals.
+
+  222 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, "Cycle," containing the liturgy for the festivals.
+
+  223 Since then edited by the Mekize Nirdamim.
+
+  224 Eve of the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles.
+
+  225 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~} {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}. {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}.
+
+  226 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  227 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  228 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, Yalkut.
+
+  229 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  230 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}.
+
+  231 {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  232 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+  233 {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}.
+
+  234 {~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~}.
+
+  235 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  236 {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~} {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  237 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}. {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW ACCENT GERESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  238 The main authorities on the subjects of this essay are _Die
+      Lebensalter_, by Dr. Leopold Loew; _The Jewish Rite of Circumcision_,
+      by Dr. Asher; an article by Dr. Perles in the Graetz _Jubelschrift_,
+      p. 23 _seq._; _Merkwuerdigkeiten der Juden_, by Schudt; the {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}
+      {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} and other works on ritual customs; Guedemann's _Geschichte
+      des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden_; and _Das Kind in
+      Brauch und Sitte der Voelker_, by Dr. Ploss.
+
+  239 {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}, {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  240 {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}, Is. xxxiv. 14.
+
+  241 See above, note 39 to Nachmanides. [Transcriber's Note: The footnote
+      on _Shema_.]
+
+  242 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "Covenant of Circumcision." This is the usual expression
+      in Hebrew literature for the rite of circumcision.
+
+  243 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}.
+
+  244 {~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}.
+
+  245 {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}.
+
+  246 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, on educational matters.
+
+  247 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, "business," or "wares."
+
+  248 I am indebted for the English adaptation to Mrs. Henry Lucas.
+
+  249 _Bereshith Rabbah_, chapter xx. For another reading see {~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}
+      (ed. Cracow), p. 374.
+
+  250 _Abodah Zarah_, 3_b_.
+
+  251 This is the way in which Deut. xxxi. 10-12 was explained.
+
+  252 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, "Scribes"; treating of the regulations concerning the
+      writing of the Law, but containing also much liturgical matter.
+
+  253 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, by which name the Jews of the Spanish rite are designated.
+
+  254 {~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, a controversial work published by Wagenseil. See above,
+      p. 203, for another victory.
+
+  255 {~HEBREW LETTER SAMEKH~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}, who is probably known to the English reader from
+      Longfellow's poem.
+
+  256 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER TSADI~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}.
+
+  257 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, "Sanctification"--"benediction"--on the eve of Sabbath, which
+      is pronounced over a cup of wine.
+
+  258 {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}, or on the 23rd of Tishri, when the last portion from the
+      Pentateuch is read.
+
+  259 {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}, "Praise," _i.e._ Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.
+
+  260 {~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW POINT HIRIQ~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, the name of a prayer commencing {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}, "Magnified and
+      sanctified be," etc.
+
+  261 Prayer beginning {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}, "Bless ye," etc.
+
+  262 {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} {~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}, beginning of a prayer, "Blessed be He," etc.
+
+  263 See Schuerer's _Die Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom_, p. 24. Cf.
+      _Hebraeische Bibliographie_, xix. p. 79.
+
+  264 {~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  265 {~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}.
+
+  266 {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}.
+
+  267 {~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}. In olden times the weekly lesson from the Law used to be read
+      by seven members of the congregation who were "called up" for this
+      purpose; the Priest and the Levite took precedence of laymen for
+      this honour. At the present day, the members of the congregation are
+      still called up, but the actual reading is performed by an official.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
+
+
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