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<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48874 ***</div>

<div class="tnbox">
<p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber&#8217;s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p>
</div>

<h1><span class="fsize60">A BRIEF</span><br />
HISTORY OF FORESTRY.<br />
<span class="smcap fsize60">In Europe, the United States<br />
and Other Countries</span></h1>

<p class="author"><span class="fsize60">BY</span><br />
Bernhard E. Fernow, LL.D.</p>

<p class="author">Dean, Faculty of Forestry<br />
University of Toronto</p>

<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Revised and Enlarged Edition</span></p>

<hr class="ornament" />

<p class="author"><span class="smcap">University Press<br />
Toronto<br />
and<br />
Forestry Quarterly,<br />
Cambridge, Mass.</span></p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p class="copyright"><span class="smcap">Copyright, Canada, 1911,<br />
By B. E. Fernow.</span></p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p class="center"><i>To My Friend of Many Years<br />
<span class="highline3">ROSSITER W. RAYMOND</span><br />
whose warm personal interest and enthusiastic<br />
patriotism have from their beginnings<br />
inspired my labors in forwarding<br />
forestry interests in the<br />
United States.</i></p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>

<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>

<table summary="ToC">

<tr>
<td colspan="5" class="right fsize80">PAGE</td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">PREFACE</td>
<td class="right bot w2em"><a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">INTRODUCTORY</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">THE FOREST OF THE ANCIENTS</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="w2em">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="w2em">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right top w2em">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Property</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Use</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">GERMANY</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right top">I.</td>
<td colspan="2" class="left top"><span class="smcap">From earliest Times to end of Middle Ages</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Property Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Treatment</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right top">II.</td>
<td colspan="2" class="left top"><span class="smcap">First Development of Forestry Methods (1500 to 1800)</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Property Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Methods of Restriction in Forest Use</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">5.</td>
<td class="left top">Personnel</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">6.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Silviculture</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">7.</td>
<td class="left top">Improvement of the Crop</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">8.</td>
<td class="left top">Methods of Regulating Forest Management</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">9.</td>
<td class="left top">Improvements in Methods of Mensuration</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">10.</td>
<td class="left top">Methods of Lumbering and Utilization</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">11.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Administration</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">12.</td>
<td class="left top">Forestry Schools</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">13.</td>
<td class="left top">Forestry Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right top">III.</td>
<td colspan="2" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Development in the Nineteenth Century</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Changes in Property Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Personnel</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Progress in Silviculture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">5.</td>
<td class="left top">Methods of Forest Organization</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">6.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Administration</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">7.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">8.</td>
<td class="left top">Forestry Science and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">9.</td>
<td class="left top">Means of Advancing Forestry Science</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">AUSTRIA-HUNGARY</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Property Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">First Attempts at Forest Control</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">State Forest Administration</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">5.</td>
<td class="left top">Progress of Forest Organization</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">6.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Silviculture</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">7.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Hungary</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">SWITZERLAND</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions and Property Rights</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Forestry Practice</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">FRANCE</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Property</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Administration</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Modern Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Work of Reforestation</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">5.</td>
<td class="left top">Forestry Science and Practice</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">6.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">7.</td>
<td class="left top">Colonial Policies</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">RUSSIA AND FINLAND</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions and Ownership</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Forestry Practice</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Finland</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">THE SCANDINAVIAN STATES</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Sweden</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Property Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Administration and Forest Practice</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Norway</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Denmark</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">THE MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Turkish and Slavish Territories</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Greece</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Italy</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Spain</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Portugal</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">GREAT BRITAIN AND HER COLONIES</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">India</span><span class="pagenum"><a
name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Property Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_388">388</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Organization and Administration</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">5.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Treatment</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_400">400</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">6.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Canada</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_409">409</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Ownership</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Administration of Timberlands</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_428">428</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">5.</td>
<td class="left top">Education</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Newfoundland</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Other British Possessions and Colonies</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">JAPAN</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions and Ownership</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_446">446</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Korea</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_455">455</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">1.</td>
<td class="left top">Forest Conditions</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_461">461</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">2.</td>
<td class="left top">Early Forest History</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_466">466</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">3.</td>
<td class="left top">Development of Forest Policy</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_479">479</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="right">4.</td>
<td class="left top">Education and Literature</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_499">499</a></td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="smcap">Insular Possessions</span></td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_504">504</a></td>
</tr>

<tr class="highrow">
<td colspan="4" class="left top">INDEX</td>
<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_507">i</a></td>
</tr>

</table>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>

<h2>PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.</h2>

<p>It has been a great surprise and also a great gratification
to the author to see the first edition of this
volume exhausted within less than two years since its
appearance in complete form. The gratification has
come especially because of the opportunity thus
afforded of revision, improvement in style, and correction
of the many inaccuracies which the first edition
contained, excusable only by the manner in which
(as explained in the preface of the first edition) the
volume had come into existence.</p>

<p>Only in a few cases has it seemed desirable to
expand, since the object of the book is not to be complete,
but to give as briefly as possible an oversight
over a rather large field. The chapter on France has,
however, been entirely re-written and considerably
enlarged to meet the just criticisms of reviewers;
the excellent work of Huffel, full of historical data,
which was not available when the first edition was
printed, permitting a clearer and fuller statement to
be made.</p>

<p>As long as history is in the making, a book of this
kind can hardly be brought up to date. This should
especially be kept in mind by the reader in regard to
the statistics brought in. Since these are only to
serve in general to show the magnitude of the interests
involved, they may without damage be only approximately
accurate, and even of older date.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p>

<p>Some of the chapters have been submitted for
criticism and corrections to correspondents in the
various countries to which they refer. For the kindly
assistance of these friends thanks is due from the
author.</p>

<p><span class="lefttext smcap">Toronto, October, 1911.</span><span class="righttext smcap">B. E. Fernow.</span></p>

<hr class="chap" />

<h2>PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.</h2>

<p>This publication is the result of a series of 25 lectures
which the writer was invited to deliver before
the students of forestry in Yale University as a part
of their regular course of instruction during the
session of 1904.</p>

<p>Circumstances made it desirable, in the absence of
any existing textbooks on the subject, to print at once,
for the sake of ready reference, the substance of the
lectures while they were being delivered.</p>

<p>This statement of the manner in which the book
came into existence will explain and, it is hoped,
excuse the crudities of style, which has been also
hampered by the necessity of condensation.</p>

<p>The main object was to bring together the information,
now scattered and mostly inaccessible to English
or American readers: the style has been sacrificed to
brevity; it is a book of expanded lecture notes.</p>

<p>In the nature of the case the book does not lay claim
to any originality except in the manner of presentation,
being merely a compilation of facts gathered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span>
mostly from other compilations, official documents and
journals.</p>

<p>For none of the countries discussed does a complete
work on the history of forests and forestry exist, excepting
in the case of Germany, which can boast of
a number of comprehensive works on the subject. It
was, therefore, possible to treat that country more <i>in
extenso</i>. Moreover, it appeared desirable to enlarge
upon the history of that country, since it is pre-eminently
in the lead in forestry matters and has passed
through all the stages of development of forest
policies and forestry practice, which, with more or less
variations must be repeated in other countries.</p>

<p>Especially the growth of the technical science and
art of forestry, which has been developed in Germany
for a longer time and to a more refined degree than in
other countries, has been elaborated in the chapter
relating to that country.</p>

<p>For some of the other countries available sources of
information were quite limited. The writer believes,
however, that for the purpose of this brief statement
the data collected will be found sufficient.</p>

<p>In order to make conditions existing in the different
countries and their causes more readily understood it
appeared desirable to give very brief historic references
to their political and economic development and also
brief statements of their general physical conditions.</p>

<p>Present conditions of forest policy and forest administration
have sometimes been enlarged upon beyond
the requirements of historical treatment.</p>

<div class="signat">

<p><span class="lefttext"><span class="smcap">Ithaca, N.Y.</span>, May, 1907.</span><span class="righttext smcap">B. E. Fernow.</span></p>

</div>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>

<h2>INTRODUCTORY.</h2>

<p>The value of studying the historical development of
an economic subject or of a technical art which, like
forestry, relies to a large extent upon empiricism, lies
in the fact that it brings before us, in proper perspective,
accumulated experience, and enables us to analyze
cause and effect, whereby we may learn to appreciate
the reasons for present conditions and the possibilities
for rational advancement.</p>

<p>If there be one philosophy more readily derivable
than another from the study of the history of forestry
it is that history repeats itself. The same policies and
the same methods which we hear propounded to-day
have at some other time been propounded and tried
elsewhere: we can study the results, broadening our
judgment and thereby avoid the mistakes of others.</p>

<p>Nowhere is the record of experience and the historic
method of study of more value than in an empiric art
like forestry, in which it takes decades, a lifetime, nay
a century to see the final effects of operations.</p>

<p>Such study, if properly pursued, tends to free the
mind from many foolish prejudices and particularly
from an unreasonable partiality for our own country
and its customs and methods merely because they are
our own, substituting the proper patriotism, which applies
the best knowledge, wherever found, to our own
necessities.</p>

<p>Forestry is an art born of necessity, as opposed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
arts of convenience and of pleasure. Only when a
reduction in the natural supplies of forest products
under the demands of civilization, necessitates a
husbanding of supplies or necessitates the application
of art or skill or knowledge in securing a reproduction,
or when unfavorable conditions of soil or
climate induced by forest destruction make themselves
felt does the art of forestry make its appearance.
Hence its beginnings occur in different places
at different times and its development proceeds at
different paces.</p>

<p>In the one country, owing to economic development,
the need of an intensive forest management
and of strict forest policies may have arrived, while
in another, rough exploitation and wasteful practices
are still natural and practically unavoidable. And
such differences, as we shall see, may even exist in
the different parts of the same country.</p>

<p>The origin and growth of the art, then, is dependent
on economic and cultural conditions, on various
economic development and on elements of environment.
The development of the art can only be
understood and appreciated through the knowledge
of such environment, of such other developments as
of agriculture, of industries, of means of transportation,
of civilization generally.</p>

<p>Hence we find, for instance, that England, located
so as to be accessible by sea from all points of the
compass and with oceanic shipping well developed,
can apparently dispense with serious consideration
of the forest supply question.</p>

<p>Again, we find that more than a century ago fear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
of a timber famine agitated not only the dense populations
of many European countries, but even the
scanty population of the United States, in spite of
the natural forest wealth which is still supplying us;
and not without good reason, for at that time wood
was the only fuel and rivers the only means of transportation;
hence local scarcity was to be feared and
was not unfrequently experienced when accessible
forest areas had been exploited. Railroad and canal
development and the use of coal for fuel changed
this condition on both continents. Now, with improved
means of transportation by land and by sea,
the questions of wood supply and of forestry development,
which at one time were of very local concern,
have become world questions, and he who proposes
to discuss intelligently forest conditions and forestry
movement in one country must understand what is
going on in other countries.</p>

<p>As will appear from the study of the following
pages, with the exception of some parts of central
Europe or of some sporadic attempts elsewhere to
regulate forest use, the development of the forestry
idea belongs essentially to the 19th century, and
more especially to the second half, when the rapid
development of railroads had narrowed the world,
and the remarkable development of industries and
material civilization called for increased draft on
forest resources.</p>

<p>Yet we are still largely ignorant as to the extent
of available forest area, not only in this country
but elsewhere: we do not know whether it be sufficient
in extent and yield to furnish a continuous supply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
for the needs of our civilization, or, if not, for how
long a time it will suffice. We can only make very
broad statements as to questions of wood supply,
and very broad inferences from them as argument
for the need of a closer study of forest conditions and
of the practice of forestry:</p>

<p>1. Practically, the northern temperate zone alone
produces the kinds of wood which enter most largely
into our economy, namely the soft conifers and the
medium hard woods; most of the woods of the tropics
are very hard, fit primarily for ornamental use and
hence less necessary. Possibly a change in the methods
of the use of wood may also change the relative
economic values, but at present the vast forests of
the tropical countries are of relatively little importance
in the discussion of wood supply for the world.</p>

<p>2. The productive forest area, of the temperate
zone, in which the industrial nations are located,
has continuously decreased. We shall not be far
from wrong in stating this area liberally, to be at
present around 2,500 million acres,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a
href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> namely in Europe,
800 million acres; in Asia, 800 million acres; in North
America, 900 million acres. How much of this
acreage contains available virgin timber, how much
is merely potential forest, how much growing crop,
it is impossible to state.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
The total forest area of the world is supposed to be 3,800 million acres.</p>

</div>

<p>3. The civilized wood consuming population of
this territory is about 500 million, hence the per
capita acreage is still 5 acres. Taking the European
countries which now have to import all or part of
their consumption (excess over exports), we find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
that their population is estimated at 180 million and
that they use 30 cubic feet of wood per capita, of which
12 cubic feet is log timber; or altogether they use
2,200 million cubic feet of this latter description, of
which they import in round numbers 1,000 million
at a cost of about 250 million dollars; their forest
acreage of 100 million acres being insufficient to produce,
even under careful management as in Germany,
more than two-thirds of their needs. And the wood
consumption in all these nations is growing at the
rate of 1<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> to 2 per cent. annually.</p>

<p>4. The deficiency is at present supplied by the export
countries, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hungary,
Canada and United States, and these
countries themselves also increasing their consumption,
are beginning to feel the drain on their
forest resources, which are for the most part merely
roughly exploited.</p>

<p>5. If we assume a log timber requirement by the
500 million people of 6000 million cubic feet and
could secure what France annually produces, namely
a little less than 9 cubic feet of such timber per acre,
the area supposed to be under forest would amply
suffice. But a large part of it is in fact withdrawn from
<i>useful</i> production and of the balance not more than 250
million acres at best are as yet under management for
continuous production. Hence attention to forestry
is an urgent necessity for every industrial nation.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The history of the forest in all forest countries
shows the same periods of development.</p>

<p>First hardly recognized as of value or even as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
personal property, the forest appears an undesirable
encumbrance of the soil, and the attitude of the
settler is of necessity inimical to the forest: the need
for farm and pasture leads to forest destruction.</p>

<p>The next stage is that of restriction in forest use
and protection against cattle and fire, the stage of
conservative lumbering. Then come positive efforts
to secure re-growth by fostering natural regeneration
or by artificial planting: the practice of silviculture
begins. Finally a management for continuity&mdash;organizing
existing forest areas for sustained yield&mdash;forest
economy is introduced.</p>

<p>That the time and progress of these stages of development
and the methods of their inauguration
vary in different parts of the world is readily understood
from the intimate relation which, as has been
pointed out, this economic subject bears to all other
economic as well as political developments.</p>

<p>At the present time we find all the European
nations practicing forestry, although with a very
varying degree of intensity. The greatest and most
universal development of the art is for good reasons
to be found in Germany and its nearest neighbors.
Early attention to forest conservancy was here induced
by density of population, which enforces intensity
in the use of soil, and by the comparative difficulty
of securing wood supplies cheaply enough from outside.
On the other hand, such countries as the Mediterranean
peninsulas by their advantageous situation
with reference to importations, with their mild climate
and less intensive industrial development, have felt
this need less.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>

<p>Again, the still poorly settled and originally heavily
timbered countries of the Scandinavian peninsula
and the vast empire of Russia are still heavy exploiters
of forest products and are only just beginning to
feel the drain on their forest resources; while the
United States, with as much forest wealth as Russia,
but with a much more intensive industrial development,
has managed to reach the stage of need for a
conservative forest policy in a shorter time.</p>

<p>From each of the European countries we learn
something helpful towards inaugurating such policies,
and while, owing to a different historical background
and to different political and social conditions, none
of their administrative methods and measures may
appeal to us, the principles underlying them as well
as those underlying their silvicultural methods remain
the same; they are applicable everywhere, and can
best be recognized and studied in the history of their
development.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>

<h2>THE FOREST OF THE ANCIENTS.</h2>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Waldgeschichte des Alterthums</i>, by <span class="smcap">August Seidensticker</span>, 1886, 2 vols.,
pp. 863, is a most painstaking compilation from original sources of notes regarding
the forest conditions and the knowledge of trees, forests and forestry among
the ancients. Contains also a full bibliography.</p>

<p><i>Die Waldwirthschaft der R&#339;mer</i>, by <span class="smcap">J. Trurig</span>, collects the knowledge,
especially of arboriculture and silviculture, possessed by the Romans.</p>

<p><i>Forstwissenschaftliche Leistungen der Altgriechen</i>, by Dr. <span class="smcap">Chloros</span>, in
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1885, pp. 8.</p>

<p><i>Archeologia forestale, Dell&#8217; antica storia e giurisprudenza forestale in Italia</i>,
by <span class="smcap">A. di Berenger</span>, 1859.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The forest was undoubtedly the earliest home of
mankind, its edible products forming its principal
value. Its wild animals developed the hunter, the
chase first furnishing means of subsistence and then
exhilaration and pleasure. Next, it was the mast
and, in its openings, the pasture which gave to the
forest its value for the herder, and only last, with the
development into settled communities and more
highly civilized conditions of life, did the wood product
become its main contribution toward that
civilization. Finally, in the refinement of cultural
conditions in densely settled countries is added its
influence on soil, climate and water conditions.</p>

<p>Although there is no written history, there is little
doubt that these were the phases in the appreciation
of woodlands in the earliest development of mankind,
for we find the same phases repeated in our own times
in all newly settled countries.</p>

<p>As agriculture develops, the need for farming
ground overshadows the usefulness of the forest in
all these directions, and it is cleared away; moreover,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
as population remains scanty, a wasteful use of its
stores forms the rule, until necessity arises for greater
care in the exploitation, for more rational distribution
of farm and forest area, and finally for intentional
reproduction of wood as a useful crop.</p>

<p>Correspondingly forest conditions change from the
densely forested hills and mountain slopes during the
age of the nomad and hunter to the &#8220;enclaves&#8221; or
patches of field and pasture enclosed by the forest
of the first farmers, then follows the opening up of
the valleys and lowlands, while the hill and mountain
farms may return to forest, and finally, with the increase
of population and civilization in valleys and
plains, a reduction of the forest area and a decrease
of forest wealth results.</p>

<hr class="sect" />

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>While we have many isolated references to forest
conditions and progress of forest exploitation among
the ancients in the writings of poets and historians,
these are generally too brief to permit us to gain a
very clear picture of the progress of forest history;
except in isolated cases, they furnish only glimpses,
allowing us to fill in the rest to some extent by guess.</p>

<p>That the countries occupied and known to the ancients,
even Spain and Palestine, were originally
well-wooded there seems little doubt, although in
the drier regions and on the drier limestone soils, the
forest was perhaps open, as is usual under such conditions,
and truly arid, forestless regions were also
found where they exist now. Although it has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
customary to point out some of the Mediterranean
and Eastern countries as having become deserts and
depopulated through deforestation, and although
this is undoubtedly true for some parts, as Mount
Lebanon and Syria, generalization in this respect is
dangerous.</p>

<p>We know, however, that by the 11th century
before Christ, in Palestine, Asia Minor and Greece,
especially in the neighborhood of thriving cities,
the forest cover had vanished to a large extent and
building timber for the temples at Tyre and Sidon
had to be brought long distances from Mount Lebanon,
whose wealth of cedar was also freely drawn upon for
ship timber and other structures. Although about
465 B.C. Artaxerxes I, having recognized the pending
exhaustion of this mountain forest, had attempted
to regulate the cutting of timber, the exploitation
had by 333 B.C. progressed to such an extent that
Alexander the Great found at least the south slope
exhausted and almost woodless.</p>

<p>The destruction by axe and fire of the celebrated
forests of Sharon, Carmel and Bashan is the theme of
the prophet Isaiah writing about 590 B.C.; and the
widespread devastation of large forest areas during
the Jewish wars is depicted by Josephus. In Greece,
the Persian wars are on record as causes of widespread
forest destruction. Yet in other parts, as on the island
of Cyprus, which, originally densely wooded, had
rapidly lost its forest wealth during Cleopatra&#8217;s time
through the development of mining and metallurgical
works, ship building and clearing for farms, the
kings seemed to have been able to protect the remnants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
for a long time, so that respectable forest cover
exists even to date.</p>

<p>The Romans seem to have had still a surplus of
ship timber at their command in the third and second
centuries before Christ, when they did not hesitate
to burn the warships of the Carthaginians (203 B.C.)
and of the Syrians (189 B.C.), although it may be
that other considerations forced these actions. Denuded
hills and scarcity of building timber in certain
parts are mentioned at the end of the third century
before Christ, and that the need for conservative
use of timber resources had arrived also appears from
the fact that when (167 B.C.) the Romans had brought
Macedonia under their sway, the cutting of ship
timber in the extensive forests of that country was
prohibited. Although at that time the Roman State
forests were still quite extensive, it is evident that
under the system of renting these for the mast and
pasture and for the exploitation of their timber to
companies of contractors, their devastation must have
progressed rapidly. Yet, on the whole, with local
exceptions, Italy remained well wooded until the
Christian era.</p>

<p>In Spain, according to Diodorus Siculus (about 100
B.C.), the Southern provinces were densely wooded
when about 200 B.C. the Romans first took possession;
but soon after a great forest fire starting from
the Pyrenees ran over the country, exposing deposits
of silver ore, which invited a large influx of miners,
the cause of reckless deforestation of the country.
The interior of this peninsula, however, was probably
always forestless or at least scantily wooded.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>

<p>While through colonization, exploitation, fire and
other abuse, the useful forest area was decimated in
many parts, the location of the Mediterranean peninsular
countries was such that wood supplies could be
readily secured by water from distant parts, and
the <i>lignarii</i> or wood merchants of Italy drew their
supplies even from India by way of Alexandria; they
went for Ash to Asia Minor; for Cedar to Cilicia;
Paphlagonia, Liguria and Mauritania became the
great wood export countries. It is interesting to
note that a regular wood market existed in Rome, as
in Jerusalem, and at the former place firewood was
sold by the pound (75c per 200 lbs., in Cicero&#8217;s time).
At the same time that the causes of devastation were
at work the forest area also increased in some parts,
recovering ground lost during wars and through the
neglect of farms by natural seeding; much less by
active effort, although planting of trees in parks,
vineyards and groves was early practiced to a limited
extent.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Property.</i></h4>

<p>As to development of forest property we have
also only fragmentary information. Nomads do
not know soil as property. When they become
settled farmers the plowland, the vineyard or olive
grove and orchard are recognized as private property,
but all the rest remains common property or nobody&#8217;s
in particular; and even the private property
was not at first entirely exclusive. Hence for
a long time (and in some parts even to date) the exclusive
property right in forests is not fully established.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
At least the right to hunt over all territory without
restriction was possessed by everybody, although an
owner might prevent undesirable hunters from entering
his property if it was enclosed. The setting aside
of hunting grounds for private use came into existence
only in later Roman times. But woodland parks,
planted or otherwise, like the &#8220;paradises&#8221; of the Persian
kings and the <i>nemora</i> of the Romans and Carthaginians
were early a part of the private property of princes
and grandees from which others were excluded.</p>

<p>Forests formed a barrier and defense against outsiders,
or a hiding place in case of need, hence we find
in early times frontier forests, or as the Germans
called them &#8220;Grenzmarken,&#8221; set aside or designated
for such purposes and withdrawn from use, and sometimes
additionally fortified by ditches and other
artificial barriers. Even before the &#8220;Grenzmarken&#8221;
of the Germans the forest was used by Greeks, Romans
and still earlier among Asiatic tribes to designate the
limit of peoples as well as to serve as a bulwark against
attacks from invaders.</p>

<p>Again, the pantheistic ideas of the ancients led to
consecrating not only trees but groves to certain
gods: holy groves were frequent among the Greeks
and Romans, and also among other pagans; the
Jews, however, were enjoined to eradicate these
emblems of paganism in the promised land with axe
and fire, and they did so more or less, removal and
re-establishment of holy groves varying according
to the religious sentiment of their rulers. Altogether,
in Palestine the forests were left to the free and unrestricted
use of the Israelites.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>

<p>Out of religious conceptions and priestly shrewdness
arose church property in farms and forests among
the Indian Brahmans, the Ethiopians and Egyptians,
as also among Greeks and Romans.</p>

<p>It appears that the oriental kings were exclusive
owners of all unappropriated or public forests. This
was certainly the case with the princes of India and
of Persia, and such ownership can be proved definitely
in many other parts, as in the case of the forests
of Lebanon, of Cyprus, and of various forest areas
in Asia Minor.</p>

<p>That in the Greek republics the forests were mainly
public property seems to be likely; for Attica, at
least, this is true without doubt.</p>

<p>While the first Roman kings seem to have owned
royal domains, which were distributed among the
people after the expulsion of the kings, the public
property which came to the republic as a result of
conquest was in most cases at once transferred to
private hands, either for homesteads of colonists, or
in recognition of services of soldiers and other public
officers, or to mollify the conquered, or by sale, or for
rent, not to mention the rights acquired by squatters.
The rents were usually farmed out to collectors
(<i>publicani</i>) or to corporations formed of these. Livy,
however, mentions also State forests in which the
cutting was regulated, probably by merely reserving
the ship timber.</p>

<p>That occasionally single cities and other smaller
municipal units owned forest properties in common
seems also established.</p>

<p>Private forest properties connected with farm<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
estates existed in Ethiopia, in Arabia, among the
Greeks and among the Romans at home as well as
in their colonies. Especially pasture woods (<i>saltus</i>)
connected with small and large estates (<i>latifundia</i>)
into which probably most forest areas near settlements
were turned, are frequently mentioned as in private
ownership; but also other private forests existed.</p>

<p>The institution of servitudes or rights of user (<i>usus</i>
and <i>usus-fructus</i>) and a considerable amount of law
regarding the conditions under which they were exercised
and regarding their extinguishment were in
existence among the Romans in the first centuries of
the Christian era.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Forest Use.</i></h4>

<p>Restrictions in the use of woods were not entirely
absent, but with the exception of reserving ship
timber in the State forests, they refer only to special
classes of forest.</p>

<p>In the frontier forests reserved for defensive purposes,
timber cutting was forbidden. And in the
holy groves set aside by private or public declaration
no wood could be cut thereafter, being in the latter
case considered nobody&#8217;s property but sanctified
and dedicated to religious use (<i>res sacra</i>), and whoever
removed any wood from them was considered
a &#8220;patricide,&#8221; except the cutting be done for purposes
of improvement (thinnings) and after a prescribed
sacrifice.</p>

<p>With the extension of Christendom the holy trees
and groves became the property of the emperors,
who sometimes substituted Christian holiness for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
the pagan, and retained the restrictions which had
preserved them. Thus the cutting and selling of
cypress and other trees in the holy grove near Antioch,
and of <i>Persea</i> trees in Egypt generally (which had
been deemed holy under the Pharaos) was prohibited
under penalty of five pounds gold, unless a special
permit had been obtained.</p>

<p>In Attica as well as in Rome the theory that the
State cannot satisfactorily carry on any business
was well established. Hence, the State forests were
rented out under a system of time rent or a perpetual
license, the renters after exploiting the timber usually
subletting the culled woods merely for the pasture,
except where coppice could be profitably utilized.
The officials, with titles referring to their connection
with the woods, as the Roman <i>saltuarii</i> or the Greek
<i>hyloroi</i> (forestguards) and <i>villici silvarum</i>, the overseers,
both grades taken from the slaves, had hardly
even police functions.</p>

<p><i>Forest management</i> proper, <i>i.e.</i>, regulated use for
continuity, except in coppice, seems nowhere to have
been practiced by the ancients, although <i>arboriculture</i>
in artificial plantations was well established and
occasionally even attempts at replacement in forest
fashion seem to have been made deliberately.
Not only were many arboricultural practices of to-day
well known to them, but also a number of the
still unsettled controversies in this field were then
already subjects of discussion.</p>

<p>The culling system of taking only the most desirable
kinds, trees and cuts, which until recently has characterized
our American lumbering methods was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
naturally the one under which the mixed forest was
utilized. Fire used in the pasture woods for the same
purposes as with us effectively prevented reproduction
in these, and destroyed gradually the remnants of
old trees.</p>

<p>Only where for park and hunting purposes some
care was bestowed upon the woodland, was reproduction
purposely attempted, as, for instance, when
in a hunting park an underwood was to be established
for game cover.</p>

<p>The treatment of the coppice and methods of
sowing and planting were well understood in spite
of the lack of natural sciences. Whatever forestry
practice existed was based merely on empirical observations
and was taught in the books on agriculture
as a part of farm practice.</p>

<p>Silviculture was mainly developed in connection
with the coppice, which was systematically practiced
for the purpose of growing vineyard stakes, especially
with chestnut (<i>castanetum</i>), oak (<i>quercetum</i>), and
willow (<i>salicetum</i>), while the <i>arbustum</i> denoted the
plantings of trees for the support of grapes, and incidentally
for the foliage used as cattle feed, still in
vogue in modern Italy.</p>

<p>This planting of vine supports was done with saplings
of elm, poplar and some other species; by pollarding
and by a well devised system of pruning, these
were gradually prepared and maintained in proper
form for their purpose.</p>

<p>The coppice seems to have been systematically
managed in Attica as well as in Italy in regular fellings;
the mild climate producing sprouts and root suckers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
readily without requiring much care, even conifers
(cypress and fir) reproducing in this manner.</p>

<p>The oak coppice was managed in 7 year rotation, the
chestnut in 5 year, and the willow in 3 year rotation.</p>

<p>Yield and profitableness are discussed, and the
practice of thinnings is known, but only for the purpose
of removing and using the dead material.</p>

<p>Forest protection was poorly developed: of insects
little, of fungi no knowledge existed. Hand-picking
was applied against caterpillars, also ditches into
which the beetles were driven and then covered; the
use of hogs in fighting insects was also known. That
goats were undesirable in the woods had been observed.
Some remarkable precocious physiological knowledge
or rather philosophy existed: it was recognized that
frost produces drought and that a remedy is to loosen
the soil, aerating the roots, to drain or water as the case
might require, and to prune; but also sap letting was
prescribed. Against hail, dead owls were to be hung
up; against ants, which were deemed injurious, ashes
with vinegar were to be applied, or else an ass&#8217;s heart.</p>

<p>Curiosities in wood technology were rife and many
contradictions among the wood sharps existed, as in
our times. Only four elements, earth, water, fire,
air, composed all bodies; the more fire in the composition
of a wood, the more readily would it decay.
Spruce, being composed of less earth and water but
more fire and air, is therefore lighter than oak which,
mostly composed of earth, is therefore so durable;
but the latter warps and develops season splits
because on account of its density it cannot take up
readily and resists the penetration of moisture.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>

<p>Wood impregnation, supposed to be a modern invention,
was already practiced; cedrium (cedar oil)
being used as well as a tar coating or immersion in
seawater for one year, to secure greater durability.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Literature.</i></h4>

<p>As regards literature, we find in Greece, besides
what can be learned incidentally from the historians
<i>Herodotus</i> and <i>Xenophon</i> and from the natural history
of Aristotle, the first work on plant history and wood
technology, if not forestry, in 18 volumes by <i>Theophrastus</i>
(390-286 B.C.), a pupil of Aristotle and
Plato.</p>

<p>Among the Romans, besides a number of historians,
at least three writers before Christ discussed in detail
agriculture and, in connection with it, tree culture;
namely, <i>Cato</i> (234-149 B.C.) who wrote an excellent
work <i>De re rustica</i>, in 162 chapters; <i>Varro</i> (116-26
B.C.), also <i>De re rustica</i>, in three books; and <i>Vergilius
Maro</i> (70-19 B.C.), who in his <i>Georgica</i> records
in six books the state of knowledge at that time. Of
the many writers on these subjects who came in the
Christian era there are also three to be mentioned,
namely, <i>Cajus Plinius Major</i> (23-79 A.D.), who in
his <i>Historia naturalis</i>, in 37 books, discusses also the
technique of silviculture; <i>Lucius Junius Moderatus
Columella</i> (about 50 A.D.), with 12 books, <i>De re
rustica</i>, and one book <i>De arboribus</i>, the former being
the best work of the ancients on the subject; and
<i>Palladius</i>, writing about 350 A.D., 13 books, <i>De re
rustica</i>, which in the original and in translations was
read until past the middle ages.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>

<p>Only a few references which exhibit the state of
knowledge on arboricultural subjects among the
Romans as shown in this literature may be cited,
some of which knowledge was also developed in
Greece and found application, more or less, throughout
the Roman empire from India to Spain.</p>

<p>Nursery practice was already well known to Cato,
while Varro knew, besides sowing and planting, the
art of grafting and layering, and Columella discusses
in addition pruning and pollarding (which latter
was practiced for securing fuelwood), and the propriety
of leaving the pruned trees two years to recuperate
before applying the knife again.</p>

<p>The method of wintering acorns and chestnuts in
sand, working them over every 30 days and separating
the poor seed by floating in water, was known to
Columella and, indeed, he discusses nursery management
with minute detail, even the advantages of
transplants and of doubly transplanted material.
The question whether to plant or to sow, the preference
of fall or spring planting with distinction for
different species and localities are matters under his
consideration; and preference of sowing oak and
chestnut instead of transplanting is pointed out and
supported by good reasons.</p>

<p>Pliny, the Humboldt of the ancients, recognizes
tolerance of different species, the need of different
treatment for different species, the desirability of
transplanting to soil and climatic conditions similar
to those to which the tree was accustomed, and of
placing the trees as they stood with reference to the
sun. But, to be sure, he also has many curious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
notions, as for instance his counsel to set shallow
rooted trees deeper than they stood before, his advice
not to plant during rain, or windy weather and his
laying much stress on the phases of the moon as influencing
results.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>While then the ancients were not entirely without
silvicultural knowledge, indeed possessed much more
than is usually credited to them, the need of a forest
policy and of a systematic forest management in the
modern sense had not arisen in their time; the mild
climate reducing the necessity of fuelwood and the
accessibility by water to sources of supply for naval
and other construction delaying the need for forest
production at home.</p>

<p>There is little doubt, that some of the agricultural
and silvicultural knowledge and practice of the
Romans found entrance among the German tribes
who, especially the Allemanni, came into contact
with the Romans in their civilized surroundings
during the fourth century.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>

<h2>GERMANY.</h2>

<blockquote>

<p>Besides a dozen or more earlier histories of forestry in Germany, some of
which date back to the beginning of the 19th century, there are two excellent
modern compilations, namely:</p>

<p><i>Geschichte des Waldeigenthums, der Waldwirtschaft und Forstwissenschaft
in Deutschland</i>, by <span class="smcap">August Bernhardt</span>, 1872-75, 3 Vols., 1062 pp., a classic,
which treats especially extensively of political and economic questions having a
bearing on the development of forestry; and</p>

<p><i>Handbuch der Forst- und Jagdgeschichte Deutschlands</i>, by <span class="smcap">Adam Schwappach</span>,
1886, 2 Vols., 892 pp., which appeared as a second edition of Bernhardt&#8217;s
history, abridging the political history and expanding the forestry part. This
volume has been mainly followed in the following presentation of the subject.
In condensed form this history is also to be found in <span class="smcap">Lorey&#8217;s</span> <i>Handbuch der
Forstwissenschaft</i>, 1888, Vol. I, pp. 143-210.</p>

<p>In Schwappach&#8217;s history a full list of original sources is enumerated. These
are, for the oldest period, Roman writings, which are unreliable; the laws of the
various German tribes; the laws of kings (<i>Capitularia</i>); the laws of villages and
other territorial districts; &#8220;Weisth&uuml;mer&#8221; (judgments); inventories of properties
(especially of churches and cloisters); documents of business transactions and
chronicles. For the time after the Middle ages the most important source is
found in the Forest Ordinances of princes and other forest owners; forest laws;
police orders; business documents, and finally special literature.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>It is generally conceded that both the science and
art of forestry are most thoroughly developed and
most intensively applied throughout Germany. It
must, however, not be understood that perfection
has been reached anywhere in the practical application
of the art, or that the science, which like that
of medicine has been largely a growth of empiricism,
is in all parts safely based; nor are definitely settled
forest policies so entrenched, that they have become
immutable. On the contrary, there are still mismanaged
and unmanaged woods to be found, mainly
those in the hands of farmers and other private
owners; there are still even in well managed forests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
practices pursued which are known not to conform
to theoretical ideals, and others which lack a sure
scientific foundation; and while the general policy
of conservative management and of State interest in
the same is thoroughly established, the methods of
attaining the result are neither uniform throughout
the various States which form the German Federation,
nor positively settled anywhere. In other words, the
history of forestry is still, even in this most advanced
country, in the stage of lively development.</p>

<p>For the student of forestry the history of its development
in Germany is of greatest interest not only because
his art has reached here the highest and most
intensive application, but because all the phases of
development through which other countries have
passed or else will eventually have to pass are here
exemplified, and many if not most of the other countries
of the world have more or less followed German
example or have been at least influenced by German
precedent. There is hardly a policy or practice that
has not at some time in some part been employed in
the fatherland of forestry.</p>

<p>One reason for this rich historical background is
the fact, that Germany has never been a unit, that
from its earliest history it was broken up into many
independent and, until modern times, only loosely
associated units, which developed differently in
social, political and economic direction. This accounts
also for the great variety of conditions existing even
to-day in the 26 principalities which form the German
empire.</p>

<p>Politically, it may be mentioned that out of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
very many independent principalities into which the
German territory had been divided, variable in
number from time to time, the 26 which had preserved
their autonomy formed in 1871 the federation of
States, known as the German Empire. Each of these
has its own representative government including the
forest administration, very much like the state
governments of the United States; only the army and
navy, tariff, posts, telegraphs, criminal law and
foreign policy, and a few other matters are under the
direct jurisdiction of the empire, represented in the
Reichstag, the Bundesrath, and the Emperor.</p>

<p>The 208,830 square miles of territory,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a
href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> which supports
a population of about 60 million people, still
contain a forest area of around 35 million acres (26%
of the land area) or .61 acre per capita, which although
largely under conservative management has long ago
ceased to supply by its annual increment (somewhat
over 50 cubic feet per acre) the needs of the population;
the imports during the last 50 years since 1862,
when Germany began to show excess of imports over
exports, having grown in volume at the average rate
of 10% to now round 380 million cubic feet (45
million dollars) or nearly 15% of the consumption.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
The statistics in this book do not pretend to be more than approximations.</p>

</div>

<p>The larger part of Germany, two thirds of the
territory and population is controlled by modern
Prussia, with a total forest area of 20 million acres;
Bavaria comes next with one seventh of the land
area and 6 million acres of forest; the five larger states
of Wurttemberg, Baden, Saxony, Mecklenburg and
Hesse, occupying together another seventh of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
territory with 5 million acres of forest. The balance
of the area is divided among the other 19 states.</p>

<p>Fifty per cent. of Germany roughly speaking, is
plains country, the larger part in the northern and
eastern territory of Prussia; 25% is hill country,
mostly in West and Middle Germany; and 25% is
mountain country, the larger portion in the southern
states.</p>

<p>There are at best only five species of timber of
high economic general importance, the (Scotch) pine
which covers large areas in the northern sandy plain
and the lighter soils in the south; the (Norway) spruce
and (Silver) fir which form forests in the southwestern
and other mountain regions and represent, in mixture
with broadleaf forest, a goodly proportion in the northeastern
lowlands; the (English) oak, of which botanically
two species are recognized; and the beech.
The last two are the most important hardwoods
found throughout the empire, but especially highly
developed in the west and southwest. In addition,
there are half a dozen species of minor or more local
importance, but the five mentioned form the basis
of the forestry systems.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The history of the development of forestry in Germany
may be divided into periods variously. Bernhardt
recognizes six periods; Schwappach makes four
divisions, namely, the first, from the earliest times
to the end of the Carlovingians (911), which is occupied
mainly with the development of forest property conditions;
the second, to the end of the Middle Ages
(1500), during which the necessity of forest management<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
begins to be sporadically recognized; the third,
to the end of the 18th century, during which the
foundation for the development of all branches of
forestry is laid; the fourth, the modern period, accomplishing
the complete establishment of forestry
methods in all parts of Germany. For the later
historian it would be proper to recognize a fifth
period from about 1863, when, by the establishment
of experiment stations, a breaking away from the
merely empiric basis to a more scientific foundation
of forestry practice was begun.</p>

<p>For our purposes we shall be satisfied with a division
into three periods, namely: first, to the end of the
middle ages, when, with the discoveries of America
and other new countries, an enlargement of the world&#8217;s
horizon gave rise to a change of economic conditions;
second, to the end of the eighteenth century, when
change of political and economic thought altered the
relation of peoples and countries; third, the modern
period, which exhibits the practical fruition of these
changes.</p>

<h3>I. <span class="smcap">From Earliest Times to End of Middle Ages.</span></h3>

<p>Many of the present conditions, especially those
of ownership, as well as the progress in the development
both of forest policy and of forest management,
can be understood only with some knowledge of the
early history of the settlement of the country.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a
href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
FELIX DAHN, <i>Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen V&ouml;lker</i>,
1881.</p>

</div>

<p>As is well known, Aryan tribes from central Asia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
had more than a thousand years before Christ begun
to overrun the country. These belonged to the Keltic
(Celtic) or Gaelic race which had gradually come to
occupy partly or wholly, France, Spain, northern
Italy, the western part of Germany and the British
Islands. They were followed by the <i>Germani</i> (supposedly
a Celtic word meaning neighbor or brother),
also Aryan tribes, who appeared at the Black Sea
about 1000 B.C., in Switzerland and Belgium about
100 B.C. These were followed by the Slovenes,
Slovaks, or Wends, crowding on behind, disputing
and taking possession of the lands left free by, or
conquered from the Germani. Through these migrations,
by about 400 A.D., the whole of Western
Europe seems to have been fully peopled with these
tribes of hunters and herders. The mixture of the
different elements of victors and vanquished led to
differentiation into three classes of people, economically
and politically speaking, namely the free, the
unfree (serfs or slaves), and the freedmen&mdash;an important
distinction in the development of property
rights.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Development of Property Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>The German tribes who remained conquerors were
composed of the different groups of Franks, Saxons,
Thuringians, Bajuvarians, Burgundians, etc., each
composed of families aggregated into communal
hordes with an elected Duke (<i>dux</i>, <i>Herzog</i>, <i>Graf</i>,
<i>F&uuml;rst</i>), organized for war, each in itself a socialistic
and economic organization known as <i>Mark</i>, owning
a territory in common, the members or <i>Markgenossen</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
forming a republic. Outside of house, yard and
garden, there was no private property; the land surrounding
the settlement, known as <i>Allmende</i>, (commons)
was owned in common, but assigned in parcels
to each family for field use, the assignment first
changing from year to year, then becoming fixed.
The outlying woods, known as the <i>Marca</i> or <i>Grenzwald</i>,
forming debatable ground with the neighboring
tribes, were used in common for hunting, pasturing,
fattening of hogs by the oak mast, and for other such
purposes, rather than for the wood of which little
was needed. In return for the assignment of the fields,
the free men, who alone were fully recognized citizens
of the community, had to fulfil the duties of citizens
and especially of war service.</p>

<p>Only gradually, by partition, immigration and
uneven numerical development, was the original Mark
or differentiation into family associations destroyed
and a more heterogeneous association of neighbors
substituted. At the same time, inequality of ownership
arose especially from the fact that those who
owned a larger number of slaves (the conquered race)
had the advantage in being able to clear and cultivate
more readily new and rough forest ground. Those
without slaves would seek assistance from those more
favored, exchanging for rent or service their rights to
the use of land; out of this relationship a certain
vassalage and inequality of political rights developed.</p>

<p>Under the influence of Roman doctrine, a new
aspect regarding newly conquered territory gained
recognition, by which the Dukes as representatives
of the community laid claim to all unseated or unappropriated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
land; they then distributed to their
followers or donated to the newly established church
portions of this land, so that by the year 900 A.D.,
a complete change in property relations had been
effected. By that time the large baronial estates of
private owners had come into existence which were
of such great significance in the economic history of
the Middle Ages, changing considerably the status of
the free men, and changing the free mark societies
into communities under the dominion of the barons.</p>

<p>The first real king, who did not, however, assume
the title, was Clovis, a Duke of the Franks, who had
occupied the lower Rhine country. About 500 A.D.,
picking a quarrel with his neighbors, the Allemanni,
he subdued them and aggrandized himself by taking
their Mark. In this way he laid the foundation for
a kingdom which he extended by conquest mainly
to the westward, but also by strategy to the eastward,
the warlike tribes of Saxons and other Germans conceding
in a manner the leadership of the Franks.</p>

<p>A real kingdom, however, did not arise until Charlemagne,
in 772, became the ruler, extending his government
far to the East.</p>

<p>At times, the kingdom was divided into the western
Neustria, and the eastern Austria, and then again
united, but it was only when the dynasty of Charlemagne
became extinct with the death of Louis the
Child (911), that the final separation from France
was effected, and Germany became a separate kingdom,
the eastern tribes between the Rhine and Elbe
choosing their own king, Conrad, Duke of Franconia.
There were then five tribes or nations, each under its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
own Duke and its own laws, comprising this new
kingdom, namely the Franks, Suabians, Bavarians,
Saxons on the right, and the Lorainers on the left
bank of the Rhine, while the country East of the Elbe
river was mostly occupied by Slovenians.</p>

<p>With Clovis began the new order of things which
was signalized by the aggrandizement of kings, dukes
and barons.</p>

<p>In addition to the rule regarding the ownership of
unseated lands there developed, also under Roman
law doctrine, the conception of seignorial right,
<i>i.e.</i>, the power of the king to jurisdiction over his
property. This right, first claimed by the duke or
king for himself, is then transferred with the territory
given to his friends and vassals, who thereby secure
for themselves his powers and jurisdiction, immunity
from taxes and from other duties, as well as the right
to exact taxes and services from others, the favored
growing into independent knights and barons.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The forest, then, originally was communal property
and the feeling of this ownership in common remains
even to the present day. Indeed, actually it remained
in most cases so until the 13th century, although the
changes noted had their origin in the 7th century
when the kings began to assert their rights of princely
superiority.</p>

<p>In these earlier ages, the main use of the forests
was for the hunt, the mast and the pasture, and since
wood was relatively plentiful, forest destruction was
the rule. Those who became possessed of larger properties
through the causes mentioned tried to secure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
an increased value of their possessions by colonization,
in which especially the slaves or serfs were utilized.
These often became freedmen, paying rent in product
or labor, and acquiring the rights of usufruct in the
property, out of which developed the so-called <i>servitudes</i>
or <i>rights of user</i>, the <i>praedium</i> of the Romans,
a limited right to use the property of another.</p>

<p>With the development of private property there
naturally also developed the right of preventing the
hunting on such lands, this being then their main use.
This exclusive right to the chase or hunt we find recognized
as a part of the property of the kings and barons
in the 8th century, when the kings forbade trespass
under penalty of severe fines; the king&#8217;s <i>ban</i> (interdiction)
of 60 shillings being imposed upon the trespassers.
Indeed, by the end of the 8th century the
word <i>Forst</i> (<i>voorst</i>&mdash;<i>foresta</i>) which until then had
been used merely to denote the king&#8217;s property was
exclusively used to designate not necessarily woodland
(the latter being referred to as <i>silva</i> or <i>nemus</i>),
but any territory in which the hunt had been reserved.</p>

<p>This right to reserve the chase and the fishing, that
is, to establish <i>banforests</i> was in the 10th century extended
by the kings to territory not belonging to them,
the right to the chase being according to the Roman
doctrine a regal right over any property. Under this
conception fields and pastures, woods and waters,
and whole villages with their inhabitants became
&#8220;inforested&#8221; grounds. The Norman kings, imbued
with a passion for the chase, exercised this right
widely, especially in England; the forests of Dean,
Epping and the New Forest being such inforested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
territories, the inhabitants of which were placed under
special &#8220;forest laws,&#8221; and adjudged by special &#8220;forest
courts.&#8221;</p>

<p>Presently the king&#8217;s right of ban was granted with
the land grants to his barons and to the clergy. Banforests
also grew up through owners of properties
placing themselves and their possessions under the
protection of kings or bishops or other powerful
barons and giving in exchange this hunting right,
and in various other ways. At the same time the
headmen of the Mark (<i>Oberm&auml;rker</i>, <i>Graf</i>, <i>Waldgraf</i>),
who from being elected officers of the people had
become officials of the king, began to exercise, by
virtue of their office, the jurisdiction of the king, and
declaring the ban for their own or their friends&#8217; benefit,
excluded the <i>M&auml;rker</i> from their ancient right to hunt
and fish freely over the territory of the Mark.</p>

<p>While in this way the freedom of the communal
owners was undermined, the institution of banforests
had nevertheless its value in that it led to forest protection,
restriction in forest use and restriction in
clearing, all this, to be sure, merely for the benefit of
the chase. Special officers to guard the rights of the
king, <i>forestarii</i>, chosen from the free and freedmen,
and also superior officers, <i>forestmasters</i>, were instituted,
to administer the chase and enforce the restrictions
which went with it.</p>

<p>Gradually, with the loss of property rights, there
came also a change in the political rights of the m&auml;rker
or commoners, through the large barons interfering
with self-government, assuming for themselves the
position of Oberm&auml;rker, appointing the officials, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
issuing strict forest ordinances to regulate the cutting
of wood; finally, the original right which belonged to
every commoner of supplying himself with wood
material, became dependent upon permission in each
case, and thus his title to ownership became doubtful.</p>

<p>Undoubtedly also through the influence of Roman
institutions with which the Franks under their
Merovingian kings came into close contact, there
arose that social and political institution which became
finally known as the <i>feudal system</i>. By the grants
of lands which the kings made out of their estates to
their kinsmen and followers with the understanding
that they would be faithful and render service to their
masters, a peculiar relationship grew up, based on
land tenure, the land so granted being called a <i>fief</i> or
<i>feud</i>, and the relationship being called <i>vassality</i> or
<i>vassalage</i>. This vassalage denoted the personal tie
between the grantor and grantee, the lord and the
vassal; the lord having the obligation to defend the
vassal, and the vassal to be a faithful follower of his
lord. Similar relationship arose from the surrender
by landowners of their estates to the church or to
other powerful barons, to be received back again as
fiefs and to be held by them as tenants in exchange
for rent or service. In this way a complete organization
of society developed in which, from the king
down to the lowest landowner, all were bound together
by obligation of service and defence, both the defence
and service being regulated by the nature and extent
of the fief. Finally, all kinds of property of whatever
nature, as well as official positions which would
give an income, were subject to be treated as fiefs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
The obligations of the recipient were of various
nature, but finally service in army or court became
the main one, giving rise to the class of knights
(<i>Ritter</i>) or barons, while the fiefs to the small farmer
gave rise to the class of peasants (<i>Bauern</i>, this name
appearing first in 1106 under Conrad II).</p>

<p>The fiefs of the higher class, while at first given
only to the individual, became early hereditary, and
hereditary succession to estates and offices generally
became the rule. Primogeniture in the succession to
the estates did then not as in England prevail in
Germany; instead, either tenancy in common, or else
equal division among the sons was practised. As a
result the very many small principalities came into
existence in the 14th and 15th centuries, these growing
smaller and smaller by subdivision. The first to
institute the primogeniture rule by law was the
house of Brandenburg (in the 15th century).</p>

<p>In addition to the class of peasants and knights,
there came into existence a third class, the burghers,
when, by the order of Conrad I in the beginning of
the 10th century, towns were built with walls and
towers for defence against the encroachments of the
Huns, who endangered the eastern frontier Mark. In
order to encourage the settlement of these towns, any
slave moving to town was declared a freeman; and
the cities became free republics; gifts of land, including
forest areas, were made to the cities, and the
development of industries was encouraged in every
way. These cities, favored by the kings, and, having
become rich and powerful, in the later quarrels of
the kings with the lawless nobility, gave loyal support<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
with money and arms. In return for their loans, the
forest properties of the kings were often mortgaged
to the burghers; and, failing of redemption, were
often forfeited to them. In this way and through
purchases the city forests came into existence.</p>

<p>Still other property conditions arose when, under
Otto the Great (960), colonization of the eastern
country beyond the Elbe was pushed. In these cases,
the Mark institution was absent, although the colonists
did often become part owners in the king&#8217;s forest,
or acquired parts of it as common property, or else
secured rights of user in the nearest royal forest.</p>

<p>By the end of the period, due to these various developments,
a great variety of property conditions
in forest areas had developed, most of which continue
to the present time, namely royal properties, which
by the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning
of the nineteenth were in part to become state
property; princely and lordly possessions under
separate jurisdiction, with or without entail, and
mostly encumbered with rights of user; allodial
possessions (held independent of rent or service);
municipal possessions owned by city corporations;
communal properties, the remnants of the Mark;
and farmers&#8217; woodlots (Bauernwald), resulting from
partitions of the Mark.</p>

<p>All these changes from the original communal property
conditions did not, of course, take place without
friction, the opposition often taking shape in peasants&#8217;
revolts; hundreds of thousands of these being killed
in their attempts to preserve their commons, forests
and waters free to all, to re-establish their liberty to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
hunt, fish and cut wood, and to abolish tithes, serfdom
and duties.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Forest Treatment.</i></h4>

<p>As stated, the German tribes which settled the
country were herders and hunters, who only gradually
developed into farmers while the country was
being settled. At first, therefore, as far as the forest
did not need to give way to farm lands, its main use
was in the exercise of the chase and for pasture, and
especially for the raising and fattening of hogs; the
number of hogs which could be driven into a forest
serving as an expression of the size of such a forest.
Oak and beech furnishing the mast were considered
the preferable species. It is natural, therefore, that,
wood being plentiful and the common property of
all, the first regulation of forest use had reference to
these, now minor benefits of forest property, as for
instance the prohibition of cutting mast trees, which
was enforced in early times. The first extensive
regulation of forest use came however, from the exercise
of the royal right of the ban and merely for the
avowed purpose of protecting the chase.</p>

<p>Real forest management, however, did not exist,
the <i>forestarii</i> mentioned in these early times being
nothing but policemen guarding the hunting rights of
the kings or other owners. The conception that wood
on the stump was of the same nature as other property
and its removal theft had not yet become established:
&#8220;<i>quia non res possessa sed de ligno agitur</i>&#8221; (wood not
being a possessed thing), a conception which still pervades
the laws of modern times to some extent.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p>

<p>The necessity of clearing farm lands for the growing
population continued, even in the western, more
densely populated sections, into the 12th and 13th
centuries. The cloisters were especially active in
colonizing and making farm land with the use of axe
and fire, such cloisters being often founded as mere
land speculations. Squatters, as with us, were a
frequent class of colonists, and in eastern Prussia
continued even into the 17th and 18th centuries
to appropriate forest land without regard to property
rights.</p>

<p>The disturbed ownership conditions, which we have
traced, led also often to wasteful slashing, especially
in the western territory, while colonization among
the Slavs of the Eastern sections led to similar results.
In the 12th century, however, here and there appear
the first signs of greater necessity for regulating and
restricting forest use in the Mark forest, and for improvement
in forest conditions with the purpose of
insuring wood supplies.</p>

<p>In that century, division of the Mark forest begins
for the alleged reason that individual ownership
would lead to better management and less devastation.
In the 12th and 13th centuries also, stricter
order in the fellings and in forest use was insisted
upon in many places. In the forest ordinances of
the princes and barons, which, of course, have always
reference to limited localities, we find prescriptions
like the following: The amount to be cut is to be
limited to the exact needs of each family and the
proper use of the wood is to be inspected; the timber
is to be marked, must be cut in a given time and be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
removed at once; only dry wood is to be used for
fuel and the place and time for gathering it is specially
designated, similar to the present practice. The best
oak and beech are to be preserved (this, however,
merely with reference to the mast), and in the Alps
we find already provisions to reserve larch and pine.
The charcoal industry is favored (because of easier
transportation of its product), but permitted only
under special precautions. Bark peeling and burning
for potash is forbidden. The pasture is regulated
with regard to the young growth, and sheep and
goats are excluded.</p>

<p>Such measures are, to be sure, found only here and
there where local conditions gave rise to a fear of a
timber famine; such communities may also be found
making attempts to protect themselves against reduction
of home supplies by forbidding the export
of wood from their territory. An amusing restriction
of this kind is found at Altenstadt where the bakers
were forbidden to bake bread for any but the citizens
of the town.</p>

<p>The first ordinance prohibiting for clearings is
found at Lorsch in the Rhenish country in 1165, and
other ordinances with such prohibition are on record
in other parts in the 13th century. In 1237, at
Salzburg, clearings were prohibited in the interest
of the salt mines, &#8220;so that the cut forest may grow
up to wood again,&#8221; and also in other parts where
mining interests made a special demand for props or
charcoal the regulation of forest use was begun early.</p>

<p>The difficulties of transportation in the absence of
roads rendered local supply of more importance than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
at present, and this accounts for the early measures
to secure more economical use while distant woods
were still plentiful but unavailable.</p>

<p>While in the 12th and 13th centuries a merely restrictive
and regulative, or else a let-alone policy,
&#8220;allowing the wood to grow up,&#8221; prevailed, we find
in the 14th century the first beginnings of an attempt
at forest extension or recuperation.</p>

<p>In 1309, Henry VII ordered the reforestation of a
certain stripped area by sowing. Of the execution
of this order we have no record, but the first actually
executed plantation on record is that by the city of
Nuremberg, in 1368, where several hundred acres of
burned area were sowed with pine, spruce and fir;
and there is also a record that in 1449 this crop was
harvested. In 1420, the city of Frankfort on the
Main followed this example, relying on the Nuremberg
seed dealer, whose correspondence is extant and
who was invited to go to Frankfort for advice how
to proceed. He sowed densely in order to secure clear
boles, but expressed the opinion that the plants could
not be transplanted; he also relied on the phases of
the moon for his operations.</p>

<p>The planting of hardwoods seems to have been
begun much later; the first reference to it coming
from the cloister and city of Seligenstadt, which agreed
in 1491 to reforest annually 20 to 30 acres with oak.</p>

<p>Natural regeneration by coppice was in quite
general practice and proved satisfactory enough for
fuelwood production. The system of coppice with
standards was also frequently practised, the standards,
20 or 30 to the acre, being &#8220;reserved for the lord.&#8221;</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>

<p>In the timber forest, the unregulated selection
system was continued generally through the period,
although in 1454 we find in the Harz Mountains a
transition to a seed tree management, a few seed
trees or groups of seed trees being left on the otherwise
cleared area, somewhat in the manner of the
French <i>m&eacute;thode &agrave; tire et-aire</i>. Toward the end of the
15th century we find here and there a distinction
made between timber forest, where no firewood is to
be cut, and &#8220;leaf forest&#8221; which is to serve the latter
purpose, and is to be treated as coppice.</p>

<p>Toward the end of the period we find, however,
various provisions which are unquestionably dictated
by the fear of a scarcity of timber. The discovery that
pasture prevents natural regeneration led to a prohibition
of pasturing in the newly cut felling areas.
In 1488, we find already a diameter limit of 12 inches&mdash;just
as is being advocated in the United States now&mdash;as
a basis for conservative exploitation, the city
of Brunswick buying stumpage, and in the contract
being limited to this diameter, and in addition obligated
to leave 15 oaks or aspen per acre for seed
trees.</p>

<p>Attempts at regulating the use of a given forest
by division into felling areas are recorded in 1359,
when the city forest of Erfurt, 286 acres, was divided
into seven felling areas. It is questionable whether
this referred to a coppice with short rotation or
whether a selection forest with seven periodic areas
is meant.</p>

<p>We see, then, that the first sporadic and, to be sure,
crude beginnings of a forest management in Germany<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
may be traced back to the 14th and 15th centuries;
but it took at least 250 to 350 years before such
management became general.</p>

<p>Outside of the information found scattered in forest
ordinances, instructions and prescriptions of various
kinds there is no forestry literature to be recorded
from this period except one single book, published
about the year 1300, by an Italian, Petrus de Crescentiis,
which was translated into German. It was
merely a scholastic compilation on agriculture and
allied subjects, mostly cribbed from old Roman
writers and without value for German conditions.</p>

<h3>II. <span class="smcap">First Development of Forestry Methods.</span><br />
(Period 1500 to 1800.)</h3>

<p>The period following the middle ages marks the
gradual changes from the feudal system to the
modern State organizations and to considerable
change of ownership conditions and forest treatment.
Various causes which led to an increased development
of industrial life were also instrumental in
hastening the progress of forest destruction. At the
same time, during this period the germs and embryonic
beginnings of every branch of forestry, real forestry
policy, forestry practice and forestry science are to
be noted. By the end of this period, preparatory
to more modern conditions, we find organized
technical forest administrations, well developed
methods of silviculture and systems of forest
management.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>

<h4>1. <i>Development of Forest Property Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>A number of changes in the conceptions of political
relations, in methods of life and of political economy
brought further changes in property conditions on the
same lines as those prevailing in the 14th and 15th
centuries. These changes were especially influenced
by the spread of Roman law doctrine regarding the
rights of the governing classes; by the growth of the
cities, favoring industrial development and changing
methods of life; by the change from barter to money
management, favored by the discovery of America,
by other world movements, and by the resulting
changes in economic theory.</p>

<p>Through the discovery of the new world and the
influx of gold and silver that came with it gave impetus
to industry and commerce of the cities; the
rapid increase of money capital increased extravagance
and induced a desire for amassing wealth, which
changed modes of life, changed policies and systems
of political economy.</p>

<p>The fiscal policy of the many little principalities
was dominated by a desire to get a good balance of
trade by fostering exports of manufactures, but forbidding
exports of raw materials like forest products,
also by forbidding imports, subsidizing industries,
fixing prices by law, and taking in general an inimical
attitude towards outsiders except in so far as they
sent gold and silver into the country.</p>

<p>This so-called mercantilistic system, which saw
wealth not in labor and its products but in horded
gold and silver, had also full sway in England under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
Cromwell, and in France under Colbert&#8217;s influence.
This fiscal policy, which was bent upon bringing cash
into the country, led, under the direction of servile
officials, to oppressive measures. A reaction naturally
followed, when it was pointed out that the real wealth
of a nation lies in its natural resources and in its
labor. But this so-called physiocratic doctrine had
little practical influence except to prepare men&#8217;s
minds for the reception of the teachings of Adam
Smith at the end of the period.</p>

<p>The doctrine of the Roman law, deified by the
jurists and commentators, undermined the national
conceptions and institutions of free citizenship and
of existing property relations; courts, legislation and
administration were subject to their sway, and this
influence lasted, in spite of reactions, until the end
of the 18th century. Under it the doctrine of the
<i>imperium</i>&mdash;the seignorage or superior power of the
princes (Hoheitsrecht)&mdash;was further developed into
the <i>dominium terrae</i>, i.e., superior ownership of all
the land, which gives rise to the title and the exercise
of the function of &#8220;<i>Landesherren</i>,&#8221; masters of the
land, and confers the privilege of curtailing and even
discontinuing private property rights. To sustain
their position in each of the state units, a restriction
of the autonomy of churches and cloisters, of the
Mark and of the vassals became needful to the
princes. This was secured by taking the first under
their protection, by making themselves Oberm&auml;rkers,
and by changing vassals who held office in fief into
employes (Beamte). For a time the three privileged
classes of prelates, knights and burghers, combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
in the <i>Landstand</i> or <i>Landtag</i>, participated in some of
the functions of government, especially in raising and
administering taxes, but by the second half of the 14th
century the princes had become absolute, and the
doctrine of the <i>Hoheitsrecht</i> was firmly established.</p>

<p>Under this doctrine, the historic position of the
Mark is perverted and instead of being the common
property of the people, it becomes the property of
the prince, on which he graciously permits the usufruct;
for, forest, pasture and water (Wald, Weide,
Wasser) are <i>res publicae</i>, hence ownerless and at the
disposal of the king. Through this new construction
of relationship, as well as through the same machinations
and tricks which the princes as <i>Obermaerker</i>
or headmen of the Mark had employed during the
foregoing period in usurping power, and partly through
voluntary dissolution was the decadence of the social,
economic and political organization of the Mark
gradually completed.</p>

<p>The original usufruct of a property held in common
is explained in the Roman sense as a <i>precarium</i> or
servitude, and from being a right of the whole organization
becomes a right of the single individual or group
of individuals. In this way the socialistic basis of the
Mark is destroyed. Through the exercise of the
<i>Forsthoheit</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the superior right of the prince over
all forest property, by the <i>appointment</i> of the officials
instead of their <i>election</i>, by issuance of ordinances,
in short, by the usurpation of the legislative and police
power, the political power of the Mark is broken and
the Thirty Years&#8217; War completes the breakdown;
the pride of the burgher and the peasant is gone, their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
autonomy destroyed and their economic and political
organizations sink into mere corporations based on
land tenure, which, according to Roman doctrine
come under the regulation of the State or Prince.</p>

<p>The nobility move into the cities and leave the
administration of their estates to officials who are
constantly pressed to furnish the means for the extravagant
life of their masters. These in turn harass
and oppress the peasantry, who finally become bondsmen,
<i>Gutsh&ouml;rige</i> (bound to the glebe) and lose their
independence entirely. These, briefly, are the steps
by which the changes, social and economic, progressed.</p>

<p>Reforms in this situation of the peasantry began
first in Prussia in 1702, when bondage was abolished
for all those who could purchase their houses and
farms from the gentry. As few had the means to do
so, the result was the creation of a proletariat, hitherto
unknown because under the old feudal system the
lord had to feed his impoverished bondsmen from
which he was now absolved.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><i>Changes in forest property</i> in particular were brought
about by the increase of princely property through
the various methods of exercising the seignorage.
Especially after the Thirty Years&#8217; War ownerless
tracts falling under this right were plentiful. In
addition, wherever waste lands grew up to wood,
they were claimed by the princes:</p>

<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="i00">&#8220;Wenn das Holz dem Ritter reicht an den Sporn<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Hat der Bauer sein Recht verlorn.&#8221;<br /></span>
</div></div>

<p>When wood has grown up to the spur of the knight,
the peasant has lost his right.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>

<p>Some additions came from the secularization of
church and cloister property, and others by the slices
which the princes as Oberm&auml;rker secured from the
Mark forests by various artifices. It is these properties,
which in Prussia were turned over by the King
to the State in 1713, and by other princes, not
until the 19th century.</p>

<p>The same means which the princes employed were
used by the landed gentry to increase their holdings
especially at the expense of the Mark from which in
their capacity of Oberm&auml;rker they secured portions
by force or intrigue.</p>

<p>The peasants&#8217; forest property&mdash;the Mark forest&mdash;had
by the 19th century been almost entirely dismembered,
part having come into the hands of the
princes and barons, part having been divided among
the M&auml;rker, and part having become corporation
forest in the modern sense.</p>

<p>Partition had become desirable when the restrictions
of use which were ordered for the good of
the forest became unendurable under the rigid
rule of appointed officials, but the expected improvement
in management which was looked for
from partition and private ownership was never
realized.</p>

<p>After the Thirty Years&#8217; War the free cities were
impoverished and their autonomy undermined by
Roman doctrine. From free republics they became
mere corporations under the supervision of appointed
officials, and experienced decadence in political as
well as material directions. Hence, no increase in
city forest took place except through division of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
Mark forest in which cities had been co-owners, and
through secularized properties of cloisters.</p>

<p>The worst feature, from the standpoint of forest
treatment, which resulted from these changes in
property conditions and relationship, was the growth
of the pernicious servitudes or rights of user, which
were either conferred to propitiate the powerless but
dangerous peasantry, or evolved out of the feudal
relations. From the 16th to the 19th centuries these
servitudes grew to such an extent that in almost
every forest some one outside of the owner had the
right to use parts of it, either the pasture, or the litter,
or certain classes or sizes of wood.</p>

<p>These rights have proved the greatest impediment
to the progress of forestry until most recent times,
and only within the last few decades have the majority
of them been extinguished by legal process or compromise.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>Under the exercise of these various rights and the
uncertainty of property conditions, the forest conditions
naturally deteriorated continuously until the
end of the 18th century; the virgin woods were culled
of their wealth and then grew up to brush, as is usual
in the United States.</p>

<p>Every forest ordinance began with complaints regarding
the increasing forest devastation, and predicted
a timber famine in view of the increasing
population, increasing industry and commerce, and
hence increased wood consumption. Especially along
the water routes, which furnished the means of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
transportation, the available supplies were ruthlessly
exploited. More serious enemies than the exploitation
of the timber proved the pasturing of cattle, the
removal of the litter, and above all, the fires.</p>

<p>Towards the end of the 16th century, ordinances
against forest fires began to be enacted; yet, as late
as 1778, the necessity of keeping the rides or fire lanes
open in the forests of Eastern Prussia is justified by
the statement that &#8220;otherwise the still constantly
recurring fires could not be checked.&#8221; At another
place it is stated that &#8220;not a single acre of forest
could be found in the province that had not been
burnt in former or later times,&#8221; and that &#8220;the people
are still too much accustomed to the ruthless use of
fires, so that no punishment can stop them.&#8221;</p>

<p>Other causes of devastation were the Thirty Years&#8217;
War, the wars of the 18th century, and the loss of
interest in the forest by the peasants after the collapse
of the Mark. These had often to steal what they
needed, and their depredations were increased by
the desire to revenge themselves on the landed proprietors
for the oppressions to which they were subjected.
The increase in game, which was fostered
by the landed gentry, did much damage to the young
growths, and the increase in the living expenses of
the nobility who mostly abandoned country for town
had to be met by increased exploitation.</p>

<p>By the end of the middle ages the reduction of
forest area had proceeded so far that it was generally
believed desirable to restrict the making of clearings
to exceptional necessities, except in the northeastern
parts and in the distant mountain districts.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>

<p>Yet a growing population increased the need for
farm land, and since intensive use of the existing
farm area was not attempted until the end of the
18th century, the forest had to yield still further.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Methods of Restriction in Forest Use.</i></h4>

<p>All ordinances issued by the princes to regulate the
management of their properties contain the prescription,
that permission of the <i>Landesherr</i> is necessary for
clearings, and that abandoned fields growing up to
wood are to be kept as woodland; this partly for
timber needs, partly for considerations of the chase.
Still, Frederick the Great in colonizing East Prussia,
expressed himself to the effect that he cared more for
men than for wood, and enjoined his officials to colonize
especially the woods far from water, which entailed
even more waste of wood than where means of transportation
allowed at least partial marketing.</p>

<p>Improvident clearings proceeded even under his
reign on the Frische Nehrung between Danzig and
Pillau, and started the shifting sands of that peninsula.</p>

<p>In the absence of all knowledge as regards the extent
of existing supplies or of the increment, and with
poor means of transportation, at least local distress
was imminent.</p>

<p>To stave off a threatening timber scarcity, regulation
in the use of wood was attempted by the forest
ordinances, even to the extent of forbidding the
hanging out of green brush to designate a drinking
hall, or the cutting of May trees,&mdash;similar to our
crusade in the United States against the use of Christmas
trees. A diameter limit to which trees might be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
permitted to be cut, was also frequently urged.
Regulation of forest use did not confine itself to the
princely properties alone, but, in the interest of the
whole, the restrictions were extended to all owners.
These restrictions were directed either to the practice
in the exploitation of the forest or in the use of the
material. In the latter direction the attempts at reducing
the consumption of building timber are of
special interest. Building inspectors were to approve
building plans and inspect buildings to see that they
were most economically constructed; that repairs
were made promptly, to avoid the necessity of more
extensive ones; that new buildings replacing old ones
were not built higher than the old ones. In Saxony,
as early as 1560, it was ordered that the whole house
must be built of stone, while elsewhere, the building
of stone base walls and the use of brick roofs instead
of shingles was insisted upon.</p>

<p>Even the number of houses in any community was
restricted. Fences were to be supplanted by hedges
and ditches. Economies in charcoal burning, in
potash manufacture for glass works, and in the
turpentine industry were prescribed, and about 1600,
the burning of potash for fertilizer was forbidden
entirely; but these laws proved unavailing. Even in
fuel-wood a saving was to be effected by using only
the poorer woods and windfalls, by instituting public
bake ovens (still in use in Westphalia), by improving
stoves, restricting the number of bathing
rooms, etc.</p>

<p>The consumption of fuelwood seems to have been
enormous, for we find record of 200 cords used by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
one family in a year and of 1,200 cords or more used
by the Court at Weimar during the same time.</p>

<p>The substitution of turf and coal for firewood was
ordered in some sections in 1697 and again in 1777,
but practically not until 1780 did coal come in as a
substitute. Tanbark peeling was also forbidden, or
only the use of bark of trees soon to be felled was
allowed. For cooperage only the top-dry oak; for
coffins only soft-wood, or, according to Joseph II of
Austria, no wood, but black cloth was to be used.
In some parts of the country the use of oak was
restricted, even as early as 1562.</p>

<p>For regulating practices in the forest the restrictions
often took only the general form of forbidding
devastation, without specifying what that meant.</p>

<p>Then, besides establishing a diameter limit, and
regulating pasture in order to protect young growth,
excluding sheep and goats entirely, an attempt was
made to secure at least orderly procedure in the fellings.
Foresters were to designate what was to be cut even
for firewood. Marking irons and hammers were
employed for this purpose by the middle of the 15th
century (usually two markings, by forester and by
inspector to check). And this designation by officials
extended even into the private forest, where finally
no felling was allowed without previous permission
and designation by a forester.</p>

<p>The use of the litter by the small farmers had
grown to a large extent in these times and it was
thought desirable to stop it, but this aid to the poor
peasant was so necessary that only regulating the
gathering of it could be insisted upon.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>

<p>It must be understood that all these various attempts
at securing a conservative forest use were by no means
general but refer to circumscribed territory, and
much of it was only paper legislation without securing
actual practice.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>With the beginning of the 18th century we find,
besides these prescriptions against wasteful use, and
ordinances regulating the management of the properties
of the princes, definite forest policies in some
sections, having in view forest preservation and improvement
of forest conditions, and also means of
providing wood at moderate prices.</p>

<p>Between the years 1515 and 1590, most of the
German States had already enacted ordinances
which had the force of general law exercising police
functions over private forest property, although in
Prussia this general legislation did not occur until
1720. The objects in view with this legislation were
entirely of a material kind: the conservation of resources.
Besides securing the rights of the <i>Landesherr</i>
to the chase, it was to secure a conservative use of
the princely as well as private forests, since devastation
of the latter would require the former to be
drawn on extravagantly; it was to stave off a timber
famine, and in certain localities to assure particularly
the mining industry of their wood supplies.
There were, however, concessions made to the privileged
and influential classes of forest owners.</p>

<p>By the end of the 18th century, this forest police,
owing to the uncontrolled harshness and the grafting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
practices of the lower officials had become the most
hated and distasteful part of the administration.</p>

<p>The argument of the protective influence of forest
cover did not enter into this legislation; this argument
belongs to the 19th century.</p>

<p>Yet reboisement of torrents had already in 1788,
been recognized as a proper public measure in German
Austria, although active work in that direction was
not begun until nearly a century later.</p>

<p>The rise of prices during the 17th and 18th centuries
had been very considerable, doubling, trebling
and even quadrupling in the first half of the 18th
century. The mercantilistic doctrines of the time
led, therefore, to attempts to keep prices low by prescribing
rates for wood and in general by restricting
and regulating wood commerce.</p>

<p>This was done especially by interdicting sale to
outsiders, forbidding export from the small territory
of the particular prince; or, at least, giving preference
to the inhabitants of the territory as purchasers and
at cheaper rates.</p>

<p>Owing to the small size of the very many principalities,
the free development of trade was considerably
hampered by these regulations. Sometimes also
wood imports were prohibited, as for instance, in
Wurttemberg, when, in 1740, widespread windfalls
had occurred which had to be worked up and threatened
to overstock the market.</p>

<p>Wood depots under government control were established
in large cities, and the amount of wood to be
used per capita prescribed, as in Koenigsberg (1702).</p>

<p>In Berlin, in 1766, a monopoly of the fuel wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
market was rented to a corporation, excluding all
others except by permission of the company. This
was in 1785 supplanted by government administration
of the woodyards.</p>

<p>Another such monopoly was created in the &#8220;Nutzholzhandelsgesellschaft&#8221;
(Workwood sales agency)
for the export trade of building materials from Kurmark
and Magdeburg, which had prior right of purchase
to all timber cut within given territory, the
idea being to provide cheap material for the industries.
This, too, came into the hands of the State in 1771.</p>

<p>In Prussia, to prevent overcharges, the Jews were
excluded from the wood trade in 1761.</p>

<p>The exercise of the Forsthoheit (princely supervision),
originating in the ban forests, and favored
by the mercantilistic and absolutist ideas of the 17th
and 18th centuries, gradually grew until the end of
the 18th century to such an extent that the forest
owners themselves were not allowed to cut a tree
without sanction of some forest official, and could
not sell any wood without permission, even down to
hop-poles, although the large landed property owners
vigorously resisted this assumption of supervisory
powers. Much discussion and argument regarding
the origin of this right to supervision was carried on
by the jurists upon the basis of Roman law doctrine,
and it was proved by them to be of ancient date.
The degree, however, to which this supervision was
developed varied considerably in the different parts
of the empire, according to different economic conditions.
The interference, and the protection of
forests appeared more necessary, where advanced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
civilization and denser population created greater
need for it. We find therefore that the restrictive
policy was much more developed in the Southern
and Western territories than in the Northern and
Eastern ones, where the development begins two
centuries later.</p>

<p>The oldest attempts of controlling private forest
property are found in Bavaria (1516), Brunswick
(1590) and Wurttemberg (1614). Here, forest properties
were placed either entirely under the supervision
of the princely forest administration, or, at least,
permission for intended fellings had to be secured.
Later, these restrictions were considerably reduced
in rigor (Bavaria, 1789).</p>

<p>In Prussia, private forest property remained free
from government interference well into the 18th
century. An edict by the Great Elector, in 1670,
merely inveighs against the devastation of forests
by their owners, but refrains from any interference;
and the Forstordnung of 1720 also contains only the
general injunction to the owners not to treat their
forests uneconomically. But, in 1766, Frederick the
Great instituted a rigid supervision providing punishment
for fellings beyond a special budget determined
by experts. Soon after the French revolution, however,
unrestricted private ownership was re-established.</p>

<p>Church and cloister property had always been
severely supervised, similar to the Mark and other
communal forest property, under the direction either
of specially appointed officials or the officials of the
princes. Finally, in some sections (Hesse-Kassel,
1711; Baden, 1787), the management of these communal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
forests was entirely undertaken by the government.</p>

<p>In Prussia, by the Order of 1754, the foresters of
the State were charged with the supervision of the
communal forests, in which they were to designate
the trees to be felled and the cultures to be executed;
but as there was no pay connected with this additional
duty and the districts were too large, the
execution of this supervision was but indifferently
performed.</p>

<p>In 1749, a special city forest order placed the city
forests in Prussia under the provincial governments,
requiring for their management the employment of a
forester and the inspection of his work by the provincial
forestmaster.</p>

<h4>5. <i>Personnel.</i></h4>

<p>Although all this supervision was probably more
or less lax, the possibility of more general and incisive
influence was increasing because the personnel to
whom such supervision could be intrusted was at last
coming into existence.</p>

<p>The men in whose hands at the beginning of the
18th century lay the task of developing and executing
forest policies and of developing forestry practice
came from two very different classes. The work in
the woods fell naturally to the share of the huntsmen
and forest guards, who by their practical life in the
woods had secured some wood lore and developed
some technical detail upon empiric basis. These so-called
<i>holzgerechte Jaeger</i> (woodcrafty hunters) prepared
for their duties by placing themselves under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
the direction of an established huntsman, who taught
them what he knew about the rules of the chase,
while by questioning woodchoppers, colliers, etc.,
and by their own observation the knowledge of woodcraft
was acquired.</p>

<p>At the head of affairs stood the so-called <i>cameralists</i>
or chamber officials, men who had prepared themselves
by the study of philosophy, law, diplomacy
and political economy for the positions of directors
of finance and State administration. Rather ignorant
of natural science, and without practical forestry
knowledge, their efforts were not always well directed.
They deserve credit, however, for having collected
into encyclop&aelig;dic volumes the empiric knowledge of
the practitioners or Holzgerechten, and for having
elaborated it more or less successfully. In this work
they were joined by some of the professors of cameralia
and law at the universities.</p>

<p>By the middle of the 18th century the hunters had
so far grown in knowledge and education as to be able
to produce their knowledge in books of their own.
Quite a literature developed full of acrimonious warfare
of opinions, as is the rule where empiricism rules
supreme.</p>

<p>Notable progress, however, came only when hunting
was placed in the background and more or less
divorced from forest work.</p>

<h4>6. <i>Development of Silviculture.</i></h4>

<p>In addition to the restrictive measures and attempts
at mere conservative lumbering without much thought
of reproduction, there were as early as the 16th<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
century silvicultural methods applied to secure or
foster reproduction.</p>

<p>Owing to differences in local conditions and difference
in necessities, this development varied greatly
in various sections as to the time it took place. The
Western and Middle country practiced as early as
the 16th century what in the Eastern country did not
appear until the 18th century. The forest ordinances,
from which we derive our knowledge or inferences
of these conditions, prescribed, to be sure, many
things that probably were not really put into practice.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>a. <i>Natural regeneration</i> was at first merely <i>favored</i>,
without the adoption of any very positive measures
to secure it, namely, by removing the cut wood
within the year, so as to give young growth a chance
of establishing itself, by removing the brush so as
not to smother the young growth, by keeping out
cattle from the young growth (Schonung).</p>

<p>If the selection method of lumbering, most generally
practiced without much plan, did not produce
any desirable result in reproduction, the clear cutting
which was practiced without system where charcoal
manufacturing or river driving invited to it, did even
less so. In either case, besides the defective and
damaged old stubs which were left in the logging,
a poor aftergrowth of undesirable character remained,
as is the case in the American woods on so
many areas.</p>

<p>As early as 1524 and 1529, we have record of a
conscious attempt to secure a reproduction by leaving
ten to thirty seed trees per acre; but the result was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
disappointing, for this practice, being applied to the
shallow-rooted spruce, produced the inevitable result,
namely, the seed trees were thrown by the winds.</p>

<p>This experience led to the prescription (in 1565)
in the Palatinate to leave, besides seed trees, parts of
the other stand for protection against wind damage;
later, wind protection was sought by leaving parcels
standing on all four sides, giving rise to a checkerboard
progress of fellings or a <i>group system</i> of reproduction,
which by the middle of the 18th century
had developed into the regular <i>strip system</i>, applied
in Austria (1766) to fir and spruce, and in Prussia
(1764) to pine. And this marginal seeding method
remained for a long time the favorite method for
the <i>conifers</i>.</p>

<p>To avoid long strips and distribute the fellings
more conveniently, v. Berlepsch (in Kassel) recommended
(in 1760) the cutting in echelons (curtain
method, Kulissenhieb), which insured better seeding,
but also increased danger from windfalls, and was
never much practiced, the disadvantages of the
method being shown up especially in the Prussian
Forest Order of 1788.</p>

<p>In the first half of the 18th century it was recognized
that the wind danger would be considerably
reduced by making the fellings progress from East
or Northeast to West. The conception of a regular,
properly located felling series was first elaborated in
the Harz mountains in 1745 by von Langen, who
also accentuated the necessity of preserving a wind
mantle on exposed situations. Both of these propositions
reappear in the Prussian Order of 1780,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
according to which fellings are to proceed in a breadth
of twenty to thirty-five rods from East to West.</p>

<p>The application of a <i>nursetree method</i> for conifers
was proposed in 1787 by v. Burgsdorf (Prussia), a
dark position (Dunkelschlag) and a regeneration
period of seven years being advocated.</p>

<p>In broadleaved forest, besides the selection forest,
the natural result of the sprouting capacity of the
hardwood had led to a coppice method which was
extensively relied upon for fuel production. This
was rarely, however, a simple <i>coppice</i>, for, intentionally
or unintentionally, some seedlings or sprouts
would be allowed to grow on, leading to a composite
forest and finally to a regular <i>coppice with standards</i>
(1569, etc.), with an intentional holding over of the
valuable oak and ash for standards. Probably, however,
large areas of unconsciously produced composite
forest exhibited sad pictures of branchy overwood
with suppressed underwood of poor sprouts, injured
by game and cattle&mdash;a scrubby growth, into which
crept softwoods of birch and aspen. Attempts at
<i>pruning</i> such scrub growths into shape on quite an
extensive scale are on record.</p>

<p>The recognition that more wood per acre could be
secured by lengthening the rotation of the coppice,
which seems to have been mostly twelve years or less,
led to twenty and thirty year turns and finally to
fifty, sixty and even eighty year rotations or so-called
<i>polewood management</i> (Brunswick, 1745), also called
<i>Hochwald</i> (high forest).</p>

<p>A full description and working plan for such a forest
to be managed in eighty year rotation, the city forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
of Mainz in the Odenwald and Spessart mountains,
dates from 1773, and this polewood forest management
became quite general after the middle of the
18th century, but in the last half of the 19th century
it was generally replaced by the true high forest
management under nursetrees, the experiences with
the natural reproduction of conifer forest having
proved the advantages of this method.</p>

<p>The primitive beginnings of this so-called <i>Femelschlag</i>
method (Compartment selection or shelterwood
method) are found, in 1720, in Hesse Darmstadt,
where Oberforstmeister von Minnigerode prescribed
regular fellings progressing from north to south, in
which all material down to polewood size (in selection
or virgin forest) was to be removed, excepting only
a number of clean boles, one every ten to twelve paces
being left for seed and nursetrees. The good results
in reproduction stimulated owners of adjoining estates
to imitate the method (1737).</p>

<p>The observation that in beech forest the young crop
needed protection and succeeded better when gradually
freed from the shade of the seed trees, especially
on south and west aspects where drought, frost and
weeds are apt to injure it on sudden exposure, led to
the elaboration of the principle of <i>successive fellings</i>.</p>

<p>In the ordinance of Hanau, as early as 1736, three
grades of fellings were developed, the cutting for seed,
the cutting for light, which was to begin when the
young crop was knee-high, and the removal cutting
when the crop was high.</p>

<p>This method spread rapidly and was further developed
by the addition (in 1767) of a preparatory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
cutting, to secure a desirable seedbed, and by lengthening
the period of regeneration and elaborating other
detail, so that, by 1790, the principles of natural regeneration
under nursetrees for beech forest were
fully developed in Western Germany.</p>

<p>In other parts, hardwood forest management was
but little developed. The Prussian Forest Ordinance
of 1786 contented itself with forbidding the selection
method, by declaring natural regeneration, as practiced
in the pineries, not applicable; while the Austrian
Ordinance of 1786 recognizes only clearing followed
by planting as the general rule.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>b. <i>Artificial Reforestation.</i> Although sporadic attempts
at sowing and planting are on record as early
as the beginning of the 14th century, extensive artificial
reforestation did not begin until the middle of
the 18th century, by which time planting methods
were quite fully developed.</p>

<p>Among the hardwoods, the <i>oak</i> was the first to
receive special attention. By the middle of the 16th
century the forest ordinances gave quite explicit
instructions for planting oak in the so-called <i>Hutewald</i>,
a combination of pasture and tree growth such as is
found to-day in the bluegrass region of Kentucky;
the remnants of these poor pasture woods with their
gnarly oaks have lasted into modern times.</p>

<p>In the forest ordinance of Brunswick (1598) orders
are given to plant on felling areas: &#8220;every full farmer
shall every year at the proper time set out ten young
oaks, every half farmer five, every farm laborer three,
well taken up with roots (wildlings), and plant them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
in the commons or openings at Martini (November)
or Mitfasten (Easter) and cover them with thorn
brush&#8221; (to protect them against cattle).</p>

<p>About that time it was, indeed, incumbent on every
marker to sow annually five oaks, or plant several
young seedlings for every tree cut and to tend them
a few years; and the custom existed in the low country,&mdash;afterwards
(1700) introduced by law in Saxony&mdash;to
plant in celebration of certain occurrences&mdash;a kind
of <i>arborday</i>&mdash;especially to celebrate the marriage day;
in order to be married the bridegroom had to prove
that he had planted a certain number of oaks, which
in Prussia (1719) had to be six, besides six fruit trees.
The existence of this custom, now long forgotten, has
given rise in the United States to the story that this
is the method by which the German forest is maintained.</p>

<p>The method of collecting and keeping acorns over
winter was well known in 1579, as is evidenced by
the Hohenlohe Forest Ordinance, which advised fall
sowing, but, if that did not prove successful, to prepare
the ground in summer, leave it through the
winter and sow in the spring.</p>

<p>While, in earlier times, <i>sowing</i> seems to have had
the preference, at a later period planting was practiced,
at first with wildlings, but as early as 1603 we find
mention of oak nurseries.</p>

<p>The Prussian Order of 1720 ordered the foresters
to plant oaks in the openings before Christmas, for
which they were to be paid, if the trees were found
alive after three years. The growing and culture of
oak also interested Frederick the Great, who ordered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
its extension everywhere. Very explicit and correct
rules for growing and transplanting them, and some
to which we would not subscribe, were given in the
books of the 18th century. Among the planting
methods we find, in 1719 and again in 1776, one similar
to the Manteuffel method of planting in mounds.</p>

<p>While oak culture was especially fostered in Northwestern
Germany, the cultivation of <i>conifers</i> first
received attention in the southwest, and in the same
manner which was inaugurated by the Nuremberg
seed dealer in 1368. A new idea, introduced in the
Palatine Forest Ordinance (1565) and in the Bavarian
Forest Ordinance (1568), was the prescription, to
soak the seed before use and sow mixed with sawdust
or sand, bringing the seed under with brush or iron
rakes.</p>

<p>Carlowitz (1713) taught well the methods of collecting,
extracting and keeping the seed, and even proposed
seed tests. The seedbeds were to be made as
for carrots, dense sowings to be thinned, and the
thinnings transplanted into nursery rows, the seedbeds
to be covered with moss and litter to protect
them against heaving; he also discusses the question
of cost. The adaptation of plant material to different
sites&mdash;conifers where oaks are not suitable&mdash;was also
understood (Bavarian Forest Ordinance, 1683).</p>

<p>As long as the old method of extracting the seed in
hot stoves or ovens prevailed, conifer sowings gave
but indifferent results.</p>

<p>In the pine forests of Prussia, during the second half
of the 18th century, the method of sowing the cones
on large waste and sand barrens, where the sun would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
make them release the seed, was practised, and before
Br&eacute;montier had written his celebrated <i>m&eacute;moire sur
les dunes</i>, sanddunes had been recovered with pine
plantations in Germany in the manner which is still
in vogue.</p>

<p>The <i>planting</i> of conifers came into practice much
later, and then it was mostly done with wildlings.
Opinions differing as to the value of sowing or planting,
it was erroneously held until the 19th century that
planting was less successful and too costly in comparison
with the small harvest yield, which necessitated
cheapness of operations. It was only towards
the end of the 18th century that planting of pine was
resorted to, but merely for repairing fail places in
sowings and natural regeneration, and then with a
ball of earth (1779), using a hollow spade,&mdash;a costly
method. The cost of a certain plantation made in
1751 is, however, reported as less than $3.00 per M.,
in 1770 as low as 70 cents per M. To cheapen the
operations the labor was exchanged for wood, pasture
or other materials or advantages.</p>

<p>In Prussia, in 1773, all recipients of free wood had
to do service in the cultures; in 1785, every farmer
had to furnish a certain amount of cones or acorns.
The method, lately adopted in Russia, came into
vogue in Prussia in 1719, namely, of charging, besides
the value of the wood, a toll to be paid into the planting
fund (about 7% of the value). This method was
also imitated elsewhere.</p>

<p>The use of the <i>Waldfeldbau</i> (combined farm and
forest culture) was also inaugurated for the purpose
of cheapening the cost of plantations (by v. Langen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
in 1744) when the great movement for reforesting
wastes and openings began, the tree seed being sown
with the grain either at once or after farm use for
some years.</p>

<p>Regular annual planting budgets (of $50&mdash;$100&mdash;$200)
were inaugurated in Brunswick by v. Langen
in 1745; and in 1781, the Prussian forest administration
had attained to entirely modern planting plans
and annual planting budgets.</p>

<p>It was no wonder that the fear of a timber famine
and the apparent hopelessness of bringing improvement
into the existing forest conditions created
anxiety and a desire to plant <i>rapid growers</i>, such as
birch, willow, aspen, alder; the planting of the White
Birch became so general in the beginning of the 18th
century that a regular betulomania is recorded corresponding
to the incipient catalpomania in the United
States.</p>

<p>At that time, to be sure, firewood was still the
main concern, and the use of these rapid growing
species had some justification. But where birch was
mixed in spruce plantations its baneful effects consisting
in whipping off the spruce tips and injuring its
neighbors were soon recognized, and much trouble was
experienced in getting rid of the unwelcome addition.</p>

<p>The <i>Robinia</i>, which had been brought from America
in 1638, was also one of the trees recommended in the
middle of the 18th century and was much planted
until Hartig pointed out that the expectations from
it were entirely misplaced.</p>

<p>Of course no building material could be expected
from these species, hence the larch, also a rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
grower, was transplanted from the Alps (1730 in
Harz mountains), and its use was extended, as with
us, to conditions for which it was not adapted.</p>

<p>It was principally a desire for novelty and perhaps
for better, especially foreign things, that led to the
planting of North American species in parks during
the first half of the 18th century. But, although
F. A. J. von Wangenheim&#8217;s very competent writings
on the American forest-flora and on the laws of naturalization
(1787) stimulated interest in that direction,
the use of American species for forest planting was
not inaugurated till nearly 100 years later, with the
single exception of the White Pine (<i>P. strobus</i>), of
which large numbers were planted.</p>

<h4>7. <i>Improvement of the Crop.</i></h4>

<p>Thinning of stands had been practiced early in the
16th century, not for improvement of the remaining
stand so much as to secure fence material, although in
1531 the observation was already recorded that thinning
improved and stimulated the remaining growth.</p>

<p>In the 17th century, opposite views, or, at least
doubts as to its usefulness were expressed in the forest
orders, and sometimes thinning was even forbidden.
Even in the 18th century some of the prominent
foresters, Doebel and Beckman, were opposed to it,
and although others favored the operation, the practice
of it remained limited.</p>

<p>In 1761, we find the first good statement of the
theory of thinnings by Berlepsch, who advised taking
out the suppressed trees when the sound poles were
clear of lower and middle branches; he also accentuated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
the financial argument of earlier returns and
increased value of the remainder.</p>

<p>About the same time, Zanthier recommended two
thinnings, namely, for conifers first in the thirtieth
to fortieth year and again in the fiftieth year, for
broadleaf forest first in the forty-fifth and again in
the eightieth to ninetieth year.</p>

<p>In 1765, the financial gain from thinnings is figured
by Oettelt, and the possible reduction of the rotation
due to thinnings is recognized by Leubert in 1774.</p>

<p>Just as the thinning in polewoods arose from the
need of earlier utilization, so the weeding of young
growths was done for the purpose of getting material
for withes to bind the grain, etc.</p>

<p>The removal of coppice shoots in oak plantings was
practiced in Prussia in 1719, and the thinning of too
dense sowings was advised by Carlowitz in 1713.
Yet much later, even such an intelligent man as
Oettelt inveighed against the weeding out of the birch
in spruce sowings because &#8220;nature prefers variety,
with which preference it is not good to interfere.&#8221;</p>

<p>This was in opposition to v. Langen (1745), who
prescribed for the first time regular cleaning or weeding,
especially the removal of the softwoods, aspen
and birch, and of coppice shoots from seedling forest.
It was also known that this weeding is best done &#8220;in
the full sap,&#8221; in order to kill the stocks.</p>

<h4>8. <i>Methods of Regulating Forest Management.</i></h4>

<p>Organized forest management was slower to develop
than silvicultural methods. The first attempts to
bring order into the progress of fellings took the form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
of dividing the whole area into a certain number of
felling areas (12, 16, 20, 30, etc.), several ordinances
dating from the middle of the 15th and 17th centuries
containing prescriptions to that effect.</p>

<p>It is doubtful whether the numbers of these areas
indicate years of rotation, in which case they could
only have applied to coppice, or whether they indicate
periods of return in selection forest, although the
historians seem to jump to the former conclusion.
The area division practiced by v. Langen in the Harz
mountains (1745), who prescribed the division of
larger districts into fifty to sixty, of smaller districts
into twenty to thirty felling areas, also leaves it doubtful,
whether the areas corresponded to an assumed
rotation or to a period of return.</p>

<p>At first, the division was not into equal areas, for
no survey existed, and its object was simply to localize
the cutting and provide orderly progress. The subdivision
was made in the mountain country by following
the topography, valleys and ridges, while in the
plain the lines opened up for purposes of the chase (to
set up nets), called <i>Schneisen</i> or <i>Gestelle</i> (rides), bounding
square areas called <i>Jagen</i>, <i>Quadrat</i>, <i>Stallung</i>,
were used for the limitation of the felling areas. Most
commonly, however, largely due to absence of surveys,
the ordered division did not materialize, but
existed only on paper.</p>

<p>With more exact measuring of areas, and with the
conception of a rotation or longer periods of return, it
was recognized that the inequality of the sites or soil
qualities, especially in mountain districts, produced
very unequal felling budgets. To overcome this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
inequality, Jacobi, in Goettingen (1741) introduced
<i>proportional</i> felling areas, making the felling areas on
poor sites permanently larger.</p>

<p>Similarly, v. Langen and Zanthier attempt to secure
equal annual returns without slavishly holding to the
geometric division, merely making sure that the total
area be cut over in the predetermined rotation.</p>

<p>The first attempts to introduce a regulated management
by making a <i>volume</i> division the basis is recorded
from the Harz mountains in 1547. This method,
based on very crude estimates although upon very fair
forest description, was continued into the 18th century.</p>

<p>In the last half of the 18th century all these crude
methods were improved, and applied on extensive
areas.</p>

<p>In 1785, Zanthier combined area and volume division,
determining the felling budget on each felling
area by counting and estimating the trees and calculating
how many trees could be used annually under
a sustained yield management; the area division
being used only as a check or means of control.</p>

<p>A very considerable advance was made by Oettelt,
(who surveyed and regulated the Weimar forests in
1760) in the elaboration of details and establishment
of proper principles for regulating the felling budget.</p>

<p>In his forest description he introduces for the first
time periodic age classes, usually six, but of uneven
length: Young growth, below twelve years; thicket,
twelve to twenty-four years; polewood, twenty-four
to forty years; clear timber, forty to fifty; medium
timber, fifty to seventy-five; mature timber, seventy-five
years and over.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>

<p>He divides the forest into proportional areas (which
were marked by stones in the woods), equalizing them
according to age, quality, increment, soil, exposure,
so as to secure equal annual budgets; the stands were
ranged into seven or eight unequal age classes and
each into as many annual felling areas as there are
years in the age class; if some of the age classes were
absent, he extended the time for cutting in the older
class until the younger had grown to the proper age
and by varying the cut from good to poor sites for
stands he tried to even out the budgets. The volume
budget he determined by average increment measurements.
This method was, however, much too far
advanced and required too much mathematics to
find imitators at that time.</p>

<p>Another method which proved also too complex for
the foresters of the time was that of v. Wedell; nevertheless,
by 1790, he had by it put into working order
800,000 acres in Silesia. He divided this area into
districts, the districts into blocks or management
classes, and used an elaborated proportional area
division for determining the felling budget. He
distinguished quality of stand and quality of site,
and made four site classes. The volume of stock, he
found by means of sample areas, to which he added
the increment in order to find the total volume for
harvest, when it could be determined how long with
a given budget the stands would last, or what average
annual felling budget could be taken before the next
age-class would be mature.</p>

<p>In the North German plain, with very uniform
conditions of soil and timber, the method of equal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
felling areas was the most natural and most easily
applied.</p>

<p>Frederick the Great, who took a considerable interest
in forestry matters, ordered such an area division
for the State pineries in 1740, fixing upon different
numbers of felling areas, but finally, in 1770, deciding
on a rotation of seventy years. Lack of personnel
retarded progress in this forest survey and regulation
until in 1778 v. Kropff undertook the direction. Not
agreeing with his master regarding the short rotation
of seventy years, he arranged to have each district
divided into two working blocks, and by cutting
alternately in these, managed to double that rotation.
His successor, Hennert, in 1788, devised a new method
by introducing allotment of a number of annual felling
areas to a period of the rotation when at least the
periodic budget could be equalized. A value or money
yield equalization of the felling budgets was also
attempted.</p>

<p>For easier handling, the forest was divided into
small compartments or Jagen and a classification of
four, still uneven, periodic age classes (of different
length for conifers and broadleaved forest), and three
site qualities were employed. The merchantable
stock was ascertained by a sample area method and
the felling budget by dividing the oldest age class by
the number of years it must last until the next was
ready. Since no attempt was made to secure a proper
age class gradation, the method failed to improve
conditions for the next rotation.</p>

<p>Some 500,000 acres were regulated according to this
plan in Prussia, probably very superficially.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>

<p>In 1789, Bavaria also ordered a division into annual
felling areas.</p>

<p>In all these methods of regulating the yield or
budget, the area played the main role, the volume
being only a secondary consideration.</p>

<p>The first elaboration of a pure volume division was
made by Beckman in 1759. He estimated stock on
hand by trees and guessed more or less at the increment,
allowing 2.5, 2, and 1% for the different sites,
and then made a year to year calculation of stock for
125 years. How the felling budget was finally determined
is not known.</p>

<p>Two methods were simultaneously devised in
W&uuml;rttemberg in 1783, which form the transition to
the so-called <i>allotment</i> methods, making periodic age
classes of an equal number of years and allotting either
felling areas or volumes to each period of the rotation.
Incapacity of the officials prevented the application
of the one method, while the other, devised by Maurer,
remained also only a proposition.</p>

<p>But, in 1788, Kregting in his Mathematical Contributions
to Forestry Science teaches a pure volume
allotment method with ten year age classes and
nearly all the apparatus which was afterward developed
by Hartig, who in the next period dominated to
such a large extent the development of forestry in all
its branches.</p>

<h4>9. <i>Improvements in Methods of Mensuration.</i></h4>

<p>In scientific direction, the mathematical disciplines
were the first to be developed; the natural sciences
received attention much later.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>

<p>A considerable amount of mathematical knowledge
was required for this work of forest organization.
The mathematical apparatus of the foresters even
at the end of this period was rather slender, but its
development went hand in hand with the development
of these methods of regulation; and even elaborate
mathematical formul&aelig; for determining felling
budgets were not absent.</p>

<p>Until nearly the middle of the 18th century, surveys
of exact nature were almost unknown; only
when the division into equal or proportionate felling
areas became the basis for determining the felling
budgets, did the necessity for such surveys present
itself.</p>

<p>Plane table and compass were the instruments
which came into use in the beginning of the 18th
century. But not until the latter half of that century
were extensive forest surveys and maps of various
character made, especially in Prussia under Wedell,
Kropff and Hennert.</p>

<p>The methods of measurement of wood developed
still later. Until Oettelt&#8217;s time no method of precise
determination of volumes was known, everything
being estimated by cords or by diameter breast-high
and height, or by the number of boards which a tree
would make (board feet?).</p>

<p>The diameter was sometimes used as a price maker,
the price increasing in direct proportion to the diameter
increase. Oettelt calculated the volume of
coniferous trees as cones, and <i>Vierenklee</i>, who wrote
a book on mathematics for the use of foresters,
calculated timbers with the top removed by using the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
average diameter, to which Hennert added the volume
of a cone with the difference of the two diameters as
a base, to make the total tree volume.</p>

<p>Most measurements of standing trees were, of
course, made on the circumference, for, in the absence
of calipers, the diameter could be directly measured
only on the felled tree. Doebel had already measured
the height by means of a rectangular triangle, and
the first real hypsometer with movable sights was
described by Jung in 1781; and a complete instrument,
which could be used for measuring both height and
diameter at any height, similar to some more modern
ones, was constructed by Reinhold.</p>

<p>Determination of the real wood contents in a cord
of wood and of the volume of bark by measurement
was taught by Oettelt, and the method of immersion
in water and measuring the displaced volume, by
Hennert (1782).</p>

<p>In 1785, Krohne first called attention to the variation
of the increment in different age classes and
the need of determining the accretion for each separately.</p>

<p>In 1789, Trunk taught how to determine average
felling age increment, and also the method of determining
the change of diameter classes, which is now
used by the United States Forest Service: &#8220;On good
soil a tree grows one inch in three years, on medium
soil in four years, on poor soil in five years.&#8221; With
this knowledge, the attainment of a given diameter,
or the change from one diameter or age class to the
next could be calculated.</p>

<p>Volume tables were at Trunk&#8217;s command, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
Paulsen in 1787, Kregting in 1788, mention periodic
yield tables; but generally speaking &#8220;ocular taxation&#8221;
or estimating was the rule, checked by experience in
actual fellings, the method of the American timber
looker. Generally, of course, only the log timber
was estimated as with us, and only the very roughest
estimating or rather guessing was in vogue until near
the end of the period.</p>

<p>The first attempt at closer measurement was made
by Beckman (1756), who surrounded the area to be
measured with twine, drove a colored wooden peg
into each tree, one color for each diameter class, when,
knowing the original number of pegs that had been
taken out, the difference gave the number of trees in
each diameter class, and by multiplying the average
cubic contents of a measured sample tree in each class
by the number in the class its volume was found.</p>

<p>The method, often employed at present, of ascertaining
by tally the diameter classes on strips forty
to fifty paces wide, the so-called strip survey, was
described by Zanthier in 1763.</p>

<p>These measurements were usually confined to
sample areas, the use of such being already known
in 1739. The contents of the sample area, if a special
degree of accuracy was desired, were ascertained by
felling the whole and measuring.</p>

<p>Oettelt, of mathematical fame, was the first to
publish something about the determination of the
age of trees by counting rings, although the practice
probably antedates this account. He knew of the
dependence of the ring width on the site and on the
density of the stand.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>

<p>It seems that long before this time the French had
made the determination of yield in a more scientific
manner, R&eacute;aumur reporting in 1721 to the French
Academy comparative studies of the yield of coppice
and of volumes of wood.</p>

<p>Oettelt, too, laid the foundation of forest financial
calculations when he ascertained the value of a forest
by determining the value of an acre of mature wood&mdash;the
oldest age class&mdash;and multiplying it by half the
acreage of the whole forest, suggesting the well known
expression for the normal stock <span class="fsize125">(</span>I
<span class="division"><span class="num">r</span><span class="denom">2</span></span><span class="fsize125">)</span> soon after to be
developed by an obscure Austrian tax collector.</p>

<p>Even the first forest finance calculations with the
use of compound interest, and a comparison of the
profitableness of the different methods of management,
are to be recorded as made by Zanthier in 1764, bringing
the beginning of forestal statics into this period.</p>

<h4>10. <i>Methods of Lumbering and Utilization.</i></h4>

<p>At the beginning of this period, rough exploitation
was still mainly in vogue, only parts of trees being
used, just as in the United States now. Here and
there, attempts were made toward more conservative
use; for instance, at Brunswick in 1547, the use of log
timber for fuel was discouraged; in Saxony, as early
as 1560, the brushwood was utilized for fuel. High
stumps were a usual feature in spite of the threats
of punishment of the forest ordinances, as in Bavaria
(1531). The axe was the only instrument used until
the end of the 18th century for felling as well as cutting
into lengths; not until 1775, do we find an allusion to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
the use of the saw, when the forest ordinance of Weimar
ordered that the saw-cut should be made for three-fourths
of the tree&#8217;s diameter and the axe be used to
finish (!) the last quarter. Not until the 18th century
was the fuel-wood split in the woods, and it was near
the end of the period before it was set up in mixed
cords (round and split) after the splitting had been
introduced. The measurement was, until about that
time, made merely in loads, the cord being of later
introduction.</p>

<p>The value of low stumps and of the use of the saw
was recognized in Austria in 1786. To show how
variously and locally the need of conservative use of
wood developed, we may cite the fact that in the
Harz, about 1750, trees were dug with their roots as
now in some of the pineries of the Mark Brandenburg,
in order to utilize more of the body-wood and the
root-wood. In 1757 we find stump-pulling machines
described.</p>

<p>In measurement of standing trees the circumference
at breast-height was measured with a chain,
and for the body-wood when felled the mean diameter
was employed.</p>

<p>As regards the felling time, specific advice is found
in many forest ordinances which recommend mostly
winter felling, stating the proper beginning and end
of the season by the phases of the moon, the rule
being that all white wood, for example conifers, beech
and aspen should be felled on the increase or waxing
of the moon; oak, at the waning; but coppice, because
it is desired to secure a new growth, at the waxing
moon. Prescription was also made sometimes regarding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
the time by which the removal of the
wood from the felling area was to be finished (May
to June).</p>

<p>Means of transportation were poor up to the end
of the period; snow, as in the United States, was in
the Northern country the main reliance for moving
the wood. River driving, both with, and without
rafts was well organized; various systems of log-slides
were developed to a considerable extent; in
one place even an iron pipe, 900 feet in length, is reported
to have been used in such capacity.</p>

<p>Originally, the consumer cut his own wood, but in
the middle of the 17th century special wood-choppers
appear to have been employed, for, in 1650, mention
is made in Saxony of men, who, under oath to secure
honest service, were organized for the exploitation
of the different classes of wood. A system of jobbers
came into existence about this time, something like
the logging bosses in the United States (Holzmeister)
who were responsible for the execution of the logging
job. The organization of wood-choppers went so far
that, in 1718, we find in the Harz mountains mention
of an Accident Insurance and Mutual Charity Association
among them.</p>

<p>The sale of wood was at first carried on in the house;
later it became customary to indicate in the forest the
trees to be cut or the area from which they should be
cut by the purchaser, and finally they were felled by
the employes of the owner. For a long time, persisting
into the 18th century, the sale was by area, and this
method developed the necessity of surveying; at the
same time, however, sales by the tree and by wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
measure occurred, but only in the 18th century did
the present method of selling wood by measure after
felling come into existence. In Prussia, the buyer had
to take the risk of felling, and pay, even if the tree
proved to be rotten, or broke in the felling. The
forest owner seems to have had the whip hand in determining
the price one-sidedly, revising, i.e., increasing
the toll in longer or shorter intervals. But,
in 1713, we find mention of wood-auctions, or at least
similar methods of getting the best prices. Finally,
special market days for making sales and for designating
of wood were instituted; on these days also,
all offences against the forest laws were adjudged.</p>

<h4>11. <i>Forest Administration.</i></h4>

<p>The administration of the different forest properties
which the princes had aggregated in the course of
time was at first a part of the general administration
of the princely property. The requirements in the
woods being merely to look after utilization and protection,
illiterate underlings (<i>Forstknechte</i>) were sufficient
to carry out the police functions, generally
under a <i>Forstmeister</i>, or <i>Oberforstmeister</i>, who from
time to time would make an inspection tour. Later
on, when a more intensive forest management had
come into existence, it became customary to call in
experienced foresters from outside to make inspections
and give advice.</p>

<p>A much more elaborate organization of service is,
however, reported in the mining districts of the Harz
mountains, in 1547, with the Director of Mines
(<i>Berghauptman</i>) at the head, and different grades of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
officials under him, who were called together periodically
for reports and discussions.</p>

<p>Until the middle of the 18th century all those employed
in the forest service, at least those in the
superior positions, had also duties in connection with
the chase, the head official of the hunt being also the
head of the forest service; and hunting had usually
superior claims to forestry. The men were supposed
to be masters of the two branches, i.e., to be familiar
with the technique of the hunt and of forestry (<i>Hirschgerecht</i>
and <i>Holzgerecht</i>). The higher positions were
usually reserved to the nobility until (during the 18th
century) the Cameralists came into control of the
administration; and with them, under the mercantilistic
teachings, the apparatus of officials also increased.</p>

<p>These men usually possessed wide, but not deep
knowledge of matters bearing upon their charges. In
Prussia, in 1740, the forest service was at least in part
combined with the military service, Frederick the
Great instituting the corps of riding couriers for the
carrying of dispatches who were selected from the
forest service, an institution which persists up to date
in the corps of <i>Feldjaeger</i>, while the sons of foresters
were enlisted in a troop known as <i>Fussjaeger</i> (<i>chasseurs</i>).
A new era dates from the middle of the 18th
century when the connection with the hunt, the military
organization, and the preferred position of the
nobility, were at least in part abrogated, and a more
technical organization was attempted. The cause
for this change was the increase of wood prices, which
made a more technical management desirable, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
also a decrease in the passion for the hunt. Still,
although the forests in Bavaria were declared, in
1780 to 1790, to be of more importance than the hunt,
and the two services were distinctly separated, the
head of the hunt still ranked above the head of the
forest service.</p>

<p>In Prussia, the professional men became early independent
and influential, and by 1770, an organization
had been perfected which excelled in thoroughness
and simplicity. The salaries of the foresters consisted
originally mainly in a free house, use of land
and pasture rights, their uniform, and incidental
emoluments, such as a toll for the designation of timber
etc. Later, when everywhere else a regular money
management had been introduced, the absence of
a cash income and general poverty forced the foresters
to steal and extort; and the bad reputation established
in the last part of the 18th century, as well as the bad
practice, persisted until the 19th century. The lower
grades in the service were exceedingly ignorant, and
their social position, consequently, very low. Their
main business was, indeed, simple, and consisted in
the booking of the cut, issuing permits for the removal
and the sale of wood, and looking after police functions
in the woods. Yet, by 1781, we find regular planting
plans submitted in the Prussian administration, and,
in 1787, felling plans are on record.</p>

<p>The administration of justice against offenders in
the forests was until the end of the 18th century in
charge of the head foresters, and only then was transferred
to law officers. Theft of wood, as in olden days,
was considered as a smaller offense than other thefts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
except if it was cut wood. In the beginning of the
period, the judge had wide latitude as to amount of
the fine to be imposed, but in the 17th century more
precise fines were fixed, and in the 18th century, a
revision of the fines brought them into proportion
with the value of the stolen wood; a choice of punishments
by fines, imprisonment or labor in the woods
was then also instituted.</p>

<h4>12. <i>Forestry Education.</i></h4>

<p>The course of education for the foresters until the
middle of the 18th century was a simple one and
mainly directed to learning the manipulations of the
chase, training of dogs, tending of horses, setting of
nets, shooting, etc. Two or three years&#8217; life with a
practical hunter were followed by journeying and
working for different employers, woodlore being
picked up by the way from those that knew.</p>

<p>When in the 18th century the need for better woods
knowledge became pressing, the few really good forest
managers were sought out by the young men who
wished to secure this knowledge. In this way, a
number of so-called &#8220;master-schools&#8221; came into
existence, each depending on one man. Such a school
was that of v. Zanthier in Wernigerode, later transferred
to Ilsenburg, started in 1763 and ending with
his death in 1778. Theoretical teaching and opportunity
for practical demonstration here was such that
even students from the Berlin school and men in
actual employment attended the courses.</p>

<p>The two great masters and fathers of modern
forestry, Hartig and Cotta, each instituted such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
master-schools, the former in 1789, and the latter
in 1785. Cotta&#8217;s school was afterwards transferred
to Tharandt and became a State institution.</p>

<p>The interest of the State in forestry education found
first expression in Prussia in a course of lectures in
botany, later also in forest economy, given to the
forest officials by <i>Gleditsch</i>, professor of botany at the
University of Berlin (1770), to which was added a
practicum at Tegel under Burgsdorf, who finally
became the head of this mixed State school, and continued
in this position until at his death, in 1802, the
school was discontinued.</p>

<p>In imitation of this move by Prussia, a military
planting school was instituted by W&uuml;rttemberg at
Solitude in 1770. The most noteworthy feature of
this school, which under various changes lasted less
than 25 years, was the course of lectures by Stahl,
mentioned before.</p>

<p>Besides this higher school, a lower grade school was
started in 1783, but its career was even briefer, not
more than ten years.</p>

<p>Bavaria organized a forest school at Munich in 1790
with a four years&#8217; course, and at least three years&#8217;
study at this school was required of those seeking
employment in the State service; but without having
ever flourished, this school, too, collapsed by 1803.</p>

<h4>13. <i>Forestry Literature.</i></h4>

<p>The oldest forestry literature of this period is contained
in the many forest ordinances, which allow us
to judge from their prescriptions as to the conditions
of the practice in the woods and as to the gradual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
accumulation of empiric knowledge. Of a forestry
science one could hardly speak until an attempt had
been made to organize the knowledge thus empirically
acquired into a systematic presentation, and this was
not done until the middle or last half of the 18th
century.</p>

<p>The first attempts at a literary presentation of the
empiric knowledge are found in the encyclop&aelig;dic
volumes of the so-called &#8220;Hausv&auml;ter&#8221; (household
fathers&mdash;domestic economists), who treated in a most
diffuse manner of agriculture in all its aspects, including
silviculture.</p>

<p>A number of these tomes appeared during the 17th
century; the best and most influential being published
at the very beginning of that century (1595-1609),
written by a preacher from Silesia, <i>Johann Colerus</i>,
and entitled <i>Oeconomia ruralis et domestica, worin das
ampt aller braven Hausv&auml;ter und Hausm&uuml;tter begriffen</i>.</p>

<p>Colerus relied upon home experience and not, as
Petrus de Crescentiis in his earlier work, <i>Praedium
rusticum</i> (translated from the French, in 1592), had
done, upon the scholastic expositions of the Italians.
He was rewarded by the popularity of his work which
went through thirteen editions and became very
widely known.</p>

<p>Somewhat earlier, a jurist, <i>No&euml; Meurer</i>, wrote a
book on forest law and hunting (second edition, 1576),
which on this field remained long an authority, and
gives insight into the condition of forest use at the
time.</p>

<p>But the first independent work on forestry, divorced
from the hunt and farming, did not appear until 1713,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
<i>Sylvicultura &#339;conomica</i>, written by the Saxon director
of mines, <i>Hans Carl v. Carlowitz</i>.</p>

<p>This book, while containing quaint and amusing
ideas, gives many correct rules for silvicultural methods,
especially as regards planting and sowing, but
the subject of forest management or organization is
entirely neglected.</p>

<p>At about the same time (1710) a forest official, <i>v.
G&ouml;chhausen</i>, published <i>Notabilia venatoris</i>, which,
however, contained little more than a description of
the species of trees and methods of their utilization.</p>

<p>About the middle of the 18th century great activity
began in the literary field. This was carried on by
two distinct classes of writers, namely, the empiricists
and the cameralists. The former&mdash;the <i>holzgerechte
J&auml;ger</i>&mdash;were the &#8220;practical&#8221; men of the woods who
proved in many directions most unpractical, and exhibited
in their writings, outside of the record of their
limited experience, the crassest ignorance. The
cameralists were educated in law and political economy
and, while lacking practical contact with the woodswork,
tried to sift and systematize the knowledge of
the empiricists, and to secure for it a tangible basis.</p>

<p>Some five or six of the empiricists deserve notice
as writers; the first and most noted of them was
<i>Doebel</i> (<i>Heinrich Wilhelm</i>) whose book, <i>J&auml;gerpraktica</i>
(hunters&#8217; practice), published in 1746, remained an
authority until modern times for the part referring to
the chase. The author was pre-eminently a hunter,
who worked in various capacities in Saxony, a self-taught
man with very little knowledge of natural
history. Being familiar mainly with broadleaf forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
he condemned planting and thinning, but described
quite well for his time the methods of survey, subdivision,
estimating and measuring, and the methods
of selection forest and coppice with standards.
His ignorance is characterized by his reference to
the &#8220;sulphurous and nitric elements of the soil&#8221; as
cause of spontaneous forest fires.</p>

<p>Opinionated and one-sided, like many so-called practical
men, he came into polemic controversies with
other practitioners, not less opinionated, among them
<i>J. G. Beckmann</i>, who worked in another part of
Saxony, where, having to deal with coniferous woods,
he had gathered different experiences from those of
Doebel. Although he was himself poorly educated,
especially in natural sciences, he complained of the
ignorance of the foresters, and in his book (<i>Anweisung
zu einer pfleglichen Forstwirthschaft</i>, 1759), used for
the first time the word <i>Forstwissenschaft</i> (forest
science), and insisted upon the necessity of studying
nature.</p>

<p>He may be credited with having really advanced
forest organization by devising the first good volume
division method, and silviculture by advocating the
method of clearing followed by sowing.</p>

<p>The first practical forester with a university education
was <i>J. J. B&uuml;chting</i>, who worked in the Harz
mountains. His main interest lay in the direction of
survey, division and orderly utilization. He did not,
however, make any striking advance, except that
he gave equal standing to both planting and sowing.</p>

<p>The two most eminent practitioners of the period,
however, active during the middle of the century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
were <i>Johann Georg von Langen</i> and his pupil, <i>Hans
Dietrich von Zanthier</i>, both of noble family, and
better educated than most of their contemporaries,
and both engaged in the organization and management
of Harz mountain forests, namely, those of the
Duke of Brunswick and of the Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode.</p>

<p>The former, without occupying himself directly
with literary work, laid down in his expert reports and
in his working plans many instructions which form
the basis for orderly management and silviculture far
ahead of the times. Zanthier, writing considerably
(especially <i>Kurzer systematischer Grundriss der praktischen
Forstwissenschaft</i>, 1764), is also notable as the
founder of the first forestry school (at Wernigerode),
1763.</p>

<p>Another of this class of better educated practitioners,
and co-worker with the former two, was
<i>von Lassberg</i>, who in 1764-1777 organized the Saxon
forests.</p>

<p>An interesting incident in the life of the last three
men is their journey to Denmark and Norway, whither
they were called to organize the management of the
forests connected with the mines.</p>

<p>Another prominent forest manager of the last half of
the century, whose literary work is to be found only
in various excellent official instructions, among which
is one for the teaching of foresters, was the head of
the Hessian forest service, a nobleman, <i>v. Berlepsch</i>.</p>

<p>Of the cameralists who helped to make forestry
literature, six or seven deserve mention. These, men
of education and polyhistors, were either at the head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
of affairs, or else professors at universities, where
they included forestry as one of the branches of
political economy.</p>

<p>The credit of the first really systematic presentation
of forestry principles and rules, as developed at
the time, belongs to <i>Wilhelm Gottfried von Moser</i>, a
pupil of von Langen, who served in various principalities,
and finally with the Prince of Taxis. In his
<i>Principles of Forest Economy</i>, published in 1757,
which for the first time brought out the economic
importance of the subject, he discusses in two volumes
divided into nine chapters the different branches of
forestry.</p>

<p>A mining engineer, <i>J. A. Cramer</i>, came next with a
very notable book, &#8220;<i>Anleitung zum Forstwesen</i>&#8221;
(1766), which, although not as comprehensive as
Moser&#8217;s, treats the subject of silviculture very well.</p>

<p>Equal in arrogance and opinionated self-satisfaction
to any of the empiricists with whom he frequently
crossed swords, was the Brunswick councillor, <i>von
Brocke</i>, who, as an amateur, practising forestry on
his own estate, developed the characteristic trait of
the empiricists, namely, a profound belief in his own
infallibility. He produced, besides many polemic
writings, in which he charged the whole class of
foresters with ignorance, laziness and dishonesty, a
magnum opus in four volumes, entitled &#8220;<i>True bases
of the physical and experimental general science of
forestry</i>,&#8221; which is an olla podrida of small value.</p>

<p>Less original, but more fair and well informed, a
typical representative of the cameralists, was <i>J. F.
Stahl</i>, finally head of the forest administration of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
W&uuml;rttemberg, and at the same time lecturer on mathematics,
natural history and forestry at the forest
school of Solitude (Stuttgart). Although an amateur
in the field of forestry, he was a good teacher and left
many valuable and wise prescriptions evolved during
his administration.</p>

<p>He compiled in four volumes a dictionary of forest,
fish and game practice (<i>Onomatologia forestalis-piscatoria-venatoria</i>,
1772-1781) and founded the first
forestry journal.</p>

<p>Since 1770, forestry courses had been given for the
cameralists at most of the German universities, and
many of the professors prepared textbooks for the
purpose. At least three of these professors deserve
mention, Beckman, Jung and Trunk.</p>

<p>The first, <i>J. Beckman</i>, professor of political economy
at G&ouml;ttingen, one of the most noted cameralists, was
author of a work in forty-five volumes on the <i>Principles
of German Agriculture</i> (1769), in which he
devotes sixty-one pages to forestry, giving a complete
system of forestry, with extracts from all known
forestry writings.</p>

<p><i>J. H. Jung</i>, who gave a special course on forestry
at the Kameralschule of Lautern, published a textbook
in 1781 in which forest botany was well
treated.</p>

<p><i>J. J. Trunk</i>, who was Oberforstmeister in Austria,
as well as professor at Freiburg, was the most prominent
of the three, and wrote a comprehensive work
full of practical sense (<i>Neues vollst&auml;ndiges Forstlehrbuch
oder systematische Grunds&auml;tze des Forstrechtes,
der Forstpolizei und Forst&ouml;konomie, nebst Anhang von<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
ausl&auml;ndischen Holzarten, von Torf und Steinkohlen</i>,
1789).</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>While at first the ephemeral writings, especially the
polemic ones of the empiricists, found room in literary
and cameralistic magazines, the need of a professional
journal first found expression in 1763, in Stahl&#8217;s
<i>Allgemeines &ouml;konomisches Forstmagazin</i>, which ran into
twelve volumes, and contains many articles important
to the history of forestry, and is especially rich in its
references to foreign literature.</p>

<p>Two continuations of the magazine under different
editorships were of less value. But von Moser&#8217;s
<i>Forstarchiv</i>, running from 1788 to 1807 with its thirty
volumes, is an authority and a historical source of the
first rank.</p>

<p>A very characteristic literature of the last half of the
18th century consisted in <i>forest calendars</i> in which
advice as to monthly and seasonal procedures in the
forest were given, Beckman and Zanthier being among
the authors.</p>

<h3>III. <span class="smcap">Development in the Nineteenth Century.</span></h3>

<p>The last hundred years or so has seen in Germany
the development of fully established forest policies
and the complete organization of stable forest
administrations, based upon thorough and careful
recognition of the principles of forest management
and intensive application of silvicultural
methods.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>

<h4>1. <i>Changes in Property Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>The change in forest treatment from that prevailing
during the previous period was mainly due to the
change in property conditions, and especially to the
establishment of <i>state forests</i>. This change was
largely the result of the revolutionary movements
at the beginning of the new century which brought
about changes in state organizations. In Prussia,
the princely forest property had been declared state
domain in 1713, but elsewhere, the public domain had
been considered the property of the princes in their
capacity as head of the country, as <i>domanium</i>, outside
of their personal private property (Chatullg&uuml;ter).
The income from this <i>domanium</i> was in part liable to
be applied to the expenses of the court and of the administration
of the realm, to some extent alleviating
the burdens of taxation. This property arose from
a variety of relations which have been discussed at
length in the foregoing chapters. It was derived
mainly from feudal properties, fiefs of vassalage and
fiefs of official position, secularized church property
and other forfeited property, division of mark forests,
and from allodial possessions of the family. Gradually,
by agreement with the landed estates, it was
understood that this property could not be disposed
of or dissipated by the prince, and was inherited by
the eldest son together with the princely dignity,
being an attribute of his position in the state. In
the reconstruction period of 1806 to 1815, during and
after the Napoleonic wars, many of the small princes
lost their seigniorage (Landeshoheit <i>ipso jure</i>), and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
with the loss of the princely dignity, the obligation
of carrying the expense of court and administration
naturally falling away, these properties became in
most cases purely individual property of the former
princes.</p>

<p>Not, however, until the revolutionary movements
of 1848 and even later, was this divorce of the state
idea from that of the person of the prince everywhere
accomplished, nor was it carried through without
many bickerings and quarrels between the princes
and the representatives of the people, who claimed
this <i>domanium</i> for the state. In the larger states,
all this domanial property was finally declared state
lands, while in the smaller principalities a partition
of the land between the princes and the state took
place, or else a relation was established by which
a part of the revenue resulting from the state lands
was secured to the princes.</p>

<p>An increase of the State&#8217;s property came also during
the first decade of the century through the abolishment
of cloisters and secularization of church property
generally, the lands of both Protestant and
Catholic church institutions being taken by the
State.</p>

<p>Curiously enough, at the same time that the idea
of state forest was being realized, the changes in
economic thought which brought the principle of
individualism to the fore gave rise to a movement to
sell the state properties. This movement was inspired
by French doctrines, whose influence was at the time
very strong, by the teachings of Adam Smith who
held that the state is not fit to conduct business, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
by the hope that in private ownership an improvement
in forest conditions would be more readily
realized. These ideas by themselves would, probably,
not have led to the adoption of a policy of sale if it had
not been for the need for cash which, as a result of
the French wars, was felt everywhere during the first
years of the decade. The sale of this property seemed
to provide a ready means for States to secure funds.</p>

<p>In Prussia, after the collapse of 1806, this measure
was widely discussed, and eventually, in 1810 to
1813, repeatedly instructions for the sale of state
forest property were issued. There were to be excluded
from such sales only large complexes of forest,
those on the sea coast, sand dunes and river fronts,
where the protection of the forest cover was needed,
and those which it was desirable to maintain for the
use of important industrial establishments. Only
the accession of Hartig (1811), as chief of the forest
administration which was a branch of the Treasury
department, prevented the execution of this dismemberment.
It was due to him that the difference
in character between farm and forest property began
to be recognized. Although, after 1820, sales of
forest property took place, they were never a fiscal
measure, but were made either for the purpose of
rounding off existing state forest property or paying off
servitudes, or else in order to turn over agricultural
soil to farm use. At present everywhere in Germany
state properties are on the increase.</p>

<p>The property conditions of the <i>communal forests</i>
naturally changed also with the political changes of
the 19th century, when existing communities were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
made part of the large political machine and changed
from economic and social to modern political municipalities.
The ownership conditions, however, were
not simplified, but as before, remained extremely
varied.</p>

<p>Of the Mark forest but a very small portion remains
to-day. The majority of it had been finally divided
among the M&auml;rker in the first decade of the century,
and the few remaining parts became independent of
the political organization and now exist merely in
the form of appurtenances to certain farm property
known as <i>Genossenwald</i> (association forests). In
addition to the variety of communal ownerships existing
in the preceding period, some new communal
properties originated from the granting of land in
the settlement and dissolution of servitudes, whereby
an undivided property (<i>Interessentenwald</i>) in which
sometimes even the state retains an interest, came
into existence.</p>

<p>The municipal property of the cities had become
either the property of the entire community or of
that part which constituted the real citizenship, or
at least of a certain class of citizens of the municipality.</p>

<p>The incumbrances which had grown up with regard
to forest property under the name of <i>servitudes</i> and
which so much retarded the development of better
forest management continued into this period, and
although through the influences of the French revolution
a desire had been stimulated to get rid of all
curtailments of property, some have persisted to
this day. Indeed, for a time an increase of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
servitudes took place, due to the carelessness of forest
officials in keeping unjustified use of the forest in
check, when ancient usage of these rights of user was
claimed and new servitudes were established.</p>

<p>In Bavaria, it became at last necessary (1852)
to positively forbid the further establishment of
new servitudes or rights of user. Laws having in
view the dissolution or buying out of these rights
were issued in Bavaria in 1805, and in Prussia in 1821,
giving the right to forest owners whose properties
were so encumbered, to call for a division of interests;
but as at first the only way to settlement was by exchange
for definite parcels of forest property, the
progress in the abolishment of these rights was slow,
until money exchange was permitted (as in Saxony,
1832). At the present time, the state forest administrations
have mostly got rid of these servitudes, or
at least have progressed so far in their regulation
that they are now rarely impediments to forest
management. These peaceable adjustments of the
rights of user constitute the last act of freeing property
socially and economically.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>In spite of the sporadic efforts which had been made
to bring about the recuperation of forest areas during
the 18th century, the conditions of the forest at the
beginning of the new century were most pitiable; the
division of the Mark, by which the peasants became
individual owners, profited little, and led to devastation
rather than to improving the condition of the
property. In addition, export trade in wood had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
become brisk, and the financial depression, a result
of the French wars, led to increased exploitations,
which, with the improvement in means of transportation,
progressed to the more distant forest areas, and
enlarged the waste area. Especially in the more
densely populated parts of the country, the deforested
area widened, and large wastes with poor young
growth increased in all directions, in the same manner
as now in the United States. The alarmists had good
cause for renewing their cries, and, around the year
1800, a considerable literature sprung up on the subject
of the threatened timber famine.</p>

<p>It is interesting to note that at that time the Catalpa
played a role, at least on paper, as it does in our own
day, being recommended as the only means of staving
off the timber famine. A renewed <i>betulomania</i> spread
widely over the country. In North Germany especially,
great efforts were made to replant the denuded
areas and to change the coppice areas, fit only for
firewood, to coniferous species, pine, etc., by which
eventually a great change in the forest type from the
original mixed forest to the pure forest was effected.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Personnel.</i></h4>

<p>The great change which led to improved conditions,
during the first half of the century, was pre-eminently
due to the knowledge and intelligence of a group of
men, six in number, competent foresters, who combined
the high grade education of the Cameralists
with the practitioners&#8217; knowledge: Hartig, Cotta,
Hundeshagen, Koenig, Pfeil and Heyer. These men
built, to be sure, on the shoulders of their precursors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
of the century in which they were born, but,
being placed in authoritative positions, found better
opportunities for putting their teachings into
practice.</p>

<p>The first two mentioned were older than the rest,
and are usually described as the &#8220;fathers of modern
forestry.&#8221; Born about a year apart, both educated
at universities, they excelled in both scientific and
practical directions.</p>

<p><i>Georg Ludwig Hartig</i> (1764-1837), studied at the
University of Giessen and, after having served in
various functions in various parts of Southern Germany,
became, in 1811, head of the Prussian forest
administration. He was equally eminent as a practical
man and organizer, as a writer, and as a teacher.
In literary direction his work lay not so much in
developing new ideas as in formulating clearly the
known ones, as evidenced in his celebrated &#8220;General
Rules&#8221; in silviculture.</p>

<p>Not less than thirty separate publications attest
his assiduity. Among them stands pre-eminent
&#8220;<i>Anweisung zur Holzzucht f&uuml;r Foerster</i>&#8221; (1791; 8th
edition, 1818). As a teacher he began his work by
establishing a masterschool (1789-1791) at Hungen,
transferred to Stuttgart in 1807; and afterwards, as
head of the Prussian forest administration, he lectured
at the University of Berlin, continuing his
lectures there, even after the forestry school at Eberswalde
had been established, until his death.</p>

<p>He may be considered as having established on a
firm basis the forest administration of Prussia; and
many of the things he instituted still prevail. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
organizing the service, he introduced fixed salaries,
he relieved the foresters from financial responsibilities,
transferring all handling of money to a separate set
of officials, whereby the temptation to fraudulent practice
of graft was removed, and he issued instructions
for the different grades of foresters; and every part of
this work was all his own. In regulating the forest
area of the state he developed the volume allotment
method, which, however, proved too cumbersome
to be readily applied to large areas. Toward the end
of his life, his work was not entirely successful, and
he lost prestige in his later years.</p>

<p><i>Heinrich von Cotta</i> (1763-1844) studied at the University
of Jena, and afterwards practiced in Thuringia,
where he established a master school at Zillbach
(1795). In 1811, he was called to Saxony, as director
of forest surveys, whither he also transferred his
school, at Tharandt, which in 1816 was made a state
institution and is still flourishing. In that year he
was made the director of the Bureau of Forest Management.
Like Hartig, he was eminent in the three
directions of practical, literary, and educational work,
but he excelled Hartig in originality, developing new
principles and thought. Being a good plant-physiologist
and observer of nature, he developed new
ideas in silviculture, especially with reference to
methods of thinning, and his &#8220;<i>Anweisung zum Waldbau</i>,&#8221;
written in the simplest, clearest and most forceful
manner, forms a classic worthy of study to this
day. In the field of forest management he became
the inventor of the area allotment method and the
originator of the highly developed Saxon forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
management. As a teacher he excelled in clearness,
exposition, wealth of ideas and geniality.</p>

<p id="Ref01">Of an entirely different stamp was the third of the
great masters, <i>Johann Christian Hundeshagen</i> (1783-1834),
who having studied in Heidelberg, became
after some years of practice, professor of forestry at
Tuebingen, in 1817, and at Giessen, 1825. He was a
representative of the theoretical or philosophical side
of forestry, being highly cultivated and imbued with
the spirit of science. His bent was to systematize
the knowledge in existence and extend it by means
of exact experiments. In forest organization, he
invented the well known formula method or &#8220;rational
method&#8221; of regulating felling budgets and became also
one of the founders of Forest Statics (1826) which he
called &#8220;the doctrine of measuring forestal forces,&#8221;
being thus the forerunner of modern scientific forestry.</p>

<p>The fourth of the group, <i>Gottlob K&ouml;nig</i> (1776-1849),
was a practitioner without a university education,
who had enjoyed the teaching and influence of Cotta
whom he succeeded in Eisenach as the head of the
ducal forest administration. He also founded here
a private forest school, which, in 1830, became a
state institution, and is still in existence. K&ouml;nig
became noted by his contributions to the scientific,
especially the mathematical side of forestry, developing
forest mensuration and statics. In this latter
branch he was the forerunner of Pressler and of the
modern school of finance. In his &#8220;<i>Anleitung zur
Holztaxation</i>&#8221; (1813) he gives a complete account of
forest mensuration and in the part devoted to forest
valuation he develops the first soil rent formula and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
the methods of determining the cost value of stands.
His &#8220;Forest Mathematics&#8221; (1835) in which he introduces
factors of form and many other new ideas was
an original contribution to science.</p>

<p>Very different in character from these four leaders
was the aggressive, sharp-witted <i>Friedrich Wilhelm
Leopold Pfeil</i> (1783-1859), who, without a university
education, and in spite of his poor knowledge of mathematics
and natural history, advanced himself by
native wit and genius. After a brief period of employment
in private service, in the province of Silesia,
he accepted the position of professor of forestry at
the Berlin University, in 1821, in connection with
Hartig, with whom, however, he was at sword&#8217;s
point. It was at his instigation, with the assistance
of von Humboldt, that the school was transferred,
in 1830, to Eberswalde, Pfeil becoming its director.</p>

<p>While Hartig was a generalizer, Pfeil was an individualizer,
free from dogma, and most suggestive;
a free lance and a fighter. Critical in the extreme
and prolific in his literary work, he domineered the
forestry literature of the day by means of his <i>Kritische
Blaetter</i>, a journal of much import and merit.</p>

<p>The youngest of the group, <i>Karl Heyer</i> (1797-1856),
a thoroughly educated man, combined the
professorial position in the University of Giessen
(1835) with practical management of a forest district,
but in 1834 abandoned the latter in order to devote
himself entirely to literary work. He was one of the
clearest and most systematic expounders, and both
his <i>Waldbau</i> (silviculture, 1854) and his <i>Waldertragsregelung</i>
(forest organization, 1841) are classics.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
The last, fifth edition of the Waldbau, appearing in
1906 in two volumes, has been brought up to date
by Professor Hess. He devised one of the most
rational methods of forest organization, and, imbued
with the necessity of basing forest management on
exact scientific inquiry, instead of on empiricism
alone, he formulated instructions for forest static
investigations, a subject which his son, Gustav Heyer,
elaborated into a science.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Progress in Silviculture.</i></h4>

<p><i>Natural regeneration</i> continued to be the favorite
method well into this period, and, for a long time,
selection forest and coppice were all that was known
in practice until Hartig and Cotta forced recognition
of the shelterwood system.</p>

<p>The only way in which a transition from the generally
practiced, unregulated selection forest to an intensive
management was possible, with the ignorant
personnel of underforesters, was to formulate into
an easily intelligible prescription the necessary rules,
allowing the least play to individual judgment.
This was done by Hartig when he formulated his
eight &#8220;General Rules&#8221; (1808) which coincided also
closely with the teachings of Cotta. Since these
rules represent in brief and most definitely the status
of silvicultural knowledge on natural regeneration
at the time, it may be desirable to translate them
<i>verbatim</i>.</p>

<p>(1) &#8220;Every forest tree which is expected to propagate
itself by natural regeneration must be old
enough to bear good seed.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>

<p>(2) &#8220;Every district or stand which is to be replaced
by a thoroughly perfect stand by means of natural
regeneration, must be brought into such position
(density) that the soil may everywhere receive
sufficient seeding.</p>

<p>(3) &#8220;Each compartment must be kept in such condition
(density) that it cannot, before the seeding
takes place, grow up to grass and weeds.</p>

<p>(4) &#8220;With species whose seed loses its power of
germination through frost, as is the case with the
oak and beech, the compartments must be given
such a position (density) that the foliage which after
the fall of seed covers and protects the same cannot
be carried away by wind.</p>

<p>(5) &#8220;All stands must be given such density that
the germinating plants in the same, as long as they
are still tender, find sufficient protection from their
mother trees against heat of the sun and against cold.</p>

<p>(6) &#8220;So soon as the young stand resulting from
natural regeneration does not any longer require this
motherly protection, it must gradually, through the
careful removal of the mother trees, be accustomed
to the weather, and finally must be entirely brought
into the open position.</p>

<p>(7) &#8220;All the young growths, whether secured by
natural or artificial seeding, must be freed from the
accompanying less useful species and from weeds,
if these in spite of all precaution threaten the better
kinds.</p>

<p>(8) &#8220;From every young forest until it is full grown,
the suppressed wood must be removed from time to
time, so that the trees which are ahead or dominate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
may grow the better; the upper perfect crown cover,
however, must not be interrupted until it is the intention
to grow a new forest again in the place of the
old one.&#8221;</p>

<p>Since these rules are applicable only in beech forests,
much mischief and misconception resulted from their
generalization; pure, even-aged high forests became
the ideal, and the mixed forest, which was originally
the most widespread condition, vanished to a large
extent. This was especially unfortunate in Northern
and Northeastern pine forests.</p>

<p>A reaction against Hartig&#8217;s generalization began
about 1830, under the lead of Pfeil. He had at first
agreed with Hartig, and then with equal narrowness
advocated for many years a clear cutting system with
artificial reforestation. Finally, however, he was
not afraid to acknowledge that his early generalizations
in this respect were a mistake, and that different
conditions required different treatment.</p>

<p>In the development of the shelterwood system there
was at first, under the lead of Hartig, a tendency to
open up rather sharply, taking out about three-fourths
of the existing stand, but gradually he became
convinced that this was too much, and finally reduced
the first removal to only about one-third of the stand.
This was the origin of his nickname of <i>Dunkelman</i>.
In spite of the fact that it was claimed that Cotta
took the opposite view (for which he was called
<i>Lichtman</i>), he, too, grew to favor a dark position,
and, as he progressed, leaned more and more towards
more careful opening up. Hartig originally recognized
only three different fellings: the cutting for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
seed; the cutting for light; and the removal cutting.
By and by, a second cut was made during the seed
year, and the number of fellings to secure gradual
removal were increased, so that, by 1801, this system
seems to have been pretty nearly perfected to its
modern conditions. The best exposition of this
<i>Femelschlagbetrieb</i> (shelterwood system), as then developed,
is to be found in Karl Heyer&#8217;s Handbook,
1854.</p>

<p>The method was unfortunately extended by Burgsdorf
(1787) to the Northern pineries with a seventy
year period of rotation. Within ten years, however,
he recognized its inappropriateness, and modified
it by instructions to leave only six to twelve seed
trees per acre. His successor, Kropff, reduced the
number of seed trees to four or five, which were to
be removed within two or three years. In spite of
the development of this more rational method, the
practitioners under Hartig&#8217;s approval, held mainly
to a dark position even for pine, much in the manner
of a selection forest, which produced a poor growth of
oppressed seedlings, retarding for a long time the
development of the pineries.</p>

<p>In spruce or fir, either a pure selection forest or a
strip system was employed. Attempts at a shelterwood
system were made, but experience with the
wind danger soon taught the lesson that this was not
a proper method with shallow-rooted species. Even
Hartig preferred for spruce clearing and planting, and
this is still the most favored method with that species.
For the deep-rooted and shade-enduring fir the
shelterwood method with a long regeneration period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
was thoroughly established in the Black Forest, and
in W&uuml;rttemberg by 1818.</p>

<p>Natural regeneration being the main method of
reproduction until the beginning of the 19th century,
<i>artificial</i> means, as is evident from the forest ordinances
of Prussia and Bavaria (1812 and 1814), were
usually applied only to repair fail-places, or to plant
up wastes. In this artificial reforestation, with the
exception of the planting of oak in pastures, sowing
was almost entirely resorted to because it could be done
cheaper and easier, but as the sowings were mostly
made on unprepared soil and with very large amounts
of seed (30 to 60 pounds per acre, now only 7 to 10
pounds), the results were not satisfactory, either because
the seed did not find favorable conditions for
germinating, or when germinated the stand was too
dense.</p>

<p>Planting, if done at all, was done only with wildlings
dug from the woods, and usually, following the
practice of the planting of oak in pastures, with
saplings: the plant material was too large for success.
Nurseries, except for oak, were not known, even to
Cotta in 1817; and Heyer, having to plant up several
thousand acres, still relied on wildlings, two to three
years old, which he took up with a ball of earth by
means of his &#8220;hole spade,&#8221; a circular spade re-invented
by him and much praised by others. Hartig, in
1833, still advised the use of four to five year old pine
wildlings, root-pruned, but, eventually, having met
with poor success, for which he was much discredited,
came to the conclusion that un-pruned two-year-old
plants were preferable.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>

<p>The credit of having radically changed these practices
belongs to Pfeil, who, entirely reversing his
position, advocated for pine forest a system of clearing
followed by sowing, or by planting of wildlings
with a ball of earth. Then, suggesting that possibly
planting without this precaution could be attempted,
and pointing out the necessity of securing a satisfactory
root system, he recommended, about 1830,
the use of one-year-old seedlings grown in carefully
prepared seed beds. While for securing these, he
relied upon the simple preparation of the soil by
spading, <i>Biermans</i> added the use of a fertilizer in
the shape of the ashes of burned sod. The method
of growing pine seedlings and planting them when
one to three years old was further developed by
<i>Butlar</i> (1845), who introduced the practice of dense
sowing in the seed beds. He also invented an ingenious
planting iron or dibble, a half cone of iron,
which was thrown by the planter with great precision,
first to make a hole and then to close it. This was
improved by the addition of a long handle into the
superior, well-known and much used <i>Wartenberg</i>
planting dibble. At the same time (1840), <i>Manteuffel</i>
devised the method known by his name of planting
in mounds, which is especially applicable on wet soils.</p>

<p>It was not until 1840 that transplanting of yearling
pines with naked roots became general. The
widespread application of this latter system resulted
in abandoning to a large extent mixed growth, and
led to the establishment of pure pine forests, introducing
thereby most intensively all the dangers
incident to a clearing system and pure forest which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
are avoided by the mixed forest, namely, insects,
frost and drought.</p>

<p>A practice of planting spruce in bunches, originally
twelve to twenty plants in a bunch, had been
in existence since 1780. This practice increased until
1850, and is still in use in the Harz mountains and
in eastern Prussia, although the bunches have been
reduced so as to contain only from three to five plants,
the object of the bunching being to make sure that
one or the other of the plants should live. Much
discussion as to the merits of this method took place
between the old masters, Cotta favoring the small
bunches upon the basis of a successful plantation of
his own, Hartig and Pfeil opposing it, but finally
weakening. Since 1850, however, the practice of
setting out single plants has become more general.</p>

<p>A reaction from the indiscriminate application of
the shelterwood method to the hardwoods and of the
clearing method to the pine set in during the last
quarter of the 19th century under the lead of Burkhardt
and Gayer. These advocated return to mixed
forest and to natural regeneration with long periods,
approaching a selection forest. Gayer especially,
professor of silviculture at Munich, became the foremost
apostle of this school. Yet even to this day, the
principles of silvicultural treatment under the many
different conditions remain unsettled. On the whole
however, with the financial question assiduously
brought forward, the clearing system has made most
progress, and the selection system has nearly vanished,
being replaced by the group method and the shelterwood
system.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>

<p>A number of special forms of silvicultural management
applicable under special conditions have been
locally developed, without, however, gaining much
ground and being mainly of historical value. Among
these may be mentioned <i>Seebach&#8217;s Modified Beech
Forest</i>, which consists in opening up a beech stand so
as to secure regeneration, merely to form a soil cover,
leaving enough of the old stand on the ground to
close up in thirty or forty years. By this treatment
the large increment due to open position is secured
without endangering the soil. Similarly the <i>Storied</i>
or <i>Two-aged High forest</i>, was applied to the management
of oak forest in mixture with beech. In a few
localities also, on limited areas, a combination of
forest and farming (<i>Waldfeldbau</i>) has been continued
and elaborated, besides the more general use of coppice
and coppice with standards.</p>

<p>According to the statistics for 1900 the following distribution
of the acreage under different silvicultural
methods prevailed throughout the empire:</p>

<table summary="Table p. 109">

<tr>
<th>&nbsp;</th>
<th colspan="2" class="padl1 padr1">Deciduous<br />Per cent.</th>
<th colspan="2" class="padl1 padr1">Coniferous<br />Per cent.</th>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Total Forest</td>
<td class="right padr0">32.</td>
<td class="left padl0 padr1">5</td>
<td class="right padr0">67.</td>
<td class="left padl0 padr1">5</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">High Forest</td>
<td class="right padr0">18.</td>
<td class="left padl0 padr1">4</td>
<td class="right padr0">60.</td>
<td class="left padl0 padr1">1</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Selection Forest</td>
<td class="right padr0">2.</td>
<td class="left padl0 padr1">3</td>
<td class="right padr0">7.</td>
<td class="left padl0 padr1">4</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Coppice</td>
<td class="right padr0">6.</td>
<td class="left padl0 padr1">8</td>
<td colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Coppice with standards</td>
<td class="right padr0">5.</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
</tr>

</table>

<p>Coniferous forest, of which 68% is pine and 30%
spruce, prevails in Eastern and Middle Germany, deciduous
forest, of which 20% is oak, the balance
principally beech, in the West and South.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p>

<p>Coppice and coppice with standards are mostly
in private hands as well as the coniferous selection
forest, the State forests being almost entirely high
forest, i.e., seed forest, other than under selection
method.</p>

<p><i>Methods of Improving the Crop.</i> The credit of
having first systematically formulated the practice
of thinnings under the name of <i>Durchforstung</i> (for
the first thinning), <i>Durchplenterung</i> (for the later
thinnings), belongs to Hartig, although the practice
of such thinnings had been known and applied here
and there before his time. He confined himself
mainly to the removal of the undesirable species,
dead and dying, suppressed and damaged trees, being
especially emphatic in his advice not to interrupt the
crown cover. Excepting the early weeding or improvement
cuttings, these thinnings were not to
begin until the fiftieth to seventieth year in the broadleaved
forest, but in conifers in the twentieth to
thirtieth year.</p>

<p>The first attempt to explain on a biological basis
the process and effect of thinning was made by Sp&auml;th in
a special contribution (1802). Cotta, in his Silviculture,
although at first agreeing with Hartig, later in
his third edition (1821) changes his mind, and improves
both upon the biological explanation of Sp&auml;th
and the practice of Hartig, pointing out that the latter
came too late with his assistance, that the struggle
between the individuals should be anticipated, and
the thinning repeated as soon as the branches begin
to die; but he also recognizes the practical difficulty
of the application of this cultural measure on account<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
of the expense. Curiously enough, he recommends
severer thinnings for fuel-wood production than for
timber forests.</p>

<p>Pfeil accentuates the necessity of treating different
sites and species differently in the practice of thinnings.
Hundeshagen accentuates the financial result
and the fact that the culmination of the average yield
is secured earlier by frequent thinnings. Heyer formulates
the &#8220;golden rule:&#8221; &#8220;Early, often, moderate,&#8221;
but insists that first thinning should not be made
until the cost of the operation can be covered by the
sale of the material. Propositions to base the philosophy
and the results of thinning on experimental
grounds rather than on mere opinion were made as
early as 1825 to 1828, and again from 1839 to 1846,
at various meetings of forestry associations, until,
in 1860, Brunswick and Saxony inaugurated the
first more extensive experiments in thinnings. The
two representatives of forest finance, Koenig and
Pressler, pointed out, in 1842 to 1859, the great significance
of thinnings in a finance management as
one of the most important silvicultural operations
for securing the highest yield.</p>

<p>In spite of the advanced development of the theory
of thinning, the practice has largely lagged behind,
because of the impracticability of introducing intensive
management. Only lately, owing to improvement
in prices and the possibility of marketing the
inferior material profitably enough to justify the
expenditure, has it become possible to secure more
generally the advantages of the cultural effect. Within
the last thirty or forty years, great activity has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
developed among the experiment stations in securing
a true basis for the practice of thinning.</p>

<p>New ideas were introduced through French influence
and by others independently in the latter part
of the eighties, when the distinction between the final
harvest crop (Fr. &eacute;lite, le haut) and the nurse crop
(le bas) was introduced.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
The conception of such subdivision and the English nomenclature was independently
first employed by the writer in his Report for 1887, as Chief of Forestry
Division, when discussing planting plans for the prairies.</p>

</div>

<p>The physiological reasons for the practice of thinning
upon experimental basis, were advanced by the
botanists Goeppert and R. Hartig, and among foresters,
the names of Kraft, Lorey, Haug, Borggreve,
Wagener, and others are intimately connected with
the very active discussion of the subject lately going
on in the magazines. Thinnings have become such
an important part of the income of forest administrations
(25 to 40% of the total yield) that the prominence
given to the subject is well justified, and a more
modern conception of the advantages of thinnings
and especially of severer thinnings is gaining ground.</p>

<p>The proposition, now much ventilated, of severe
opening up near the end of the rotation, in order to
secure an accelerated increment (<i>Lichtungshiebe</i>) is,
however, much older; Hossfeld, in 1824, and J&auml;ger
in 1850, advocated this measure for financial reasons,
while Koenig and Pressler anticipated the development
of an individual tree management by pruning,
and differentiation of final harvest and nurse crop,
a method which is working itself out at the present
time.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>

<h4>5. <i>Methods of Forest Organization.</i></h4>

<p>As stated before, to Hartig and Cotta belongs the
credit of having applied systematically on a large
scale methods of forest organization for sustained
yield; Hartig having been active in Prussia since 1811,
and Cotta beginning to organize the Saxon forests in
the same year. The method employed by Hartig,
the so-called volume allotment, had been already
formulated and its foundation laid by Kregting and
others (although Hartig seems to have claimed the
invention). But it was reserved to Hartig to build
up this method in its detail, and to formulate clearly
and precisely its application, as well as to improve
the practice of forest survey, calculation of increment,
and the making of yield tables. His method involved
a survey, a subdivision, a construction of yield tables
and the formulation of working plans, in which the
principle according to which the forest was to be
managed during the whole rotation was laid down
for each district. The rotation was determined, divided
into periods, finally of twenty years, and the
periodic volume yield represented by all stands was
distributed through all the periods of the rotation
in such a manner as to make the periodic felling budgets
approximately equal; or, since the tendency to
increased wood consumption was recognized, an increase
of the felling budget toward the end of the
rotation was considered desirable.</p>

<p>Cotta based his system of forest organization upon
a method described by a Bavarian, Schilcher (1796);
it relied primarily upon area rather than volume<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
division. This method was later on (1817), called
by him <i>Flaechenfachwerk</i> (area allotment). It divides
the rotation into periods and allots areas for each
periodic felling budget. But before this time, in 1804,
Cotta had himself formulated a method of his own,
which combined the area and volume method, the
volume being the main basis and the area being merely
used as a check. While Hartig dogmatically and persistently
carried out his difficult scheme, Cotta was
open-minded enough to improve his method of regulation,
and by 1820, in his <i>Anweisung zur Forst-Einrichtung
und -Abschaetzung</i>, he comes to his final position
of basing the sustained yield entirely on the area
allotment, using the estimate of volume simply to
secure an approximately uniform felling budget. He
laid particular stress on orderly procedure in the subdivision
and progress of the fellings. He did not
prepare an elaborate working plan binding for the
entire rotation, but merely prescribed the principles
of the general management, and, after 1816, he confined
the formulating of felling and planting plans
only to the next decade.</p>

<p>A similar method, making a closer combination of
volume and area allotment, now known as the combined
allotment, in which the area forms the main
basis for distributing the felling budgets, was prescribed
by Klipstein in 1833. This, also, confines the
working plan to the first period of the rotation and
for this period alone makes a rather careful statement
of the expected volume budget; a new budget is then
to be determined at the beginning of the next period.
This idea of confining the budget determination to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
comparatively short period is now generally accepted,
the future receiving only summary consideration.</p>

<p>These methods of organization were the ones
generally applied in practice, and are still with some
modifications in practical use. About 1820, however,
new theories were advanced which led to the formulation
of methods based upon the idea of the <i>normal
forest</i>. The conception of a normal forest, with a
normal stock, distributed in normal age classes, so as
to insure a sustained yield management, was evolved,
in 1788, by an obscure anonymous official in the Tax-collector&#8217;s
office of Austria, designed for assessing
woods managed for sustained yield. This fertile idea,
which is still the basis of forest organization in Austria,
and explains better than any other method the principles
involved in forest organization, did not find entrance
into forestry literature in all its detail until 1811
when Andr&eacute; compared this so-called <i>Cameraltaxe</i> with
Hartig&#8217;s method of regulation. We find, however,
that, simultaneously with the Austrian invention of
this method, Paulsen (1787) proposed to determine
the felling budget as a relation between normal stock
and normal yield, and in his yield tables (the first
of the kind, 1795), he gives the proportion of increment
to normal stock in percentic relation, so that
the felling budget may be either expressed as a fraction
of the stock or as a per cent.; in beech forests, for
instance, he determines the felling budget as 3.3%
on best sites, 2.5% on medium, and 1.8% on poor
sites.</p>

<p>Probably stimulated by Andr&eacute;&#8217;s description, <i>Huber</i>
(1812) developed a method and formula which may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
be considered the foundation of the later development
by Carl Heyer (Felling budget = I +
<span class="division"><span class="num">Sa - Sn</span><span class="denom">e</span></span>).</p>

<p>Based upon the normal forest idea, a number of
methods were elaborated which, because of their employing
a mathematical formula for the determination
of the felling budget, are known as <i>formula
methods</i>; they are, indeed modified rational volume
divisions.</p>

<p>Hundeshagen has the merit of having first clearly
explained the basis of these methods, and himself
developed a formula, of the correctness of which he
was so convinced as to designate his method as &#8220;the
rational&#8221; one. Two other formul&aelig; were brought
into the world by Koenig (1838-1851), but the credit
of the most complete elaboration both of the principles
of the normal forest idea and of its practical application
belongs to Carl Heyer. The principles of his
method are briefly: First determine upon the period
of regulation during which the abnormal forest is
to be brought nearer to normal conditions; the length
of this period to be determined with due regard to
the financial requirements or ability of the owner and
to the conditions of the forest. The actual stock on
hand is then determined and the total increment,
based on the average increment at felling age of each
stand, which will take place during this period, is
added. Deducting from this total what has been
calculated as the proper normal stock requisite for
a sustained yield management, the balance is available
for felling budgets which may be utilized in
annual or periodic instalments during the period of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
regulation. A working plan is provided which takes
care of securing an orderly progress of fellings and
proper location of age classes, to be revised every ten
years.</p>

<p>Although this is undoubtedly the most rational
method yet devised, it has remained largely unused,
and is found in somewhat modified application only
in Austria and Baden.</p>

<p>An entirely new principle in the theory of forest
organization was introduced, when the aim of forest
management was formulated to be the highest soil
rent. According to this requirement the proper
harvest time of any stand, or even of any tree, was
to be determined by the so-called index per cent.,
that is, a calculation which determines whether a
stand or a tree is still producing at a proper predetermined
rate, or is declining. The advocates of this
principle were especially <i>Pressler</i> (professor of mathematics
at Tharandt, 1840 to 1843) and <i>G. Heyer</i>, son
of Carl Heyer, who based his method on his father&#8217;s
formula, merely introducing values for volumes.
<i>Judeich</i>, director of the Tharandt school, also developed
in the sixties a method, based upon financial theory,
which is to attain the highest rate per cent. on the
capital invested in forest production. On the basis
of survey and subdivision of working blocks composing
a felling series, and with a rotation determined by
financial calculations with interest accounts, he makes
a periodic area division for determining the felling
budget in general, and in addition employs the index
per cent., as explained, for determining in each allotted
stand the more exact time for its harvest.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>

<p>While these men pleaded for a strict finance calculation,
such as is properly applied to any business
making financial results the main issue, the defenders
of the old regime, which sought the object of forest
management mainly in highest material or value
production, advanced as their financial program the
attainment of the highest forest rent as opposed to
the highest soil rent. They neglected and derided
the complicated interest calculations which have to
take into consideration uncertain future developments,
and were satisfied with producing a satisfactory
balance, a surplus of income over expenses, no matter
what interest rate on the capital involved in soil and
forest growth that might represent.</p>

<p>At the present time these financial propositions
are still mainly under heated discussion.</p>

<p>In actual practice, the various state forest administrations,
with the exception of the Saxon one, continue
to rely upon the older methods in regulating the
management of their forest properties without reference
to financial theories. This is largely due to
momentum of the practical existence and application
of these methods in earlier times and the difficulty
and impracticability of a change. Just now, however,
several of the State administrations are preparing to
radically revise their working plans.</p>

<p>In Prussia, the instructions for working plans
of 1819 formulated by Hartig were improved upon
by his successor, Oberlandforstmeister <i>von Reuss</i>
(1836), and these instructions formed the basis of the
work of forest regulation until the end of the 19th
century. It is a periodic area allotment with only a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
summary check by volume. The working plan is
only to secure a rational location and gradation of
age classes; the calculations of yields and specific
rules of management are lately confined to the first
period and are revised every six years.</p>

<p>In Saxony, Cotta&#8217;s area method was systematically
developed, and, as the larger part of Saxon forests is
coniferous, mainly spruce, the proper location of age
classes forms a special consideration for the progress
of fellings. The determination of volume and increment
was left to summary estimates, and the area
division became entirely superior. The original idea
of Cotta that orderly procedure in the management
is of more importance than the actual determination
and equalization of yield still pervades the Saxon
practice. Since 1860, an attempt has been made to
calculate the rotation and determine the felling
budget on the principle of the soil rent, at least as a
corrective of the annual budget, and in general to
lean towards Judeich&#8217;s stand management.</p>

<p>In Bavaria, after various changes, a complete allotment
method of area and volume had come into
vogue, in 1819; but, at the present writing (1911) an
entirely new and modern re-organization has been
begun, in which most modern ideas and especially
much freedom of movement, even to deviation from
the principle of sustained yield, is allowed.</p>

<p>In W&uuml;rttemberg, where, in 1818 to 1822, a pure
volume allotment had been introduced, in 1862 to
1863 the combined allotment method was begun,
the felling budget being determined in a general way
for the next two or three periods, and more precisely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
for the first decade, without attempting more than
approximate equality.</p>

<p>In 1898, new instructions were issued, which abandon
the allotment method and restrict the yield regulation
to designating felling areas for the first period.</p>

<p>In Baden, where the forest organization began in
1836 upon the basis of volume allotment, a change
was made in 1849 to an area allotment, simplifying
to a greater extent than anywhere else the calculation
of the yield; finally, Heyer&#8217;s method was adopted
entirely in 1869.</p>

<p>It appears then that the schematic allotment
methods found the most general application in the
earlier time of the period, being favored probably on
account of their simplicity in application. The improvement
in their present application over the
original methods as designed by Hartig and Cotta,
is that now they require no volume calculation for
any long future, but are satisfied with making a
sufficiently accurate calculation and provision for the
proper felling budget for the present.</p>

<h4>6. <i>Forest Administration.</i></h4>

<p>About the middle of the 18th century the recognition
of the importance of forestry led to a severance
of the forest and hunting interests, and it became
the practice to place the direction of the former into the
hands of some more or less competent man&mdash;a state
forester&mdash;usually under the fiscal branch or treasury
department of the general administration. Fully
organized forest administrations, in the modern sense,
however, could hardly be said to have existed before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
the end of the Napoleonic wars (1815) which had
undoubtedly retarded the peaceful development of
this as well as of other reforms.</p>

<p>The present organization of the large Prussian
forest department in its present form dates from 1820,
when Hartig instituted the division into provincial
administrations, and differentiated them into directive,
inspection and executive services. The direction
of the provincial management was placed in the
hands of an Oberforstmeister, with the assistance of
a number of Forstmeister, who acted mainly as inspectors,
each having his inspection district consisting
of a number of ranges. The ranges (100,000 to
125,000 acres) were placed in charge of Oberf&ouml;rster
or Revierf&ouml;rster, who with the assistance of several
underforesters (F&ouml;rster) conducted the practical work.
At first only indifferently educated, these latter were
allowed little latitude, but with improvement in their
education they became by degrees more and more
independent agents.</p>

<p>This tri-partite system of directing, inspecting and
executive officers, after various changes in titles and
functions, finally became practically established in
all the larger German states; in some rather lately,
as for instance, in Bavaria, not until 1885, and in
W&uuml;rttemberg in 1887.</p>

<p>With this more stable organization, the character
and the status of the personnel changed greatly: the
prior right of the nobility to the higher positions,
which had lasted in some States until 1848, and the
practice of making connection with military service
a basis for appointment were abolished, and, instead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
of Cameralists, educated foresters came everywhere
to the head of affairs. The lower service, which had
been recruited from hunters and lackeys, and which
was noted for its low social, moral and pecuniary
status, was improved in all directions. The change
from incidentals in the way of fees, and natural instead
of money emolument for the lower grade foresters,
(which had been the rule, and still play a role
even to date), to definite salaries, and the salutary
change of methods in transacting business, which
Hartig introduced, became general. With the development
and improvement of forestry schools, the
requirement of a higher technical education for positions
in State service could be enforced. Yet only
within the last twenty-five or thirty years, has the
ranking position of forest officers been made adequate
and equalized with that of other public officials of
equal responsibility, and still later have their salaries
been made adequate to modern requirement.</p>

<p>The central administration now lies in the hands
of technical men (<i>Oberlandforstmeister</i>) with a council
of technical deputies (<i>Landforstmeister</i>) all of whom
have passed through all the stages of employment
from that of district managers up. This central office
or &#8220;division of forestry&#8221; is either attached to the
department of agriculture, or to that of finance, and
has entire charge of the questions of personnel, direction
of forest schools, of the forest policy of the administration,
and the approval of all working plans,
acting in all things pertaining to the forest service
as a court of last resort. The working plans are made
and revised by special commissioners in each case,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
or, as in Saxony, under the direction of a special
bureau, with the assistance of the district manager.
Upon the basis of the general working plan prepared
by these commissions, an annual plan is elaborated
by the district managers with consultation and approval
of the provincial and central administration.
These plans contain a detailed statement of all the
work to be done through the year, the cost of each item,
and the receipts expected from each source. This
annual working plan requires approval by the provincial
administration, which is constituted as a
deliberative council, consisting of a number of Forstmeister
with an Oberforstmeister as presiding officer.
The titles of these officers, to be sure, and the details
of procedure vary somewhat in different states, but
the system as a whole is more or less alike.</p>

<p>The district manager or Oberf&ouml;rster, now often
called <i>Forstmeister</i>, has grown in importance and
freedom of position, although his district has grown
smaller (mostly not over 25,000 acres), and, being
one of the best educated men in the country district,
he usually holds the highest social position, although
his emoluments are still moderate. He holds many
offices of an honorary character, as for instance that
of justice of the peace, and the position of states&#8217;
attorney or public prosecutor in all cases of infraction
of the forest laws. These forest laws are still largely
local, <i>i.e.</i>, State laws, although the criminal code of
the empire has somewhat unified practice.</p>

<p>Curiously enough, wood on the stump is still not
considered property in the same sense as other things,
so far as theft is concerned; the stealing of growing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
timber is not even called theft, the word used in the
laws being <i>Frevel</i> (tort), and, like other infractions
against forest laws, it is punished by a money fine,
more or less in proportion to the value of the stolen
material or the damage suffered. This money fine
may be transmuted into imprisonment or forest
labor, but corporal punishment, which still prevailed
in the first decades of the century, has been abolished.
Wood stealing was very general and rampant during
the beginning of the century, but improvement in
the condition of the country population and in the
number and personnel of the forest officers since 1850
has now reduced it to a minimum.</p>

<p>Formerly, and until 1848, the administrators and
even the forest owners acted at the same time as
prosecutor, judge and executioner, and only in 1879,
was this condition everywhere and entirely changed,
and infractions against forest laws adjudged by
regular courts of law, holding meetings at stated
times for the prosecution of such infractions.</p>

<p>Nevertheless, the court proceedings in forest matters
still vary from the usual court practice, providing
a simpler, cheaper and more ready disposal of testimony
and witnesses, and quicker retribution, which
is largely rendered possible through having every
forest officer under oath as a sheriff, and his statement,
and perhaps the confiscated tools employed in the
theft, being accepted as <i>prima facie</i> evidence of the
infraction.</p>

<p>The social position of the underforesters and the
forest protective service has also been improved
until all charges of incompetency and immorality,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
which were not undeserved even until past the middle
of the nineteenth century, have become reversed;
the forest service being morally on as high a plane as
all the departments of German administrations.</p>

<h4>7. <i>Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>During the first half of the century the old conception
of <i>Forsthoheit</i>&mdash;superior right of the princes to
supervise and interfere with private property&mdash;changed
into the more modern conception of the
police function of the state, and, by 1850, after the
revolutionary period, the seignorage of the princes
had passed away. The issue of forest ordinances (the
last in 1840) was replaced by the enactment of forest
laws which, since the establishment of representative
government, has become a function of legislatures.</p>

<p>The tendency to restrict the exercise of private
property rights had been assailed by the theories of
<i>Laissez faire</i> and the teachings of Adam Smith, and,
as a consequence, all the restrictive mandates of the
older forest ordinances had been weakened and had
more of less fallen into disuse. Especially the attempts
to influence prices and markets had nearly if not entirely
vanished during the first decade. Only for the
state forest, it was still thought desirable to predetermine
wood prices, or at least keep rates low, because
wood was a necessary material for the industries.
This theory prevailed until, perhaps under the lead
of Hundeshagen (see <a href="#Ref01">above</a>), the propriety of securing
the highest soil rent was recognized as the proper aim,
when the practice of selling wood at auction in order
to secure the best prices became the rule.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>

<p>The regulations regarding export and import between
the different States, which had been enacted
under the mercantilistic teachings of the last century
(see <a href="#Page_52">page 52</a>), and the many tariffs which impeded
a free exchange of commodities, lasted for a long
while into the 19th century, and were not all abolished
until 1865, when under the lead of Prussia, the
North German Federation instituted the <i>Zollverein</i>
(Tariff alliance) which abolished not only all tariffs
between the States of the Federation, but also tariffs
on wood products against the outside world. Import
duties were, however, again established in 1879, and
the policy of protecting the established organized
forest management against competition by importations
from exploiting countries has been again and
again recognized as proper in the revision of tariff
rates and railroad freight rates on the government
railroads.</p>

<p>During the first decades of the century, the supply
question was uppermost, and although such men as
Pfeil (1816) laughed at the idea of a wood famine,
there was good reason, prior to the development of
railroads, of coal fields, of iron and steel manufactures,
etc., for discussing with apprehension the area
and condition of supply and the extent of the consumption.
Nevertheless, the attitude of the state
toward private property was much more influenced
by the economic theories then prevalent, which taught
the ideas of private liberty to which the French
Revolution had given such forcible expression.</p>

<p>With the change of municipal communities from
mere associations with common material interest into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
units or parts of political or state machines, also independence
in the management of their property was
secured, and many of the old restrictions which had
circumscribed this right fell away. Curiously enough,
during the French domination under Napoleon, the
new masters, forgetting the spirit of the revolutionary
period, introduced the prescriptions of the old French
ordinance of 1669 which restricted the use of communal
property to the extent of excluding the
owners entirely from the management of their property,
and placed it under government officers. After
the French withdrew, this method, of course, collapsed,
although it probably had an influence on the final
shaping of forest policies in these respects. Altogether,
there was such variety of historic development
in the different parts of Germany that it is not to be
wondered at that one finds a great variety of policies
still prevailing not only in different States but in
different localities of the same State.</p>

<p>At the present time three different principles in the
relations of the state to the corporation forests may
be recognized, namely, entire freedom, excepting so
far as general police laws apply, which is the case
with most of the corporation forests in Prussia (law
of 1876); special supervision of the technical management
under approved officials with proper education,
which is the case in Saxony, most of Bavaria, the
Prussian provinces of Westphalia, Rhineland and
Saxony, and in some of the smaller states; or lastly,
the absolute administration by the state, which prevails
in Baden, parts of Bavaria, provinces Hesse-Nassau,
and Hanover. The tendency, however, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
modern times appears to be toward a more strict
interpretation of the obligation of the state to prevent
mismanagement of the communal property.</p>

<p>Private forest property, which during the preceding
century had been largely under restrictions, first
under the application of the hunting right, and then
under the fear of a wood famine, became in the first
decades of the century under the influences already
mentioned, almost entirely free, all former policies
being reversed; indeed Prussia, in 1811, issued an
edict insuring absolutely unrestricted rights to forest
owners, permitting partition and conversion of forest
properties, and even denying in such cases the right of
interference on the part of possessors of rights of user.</p>

<p>This policy of freedom was also applied, although
less radically, in Bavaria, except as to smaller owners.
The result was, to a large extent, the increase of exploitation
and forest devastation, creating wastes
and setting shifting sand and sanddunes in motion.
The reaction, which set in against this unrestricted
use of forest property, resulted in Prussia not in renewal
of restrictive measures, but in the enactment
of promotive ones. The law of 1875 sought improvement
by encouraging small owners to unite their
properties under one management; but the expectations
which were founded on this ameliorative policy
seem so far not to have been realized.</p>

<p>This promotive policy has especially since 1899
found expression in the institution in many provinces
of information bureaus, which give technical
advice, make working plans, secure plant material
and give other assistance to woodland owners.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>

<p>A new relation, however, of a conservative character
arose by the establishment of the entail, i.e., a contract
made by the head of the family with the government
under which the latter assumes the obligation
of forever preventing the heirs from disposing of,
diminishing, or mismanaging their property. As a
result of this arrangement, many of the larger private
forest properties are forced to a conservative management,
not as a direct influence of the law, but as a
matter of agreement. The condition of state supervision
of private and communal forest property at
present prevailing is expressed in the following statement
of divisions by property classes of forest areas
of Germany, which shows that at least 63.9% are
under conservative management:</p>

<table summary="Table p. 129">

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Total Forest</td>
<td class="right">34,769,794 acres.</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Crown forest</td>
<td class="right">1.8%</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">State forest</td>
<td class="right">31.9%</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Corporation forest</td>
<td class="right">16.1%</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Institute forest</td>
<td class="right">1.5%</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Association forest</td>
<td class="right">2.2%</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Private forest (10.4% entail)</td>
<td class="right">46.5%</td>
</tr>

</table>

<p>Until the beginning of the present century, the protective
function of the forest had played no role in the
arguments for state interference, but just about the
beginning of the century cries were heard from France
that, owing to the reckless devastation of the
Vosges and Jura Alps by cutting, by fires and over-grazing,
brooks had become torrents, and the valleys
were inundated and covered by the debris and silt of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
the torrents. A new aspect of the results of forest
devastation began to be recognized, which found
excellent expression in a memoir by <i>Moreau de Jonn&egrave;s</i>
(Brussels, 1825), on the question &#8220;What changes does
denudation effect on the physical condition of the
country.&#8221; This being translated into German by
Wiedenmann, was widely spread, being interestingly
written, although not well founded on facts of natural
history and physical laws. Nevertheless, sufficient
experience as regards the effect of denudation in
mountainous countries had also accumulated in southwest
Germany and in the Austrian Alps, and the
necessity of protective legislation was recognized.
This necessity first found practical expression in the
Bavarian law of 1852, in Prussia in 1875, and in W&uuml;rttemberg
in 1879. But a really proper basis for formulating
a policy or argument for protective legislation
outside of the mountainous country is still absent,
although for a number of years attempts have been
made to secure such basis.</p>

<h4>8. <i>Forestry Science and Literature.</i><a name="FNanchor_5_5"
id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h4>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
The necessarily brief statements which are made under this heading presuppose
knowledge of the technical details to which they refer. In this short
history it was possible only to sketch rapidly the development of the science in
terms familiar to the professional man.</p>

</div>

<p>The habit of writing encyclop&aelig;dic volumes, which
the Cameralists and learned hunters had inaugurated
in the preceding century, continued into the new one,
and we find <i>Hartig</i>, <i>Cotta</i>, <i>Pfeil</i> and <i>Hundeshagen</i> each
writing such encyclop&aelig;dias. <i>Carl Heyer</i> began one in
separate volumes, but completed only two of them.
Even an encyclop&aelig;dic work in monographs by several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
authors was undertaken as early as 1819 by <i>J. M.
Bechstein</i>, who with his successors brought out fourteen
volumes, covering the ground pretty fully.
While in the earlier stages the meager amount of
knowledge made it possible to compress the whole
into small compass, the more modern encyclop&aelig;dias
of <i>Lorey</i>, <i>F&uuml;rst</i> and <i>Dombrowski</i> arose from the opposite
consideration, namely, the need of giving a comprehensive
survey of the large mass of accumulated
knowledge.</p>

<p>Since 1820, monographic writings, however, became
more and more the practice. Among the volumes
which treat certain branches of forestry monographically,
the works of the masters of silviculture, <i>Cotta</i>,
<i>Hartig</i> and <i>Heyer</i>, based on their experiences in west
and middle Germany, and of <i>Pfeil</i>, referring more
particularly to North German conditions, were followed
by the South German writers, <i>Gwinner</i> (1834), and
<i>Stumpf</i> (1849). In 1855, <i>H. Burkhardt</i> introduced in
his classic <i>S&auml;en und Pflanzen</i> a new method of treatment,
namely, by species, and after 1850, when the
development of general silviculture had been accomplished,
such treatment by species became frequent.
Of more modern works on general silviculture elaborating
the attempts at reform of old practices those of
<i>Gayer</i> (1880), <i>Wagener</i> (1884), <i>Borggreve</i> (1885), <i>Ney</i>
(1885), all writing in the same decade, are to be especially
mentioned. In this connection should be also
noticed <i>F&uuml;rst&#8217;s</i> valuable collective work on nursery
practice (<i>Pflanzenzucht im Walde</i>, 1882).</p>

<p>At present the magazine literature furnishes ample
opportunity to discuss the development of methods in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
all directions. The text books at present appearing
seem to be justified by or intended mainly for the
needs of the teacher and rarely for the practitioner.
Such a text book is that by <i>Weise</i>. But the latest
contributions to silvicultural literature by <i>Wagner</i>
(1907), and <i>Mayr</i> (1909) are works of a new order,
utilizing broader ecological knowledge.</p>

<p>Other branches than silviculture were similarly first
treated in comprehensive volumes and then in monographic
writings on special subjects of the branch.
The literature on <i>forest utilization</i> covering the whole
field, was enriched especially by <i>Pfeil</i>, <i>Koenig</i>, <i>Gayer</i>,
and <i>F&uuml;rst</i>. The first investigation into the physical
and technical properties of wood was conducted by
<i>G. L. Hartig</i> himself, followed by <i>Theodor Hartig</i>,
and the subject has been most broadly treated by
<i>H. Noerdlinger</i> (1860). In later years, <i>Schwappach&#8217;s</i>
investigations deserve special mention.</p>

<p>The question of means of <i>transportation</i> gradually
became also a subject capable of monographic treatment
and a series of books came out on locating and
building forest roads. <i>Braun</i> issued such a book in
1855 for the plains country, and <i>Kaiser</i> (1873) for
the mountains, also <i>M&uuml;hlhausen</i> (1876), who had been
commissioned to locate a perfect road system over
the demonstration forest at the forest academy of
Muenden. Only within the last quarter of the century
were railroads introduced into the economy of
forest management. The first comprehensive book
on the subject of logging railroads was issued by
<i>Foerster</i> (1885), and a later one by <i>Runnebaum</i>.
<i>Stoetzer</i> (1903) furnished in his compact style the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
latest discussion on the subject of roads and railroads.</p>

<p>A very comprehensive literature on the value of
<i>forest litter</i> was brought into existence by the established
usage of small farmers of supplying their lack
of straw for bedding and manure by substituting the
litter raked from the forest. Hartig and Hundeshagen
were active in the discussion of this subject as well
as almost every other forester, the discussion being,
however, mainly based on opinions. But, after 1860,
the subject became so important both to the poor
farming population and to the forest, which was
being robbed of its natural fertilizer, that a more
definite basis for regulating its use was established
by analysis and by experiments at the experimental
stations.</p>

<p>With the inauguration of the various methods of
forest organization described before, there naturally
went hand in hand the development of <i>methods of
measurement</i>. Better forest surveys developed rapidly,
the transit generally replacing the compass and plane
table. At this period the necessity for books teaching
the important methods of land survey was met by
<i>Baur</i> (1858) and by <i>Krafft</i> (1865). This subject does
no longer occupy a place in forestry literature, the
knowledge of it being taken for granted.</p>

<p>On the other hand the subject of <i>forest mensuration</i>
which formerly was generally treated in connection
with forest organization has developed into a branch
by itself, and has been very considerably developed
in its methods and instruments, making a tolerably
accurate measurement of forest growth possible,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
although many unsolved problems are still under
investigation. Still, late into the century it was customary
to measure only circumferences of trees, by
means of a chain or band, although an instrument for
measuring diameters is mentioned by Cotta, in 1804,
and by Hartig, in 1808. <i>Sch&#339;ner</i> and <i>Richter</i> are in
1813 mentioned as inventors of the first &#8220;universal
forest measure&#8221; or caliper. The improvement of
calipers to their modern efficiency has been carried
on since 1840 by <i>Carl</i> and <i>Gustav Heyer</i> and by many
others until now self-recording calipers by (<i>Reuss</i>,
<i>Wimmenauer</i>, etc.) have become practical instruments.
For measuring the <i>heights</i> of trees, <i>Hossfeld</i> had
already a satisfactory instrument in 1800; a very large
number of improvements in great variety followed,
with <i>Faustmann&#8217;s</i> mirror hypsometer probably in the
lead. As a special development for measuring diameters
at varying heights <i>Pressler&#8217;s</i> instrument should
be mentioned, and a very complicated but extremely
accurate one constructed by <i>Breymann</i>.</p>

<p>Various formulas for the computation of the contents
of felled trees had already been developed by
<i>Oettelt</i> and others in the eighteenth century and a
formula by <i>Huber</i>, using the average area multiplied
by length was definitely introduced in the Prussian
practice in 1817. The names of <i>Smalian</i>, <i>Hossfeld</i>,
<i>Pressler</i> and others are connected with improvements
in these directions.</p>

<p>The idea of <i>form factors</i> and their use was first developed
by <i>Huber</i>, who made three tree classes
according to the length of crowns, measured the diameters
six feet above ground, and used reduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
factors of .75, .66, .50 for the three classes. But the
first formula for determining form factors is credited
to <i>Hossfeld</i> (1812). <i>Hundeshagen</i> and <i>Koenig</i> also
occupied themselves with elaborating form factors.
<i>Smalian</i> (1837) introduced the conception of the
<i>normal</i> or true form factor relating it to the area at
one-twentieth of the height. An entirely new idea
has lately been introduced by <i>Schiffel</i>, an Austrian
German, under the name of form quotient, placing
two measured diameters in relation.</p>

<p><i>Volume tables</i> giving the volumes of trees of varying
diameters and height were already in use to some
extent in the 18th century; <i>Cotta</i> gives such for beech
in 1804, and, in 1817, furnished a new set of so-called
normal tables which were, however, based upon the
assumption of a conical form of the tree. <i>Koenig</i>
perfected volume tables by introducing further classification
into five growth classes (1813), published
volume tables for beech and other species, and, in
1840, published volume tables not for single trees but
for entire stands per acre classified by species, height
and density; using the so-called space number which
he had developed in 1835 to denote the density. It
is interesting to note that these tables, which he called
<i>Allgemeine Waldsch&aelig;tzungstafeln</i>, were made for the
Imperial Russian Society for the Advancement of
Forestry.</p>

<p>In 1840 and succeeding years, the Bavarian government
issued a comprehensive series of measurements
and a large number of form factors, which were
used in constructing volume tables; these were found
to be so well made and so generally applicable that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
they were used in all parts of Germany and, translated
into meter measurement by <i>Behm</i> (1872), are
still generally in use, although new ones based upon
further measurements have been furnished by <i>Lorey</i>
and <i>Kuntze</i>.</p>

<p>For arriving at the <i>volume of stands</i>, estimating
was relied upon long into the nineteenth century,
although <i>Hossfeld</i>, in 1812, introduced measuring,
and the use of the formula AHF, in which A was the
measured total cross-section area of the stand, H and
F the height and form factors, the latter being at that
time still estimated. He first made form classes for
the same heights, but, in 1823, simplified the method
by assuming an average form factor for the whole
stand. Even in 1830, <i>K&#339;nig</i> still estimated the form
factor, although he introduced the measurement of
the cross-section area and determined the height indirectly
as an average of measurements of several
height classes, but <i>Huber</i> (1824) knew how to measure
both the average height and form factor by means of
an arithmetic sample tree. This method found entrance
into the practice and held sway until about
1860, when the well-known improvements by <i>Draudt</i>
and <i>Urich</i> supplanted it. These last mentioned
methods have become generally used in the practice,
while other methods, like R. Hartig&#8217;s and Pressler&#8217;s,
have remained mainly theoretical.</p>

<p>The study of the increment and the making of
yield tables which had been inaugurated toward the
end of the last century, by <i>Oettelt</i>, <i>Paulsen</i>, <i>Hartig</i>,
and others, was just at the end of that century placed
upon a new basis through <i>Sp&auml;th</i> (1797), who constructed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
the first growth curves by plotting the cubic
contents of trees of different ages, and through <i>Seutter</i>
(1799) by introducing stem analysis, on which he
based his yield tables.</p>

<p>On the shoulders of these, <i>Hossfeld</i> (1823) built,
when he conceived the idea of using sample plots for
continued observation of the progress of increment,
and he also taught the method of interpolation with
limited measurements, laying the basis for quite
elaborate formul&aelig;. But the first <i>normal</i> yield tables,
based on the average trees of an index stand, were
published by <i>Huber</i> (1824) and, in the same year, by
<i>Hundeshagen</i>. From that time on, yield tables were
constructed by many others, but only since the Experiment
stations undertook to direct their construction
is the hope justified of securing this most
invaluable tool of forest management in reliable and
sufficiently detailed form. Even the newest tables
are, however, still deficient, especially in the direction
of detailed information regarding the division into
assortments. The yield tables of <i>Baur</i>, <i>Kuntze</i>,
<i>Weise</i>, <i>Lorey</i>, and others are now superseded by those
of <i>Schwappach</i> for pine and spruce, and of <i>Schuberg</i>
for fir.</p>

<p>As a result of the many yield tables which gradually
accumulated, the laws of growth in general became
more and more cleared up and finally permitted
their formulation as undertaken by <i>R. Weber</i> (<i>Forsteinrichtung</i>,
1891).</p>

<p>The idea of using the percentic relations for stating
the increment, and of estimating the future growth
upon the basis of past performance for single trees was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
known even to <i>Hartig</i> (1795) and <i>Cotta</i> (1804) who
published increment per cent. tables. The methods
of making the measurements of increment on standing
trees were especially elaborated by <i>Koenig</i>, <i>Karl</i>,
<i>Edward</i> and <i>Gustav Heyer</i>, <i>Schneider</i> (his formula,
1853), <i>Jaeger</i>, <i>Borggreve</i>, and especially by <i>Pressler</i>
(1860) who opened new points of view and increased
the means of studying increment by causing the construction
of the well-known increment borer, and in
other ways.</p>

<p>The most modern text-book which treats fully of
all modern methods of forest mensuration giving also
their history is that of <i>Udo M&uuml;ller</i> (<i>Lehrbuch der
Holzmesskunde</i>, 1899), superseding such other good
ones, as those of <i>Baur</i> (1860-1882), <i>Kuntze</i> (1873),
<i>Schwappach</i> (short handbook, last edition 1903).</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The many sales of forest property which took place
at the beginning of this period naturally stimulated
the elaboration of methods of <i>forest valuation</i>. Even
the soil rent theory finds its basis at the very beginning
(1799) in a published letter by two otherwise unknown
foresters (<i>Bein</i> and <i>Eyber</i>), who proposed to determine
the value of a forest by discounting the value
of the net yield with a limited compound interest
calculation to the 120th year. This idea was elaborated,
in 1805, by <i>N&#339;rdlinger</i> and <i>Hossfeld</i> into the
modern conception of expectancy values, and the
now familiar discount calculations were inaugurated
by them. <i>Cotta</i> and <i>Hartig</i> participated also in the
elaboration of methods of forest valuation; Cotta
writing his manual in 1804, recognizes the propriety<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
of compound interest calculations, while Hartig, 1812,
still uses only simple interest, and exhibits in his
book as well as in his instructions for practice in the
Prussian state forests rather mixed notions on the
subject.</p>

<p>Altogether, even in the earlier part of the period,
there arose considerable difference of opinion and
warm discussions, in which all the prominent foresters
took part, as to the use of interest rates and methods
of calculation. But this warfare broke into a red hot
flame when <i>Faustmann</i> (1849) with much mathematical
apparatus developed his formula for the soil
expectancy value, and when <i>Pressler</i> and <i>G. Heyer</i>
transferred the discussion into statical fields, making
the question of the financial rotation the issue. Then
the advocates of the soil rent and of the forest rent
theories ranged themselves in opposite camps. This
war of opinions, although abated in fervor, still continues,
and the issue is by no means settled.</p>

<p>The discussion of what should be considered the
proper felling age or rotation naturally occupied the
minds of foresters from early times; a maximum
volume production being originally the main aim.
As early as 1799, <i>Seutter</i> had recognized the fact that
the culmination of volume production had been
obtained when the average accretion had culminated.
<i>Hartig</i>, in 1808, made the distinction of a physical,
an economic and a mercantilistic, i.e., financial felling
age, and <i>Pfeil</i>, considerably ahead of his time, is the
first to call (1820) for a rotation based on maximum
soil rent. As, however, he had so often done, he
changed his mind, and while he first advocated even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
for the state a management for the highest interest
on the soil capital involved, he later rejected such
money management. About the same time <i>Hundeshagen</i>
clearly pointed out the propriety and proper
method of basing the rotation on profit calculations,
but it was reserved for a man not a forester to stir
up the modern strife for the proper financial basis,
namely <i>Pressler</i>, a professor of mathematics at
Tharandt, who became a sharp critic of existing forest
management, and developed to the extreme the net
yield theories.</p>

<p>It was then that the danger of a shortening of the
existing rotations, due to the apparent truth that
long rotations were unprofitable, called for a division
into the two camps alluded to; <i>G. Heyer</i>, <i>Judeich</i> and
<i>Lehr</i>, elaborated especially the mathematical methods
of the soil rent theory, <i>Krafft</i> and <i>Wagener</i> came to the
assistance of Pressler, while <i>Burkhardt</i>, <i>Bose</i>, <i>Baur</i>,
<i>Borggreve</i>, <i>Dankelmann</i>, <i>Fischbach</i> and others, pleaded
for a different policy for the state at least, namely,
the forest rent with the established rotations.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>As in the previous period, the mathematical subjects,
namely, forest measurement and forest valuation,
were more systematically developed than the
<i>natural history</i> basis of forestry practice; the slower
progress of the latter being caused by the greater
difficulties of studying natural history and of utilizing
direct observation.</p>

<p>In <i>botanical</i> direction, descriptive forest botany was
first developed, and several good books were published
by <i>Walther</i>, <i>Borkhausen</i>, <i>Bechstein</i>, <i>Reum</i>, the latter<span
class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
(1814), of high value, and also by <i>Behlen</i>, <i>Gwinner</i> and
<i>Hartig</i>.</p>

<p>In the direction of plant physiology, <i>Cotta</i>, early and
creditably, attempted (1806) to explain the movement
and function of sap, but remained unnoticed.
<i>Mayer&#8217;s</i> (1805-1808) essay on the influence of the
natural forces on the growth and nutrition of trees,
contains interesting physiological explanations for
advanced silvicultural practice. But these sporadic
attempts to secure a biological basis were soon forgotten.
Not until <i>Theodor Hartig</i> (1848) published
his Anatomy and Physiology of Woody Plants was
the necessity for exact investigation of forest biology
as a basis for silvicultural practice fully recognized.
With the development of general biological botany
or ecology, a new era for silviculture seems to have
arrived. Perhaps in this connection there should
be mentioned as one of the earlier important contributions
of much moment, <i>G. Heyer&#8217;s</i> <i>Verhalten der
B&auml;ume gegen Licht und Schatten</i> (1856) in which the
theory of influence of light and shade on forest development
was elaborated.</p>

<p>Among those who placed the study of pathology of
forest trees on a scientific basis should be mentioned
first <i>Willkomm</i> (1876), followed by <i>R. Hartig</i>.</p>

<p>In <i>zo&ouml;logy</i>, the early writers began with a description
of the biology of game animals. Next, interest
in forest insects became natural, and, in 1818, <i>Bechstein</i>
in his Encyclop&aelig;dia devoted one volume (by
<i>Scharfenberg</i>) to the natural history of obnoxious
forest insects. Toward the middle of the century,
with the planting of large areas with single species,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
insect pests increased, hence the interest in the life
histories of the pests grew and gave rise to the celebrated
work by <i>Ratzeburg</i>, &#8220;<i>Die Waldbverderber und
Ihre Feinde</i>&#8221; (1841). A number of similar hand-books
on insects and on other zo&ouml;logical subjects followed;
the latest, a most complete work on insects, being
still based on Ratzeburg&#8217;s work, is that of <i>Judeich and
Nitzsche</i>, in two volumes (1895). Of course, the
general works on forest protection always included
chapters on forest entomology. The first of these
text-books on forest protection was published by
<i>Laurop</i> (1811), and others by <i>Bechstein</i>, <i>Pfeil</i>, <i>Kauschinger</i>
and recently by <i>Hess</i> (1896), and <i>F&uuml;rst</i> (1889).</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><i>Knowledge of the soil</i> was but poorly developed in
the encyclop&aelig;dic works of the earlier part of the period.</p>

<p>Not till Liebig&#8217;s epochmaking investigations was a
scientific basis secured for the subject. Then became
possible the improvements in the contents of
such works as <i>Grebe</i> (1886), <i>Senft</i> (1888), and of <i>Gustav
Heyer</i>, whose volume (<i>Lehrbuch der Forstlichen
Bodenkunde und Klimatologie</i>, 1856), well records
the state of knowledge at that time. But only since
then has this field been worked with more scientific
thoroughness by <i>Ebermayer</i>, <i>Schr&#339;der</i>, <i>Weber</i>, <i>Wollny</i>,
and by <i>Ramann</i>, whose volume on <i>Bodenkunde</i>
(1893) may be still considered the standard of the
present day (newest edition, 1910).</p>

<p>The question of the climatic significance of forests
is one which first became recognized as capable of
solution by scientific means when the movement for
forest experiment stations began to take shape and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
the systematic collecting of observed data was attempted.
Most of the problems are still unsolved.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>With the aspects of <i>political economy</i> in reference
to forest policy the foresters had occupied themselves
but little, leaving the shaping of public opinion to
the Cameralists, whose influence lasted long into the
century. These produced a good deal of literature in
the early years of the century when the question of
retaining or selling state forests was under discussion,
and, under the influence of the teachings of Adam
Smith, their opinion was mostly favorably to sale.
Only gradually was the propriety of state forests
recognized by them, till finally the leading economists,
Rau, Roscher and Wagner, took a decided stand in
favor of this view.</p>

<p>The foresters naturally were for retention of the
existing State properties, but one-sided mercantilistic
views regarding their administration persisted with
them till modern times.</p>

<p><i>Wedekind</i>, as early as 1821, advocated the theory
which is now becoming a practice, that the state should
not only retain, but increase its present forest property
by purchase of all absolute forest soil for the purpose
of reforestation. The erratic and radical Pfeil alone
was found with the Cameralists on the opposite side
in 1816, but, by 1834, he had entirely gone over to
the side of the advocates of state forest, declaring
anyone who opposed them fit for the lunatic asylum.</p>

<p>Division of opinions existed also regarding the supervision
by the state of private and communal forests.
The political economists were inclined to reduce, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
foresters to increase supervision, excepting again Pfeil
in his earlier writings: he modified his views later by
recognizing supervision as a necessary evil. Cotta,
who was inclined to favor free use of forest property
sought to meet the objections to such free use by
increasing the state property.</p>

<p>The main incentive urged by the earlier advocates of
state supervision was the fear of a timber famine. This
argument vanished, however, with the development
of railroads, and was then supplanted by the argument
of the protective functions of the forest, a classification
into supply forests and protective forests
suggesting differences of treatment. Nevertheless,
the belief that absolute freedom of property rights
in the forest is not in harmony with good political
economy&mdash;a belief correct because of the long time
element involved&mdash;still largely prevails. The difficulty,
however, of supervising private ownership,
and the advantages of state ownership find definite
expression in the policy which Prussia especially is
now following, in acquiring gradually the mismanaged
private woodlands and impoverished farm areas for
reforestation, making annual appropriations to this
end. Many other states also are beginning to see
the propriety of this movement.</p>

<p>On the whole the systematic study of the economics
of forestry has been rather neglected by foresters,
although the subject was discussed by early writers,
<i>Meyer</i>, <i>Laurop</i>, <i>Pfeil</i>, and in modern times by <i>R.
Weber</i>, <i>Lehr</i> and <i>Schwappach</i> (&#8220;Forstpolitik,&#8221; 1894).
The latest comprehensive volume on this subject
comes from <i>Endres</i> (1905).</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p>

<h4>9. <i>Means of Advancing Forestry Science.</i></h4>

<p>During the century, the means of increasing knowledge
in forestry matters have grown in all directions;
schools, associations, journals and prolific literature
attesting the complete establishment of the profession
and practice.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The master schools which began to take shape at
the end of the last century, and a number of which
were found in the beginning of the century as private
institutions, were usually either of short duration or
were changed into state institutions: they became
either &#8220;middle schools&#8221; for the lower service, or else
academies. For the higher education, the chairs of
forestry at the universities continued to do service,
as at Heidelberg, Giessen, Leipzig, Berlin, etc., but,
as these were mostly occupied by Cameralists (although
Hartig in 1811 filled a chair at Berlin), and
were intended for the benefit of such rather than of
professional foresters, the education of the latter was
somewhat neglected. Most of the existing institutions
had their beginnings in private schools. Both these
and the state schools passed through many changes.
The first high class forest academy was established
at Berlin directly by the State, in 1821, in connection
with the university. Here, Pfeil was the only professor
of forestry subjects, the other subjects being taught
by other university professors. The fact that in the
absence of railroads a demonstration forest was not
easily accessible, and perhaps the friction between
Pfeil and Hartig brought about a transfer to Neustadt-Eberswalde,
in 1830, with two professors till 1851,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
when a third professor was added (now 16 with 8
assistants!). At the same time the lectures at Berlin
were continued by Hartig, until 1837.</p>

<p>In Saxony, Cotta&#8217;s private school became a state
institution in 1816, the forest academy of Tharandt,
with six teachers (now 13), and later, in 1830, an
agricultural school was added to it.</p>

<p>In Bavaria, a private school was begun in 1807 at
Aschaffenburg. It was made a state institution,
divided into a higher and lower school, in 1819, but
was closed in 1832 on account of interior troubles and
inefficiency. It was re-opened and re-organized in
1844 with four teachers, and was intended to prepare
for the lower grades of the service. Meanwhile the
lectures at the University of Munich, supplementing
this lower school, were to serve for the education of
the higher grades. A reorganization took place in
1878, when a special faculty for forestry was established
at Munich, with Gustav Heyer as head professor.
This was done after much discussion, which
is still going on throughout the empire, as to the
question whether education in forestry was best
obtained at a university or at a special academy.
The present tendency is toward the former solution
of the question since railroad development has removed
the main objection, namely, the difficulty of
reaching a demonstration forest. Nevertheless, Prussia
retains its two forest academies Eberswalde and
M&uuml;nden (since 1868) for the education of its forest
officials, the other state academies being at Tharandt
and Eisenach, while chairs of forestry are found at
the universities of T&uuml;bingen (since 1817), Giessen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
(since 1831), and Munich, and for Baden at the polytechnicum
in Karlsruhe (1832). For the lower grades
of forest officials there are also schools established by
the various governments (3 in Prussia, 5 in Bavaria).</p>

<p>In 1910, the school at Aschaffenburg was discontinued
and the entire education of foresters for
Bavaria left to the University.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Although as early as 1820, Hundeshagen had insisted
upon the necessity of exact investigation to form a
basis for improved forest management and especially
for forest statics, and, although, in 1848, Carl Heyer
elaborated the first instruction for such investigations
which he expected to carry on with the aid of practitioners,
the apathy of the latter and the troublesome
times prior to 1850 retarded this powerful means of
advancing forestry. During the decade from 1860 to
1870, however, the movement for the formation of
experiment stations took shape, the first set being
instituted in Saxony, 1862, by establishing nine
stations for the purpose of securing forest meteorological
data; the next in Prussia, in 1865, to solve
the problems of the removal of litter; and in Bavaria
(1866), also for the study of forest meteorology
(Ebermayer), and of the problem of thinnings. But
not until Baur, 1868, had pointed out more elaborately
the necessity of systematic investigations, and
a plan for such had been elaborated by a committee
instituted by the German Foresters Association was
a system of experimentation as organized in modern
times secured (1872). The various states established
independently such experiment stations, but at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
same time a voluntary association of these stations
was formed for the purpose of co-ordinating and planning
the work to be done.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Forestry associations instituted merely for the
purpose of propaganda, were apparently not organized.
The first association of professional foresters appears
to have been formed as the result of Bechstein&#8217;s conception,
who proposed in connection with his school
(1795 at Gotha, 1800 at Dreissigacker) the formation
of an academy of noted foresters. As a result,
the <i>Societ&auml;t der Forst- und Jagdkunde</i> was formed, in
which all the noted foresters joined with much enthusiasm,
and, in 1801, a membership of 81 regular
and 61 honorary members was attained. At the same
time the official organ <i>Diana</i> was founded (1797), in
which the essays of the members were to be printed;
after having passed four censors. Two sessions were
to be held annually. This much too elaborate plan
for the then rather undeveloped education and deficient
means of transportation defeated to some extent
the great object. By 1812, it was thought
necessary to divide the academy at least into a northern
and southern section, and for the latter an additional
journal, edited by Laurop, was instituted. The
interest, however, decreased continually, and by 1843,
at Bechstein&#8217;s death, the academy was abandoned.</p>

<p>At the same time, there had sprung up a number
of local associations in the modern sense. The first,
in 1820, composed of the foresters and agriculturists
of Nassau; the next, in 1839, of the foresters of Baden,
and, by 1860, nine such local societies of foresters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
were in existence, and they have since increased
rapidly until now some thirty may be counted. The
desire to bring these local associations into relation
to each other led to the first Forestry Congress in 1837
(Congress der Land und Forstwirthe), meeting at
Dresden. At that time, and in the congresses following,
the agriculturists played a leading part, so that, in
1839, the South German foresters separated, and
peripatetic congresses were held every one or two
years. In 1869, a general organization was determined
upon, and, in 1872, the first general German
Congress of Foresters met, holding yearly meetings
thereafter. A rival association having been organized
in 1897, two years later an amalgamation of the two
was effected in the <i>Deutscher Forstverein</i> (now over
2000 members). The most striking feature of this
forceful means of advancing forestry is the institution
of the <i>Forstwirtschaftsrat</i> (1890), a permanent
committee of about 50 members, which is to look
after the political and economic interests of forestry,
forming a semi-official national council.</p>

<p>There also exists an international association of
forest experiment stations.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>In the <i>magazine</i> literature, the Cameralists dominated
until the eighteenth century. The first journal
edited by a forester was <i>Reitter&#8217;s</i> &#8220;<i>Journal f&uuml;r Forst-
und Jagdwesen</i>&#8221; which ran from 1790 to 1797. During
the first part of the century many others were
started, especially after 1820, usually failing soon for
lack of support. Hartig himself participated in this
literature with five volumes (until 1807) of the <i>Journal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
des Forst-, Jagd- und Fischereiwesens</i> and later (1816
to 1820) with the semi-official journal <i>Forst- und
Jagdarchiv</i>. Pfeil&#8217;s <i>Kritische Bl&auml;tter</i> were continued
by him from 1823 to 1859, when N&ouml;rdlinger had the
editorship till 1870. An irregular publication of
much note was Burkhardt&#8217;s &#8220;<i>Aus dem Walde</i>&#8221; (1865-1881).</p>

<p>Some of the journals founded in earlier times have
continued, with changes in title and editorships, to
the present day. Of these, it is proper to mention as
the oldest, &#8220;<i>Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung</i>&#8221;, founded
by v. Behlen, 1825, later conducted by G. Heyer;
&#8220;<i>Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt</i>&#8221; (1828); &#8220;<i>Zeitschrift
f&uuml;r Forst- und Jagdwesen</i>&#8221; founded in 1869 by
Dankelmann; &#8220;<i>Forstliche Bl&auml;tter</i>&#8221; founded 1861 by
Grunert, continued by Borggreve until 1890. The
<i>Tharandter Forstliche Jahrb&uuml;cher</i> were begun in 1842,
and the <i>M&uuml;ndener Forstliche Hefte</i> in 1892. In
1893, the <i>Forstlich-naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift</i>
was established to discuss mainly the biological basis
of forestry (changed in 1903 to <i>Naturwissenschaftliche
Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Land- und Forstwesen</i>).</p>

<p>For the lower grades there has been published, since
1872, <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen Forstbeamten</i>. Several
lumber trade journals also discuss forestry matters.
A weekly journal, <i>Silva</i> was begun in 1908.</p>

<p>To assist in keeping track of the historic and scientific
development of the art, an annual summary of
magazine literature is being published. The first
effort in this direction was made in 1876 by Bernhardt&#8217;s
<i>Chronik des deutschen Forstwesens</i>, which was
continued for several years, but is now supplanted by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
<i>Jahresbericht &uuml;ber die Leistungen und Fortschritte der
Forstwirthschaft</i> (since 1880).</p>

<p>Besides this more scientific magazine literature,
&#8220;<i>Pocket Books</i>&#8221; and &#8220;<i>Calendars</i>&#8221; have been published
from early times, the regular annual appearance
of the latter, giving detailed statistics, personalia,
tables useful in the practice, etc., dates from 1851.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>With the accomplishment of the unity of the empire
in 1871, with the establishment of the Experiment
Stations and their association in 1872, and with the
organization of the Society of German Foresters, which
dates from the same year, a new and most active era
in the development of forestry science may be recognized,
the tendency of which is to lift the art out of the
shackles of empiricism, and place it on a more scientific
basis.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p>

<h2>AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.</h2>

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Zur Forstgeschichte Oesterreichs</i>, by BINDER VON KREIGELSTEIN,
in Verhandlungen der K. K. Landwirthschaftsgesellschaft, 1836.</p>

<p><i>Geschichte der Oesterreichischen Land- und Forstwirtschaft und ihrer Industrieen</i>,
1848-1898. 5 vols., 1902, parts referring to forestry, vols. 4 and 5, by
Dr. von Guttenberg and 15 others; a unique and most comprehensive work,
magnificently published as a jubilee of the semi-centennial of the coronation of
Emperor Franz Joseph.</p>

<p><i>Die Forste der Staats- und Fondsg&uuml;ter</i>, by KARL SCHINDLER, 1885 and
1889, 2 vols., pp. 487 and 742, contains in greatest detail with historical data a
description of the State and Funds forests and their management.</p>

<p><i>Jahrbuch der Staats- und Fondsg&uuml;ter-verwaltung</i>, 9 vols., by <span class="smcap">L. Dimitz</span>,
1897-1904 cont.</p>

<p><i>Urkundensammlung zur Geschichte der ungarischen Forstwirthschaft</i> by
ALBERT V. BED&Ouml;, 1896, in Magyar.</p>

<p><i>Die Wirthschaftlichen und Kommerziellen Beschreibungen der W&auml;lder des
Ungarischen Staates</i>, <i>by</i> A. v. BED&Ouml;, 2d edition, 1896, 4 vols., 2242 pp., 4<sup>o</sup>,
published as a jubilee of the ten-centennial existence of Hungary. First volume
contains the general description, third volume the details of government forests.
A magnificent work describing in detail the forests and forest management of
Hungary. This is briefed by the same author in a chapter in &#8220;<i>The Millennium
of Hungary and its People</i>, by <span class="smcap">Jekelfalussy</span>, 1897.&#8221;</p>

</blockquote>

<p>Germany&#8217;s neighbor to the south-east, and until
1866 a member of the German Empire or Federation,
largely settled by Germans and hence swayed by
German thought, developed forestry methods on
much the same lines as the mother country. Yet there
are differences to be found, due to difference in economic
development, and there is for the United States
perhaps more to be learned from Austria in the matter
of introducing forestry methods, especially as lately
practiced in Bosnia-Herzegovina, than from any
other country, for economic conditions are in several
respects alike.</p>

<p>The interest in the forest history of Austria lies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
especially in the fact that private forest property in
large holdings is predominant, and that large areas
are still untouched or just opened to exploitation, so
that Austria is still in the list of export countries,
although in some parts intensive management has
been long in existence.</p>

<p>In the main, although movements for reform in
forest use date back to the middle ages, the condition
of forestry in Austria was past the middle of the 19th
century still most deplorable, and in a stage of development
which most of the German States had passed
long before; but in the last 50 years such progress has
been made that both science and practice stand nearly
if not quite on the same level with those of their
German neighbors.</p>

<p>If Germany exhibits in its different parts a great
variety of development, political and economic,
Austria, although long under one family of rulers (since
1526), exhibits a still greater variety due to racial,
natural, and historical differences within its own
borders. It is, indeed, an extraordinary and singular
country, without an equal of its kind (except perhaps
Turkey) in that it is not a national, but a dynastic
power, composed of unrelated states or lands, with
people speaking different languages, mixed races
widely different in character. These were gradually
aggregated under one head or ruling family, the
Hapsburgs, who as Archdukes of Austria occupied
the elective position of German Emperors for several
generations, and after the collapse of the Empire, in
1806, retained the title and called themselves Emperors
of Austria.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>

<p>The Kingdom of Hungary alone (which was joined
to the Hapsburg dominions by election of its people
in 1526, and under new relations in 1867), with at
least 50% Hungarians, is a national unit with a
national language (Magyar), while all other parts
have in their composition preponderatingly Slavish
population, although German elements have the
ascendancy more or less everywhere.</p>

<p>Not less than 10 different languages are spoken
among the forty odd million people, of whom the
Germans comprise about one-quarter, the Hungarians
one-third, the balance being Slavs.</p>

<p>Originally, this section of the country was occupied
by Germans with the German institution of the Mark,
but, when the Slavish and Magyar tribes pressed in
from the East, it became the meeting ground of the
three races, and during the first 1,000 years after
Christ the &#8220;East Mark&#8221; formed the bulwark of the
German empire against the eastern invaders, who,
were, in succession, the Slavs, the Huns, the Turks.</p>

<p>With the unexpected election of Rudolph of Hapsburg,
a little known prince of small possessions, to the
dignity of German Emperor, in 1272, the foundation
of the Austrian Empire was laid. The Archduchy of
Austria he secured by conquest in 1282, and around
this nucleus all the other territories were from time
to time, aggregated by the Hapsburgs through
marriage, conquest, or treaty. At one time their rule
extended over Spain, the Netherlands, Switzerland,
Naples, Sicily and Sardinia.</p>

<p>The abdication of Francis II, in the year 1806, prepared
the separation from Germany, although Austrian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
influence persisted in Germany until 1866 when,
by the crushing defeat suffered at the hands of Prussia,
its place and voice was permanently excluded from
German councils. By arrangement with Hungary,
the new dual empire of Austria-Hungary came into
existence, and gave a new national life and new policies
to the coalition which is to amalgamate these south-eastern
territories into a homogeneous nation.</p>

<p>By the treaty of Berlin in 1878, this territory of
241,942 square miles with over 45 million people was
further increased by the addition of the Turkish
provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina with 1,250,000
inhabitants and 23,262 square miles, first merely
placed under Austria&#8217;s suzerainty and administration,
in 1908 incorporated as an integral part.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>It is natural that, corresponding to this great diversity
of ethnological elements and historical development,
we should find a great variety of forest conditions
and uneven development of forestry. While in Bohemia,
Moravia and Silesia the most intensive management
has long been practiced, in the Carpathians of
Galicia and in Hungary rough exploitation is still the
rule, and in other parts large untouched forest areas
still await development.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>We can distinguish at least seven regions thus
differently developed: the Northwest with Bohemia,
Moravia and the remaining part of Silesia, settled the
longest, and the longest under forest management;
the Northeast, Galicia with the Carpathian Mountains,
still largely either exploited or untouched; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
Danube lands or Austria proper, with the Vienna
forest and the forests connected with the saltworks
in Upper Austria and Styria, under some management
since the 12th and 16th centuries respectively; the
Alp territory, including Tyrol and Salzburg, parts of
Styria, Karinthia and Krain, much devastated long
ago, and offering all the problems of the reboisement
work of France; the Coast lands along the Adriatic
with Dalmatia, Istria and Trieste, which, from ancient
times under Venetian rule, bring with them the inheritance
of a mismanaged limestone country, creating
the problems of the &#8220;Karst&#8221; reforestation which has
baffled the economist and forester until the present
time; the two new provinces east of this region,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose rich forest areas have
only lately begun to be treated under modern conservative
ideas; and finally Hungary with a great
variety of conditions in itself.</p>

<p>The large forest per cent. (a little over 24,000,000
acres or over 32% of the land area) is due to the
mountainous character of the country, the Alps occupying
a large area on the west and southwest, the
Carpathians stretching for 600 miles on the northeast,
various mountain ranges encircling Bohemia, the
Sudetes forming part of the northern frontier, and
the Wiener Wald and other lower ranges being distributed
over the empire and bounding the fertile
valleys of the Danube and its tributaries. At least
20 per cent. is unproductive.</p>

<p>The climate in the northern portion of Austria
is similar to that of southern Germany; in the southern
portions to that of Italy, while Hungary partakes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
of the characteristics of a continental plains
climate with low rainfall and extreme temperature
ranges.</p>

<p>In addition to the tree species found in Germany
there are of economic value four species of pine (<i>Pinus
austriaca</i>, <i>cembra</i>, <i>pinea</i>, <i>halepensis</i>), two oaks (<i>Quercus
ilex</i> and <i>suber</i>), and the chestnut (<i>Castanea vesca</i>).
Conifer forest is prevailing in Austria (with 82%),
deciduous forest in Hungary, mostly beech and oak
(with 75%); 27% being oak in pure stands.</p>

<p>The following pages refer to Austria proper, Hungarian
conditions being treated separately <a href="#Page_178">further on</a>.</p>

<p>The value of the total raw product exported from
the Austrian forests (some 180 million cubic feet)
may be estimated at over 50 million dollars annually.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Property Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>On the whole, property conditions developed not
unsimilarly to those of Germany. There were freemen
and serfs to start with, developing into barons,
peasants, burghers; there were ban forests, royal
domain, forests of the mark, and private properties;
rights of user or servitudes and all the methods
and conditions that were developed in other parts
of Europe are also found here, only perhaps differing
in time and rate of progress in their development.</p>

<p>As a result of gradual changes, the present distribution
of property resulted, in which the State ownership
is comparatively small, namely, in Austria proper
not more than 7.3% (with 2.8 million acres of which
nearly one-third is unproductive land), while private<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
ownership represents over 58.6%. Of this, 34% is
in large landed estates, among which those of the
princes of Liechtenstein and of Schwarzenberg with
round 350,000 acres and 290,000 acres respectively are
the largest; and 25 others with from 50,000 to 230,000
acres may be named. By the middle of the 19th
century, at least 75% of the forest area was in large
compact properties, a guarantee for the possibility
of forest management; the industrial development of
the last decade has, however, led to considerable exploitation.
In upper and lower Austria and in the
Alpine regions small private ownership prevails.
The communal forest comprises 13%, entailed forest
8%, and the rest belongs to church and other institutions.
These so-called <i>Fondsforste</i> are in part under
government administration.</p>

<h4>2. <i>First Attempts at Forest Control.</i></h4>

<p>The oldest record of attempts at an orderly management
in any part of the empire seems to date back to
the 12th century, when the city forest of Vienna had
been placed under management. During the 16th
and 17th century this property appears to have been
managed upon the basis of careful surveys and
estimates. We also find a definite forest organization
in the forests attached to the ducal salt mines in
Styria by 1524, and the dams, canals and water works
for floating timber developed by 1592 through Thomas
Seeauer were the wonder of the times.</p>

<p>In 1524 also, Archbishop <i>Math&aelig;us Lang of Wellenburg</i>
issued a forest ordinance which was full of wise
prescriptions, probably little heeded. A forest ordinance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
of 1599 refers to burning of tops and care of
young growth in fellings.</p>

<p>Generally speaking, as in Germany proper, forest
ordinances were issued from time to time, by the
dukes under the theory of the <i>Forsthoheit</i>, applying to
limited territories and attempting to regulate forest
use. No uniformity existed.</p>

<p>The iron industry in the more northern provinces
had led early to a more conservative use of forest
properties for fuel, and since the mines were regal
property the dukes had a special interest in their conservation.</p>

<p>In the Alp territory, especially in Styria, the regal
right to the mines combined with the <i>Forsthoheit</i> led
early to the reservation by the dukes of whatever
forest was not fenced or owned by special grant for the
use of the mines. In addition, a superior right was
asserted by them in some of the private forests to all
the forest produce beyond the personal requirements
of the owners, for use of the mines at a small tax;
and what other private property existed was burdened
by innumerable rights of user. The exercise of these
rights, and the warfare against irksome restrictions
led to widespread illegal exploitation and devastation,
which as early as the 15th century had proceeded to
such an extent that in Tyrol associations for protection
against the torrents were already then in existence.
Yet in this province, scantily populated, with
one-third of its area unproductive and one-third
forested, wasteful exploitation continued until recent
times.</p>

<p>In Krain, which was unusually well wooded, forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
reservations were made for the use of the mines and
furnaces in 1510 and 1515, these reservations comprising
all forest lands within a given radius. The
balance was mostly divided among small owners,
whose unrestricted, unconservative exploitation continued
into the latter half of the 19th century.</p>

<p>In Styria, nearly one-half wooded and one-third
unproductive, a regulated management was attempted
as early as 1572, and by subsequent forest ordinances
of 1695, 1721 and 1767 devastation was to
be checked. But the resistance of the peasants to the
regulations and the inefficiency of the forest service
were such that no substantial improvement resulted.</p>

<p>In Galicia, unusually extensive rights of user in the
crown forests led to their devastation, and the attempts
to regulate the exercise of these rights by
ordinances in 1782 and 1802 were unsuccessful.</p>

<p>The forest area along the coast of the Adriatic in
Istria and Dalmatia had furnished shiptimber even
to the ancients. The Venetians becoming the owners
of the country in the 15th century declared all forests
national property, reserved for shiptimber, and placed
them under management. They instituted a forest
service, regulated pasturing, and forbade clearing.
The oak coppice was to be cut in 8 to 12 year rotation,
with standards to be left for timber, etc. A reorganization
of this service with division into districts is
recorded in the 16th century, when Charles V, in 1520,
instituted a &#8220;forest college,&#8221; i.e., administration.
But the district officers, <i>capitani ai boschi</i>, being underpaid,
carried on a nefarious trade on their own account,
and by 1775, the whole country was already ruined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
in spite of attempts at reform; the &#8220;<i>Karst</i>&#8221; problem
remained unsolved; and, when Austria secured Dalmatia,
in 1897, that country too was found in the same
deplorable condition, the forest area, there in the
hands of the peasants, having suffered by pasture
and indiscriminate cutting.</p>

<p>It was the work of Maria Theresa to reform the
administration of the various branches of government,
and wholesome legislation was also extended
to the forest branch by her forest ordinance of 1754,
which remained in force until 1852. It relieved the
private owners, who held most of the forest area,
from the restrictions hitherto imposed, except in the
frontier forests. These, for strategic reasons, were
to be managed according to special working plans
prepared by the &#8220;patriotic economic society.&#8221; The
management of communal forests also was specially
regulated. Otherwise the ordinance merely recommended
in general terms orderly system and the
stopping of abuses.</p>

<p>In 1771, another forest ordinance proposed to extend
the same policy of private unrestricted ownership
to the Karst forests, with the idea that thereby
better conditions would most likely be secured; but,
since here the property was not as in Bohemia in
large estates but in small farmers&#8217; hands, the result
was disastrous, as we shall see later: it merely led to
increased devastation.</p>

<p>The same result followed the increase of private
peasant ownership which came with the abolishment
of serfdom in 1781. In 1782, an ordinance full of wise
prescriptions against wasteful practice intended for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
the Northwest territory sought to check the improvident
forest destruction.</p>

<p>A further wholesome influence on private forest
management was exercised by the tax assessment reform
in 1788, when not only a more reasonable assessment
but for the first time a difference was made in
taxation of managed as opposed to unmanaged woods
and the epoch-making fertile idea of the normal
forest was announced (see <a href="#Page_115">p. 115</a>). At the same time
the hunting privileges and other burdens, hampering
forest properties were abolished, and measures for
the extinguishment of the rights of user enacted.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>As appears from the foregoing sketch of early
attempts at forest control, no uniformity existed in
the empire, each province being treated differently
and the regal rights being applied differently in each
case.</p>

<p>Originally the regular circuit or district governments
had charge not only of the management of State
forests but also of the forest police and the regulation
of the management of communal forests. This
supervision was exercised by the political administration,
often without technical advisers, and the
different provinces had developed this service very
variably. While in some provinces no special effort
was made to look after these interests, the laws remaining
mainly dead letters, in others a better system
prevailed. In Styria, for instance, in 1807, five forest
commissioners and 20 district foresters were employed;
but this organization was of short duration. A loose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
administration of the forest laws was most general.
The movement for reform and to secure a general law
for the empire controlling forest use dates from the
year 1814; but, only after the political reaction
of 1848, and when the severe floods of 1851 had
forcibly called attention to the unsatisfactory state
of things was the necessity of change recognized.
In 1852, such a general law was enacted, supplanting
all the forest ordinances (with minor exceptions).</p>

<p>This law, which in the main is still in force, distinguishes
between ban forests and protective forests.
The former are such as require in their management
consideration of their protective value to adjoining
private or State property and personal safety, e.g., to
prevent landslides, snowslides, avalanches, etc. Protection
forests are specially located forests which for
their own continuance as well as for that of neighboring
ones must be managed under special restrictions,
e.g., on sand dunes, shores of waters, steep
slopes. The dangers which they are to prevent being
more of an indirect or hidden nature, and only produced
by their mismanagement, the control also is
of a more general nature, the owner being allowed
to manage his property within general prescriptions,
while the ban forests are protective forests of a higher
order and are more strictly and more directly controlled
by the authorities. The declaration of a ban
forest and the prescription for the conservative
management depend on the findings of a commission
assisted by experts (since 1873).</p>

<p>The execution of the law however, being left to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
the political administration of the provinces, jealousies
between imperial and provincial governments,
and fear of resistance and ill will of forest owners prevented
a strict and uniform application of the law.
Hence, from time to time, we find ministerial rescripts,
and special provincial legislation to secure a more
energetic enforcement of the law.</p>

<p>At first, the reform had reference mainly to the Alp
districts, which had suffered the most, and, in Tyrol,
at least, an organization was created in 1856 which
was to manage the State forests, supervise the management
of corporation forests and exercise the forest
police. Not until the years 1871-74, however, was
a similar service extended to other portions of the
empire, but at the end of that period the entire empire
had been placed under the administration of a &#8220;forest
protective service.&#8221; an organization quite distinct
from the State forest administration.</p>

<p>In 1900, there were placed under this service nearly
two million acres of protective, and somewhat over
150,000 acres of ban forests, but some 5 to 6 million
acres of private or communal forest was under some
other restrictive policy.</p>

<p>In 1888, this service consisted of 14 forest inspectors,
56 forest commissioners, 63 forest adjuncts and 80
assistants and forest guards; in addition 252 special
appointees and officers of the State forest administration
were doing duty in this service, so that altogether
nearly 500 persons were then employed in
carrying on the protective forest policy of the State.
In 1910, there were 388 technical attach&eacute;s to the provincial
authorities employed, and 124 on reboisement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
work, while the State administration employed only
297 officials of the higher grade.</p>

<p>The law declares the function of this technical service
to be: &#8220;to assist the political government by
technical advice and observation in supervising forest
protection, and in the application of the forest laws.&#8221;</p>

<p>In 1883, the functions of this organization were extended
&#8220;to instruct and encourage forest owners in
forest culture, and to manage forests designated to
be so managed.&#8221; The service has been so satisfactory
that, while at first much complaint against the enforcement
of the regulations was heard, owners now
ask constantly for its extension.</p>

<p>The details of the duties devolving upon this organization
are found in a series of laws, applicable to
different parts of the empire, which are based upon the
recognition of protection forests, in which sanctioned
working plans regulate the management. Forcible reforestation
and employment of competent foresters in
these are obligatory. Now, altogether about 60% of the
Austrian forest area is managed under working plans.</p>

<p>A special reboisement law for the extinction of destructive
torrents was the result of unusual damage
by floods in Tirol and Karinthia, in 1882. The basis
for this legislation was laid by a translation from the
French of Demontzey&#8217;s great work on the reboisement
of mountains, by v. Seckendorff in 1880, and a subsequent
report by the same author in 1883. A law,
similar to that of the French was enacted in 1884, for
the regulation of torrential streams. A special fund
for the work was created to which the interested
parties are required to contribute, assisted by annual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
subventions from the State. The contributions of the
State have averaged from 40 to 60%, of the provinces
20 to 50%, the interested parties having contributed
30% of the round five million dollars expended on this
work by 1901. In 1910, the contribution to the
melioration fund by the State had grown to 1.6 million
dollars. At the same time, for the regulation of the
lower rivers an appropriation of $1,350,000 was made,
of which $400,000 was to be used for reforestation work.</p>

<p>This work as well as the reforestation of the Karst
(see <a href="#Page_173">p. 173</a>) under the laws of 1881, 1883, 1885, is
carried on by the forest protective service.</p>

<p>On the whole, the forest policy of Austria tends
toward harmony with forest owners and liberation
of private property. By reduction of railroad freights,
which are under government management, by abolition
of export duties, by reasonable tax assessments,
etc., the wood export trade (now exceeding 30 million
dollars) is favored; by the extinction of rights of user
under liberal laws improvement in forest management
is made possible, the Emperor setting a good example
by having renounced, in 1858, his superior right to
forest reservations in the Alp districts.</p>

<p>The best exemplification of the spirit of the Austrian
forest policy and of the methods of forest organization
and administration is to be found in the administration
of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina described
in a volume published in 1905 by the veteran
Austrian forester, Ludwig Dimitz.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
<i>Die forstlichen Verh&auml;ltnisse und Einrichtungen Bosniens und der Herzegovina</i>,
<span class="smcap">Ludwig Dimitz</span>, Vienna, 1905, pp. 389. See Forestry Quarterly, Vol. III,
p. 113.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p>

</div>

<p>Here, the Austrian government has in the short time
of 25 years succeeded in bringing orderly conditions
into the forest management. Until 1878, these countries
were provinces of Turkey and were placed under
Austrian suzerainty as a result of the Russo-Turkish
War. The Turks had already attempted a management
of the forest lands, which were in their entirety
claimed by the Sultan. Property conditions being
entirely unclear when the Austrians assumed the
administration, these questions had first to be settled
by a survey. This survey resulted in showing a forest
area of 6.3 million acres, 51% of the land area, of
which probably all but about 1.5 million acres is
private or communal property; half of the state
property is fully stocked and it is estimated that
about 100 million cubic feet is the annual increment.</p>

<h4>4. <i>State Forest Administration.</i></h4>

<p>The State domain in the first half of the 19th century
had been reduced by sales from nearly 10 million
acres to 4.5 million acres, and to a little over 3 million
acres in 1855. In that year, about one-half of this
property was handed over to the National Bank to
secure the State&#8217;s indebtedness of $30,000,000, and
between 1860 and 1870 further sales reduced the
domain to about its present size of 1.8 million acres
productive forest. In 1872, however, a new policy,
and the present organization were instituted.</p>

<p>Before 1849, the forest properties which the Crown
or State owned in the various territories were not
managed as a unit or in any uniform manner, but a
number of separate provincial or territorial forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
administrations existed which were often connected
with mining administrations and were placed under
the Minister of Finance. These, under the influence
of the educated foresters issuing from the newly
established forest school, had, to be sure, been much
improved; nevertheless the Cameralists, as in Germany,
were at the head of affairs and kept the technical
development back until after the revolution of
1848, when the accession of Franz Joseph I brought
many reforms and changes in methods of administration.</p>

<p>A ministry of Soilculture and Mining was created
in that year, and, as a branch of it, a forest department,
separated from the department of the Chase.
To the head of this forest department was called a
forester, <i>Rudolf Feistmantel</i>, who elaborated an
organization. But, before much had been accomplished,
the Ministry and its forest department were
abolished (1853) and the forest domain again transferred
to the Ministry of Finance.</p>

<p>Feistmantel returned in 1856 as Chief of the forest
division in that Ministry, and his organization of the
forest property of the State into forest districts under
forest managers and into provincial &#8220;forest directions&#8221;
was perfected.</p>

<p>Matters, however, did not thrive, and, only when
public attention and indignation had been aroused
by a policy of selling State property, a change of
attitude took place in 1872 which led to the present
organization. This places the State forest administration
in the Department of Agriculture, with an
&#8220;Oberlandforstmeister&#8221; and two assistants as superior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
officers, and the rest of the organization is also
very nearly the same as that in vogue in most German
States, each province having a directive service of
&#8220;Oberforstmeister&#8221; with &#8220;Forstmeister&#8221; as inspectors,
and &#8220;Oberf&ouml;rster&#8221; with the assistance of &#8220;Forstwarte&#8221;
as executive officers. In addition a special
corps of &#8220;forest engineers&#8221; and &#8220;superior forest engineers&#8221;
is provided for the elaboration of working
plans. Lately (1904), a re-organization of the central
office provided, besides the department of administration
of State and Funds forests, a department of
reboisement and correction of torrents, and a department
of forest policy charged with the promotion of
forest culture, including the education of foresters
and similar matters.</p>

<p>Most of the State property is located in the Alps
and Carpathian mountains at an elevation above 2,000
feet, hence financial results do not make a good showing.</p>

<p>Since 1885 it has been the policy to add to the State
forest area by purchase, and by 1898, over 350,000
acres had been added to it.</p>

<h4>5. <i>Progress of Forest Organization.</i></h4>

<p>Since 1873, working plans according to unified principles
have been prepared for most of the State
property, so that, by 1898, about 82% was under
regulated management.</p>

<p>The progress made in bringing forest areas under
organized management varied greatly in the different
provinces.</p>

<p>In northeastern Austria, the first methods of regulated
management consisted, as in the neighboring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
territories of Germany, in a simple division into felling
areas. The example of the neighbors was also followed
later in the northwestern provinces, and in both regions
this method was improved upon by allotment
according to the propositions of Hartig and Cotta. In
addition, since 1810, the method of the Austrian
&#8220;Kameraltaxe&#8221; with the new and fertile idea of the
&#8220;normal forest&#8221; began to be employed (see <a href="#Page_115">p. 115</a>).
The new method now largely employed is an area
allotment checked by the normal forest formula.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Especially in Bohemia, most of the large baronial
properties had, by 1848, been put under a regular
system of management according to Saxon and Prussian
precedent. The influence of the former was especially
strong, and Saxon foresters were largely employed
to regulate the management. Most prominent
among these was <i>Judeich</i>, who became the Director
of the Austrian forest school at Weisswasser, (afterwards
of Tharandt). By 1890, over 83% of the total
forest area of Bohemia capable of such management
had been placed under rational working plans according
to the most modern conception, and nearly the
same proportion in the neighboring provinces of
Moravia and Silesia.</p>

<p>In the Alps territory and in the Danube provinces,
the regulation of forest management has not progressed
with the same rapidity, partly owing to the
existence of the many hampering rights of user; only
here and there, are properties managed intensively.
By 1890, only 23% were managed under rational
working plans (40% state and 60% private and communal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
property), mostly regulated by a combined
area and volume method.</p>

<p>In Styria, in the forests attached to mines, we find
already in 1795 quite a remarkable effort in the matter
of working plans. Such a plan by an unknown author
deals with volume tables and sample area methods
for determining the stock. But the fine plan was
stowed away in a cupboard, and when, in 1830, forest
counselor <i>Wunderbaldinger</i> proposed to apply a
similar plan he had to wait seven years before permission
for a trial was granted. He continued, however,
the organization of these forests until 1848,
using Hundeshagen&#8217;s &#8220;use per cent.&#8221; in the selection
forest, and volume allotment for the woods managed
under clearing system.</p>

<p>In lower Austria, the Vienna state forest of 70,000
acres had for a long time received attention; the first
thorough forest survey and yield calculation being
made in 1718-20, revised in 1782-86, and regulated
for the shelterwood system in 1820. Within the last
50 years, the method has been changed again and
again, until in 1882 the present Austrian method
based on normal stock principles was applied. Since
in this province 50% of the forest area is small peasant
property and communal forest, which are usually
managed without systematic plans, the 33% under
working plans represents more than half of the area
capable of such management.</p>

<p>In upper Austria, where the salt works are situated,
the attempts at regulated management in connection
with these date back to the middle of the 16th
century, and, after various changes, these forest areas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
were, by 1888, placed under working plans of modern
style. Over 50% of the forest area of this province
is so regulated. One of the most modern working
plans based upon Pressler&#8217;s soil rent theory and a
most intensive silviculture, is that of the Baron Mayr-Melnhof
on his estate Kogl.</p>

<p>These details are merely brought forward to illustrate
the great variation both in the progress of development
and in the present conditions in different
parts of the empire, similar differences being found
in other portions. Suffice it to say that in round
numbers about fifteen hundred thousand acres are
managed under more or less intensive working plans,
and of the balance seven million acres are farmers&#8217;
woodlots on which only silvicultural treatment is
necessary.</p>

<h4>6. <i>Development of Silviculture.</i></h4>

<p>The necessity for conservative forest use and reforestation
did not arise as early in Austria as it did in
Germany. It was not until the middle of the 19th
century that this necessity became apparent in most
of the provinces, when German experiences in silviculture
could be readily utilized.</p>

<p>In Bohemia, the clearing system with artificial
reforestation, mostly by seed, had been introduced
at the beginning of the century for the conifer forests,
planting as a rule being resorted to only in fail places.
For this planting, wildlings were mostly used. In the
broad-leaved forest, the selection system, and to some
extent the shelterwood method, were largely followed.
The strip system was also much employed, and, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
the felling areas were often made too large, undue
increase of undesirable softwoods resulted. During
the last 50 years, silvicultural theory and practice
developed very much on the same lines as in Germany,
more intensively in the densely populated and more
accessible regions, and less so in the more distant and
thinly settled mountain districts.</p>

<p>The most noted work of reforestation which has
occupied Austrian foresters for the last forty years or
more is that of the &#8220;Karst,&#8221; a name applied to the
waste lands in the mountain and hill country of Istria,
Trieste, Dalmatia, Montenegro and adjacent territory
skirting the Adriatic Sea. It is a dry limestone
country of some 600,000 acres in extent, stony and
rough, and overdrained. Originally well forested with
conifers and hardwoods, it had furnished for ages
ship timber and other wood supplies to the Venetians.
Through reckless cutting, burning and pasturing by
the small farmers it had become almost entirely denuded,
natural reforestation being prevented by these
practices combined with the dryness of the soil, intensified
by the deforestation.</p>

<p>For centuries, countless laws were passed to stop
the progress of devastation, but without effect.</p>

<p>The first attempt at planting was made by the city
of Trieste in 1842, and found some imitators, but with
meager result.</p>

<p>In 1865, the Austrian government, acting upon
representations of the Forestry Association, undertook
to encourage and assist private landowners in reforesting
their Karst lands by remitting taxes on reforested
lands for a period of years, by technical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
advice, and by assistance with plant material and
money.</p>

<p>By this move, so much land was withdrawn from
pasture and taxation that opposition was aroused
among the cattle owners, which led to additional
legislation during the years 1882 to 1887, and finally
to the creation of a commission charged to select the
lands which in the interest of the country required
reforestation, and empowered to enforce this improvement
within a given time, the State expropriating the
lands of objecting owners. At the same time, the
Commission brought about the division of pasture
lands which were held in communal ownership.</p>

<p>By 1909, of the 75,000 acres selected by the Commission
as of immediate interest 15,000 acres had
been planted, mostly with Austrian Pine, at an average
cost of $8 to $16 per acre, the cost including stone
enclosures for the plantations, to protect them against
cattle and fire, and the repairs, which sometimes
equalled the original expense. In addition, some
50,000 acres of natural growth were brought into
productive condition merely by protection.</p>

<p>While this activity refers to the northern portion
of the coast region, the Karst of Dalmatia farther
south, being oak country, was mainly recuperated by
protective measures. Here, in 1873, the pasturing of
goats was forbidden on areas of over one million acres
in extent which were found capable of reforestation.
In 1876, the partition of communal holdings was
ordered, and portions were designated for forest use,
to be planted. As a result of these measures, nearly
400,000 acres have been recuperated.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p>

<h4>7. <i>Education and Literature.</i></h4>

<p>The first forest schools in Austria were established
through private effort, namely one in 1800 in Bohemia
by Prince Schwarzenberg, and another one in Moravia
by Prince Liechtenstein, these two being the largest
forest owners in Austria. In 1805, another private
forest school was opened in Bohemia, and at the same
time the state institute near Vienna came into existence.
This was, in 1813, transferred to Mariabrunn,
and, after various changes in the character of the
teaching, was, in 1867, raised to the dignity of an
academy with a three years&#8217; course. In 1875, it was
transferred to the <i>Hochschule f&uuml;r Bodenkultur</i> at
Vienna, an agricultural school, which had been instituted
in 1872, intended to give the higher scientific
education in both forestry and agriculture by a three
years&#8217; course. The course was, in 1905, increased to four
years. During the years from 1875 to 1904, over 2,600
students in forestry alone had attended this excellent
school at which over 70 professors and instructors
are employed.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>For the lower grades of foresters, schools were from
time to time opened in addition to the private ones
first mentioned. Such so-called &#8220;middle schools,&#8221;
were founded at Eulenberg (1852), Weisswasser (1855)
transferred to Reichstadt, and Lemberg (1874), at which
latter the course is two years in the Polish language, and
one at Bruck (1900), where the course is three years.
At present, there are five middle schools in operation.</p>

<p>For the education of guards, three Forstwart schools
were instituted in 1881 and 1883, one each for Tirol,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
Styria and Galicia, where, in an eleven months&#8217; course,
15 forest guards at each receive instruction. In addition
there are five schools of silviculture where the course is
one year. Besides these schools, courses in forestry of
shorter duration are given at three other institutions.</p>

<p>Besides these schools, the promotion of forestry
science is, as in Germany, secured by forest experiment
stations, which came into existence as a result of
the earlier deliberations of the German foresters.
The first proposition to establish such a station was
submitted in 1868, but its establishment was delayed
until 1875, when such a station was instituted at
Vienna in connection with the school there. The
results of the investigations are published from year to
year and have enriched the forestry literature in the
German language with many important contributions.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>A very active association life exists in Austria,
largely due to the influence of the many large private
forest owners. Curiously enough, the first attempt at
forming a society of foresters in Bohemia was suppressed
by the authorities, probably for fear of revolutionary
tendencies, and the effort simply resulted
in a literary or reading association to obviate the need
of private purchase of books. Not until 1848, the
very year of the revolution, did the Bohemian forestry
association become a fact, and, under the leadership
of the large forest owners among the nobility, it
has become the strongest in Austria, issuing a bi-monthly
association journal from the beginning.
Another strong local association which dates its beginning
as a society for agriculture back to 1770, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
the Moravian-Silesian Forestry Association, which
segregated from the mother society in 1850, first as a
section, and, having by 1858, attained a membership
of 1,000, it constituted itself as a separate association
in 1886. Besides these, many smaller ones exist in
Austria. In 1852, a general Austrian forestry association
was founded, which, in 1854, began the publication
of a quarterly journal and held sessions in various
parts of the empire; but, by and by, the interest
seemed to flag, the attendance at the meetings became
smaller and smaller, and finally the association was
abandoned after a rival, the Austrian Forestry Congress,
had been organized in 1874, which later became
the <i>Oesterreichische Reichs-Forstverein</i>.</p>

<p>In Galicia and in Bukowina, the foresters meet
as a section of the Society for Soil Culture. The same
method of forming forestry sections of the agricultural
societies is followed in other parts of the empire,
and at least a dozen or more other local foresters&#8217;
associations might be mentioned, in which owners of
forest properties are as fully represented as professional
foresters; and their activity is not only to be found
in literary labors, but also in practical work. In addition
to the meetings of these local societies, representative
congresses have met annually at Vienna
since 1876, and have become powerful agents for
improving legislation and practice.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Although, as was natural, owing to the difference in
conditions the forestry literature in Austria began
much later than that of Germany, a very active progress
is noticeable since the middle of the last century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
and the Austrians are vying successfully with the
Germans in this direction. The names of <i>Fioceli</i>,
<i>Pokorny</i>, <i>B&ouml;hm</i>, <i>Wiesner</i>, <i>Molish</i>, <i>Willkomm</i>, <i>Hempel</i>
and <i>Kerner</i> in the direction of forest botany, <i>Wessely</i>,
<i>von Lorenz-Liburnau</i>, <i>Feistmantel</i>, <i>Dimitz</i>, <i>Wachtl</i>
(Entomology), <i>Dombrowski</i> (encyclopedia 1886), <i>Exner</i>,
<i>Janka</i> (wood technology), <i>Guttenberg</i> (forest mensuration
and regulation), <i>von Seckendorff</i>, <i>Schiffel</i> (forest
mensuration), <i>Cieslar</i>, <i>Reuss</i>, <i>B&ouml;hmerle</i>, <i>Hufnagl</i>,
<i>Marchet</i>, and many others are familiar to all German
readers. In addition a very considerable literature in
the Bohemian language is in existence, some in the
Italian by Austrian authors, and some in the Slavonian.</p>

<p>The magazine literature began with publications
by various forestry associations which became active
after 1848. At the present time weekly, monthly,
bi-monthly, quarterly, yearly and irregular publications
to the number of not less than 14 in German,
in addition to several in Bohemian, may be counted,
among which the monthly <i>Centralblatt f&uuml;r das
Gesammte Forstwesen</i>, in existence since 1875, and
the weekly <i>Oesterreichische Forstzeitung</i>, since 1883,
are perhaps the most widely known.</p>

<h3>HUNGARY.</h3>

<p>Hungary is mainly a fertile plain, traversed by the
Danube and Theiss, an agricultural country, with the
forest confined to the hilly portions, to the mountainous
southern provinces of Slavonia and Croatia, and
to the Carpathians, which bound it on the north and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
east. Nevertheless, while wood in the plain is scarce,
the total forest area, including that of the two mentioned
provinces, is but little less than that of Austria
proper, namely, 23,000,000 acres (28%). Large areas
of shifting sands, and, along the Danube and Theiss
rivers, swamps, partly created by deforestation, are
interspersed with the heavy black prairie and compact
clay-soils.</p>

<p>At present, of the 23 million acres of forest the
State owns 16%, corporations somewhat over 20%,
churches, cloisters and other institutes 7.5%, and the
balance, over 13 million acres, is owned privately.
The administration of the State forests is in the
Department of Agriculture but some are still under
the control of the military and railroad departments.</p>

<p>All but the private forests are under State surveillance.
Of the private properties the majority consists
of large holdings and about ten per cent. are
entailed, a hopeful condition for conservative management.
Yet with an export of 10 to 12 million dollars
or more, exploitation would appear still to be general,
and devastated areas abound. It is claimed that half
the area is under working plans, and that the 1000
million cubic feet of annual cut do not approach the
annual increment. The State forests yield now in the
neighborhood of $600,000 net.</p>

<p>Although naturally influenced by Austrian precedent,
forestry matters in Hungary like all matters
of administration are largely independent of Austria,
the connection being only in the identity of the
ruler.</p>

<p>The forests, which had been for the most part the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
property of the kings of the Arpad dynasty, had by
them been turned over from time to time in donations
to the churches, cloisters and to colonists, so
that when the Hapsburgs succeeded on the throne,
in 1526, only a small portion remained undisposed,
and this became State property.</p>

<p>In the forests which were necessary for the working
of the royal mines and furnaces, an attempt was early
made to secure systematic treatment under an ordinance
(1565) which gave instructions as to the order
of fellings, the reservation of seed trees, etc. But,
otherwise, the government did not make much effort
at regulating forest use until the middle of the 18th
century, and then, largely owing to military considerations,
urged by General von Engelshofen commanding
on the frontier against the Turks. The
planting of forests for defense was ordered (1743)
by Maria Theresa, but this order was probably never
executed.</p>

<p>About this time, however, movements of reform in
various directions are noticeable. Complete working
plans were made for the Kremnitz forest in 1750, and
for the Schemnitz forest in 1763. The forest ordinances
of 1770 and 1781 and the law of 1791 attempted
to regulate the use of communal forests, and ordered
the reservation of devastated forest areas. Other
legislation followed in 1807, designed to arrest the
further extension of shifting sands.</p>

<p>Although, since 1809, forest inspectors had been
employed to look after the execution of the forest
laws, mismanagement and forest destruction by promiscuous
cutting, pasture and fire remained the rule,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
and with the advent of the railroads, in 1850, increased
apace.</p>

<p>Political troubles prevented any attempts at improvement
until, in 1867, comparative peace and the
new r&eacute;gime had arrived, and finally, in 1879, it became
possible to pass a reform law, which is the basis of
present conditions.</p>

<p>A general forest law had been enacted in 1807;
this was superseded in 1858 by the adoption of the
Austrian law of 1852. But, in 1879, a new law reorganized
forest policy and forest service. In that year,
the State interests were placed under the administration
of the Department of Agriculture with a
technical forester at the head (Oberlandforstmeister),
assisted by four section chiefs, one in charge of the
State forest administration, one for the administration
of corporation forests, one for the elaboration of
working plans, and one, with the assistance of 20
forest inspectors having supervision of the execution
of all forest laws. Otherwise the general features of
German administrative methods prevail, except that
for purposes of executing the protective forest laws,
committees composed of three members chosen from
the country officials co-operate with the government
service.</p>

<p>The law of 1879, modified and intensified in 1898,
provides government supervision of the management
of corporation and of protection of forests, and prescribes
that land unfit for farming, i.e., absolute forest
soil (three-quarters of all forest land), no matter by
whom owned, is to be reforested within six years after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
having been stripped, and no new clearings may be
made on such soils. Mountain forests, which are
classed as protection forests (around one million acres
or 5.4% of the forest area so classed), as well as entailed
properties, must be managed according to
working plans approved by the forest department.
The declaration of protective forests was to be made
by a commission within five years of the enactment
of the law. New planting for protective purposes
could also be ordered, and this under certain conditions
may be done by the interested, i.e., protected
parties, which may associate themselves for this
purpose. Violations of this law are liable to be punished
by a fine for each acre, imposed annually as long
as the offense continues. Two-thirds of the whole
forest area is thus more or less under State supervision,
and working plans for over 12 million acres have been,
or are to be prepared by the government. An area
allotment method with a normal forest formula as a
check has been mostly employed in this work, which
is by no means as yet completed.</p>

<p>To promote forest planting several nurseries have
been established by the government, from which
around 10 million plants are annually distributed
free of charge, and subventions for reforestation of
wastes are also granted annually. It is interesting
to note in this connection that more than 170,000 acres
have been planted to Black Locust, which is managed
as coppice for vineyard stakes.</p>

<p>In 1884, a special fund for the purchase of forest
land by the State was instituted by turning all moneys
received from eventual sales of forest land into that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
fund. Another fund for forest improvement is accumulated
by placing four-fifths of all penalties collected
for forest trespasses into a separate account for that
purpose. These funds have not accumulated very
fast, the forest improvement fund, in 1896, being only
about $120,000.</p>

<p>Similar to the Landes in France, there exist in
various parts of Hungary extensive sand wastes and
shifting sands, partly caused by deforestation. Ever
since 1788, legislation has attempted to secure a rehabilitation
of these waste areas, which cover in all
some 600 square miles. In 1817, a first systematic
beginning was made in the Banat, on the &#8220;Alf&ouml;ld&#8221;
of the Magyars, under the forest director <i>Bachofen</i>,
similar to <i>Br&eacute;montier&#8217;s</i> undertaking in France. By
1842, the total plantations amounted to about 12,000
acres, and by 1869, some 20,000 acres had been reforested,
and parts of the plantations had begun to
yield profits. But even to-day, there are still large
areas in a desert condition.</p>

<p>A classic volume in German by <i>Joseph Wessely</i>,
Hungarian forest director, <i>Der europ&auml;ische Flugsand
und seine Kultur</i>, describes in detail the principles
and methods of reclamation of shifting sands.</p>

<p>Most of the Hungarian forestry literature being
written in the Magyar language, is inaccessible to
the rest of the world.</p>

<p>Efforts by private endeavor to promote forestry
education date back as early as 1796, when Forest
Inspector <i>Vizner</i> opened an elementary forest school
and wrote a forestry catechism.</p>

<p>This effort was followed, in 1806, by introducing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
subject in the agricultural school at Keszthely, and,
in 1808, in the school of mines in Schemnitz (Selmecz
banya), a German forester <i>Wilkins</i> filling the chair,
while a special forest school was established at Hermannstadt
in 1817.</p>

<p>The forestry courses at Schemnitz were enlarged
and the school re-organized in 1846 and again in 1872;
one of the changes being the use of the Hungarian
language in its instruction, which had originally been
in German. In 1904, the course, which was 3 years and
only optionally 4 (one year for engineering education),
was made 4 years for all, and is obligatory for all
higher grade State officials.</p>

<p>In Croatia-Slavonia, which is in many respects
separately administered, an agricultural and forestry
school exists at Kreutz (K&ouml;r&ouml;s) with a three-year
course.</p>

<p>For the lower service four schools of two-year
courses have been established by the government,
the instruction being given by practitioners, and some
of the students receiving free tuition.</p>

<p>A forest experiment station was established in
1898; it issues a quarterly magazine, <i>Irdeszeti Kiserletek</i>,
in which its results are recorded.</p>

<p>A Hungarian forestry association was formed in
1866; it issues a monthly journal, distributes pamphlets,
gives prizes for literary effort, etc., and is, with
over 2000 members, an active agent in the work of
reform. A separate forestry association, which also
publishes a monthly in the Slavish language, exists
in Croatia.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>

<h2>SWITZERLAND.</h2>

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<blockquote>

<p>A very good brief statement of present conditions of forestry in Switzerland
with some historical references may be found in <i>Handw&ouml;rterbuch der Schweizerischen
Volkswirthschaft</i>, Berlin 1903, with two chapters by <span class="smcap">Dr. J. Coaz</span> and
Prof. <span class="smcap">C. Bourgeois</span>.</p>

<p>F. FANKHAUSER, <i>Geschichte des bernischen Forstwesens bis in die neuere
Zeit</i>, Bern 1893, gives insight into the developments in one of the cantons,
beginning in 1304.</p>

<p>LANDOLT, <i>Ueber die Geschichte der Waldungen und des Forstwesens</i>,
Z&uuml;rich, 1858.</p>

<p><i>L&#8217;&eacute;volution foresti&egrave;re dans le canton de Neuch&acirc;tel, Histoire-Statistique</i> 1896.</p>

<p>BURRI, <i>Die kulturgeschichtliche Entwicklung und wirthschaftliche Bedeutung
des schweizerischen Waldbestands</i>, Luzern 1898.</p>

<p>MEISTER, <i>Die Stadtwaldungen von Z&uuml;rich</i>, 2d ed, 1903, exhibits on 225
pages in great detail the history and methods of management of this remarkable
city forest of only about 3,000 acres.</p>

<p><i>Report of the British Foreign Office on Swiss Forest Laws</i>, by CONWAY
THORNTON, 1888, gives a very satisfactory expos&eacute; of the earlier legislation.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The interest which we have in the development of
forestry in this small territory, of somewhat less than
16,000 square miles with over three million people,
lies in the fact that it is a republic, or rather an aggregation
of republics, the oldest in existence, and that,
occupying an Alpine mountain country, it has developed
a unique co-operative policy of forest protection.
Being largely German by origin and sentiment,
German influence on the development of forestry
methods, outside of the administrative measures,
has here been as strong as in Austria.</p>

<p>Switzerland did not exist as a power in name until
the 17th century, and as a unit not until the reconstruction
of 1815, and in its present settled condition
and constitution not until 1848, although the nucleus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
of its political existence dates back at least 600 years,
when, in 1291, the people of the three forest cantons,
Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, formed their first
league to resist encroachments on their rights by the
church and by the feudal barons.</p>

<p>The country became settled, similarly to Germany,
by Germans, and especially Burgundians, a free
people; but when the control of the Oberm&auml;rker over the
free communities began to ripen into feudal superiority,
it found resistance in the forest cantons, and
these formed a league to fight the duke of Hapsburg,
who partly as feudal lord, partly as Reichsvogt,
the emperor&#8217;s representative, claimed obnoxious
rights. Through admission of neighboring lands and
cities to the league, the number of confederates had
by the middle of the 14th century grown to eight,
and when, by the battles of Sempach (1386) and
N&aelig;fels (1388), the Austrian Hapsburg supremacy
had been permanently destroyed, the number of
allies grew, and, by conquest and annexation and
otherwise, their territory attained nearly the present
size by the middle of the 15th century; the
war against feudalism being the cause for this
growth.</p>

<p>These various small republics, however, always
formed a part of and owed allegiance to the German
Empire, although they resisted the arms of the Emperor
as Archduke of Austria&mdash;until, with the peace
of 1499, this connection became entirely nominal.
The final separation from the German empire and
acknowledgement of independence was not pronounced
until the peace of Westphalia, in 1648.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>

<p>The league of cantons was only a very loose confederation
without any central power, although a
diet, to which each canton sent a delegate, had deliberative
functions. Almost immediately after the
alliance was formed it became fatally divided,
especially when religious differences arose, and
throughout the 16th and first half of the 17th century,
continuous warfare existed between the different
allies.</p>

<p>It must not, however, be understood that the
peasants in the different cantons were entirely free
from the ancient tyrannies. With the exception of
the three forest cantons, which were truly democratic
republics, the majority of the Swiss peasants, free
in the eyes of the outside world, were mere serfs until
the beginning of the 18th century, and secured their
freedom only after many revolts.</p>

<p>After nearly 500 years of this loose federation, it
was reserved to Napoleon to proclaim the Helvetian
Republic one and indivisible, in 1798, after a short
struggle of 74 days. This constitution fell with the
fall of Napoleon, and gave place, in 1815, to a reorganized
federation, in which the former sovereignty
of each canton was re-established, the inviolability of
the territory being guaranteed by the European
powers. Finally in 1848, the seventh and last phase
of reconstruction brought into existence the &#8220;Bund,&#8221;
the Confederation of Switzerland, very much after
the pattern of the United States, the constitution then
adopted being once more revised in 1874.</p>

<p>The country is divided into 19 entire and 6 half
states or cantons, which are a unit towards foreign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
powers, but have as much independence among themselves
as each of the United States, each self-governing.
A parliament (<i>Bundesversammlung</i>) of two
chambers&mdash;the <i>Nationalrath</i> of 145 members corresponding
to the House of Representatives, the <i>Standesrath</i>
with 44 members, equivalent to the Senate&mdash;represent
the interests of the whole federation. The
administration of the cantons lies in the hands of the
&#8220;great&#8221; and &#8220;small&#8221; councils, with an executive
ministry of three members chosen for two years by
the former council. The administration of the Bund
is in the hands of the <i>Bundesrath</i> of 7 members, elected
by the parliament, which also elects one of the members
as president for one year. The Referendum,
which, if 30,000 voters demand it within 3 months,
requires reference of any law to the direct vote of the
people is used as a check on legislation.</p>

<p>Although the larger part of the population of 3
million people is German, parts of Switzerland are
French, and other parts Italian.</p>

<p>From this brief statement of the political development
of the country it will appear that the development
of forestry must also have varied.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions and Property Rights.</i></h4>

<p>Topographic and soil conditions necessarily had
also their influence on this development. In the
plains, the plateau, and the hill country, the distinction
of forest and field as it now exists had been in
general attained in the 15th century, while in the
mountain country, forest destruction began only in
the 18th century and continued till the middle of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
19th century, stimulated by the development of the
metal industry and the improvement in means of
communication. The clearings made here were
turned into pasture and, being overpastured, became
waste lands. Thus, owing to topographic and soil
conditions, a very uneven distribution of forest has
resulted and we find a variation in forest area from 9%
(Genf) to over 39% (in the Jura) of the total land
area of the different cantons, the average being 20.6%,
leaving out of consideration the area above timber
limit (5,000 to 7,500 feet) and the waters and rocks
below. This is less than in Germany and Austria, more
than in France; but, if allowance is made for unproductive
soil which is included in the German area statements,
the percentage of forest area on productive
soil would about equal that of Germany. In the last
25 years, the area has increased by 10 per cent. to
2,140,000 acres. This area is insufficient to supply
the demand, from 15 to 25% of it being imported.
In 1907, the imports had risen to nearly 25 million
cubic feet, valued at $9 million.</p>

<p>Property rights developed at first similarly to those
developed on German soil, except that, as we have
seen, feudal conditions were not allowed to gain foothold
to the same extent, and liberty from serfdom
was secured earlier. In 1798, seigniorial rights had
pretty nearly been extinguished. At present, ownership
is still largely communal: nearly 67% are so
owned, making this property of highest forest political
importance; private owners hold only 28.5%, and the
cantonal forests represent but 4.6%; the Bund as
such owning none. It is also to be noted that communal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
property is constantly increasing by purchases
from private holdings.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>No doubt, in some parts the first beginnings of care
for forest property and forest use date back even to
Roman times. Charlemagne had his forest officials
here as elsewhere, and the number of ban forests
seems to have been especially great, some 400 &#8220;bannbriefe,&#8221;
documents establishing them, having been
collected at Bern. The first forest ordinance regulating
the use of a special forest area in Bern dates
from 1304. But the first working plan seems to have
been made for the city forest of Z&uuml;rich, the so-called
<i>Sihlwald</i>, in 1680-1697, and to this day this corporation
property, with its intensive and most profitable
management, is the pride of all Switzerland. The
Bernese cantonal forests were first surveyed and
placed under management from 1725 to 1739, and
fully regulated by 1765.</p>

<p>An excellent forest code for B&acirc;le was drawn up in
1755 by Bishop Joseph William; and in 1760, through
the propaganda of the two scientific societies of
Zurich and Bern, the teaching of forestry was begun,
and forest organization in the two cantons secured
in 1773 and 1786. The canton of Soleure (Solothurn)
was the first to start a regular system of instruction,
two citizens from each woodland district being given
the opportunity to qualify themselves as foresters.</p>

<p>Each canton had, of course, its own laws protecting
forest property against theft and fire; in the latter
respect especially great care was exercised and burning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
of brush could only be done by permit and under a
force of watchers.</p>

<p>The example of Z&uuml;rich and Bern in organizing the
management of their forest areas was followed more
or less by other cantons, but a real serious movement
is not discernible until the beginning of the 19th
century, when with the impetus of modern life and
trade the value of forest property increased, and most
cantons issued regulative forest laws.</p>

<p>Forest ordinances had from time to time attempted
to prevent the decrease of forest area by forbidding
clearings, regulating pasture, and forbidding wood
export to other villages or cantons, a local timber
famine being dreaded. But, only when a severe flood,
in 1830, had accentuated the protective value of forest
cover, were the forest ordinances more strenuously
enforced, and a general movement for better management
began in the various cantons. This was partly
signalized by sending young men to the forest schools
of Germany.</p>

<p>Largely through the influence of a lively propaganda
carried on by such men as <i>Landolt</i> and <i>Coaz</i>,
backed by the Swiss forestry association, (founded in
1848), and through the increase of torrential floods,
especially in 1834 and 1868, was it made clear that
a central power would have to be clothed with authority
to regulate the use at least of the alpine forest.</p>

<p>In 1857, the Bund ordered an investigation of the
mountain forests in all parts; this was made by Landolt.
But opposition by the cantons against restrictive
measures prevented any legislative result. At
the same time, an annual vote of $2,000 was made to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
the forestry association for reforestation and engineering
works in the Alps. This grant was changed,
in 1871, by voting an annual credit of $20,000 to be
expended by the Bundesrath for similar purposes.
The floods of 1868 brought such distress in certain
cantons that contributions from all other parts were
required to assist the flood sufferers; and $200,000
of the collections were appropriated for reforestation.
Finally, in 1874, through the effort of the forestry
association, it was determined to create a central
bureau of forest inspection for the whole Bund in the
Department of the Interior, and an article was inserted
in the constitution declaring the superior right
of oversight by the Federation over the water and
forest police in the high Alps, at the same time proposing
to aid in the engineering and reboisement work
necessary to correct the torrents, and to take measures
for the preservation of these works and forests.</p>

<p>The result was the installation of a federal forest
inspector with one assistant, in 1875, and the enactment
of a law, in 1876, which determined the area
within which the federal government was to exercise
supervision. The execution of the law was, however,
left to the cantons&mdash;the jealousies of State rights as
against federal rights being even more strongly developed
in Switzerland than in the United States.
Each canton proceeded in its own way, or neglected
to proceed, and hence no uniform progress in applying
the law was made. Indeed, not a single prescription
of the law was applied within the prescribed time,
although again and again extended, and even to-day
some cantons have not yet complied. Stubborn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
opposition to the law continues even to date in some
cantons.</p>

<p>Besides the unwillingness to submit to federal
authority, the lack of technically trained foresters&mdash;their
employment being a requirement of the law&mdash;and
the objection to their employment by the cantons,
who looked on them as disguised policemen, impeded
the progress of the reform. Until 1884, each canton
held its own examinations for forest officials, but in
that year a standard was enacted for employment
within the federally supervised territory.</p>

<p>The most frequent quarrel was as to what was to
be considered forest and what pasture, so that finally
as a compromise a classification between the two,
called pasture woods, was introduced.</p>

<p>It will be noted that the federal surveillance was to
extend only to the High Alps above a certain limiting
line. This limitation was removed, in 1898, by resolution
of the Council, and change of the constitution,
by which the federal exercise of water and forest
police was extended over the whole country, and a bill
to carry this into effect was introduced. Finally, in
1902, a revised law was passed establishing fully the
present Federal forest policy.</p>

<p>This law places the surveillance of all forest police
in all forests of Switzerland in the Bund, the private
forests as well as the public, i.e., State and communal
or corporation forests. But, as there are distinctive
differences in the manner of this surveillance, a differentiation
of ownership conditions and forest conditions
was to be made by the cantons within two
years.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>

<p>The forests are to be divided into protection and
non-protection forests (by the cantons with sanction
of the Bund), the former being such as are located at
headwaters or furnish protection against snowslides,
landslides and rockfalls, floods, and climatic damage.
Most of this segregation had already been made and
mapped in consequence of the law of 1876. In 1904,
71% of the total forest area had been classed as protective
forest; nearly 80% of the communal, and over
50% of the private forest property.</p>

<p>All public forests are to be surveyed and their corners
permanently marked by the cantons according
to instructions by the Bund, the latter furnishing the
needed triangulation survey, and inspecting and revising
any older surveys free of charge.</p>

<p>The surveyed public forests are to be fully regulated
according to a sustained yield management,
under working plans made according to instructions
by the Cantons, to be sanctioned by the Bundesrath.
For the unsurveyed forest areas at least a provisional
felling budget is to be determined, as nearly as possible
representing the sustained yield. In protection forests
the working plans must conform to the objects of these
forests, and clearings in these are as a rule forbidden.
The fellings are to be made under direct supervision
of foresters, and, after being cut, the wood must be
measured. Sale on the stump is forbidden, otherwise
no interference in the management is intended.</p>

<p>Up to 1902, under the law of 1876, working plans
for 540,000 acres had been made. In 1907, 90,000
acres of State forest, and over one million acres of
corporation forests were under working plans.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>

<p>For other than protection forests the law provides
a number of restrictions, such as the following: Pasture
woods may not be decreased in area except by
permission of the cantons. Communal forests are not
to be subdivided without consent of the cantonal
government, except where two or more communities
have joint ownership, nor are they to be sold except
with such permission. Rights of user in public forests,
especially in protection forests, may be forcibly extinguished
by the cantonal government, but under
appeal to the Bundesrath. Money equivalents are
to be the rule, territorial equivalents to be given only
by special permission. By 1902, over $300,000 had
already been spent in extinguishing 2,842 different
rights of user. The establishment of means of transportation,
roads, etc., is encouraged by subventions
from the Bund and in other ways.</p>

<p>Private forests as far as they fall under the classification
of protection forests are subject to the same
supervision and rules as the public forests as regards
their survey, the prohibition of clearings except by
permission of the Federal Government, of diminishing
pasture woods, the extinguishment of rights of
user, the prevention of damaging use, and assistance
in establishing means of transportation. The cantonal
government is obliged to insure the execution of these
laws.</p>

<p>In addition, while the law encourages co-operative
forest management of small holdings as larger units,
the Bund paying for the cost of effecting such co-operation,
it empowers the canton or the Bund to
enforce such co-operative management of protection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
forest areas in specially endangered localities as at
the headwaters of torrential streams. Otherwise,
in the non-protective private forests, only the prohibition
of clearing except by permission of the
cantonal government, the obligation of reforesting
felling areas within three years, and of maintaining
existing pasture woods is ordered. Wherever on
private properties conversion of forest into farm or
pasture is permitted (after report of the forest administration
of Canton or Bund) an equivalent reforestation
of other parts may be ordered. Wherever
by the reforestation of bare ground protective forest
areas can be created, this may be ordered, the Federal
or the Cantonal government contributing towards
such work; or else, if the owner prefers, he may insist
upon having his ground expropriated by the Canton
or other public corporation; the federal government
assisting in the first case to the extent of 30 to 50%
of the cost, and in establishing new protection forests
to the extent of 50 to 80%.</p>

<p>Before 1902, under the law of 1876, some 16,000
acres had been reforested and put in order at an expense
of over one million dollars, the federal government
contributing just about fifty per cent. In 1910,
the area of planted protection forest had grown to
25,000 acres.</p>

<p>Besides the various restrictions with provisions of
penalties for disobedience (from $1 to $100 for each
transgression) and enforced execution by cantonal
government, there are a number of directions in which
the Federal Government makes contributions for the
purpose of encouraging conservative management.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
For the salaries of the cantonal higher forest officials
20 to 35 per cent. are contributed, for the higher corporation
and co-operative association officials 5 to
25 per cent., for the lower forest service 5 to 20 per
cent. The Federation participates to the extent of
one-third in the accident insurance of forest officers;
a minimum salary of the officials and also their
proper education being made conditions. To secure
the latter the Federation pays for teachers and demonstration
material under prescribed conditions.</p>

<p>In 1901, the federal contributions amounted to
$100,000 in all. In 1903, the total appropriation was
$126,000, namely, $9,000 for the Inspector-General&#8217;s
office; $26,000 towards salaries of cantonal foresters;
$80,000 towards reboisement; $8,000 towards survey.
The cantonal governments contributed about the
same amount outside of the cost of their forest administrations.
It is estimated that the budget will
have to be increased by $50,000 annually for some time
to come. By 1910, the federal government had
altogether contributed $2 million in the 35 years
towards the execution of the law, outside its administrative
office.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The organization which is to carry out this forest
policy is still the one which originated with the law
of 1876, somewhat modified by the law of 1892,
namely, a forestry division in the Department of the
Interior, with one Superior Forest Inspector and three
assistants.</p>

<p>The Cantons have their own administrations,
mostly under one forester of higher grade (called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
variously Oberf&ouml;rster, Forstinspektor, Forstmeister,
Oberforstmeister). Bern has three co-ordinate Forstinspektor.
The Cantons are or are to be districted
into forest circles (Forstkreise), the subdivision to be
approved by the Bundesrath, and some are further
subdivided into ranges (Unterf&ouml;rsterei). These forest
districts, from 7,500 to 45,000 acres each, are to be
managed by properly educated and paid foresters
elected by the people. The eligibility depends upon
an examination, the theoretical part of which is conducted
by the forest school, the practical part, after
a year&#8217;s practical work, is conducted by a commission
of foresters, after completion of which the candidate
becomes eligible; the election being for three years,
and re-election being usual, unless there are good
reasons against it.</p>

<p>In 1903, there were employed as administrators
or managers 119 State (Cantonal) foresters and 33
Communal foresters, besides 11 Federal forest officials.
In 1909, the total number had grown to 193, besides
1091 under-foresters, to whose salaries the Bund contributed.
The State foresters are allowed to manage
neighbouring communal properties.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Forestry Practice.</i></h4>

<p>The timber forest is the most general form of silvicultural
management. Selection forest with 150 to
200 year rotations is practised in the Alps and in the
smaller private forest areas. Shelterwood system
in compartments is in use in other parts (with a rotation
of 60 to 80 years in the deciduous, and 80 to 120
years in conifer forest), supplanting largely the clearing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
and planting system which had found favor during
the middle of last century.</p>

<p>In corporation forests, large areas are still under
coppice with standards, but will probably soon be converted
into timber forest, a policy favored by cantonal
instructions. Pure coppice is only rarely met, usually
confined to the overflow lands and small private
holdings. In some of the public forests in the French
territory it is practised with a &#8220;double rotation&#8221;
(<i>furetage</i>) according to French pattern.</p>

<p>Artificial means to secure complete stands in natural
regenerations is favored by the cantonal regulations,
but thinning operations are still mostly neglected,
except where local market for inferior material makes
them advisable, which is mostly in the plains country,
where the annual yield from thinnings may represent
30% of the total harvest yield.</p>

<p>Conversion from coppice and coppice with standards
into timber forest, and change from clearing systems
to natural regeneration (proper for mountain forest),
and from pure to mixed forest have become general
provisions of the working plans.</p>

<p>The average cut in the State forests during four
years prior to 1893 was over 64 cub. ft. p. acre, and
42 cub. ft. for the corporation forests; an average for
all the public forests of round 45 cub. ft.,&mdash;not a very
good showing as yet. So far, the collection of material
for yield tables and for a statement of increment and
stock on hand in the country at large are still insufficient,
although, in 1882, Prof. Landolt estimated the
annual product at little less than 500 million cubic
feet, or 50 cubic feet per acre.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p>

<p>Only for the intensively managed city forests of
Z&uuml;rich and the cantonal forests of Bern are more
accurate data available. In the latter, the State
forests yield 50 cubic feet in the plateau country,
73 cubic feet, in the middle country, and 76 cubic feet
in the Jura, while the communal forests of that canton
yield 15, 66 and 56 cubic feet respectively. Prices for
wood are higher in the low country than the average
in Germany and have been steadily rising for the last
40 years, especially for coniferous saw material which
at present brings stumpage prices of 12 to 15 cents.</p>

<p>Owing to these high prices the gross yield of some
Swiss forests is the largest known in Europe; the city
forest of Z&uuml;rich, exhibiting yields of $12, and the
city forest of Aarau as much as $14 per acre on the
average, although in the Alps forests the gross yield
sinks to $3 and $4. The more intensively managed
city forests mentioned spend on their management
$6 and even $7 per acre, while most of the State forests
keep their expenditures within $2.50 to $3.50, and
in some places down to $1.50 per acre. The net yields
vary therefore for the State and communal forests
of the plateau country between $3 and $6.50 for some
of the city forests from $6.50 to $8 and $9.</p>

<p>Switzerland has long ago ceased to produce its wood
requirements, and imports from 8 to 9 million dollars
annually of wood and wood manufactures.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Education and Literature.</i></h4>

<p>For the education of the higher forest officials the
Federal government instituted a two year course at
the Polytechnicum at Z&uuml;rich which was founded in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
1885, the course being, in 1884, increased to three
years. Three professors of forestry besides the faculty
of the institution in fundamental and accessory
branches are active here, the number of students
averaging in the neighborhood of thirty-five.</p>

<p>Two examinations, a scientific and a practical one,
the latter taken before a special commission, tests the
eligibility of candidates, foreigners not excluded, for
positions. For the education of the lower grade foresters,
the Cantons themselves are responsible, the Bund
only contributing by paying for teachers and demonstration
material (about $1,250) to carry on cantonal
or intercantonal forestry courses. The courses usually
last from two weeks to two months, in succession or
divided into spring and fall courses; they are mainly
practical, and require candidates to be not less than
18 years of age and to possess a primary school education.
Their number must be at least 15, and not
more than 25. There have also been instituted specially
conducted excursions and progressive underforesters&#8217;
courses, as well as additional scientific
courses which the Bund subsidizes.</p>

<p>In connection with the Z&uuml;rich school, forestry
science and art are furthermore advanced by a well-endowed
central Forest Experiment Station, with
several substations and an annual budget of $10,000.</p>

<p>The greatest credit for the advancement of forestry
and forest legislation is due to the Swiss Forestry
Association (365 members in 1911), which was founded
in 1843, meeting annually in various places, managed
by a Committee of five elected for 3 years. This Association
is subsidized by the Bund for its educational<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
work. <i>Schweizerische Zeitschrift f&uuml;r das Forstwesen</i>
(begun 1850) is its organ, with <i>Dr. Fankhauser</i> as editor.</p>

<p>In 1898, an association of underforesters with a
special organ, <i>Der Forstwirth</i>, came into existence
(526 members in 1902), and several cantonal foresters&#8217;
associations are also active.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>In the literature, which is largely in German, with
some French and Italian volumes, notable works
have appeared and real advances in forestry science
especially with reference to management of mountain
forests are due to Swiss writers.</p>

<p>In 1767, the <i>Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&#8217;Economie de Zurich</i> published
a foresters&#8217; manual, and during the first quarter of the
nineteenth century, <i>Zschokke</i> and <i>Kasthofer</i> developed
silviculture in the Alps. <i>Landolt</i>, in 1860, published
the results of his investigations (under the order of
the Bund of 1857) into the forest conditions of the
Alps, and contributed other volumes along similar lines.</p>

<p>He was succeeded by the now venerable <i>Dr. J.
Coaz</i> as Inspector-General of the Bund (still active
at 90 years of age), who also contributed to the
science of mountain reboisement and in other directions.
The work on the management of the City
forest of Z&uuml;rich by its long-time manager <i>Meister</i> is
classic. Under the active direction of <i>Anton B&uuml;hler</i> for
many years, the publication of (now under <i>Dr. Engler</i>)
<i>Mittheilungen der eidgen&ouml;ssischen Centralanstalt f&uuml;r das
forstliche Versuchswesen</i>, since 1891, have become important
contributions to forestry science. In the direction
of wood technology the name of <i>L. Tetmajer</i>, who
is conducting timber tests, should be mentioned.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>

<h2>FRANCE.</h2>

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<blockquote>

<p>No complete monographic history of forestry in France is in existence, and
mainly incomplete notes scattered through various volumes were at the disposal
of the writer.</p>

<p>The work which contains the largest amount of historic information is <span class="smcap">G.
Huffel</span>, <i>Economie Foresti&egrave;re</i>, 3 volumes, 1904-1907, pp. 422, 484, 510, perhaps the
most ambitious work in the French language, which has been largely followed in
the account here given. It is a collection of ten studies, historical data being
interspersed throughout the three volumes, the third volume containing one study
entirely historical.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">L. F. A. Maury</span>, <i>Les for&ecirc;ts de la Gaule et de l&#8217;ancienne France</i>, 1867, 501 pp. is
mainly descriptive, but full of interesting historic data and detail up to the revolutionary
period.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jules Clav&eacute;</span>, <i>Etudes sur l&#8217;&eacute;conomie foresti&egrave;re</i>,
1862, 377 pp., 12<sup>o</sup>, while mainly
a propagandist essay, rehearses to some extent the history of forest practice,
policies, etc., and gives a good insight into conditions at that time.</p>

<p><i>Die forstlichen Verh&auml;ltnisse Frankreichs</i>, by Dr. <span class="smcap">A. v. Seckendorff</span>, 1879,
pp. 228, furnishes a few historical notes.</p>

<p>Three English publications by <span class="smcap">John Croumbie Brown</span>, <i>Pine Plantations in
France</i>, <i>Reboisement in France</i>, 1876; <i>French Forest Ordinance of 1669</i>, 1882,
are profuse and not entirely accurate, but give hints of historic development.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ch. Guyot</span>, <i>L&#8217;enseignement forestier en France</i>, 1898, 398 pp., gives an insight
into the development of forestry education and a complete history of the school
at Nancy, and throws much light on other developments.</p>

<p><i>Code de la l&eacute;gislation foresti&egrave;re</i>, <i>par</i> <span class="smcap">Puton</span>,
contains all the legislation having
reference to forests.</p>

<p>An article on <i>L&#8217;id&eacute;e foresti&egrave;re dans l&#8217;histoire</i>, by <span class="smcap">L. F.
Tessier</span>, in Revue des
eaux et for&ecirc;ts, 1905, Jan., Feb., gives on 26 pages an interesting brief survey of
the history of forest policy in France.</p>

<p><i>Forestry in France</i>, by <span class="smcap">F. Bailey</span>, in the <i>Indian Forester</i>, 1886, 61 pp., describes
well conditions at that time.</p></blockquote>

<p>France is one of the countries in which forestry
has been practised for a long time and forestry practice
has been almost as highly developed as in the
preceding Teutonic countries.</p>

<p>Germany&#8217;s neighbor to the West has evolved,
however, forest policies and practices which are
different in some respects from those of Germany,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
although the early history of forestry in France was
largely analogous to that of Germany. Indeed, until
the end of the ninth century, the two countries being
undivided, the same usages existed more or less in
both, except that in the Gallic country Roman influence
left a stronger imprint, Gallia having been
long under the dominion of Rome.</p>

<p>The fact that France has for nearly a thousand
years been a unit, while Germany has until recently
been split up into many independent principalities,
did much for uniform, albeit less ambitious, development
in forestry matters.</p>

<p>Most of the forest policy as it exists to-day was
inaugurated during the monarchical regime, which
came to an end in 1871. Since that year, a republican
form of government, with an assembly of 584, a
senate of 300 members, under a President elected by
the legislature for seven years, has been in existence.</p>

<p>The country is principally a plain, mostly below
1200 feet in altitude, sloping to the north and west;
the mountain ranges (Pyren&eacute;es, Alps, Jura, Vosges)
are confined mainly to the south and east boundaries,
with secondary ranges (Cevennes, C&ocirc;te d&#8217;Or, Auvergne,
etc.,) in the southeast part of the country.</p>

<p>Of the 204,000 square miles of territory, just about
18 per cent. is wooded, which, with a population of
nearly 40 million, leaves only about .6 of an acre
per capita.</p>

<p>In its present condition this area does not produce
more than one-third of the home demand, which requires
on the average an import in excess over export
to the amount of about 25 million dollars ($33 million<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
in 1902), representing over 110 million cubic feet
annually, mostly workwood, while the export is of
mine props and railroad ties at about half the value
of the imported wood.</p>

<p>Since, in 1892, there were still nearly 12% (over
15 million acres) waste land, opportunity for enlargement
of the forest area seems to exist. It appears that
about two-thirds of this waste land is capable of
bearing forest, and the existing forest area is capable
of much larger production than the present; three
quarters of the production being fuel wood.</p>

<p>The distribution of forest area is very uneven,
varying from 3.5 to 56 per cent. in the various departments.
Only about 20% of the area is located
on the mountains, 19% in hill country, and 60% in
the plains.</p>

<p>Six forest regions may be differentiated according
to Huffel, which, however, are mainly geographical
divisions: the northeast; valleys of Seine and Loire;
northwest and central; southwest and Pyrenees;
Mediterranean and Pre-alps; Alps.</p>

<p>Hardwoods, oak (40%), beech and ash, etc., occupy
fully 80%, while pine&mdash;the two species <i>silvestris</i> and
<i>maritima</i>, largely planted&mdash;represents the bulk of the
20% of coniferous forest area, fir, spruce and larch in
the mountains forming a very small part.</p>

<p>Only 25% of the forest area is timber forest, 38%
is coppice, and 35% coppice with standards, 2%
being in process of conversion into timber forest. In
the State forests alone, however, 68% are timber
forest or in process of conversion to that form.</p>

<p>Of the 227 million acres, hardly more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
one-third, belonging to state and communities, are
placed under the <i>r&eacute;gime forestier</i>, i.e., supervised and
managed under working plans. The larger area is
under coppice.</p>

<p>Three-fourths of the communal and one-sixth of
the state&#8217;s timber forest is managed under selection
system. Combinations of farm and forest culture
(<i>sartage</i> and <i>furetage</i>) are still quite extensively practised.
The production of saw-timber under these
practices is naturally small. Of the 40 cubic feet of
wood per acre produced in the better class of managed
state and communal properties, only 10 cubic feet
are saw-logs, and if the private forests were taken into
consideration, the average product, on the whole
would appear still smaller, the private properties
being mostly small, poorly managed, and largely
coppice. Neither the owners, nor their managers and
guards have, as a rule, any professional education,
although the means of obtaining it exist in the schools
at Nancy and Barres.</p>

<p>Blessed for the largest part with a most favorable
climate and with rich soil of tertiary formation, the
difficulties in forestry practices experienced by other,
more northern and continental countries are hardly
known. Hence many practices which are successful in
France might in Germany prove disastrous, and such
yields as some of the oak forests show, unattainable.</p>

<p>The greatest interest for the forester attaches to
the methods of conversion of coppice into timber
forest, to the extensive areas reforested during the
last century, which probably exceed 3 million acres,
and to the reboisement work in the mountains.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>

<h4>1. <i>Development of Forest Property.</i></h4>

<p>As in Austria, private ownership of forest property
is largely preponderant, while state property is small.</p>

<p>In ancient Gaul, the Romans found the forest outside
of holy groves as communal property. After
the conquest, all the unseated lands, especially the
extensive mountain forests, were declared either State
or imperial property&mdash;more than half the whole territory&mdash;and
were managed as <i>res publica</i> by the administrators
of public affairs. And while later, with
the advent of the German hordes, property conditions
shaped themselves somewhat according to their ways,
the influence of the Roman law and institutions were
never quite eradicated.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The country, outside of the public property, was
by the Romans divided into communities, called
<i>fundus</i>, each placed under a Gallic seigneur (<i>eques</i>), a
former chief, now proprietor, his tribesmen and the
remnants of the earlier sessile population becoming
serfs. One-third of the <i>fundus</i> was handed to the
serfs as their property and divided among them&mdash;the
first private property&mdash;; another third was retained
by the seigneur and utilized by means of the service
of the serfs (<i>corv&eacute;es</i>), but usually also burdened by
rights of user on their part; and the last third became
common property of the community at large. There
remained, however, here and there, also, some of the
original free communes or Mark (<i>vicus</i>), so that five
different property classes were in existence.</p>

<p>The 5th century saw the Teutonic tribes, Suevi,
Alani, Vandals and Burgundians, overwhelm the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
Romans, who had for 500 years kept the Gallo-Celtic
population under their rule; and these were
followed by Visigoths and Franks, who in turn took
possession of the country. The conquerors did not
drive out the Gallo-Romans, but merely quartered
themselves on them under the euphemistic title of
&#8220;guests,&#8221; assuming to themselves two-thirds of each
estate, and leaving the remainder to their &#8220;hosts.&#8221; On
these lands, undoubtedly, similar economic and social
institutions were developed as in Germany. Communal
ownership under these was at first developed
to such an extent that the Salic laws declared all trees
which were not reserved by special sign as subject
to the use of all and any of the Markers. But later,
as in Germany, the socialistic Mark was followed
by the feudal system with its ban forests and the
creation of great landed proprietors or lords.</p>

<p>When Clovis, the king of the Franks, in the first
decade of the 6th century defeated the Visigoths and
took possession of the country (see <a href="#Page_29">p. 29</a>), he found
communal forests of the villagers (<i>vicus</i>), property
of seigneurs (<i>equites</i>), royal forests and State forests,
remnants of Roman origin. The latter properties
and much of the Mark forests he claimed for himself
and divided two-thirds among his vassals; but the
larger part of the other third became also gradually
property of the nobility and church, so that, by the
12th century, only a relatively small royal property
remained. Afterwards, the royal or State property
grew again in various ways, as the power of the kings
grew. In 1539, Francis I declared the same inalienable.
But neither himself nor his successors paid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
heed to this self-imposed prohibition and, whenever
financial troubles made it expedient, they disposed
of some of their holdings.</p>

<p>By the ordinance of 1566 (<i>Edit de Moulins</i>), King
Charles IX again declared the domain of the crown
inalienable. Nevertheless he himself in the same year,
and repeatedly afterwards, sold parts of his domain.
Henry III, in 1579, renewed the ordinance of non-alienation
and restored some of the last parcels to
the domain by the exercise of the royal right. Himself
and his successors, however, continually broke
this contract, and the royal domain decreased while
that of the seigneurs grew. Similarly to what happened
in Germany, the church property was taken
by machination or force to increase the holdings of
kings or seigneurs. Nevertheless, at the beginning
of the revolution in 1789, the royal domain comprised
not more than 1,200,000 acres, producing a net income
of 1.2 million dollars. Then followed an era
of ups and downs, continuous changes of policy,
increases and decreases of the property until with
the inauguration of the republic, in 1871, comparative
stability was secured.</p>

<p>In 1791, after the revolution, the royal property
became national domain, and by further spoliation
of church property, and otherwise, attained an area
of 4,300,000 acres. In the law of 1791, a distinction
was made between the inalienable domain, which
comprises roads, canals, fortresses, harbors, etc., and
the alienable national domain, including the forest
and other property derived from royal or crown
domains. To this national domain was added, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
the law of 1792, the forest property of the refugees of
the revolution which was, however, later for the most
part restored or indemnified. Finally, when, by the
treaty of Basel (1795), the French frontier had been
pushed to the Rhine, the total state forest had grown
to around 6,500,000 acres, nearly one-third of the
total forest area.</p>

<p>But, through sales and otherwise, this area
had, by 1815, been reduced to 3,200,000 acres,
and during the period until 1872, the area had
been further again reduced to less than 2,500,000
acres. At present (1905) it comprises 2.9 million
acres, or less than 12 per cent., of the
total forest area, 55 per cent. of which comes
from the original royal domain, 22 per cent. from
original church property and 23 per cent. from recent
acquisitions, secured under the laws of reboisement
of mountains, sand dunes, etc.</p>

<p>The communal property developed largely in a
similar manner as in Germany, from the Mark, and
through the feudal system, with its rights of user as
a result. In the twelfth century, the grandees or
seigneurs were active in colonizing their domains,
acquired as fiefs or otherwise, with serfs and others,
giving them charters for villages with communal
privileges and rights. Under this method, another
kind of communal forest property grew up, by written
instruments or contracts, in which limitations and
reservations of rights are imposed by the seigneurs.
One of the most usual conditions of the contract
was the prevention of clearing or sale; at the same
time a new set of rights of user, this time on the part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
of the seigneur, brought new complications. One of
the worst features originating in the 14th century as
an outgrowth of feudal relations, was &#8220;the right of
the third&#8221; (<i>triage</i>), which gave to the seigneur, whenever
he wished to exercise it, one-third of the property
free of all rights of user. In this way, the communal
area was diminished until, in 1667, the widespread
abuse of this right led to an ordinance abolishing it.
It was, however, re-established by the ordinance of
1669 in all cases where the forest had been gratuitously
ceded by the seigneurs, or when the remaining
two-thirds was deemed sufficient for the needs of the
parish. Not until 1790-1792 was this exorbitant
right finally abolished.</p>

<p>As an outgrowth of the revolutionary doctrine of
1793, the most radical legislation decreed presumptive
ownership by the municipal corporations of all lands
for which the claimant could not show a deed of purchase,
excluding any title acquired as a result of
feudal relations. The day of revenge of all old wrongs
had come, and, appeal to justice being useless, the
municipalities increased their holdings freely. Although
later legislation attempted to arrest this
public theft and to restitute some of the stolen property,
much of the communal forest area of to-day
consists of this kind of ill-gotten property.</p>

<p>Another method of increasing municipal properties
was by exchange of territory for the rights of user.
Efforts to get rid of these rights, which grew up as
described and to prevent their extension were instituted
much earlier than in Germany, Philip of Valois
expressly forbidding such extension as early as 1346.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
Nevertheless they continued to grow so that, by
the middle of the 18th century, they were as general
and afforded as great a hindrance to forest management,
as in Germany. The ordinance of 1669 also
provided for the extinction of these rights, apparently
without much success, and the troublesome times
after 1789 increased their number. Only when the
orderly regime following the reign of Napoleon gave
rise to the Code Forestier (1827), was a systematic
attempt for their extinguishment by the cession of
territory and cash payment begun, and by this time
the extinction may be considered practically concluded,
at least for the state and communal property.</p>

<p>Private property, not seignorial, was but little
developed before the 16th century; after that the
frequent sales by the kings and barons gave rise to
small forest owners, so that, by 1789, over 10 million
acres were in such possession. During the 19th century
this grew by purchase, by cessions, and by reforestation
of waste lands to double that amount,
not less than two million acres being added by the
latter cause alone, while some decrease came from
clearings.</p>

<p>In 1905, private holdings comprised 15 million
acres or 65 per cent. of the total; the communal and
institutional forests 4.8 million acres or 21 per cent.,
leaving for State forest 2.9 million acres, or a little
over 12 per cent. of the total of 22.7 million acres.
Twenty-two per cent. of state and communal property
is, however, waste land, and such areas in private
hands may be six times as large; there being altogether
between 14 and 15 million acres of waste lands.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Administration.</i></h4>

<p>In the earlier times, and, indeed, into the 18th
century, the most important use of the forest was in
the mast from oak and beech for the pigs and
pasture for the cattle, besides firewood, for which
mostly the soft woods were used. This was given
free from the royal domain, and the administration
consisted mainly in regulating this use. The main
incentive for the regulation of forest use on the part
of the king were the interests of the chase.</p>

<p>Towards the end of the ninth century, special
forest officers, <i>forestarii</i>, are mentioned in Charlemagne&#8217;s
celebrated <i>capitularium</i>, which describes
in detail the administration of the public domains.
These were, to be sure, only lower rank officials,
working under mayors, intendants and the count
(<i>comes</i>), who was the administrator and soon independent
arbiter of the royal domain as well as of the
administration of justice in general. His office early
became hereditary.</p>

<p>The first mention of &#8220;forest masters&#8221; (<i>ma&icirc;tres
des eaux et for&ecirc;ts</i>) dates back to 1291, and later ordinances
mention higher officials. But the credit for
a full and detail organization and regulation of
management belongs to Charles V, the wise Valois,
in his ordinance of 1376. This organization, after
various changes, by the end of the 16th century, under
the reign of Henry IV, took about the following form:</p>

<p>Under a general superintendent of forests, titulary
head of the forest service, a number of <i>grands ma&icirc;tres</i>,
<i>g&eacute;n&eacute;raux r&eacute;formateurs des eaux et for&ecirc;ts</i>, some 17,
were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
appointed by the King to watch over the conduct of
the <i>ma&icirc;tres</i> and <i>gruyers</i>, officers in charge of the forest
districts (<i>ma&icirc;trises</i>). All of these officials had their
deputies and lieutenants under various designations
(<i>procureur du roi</i>, <i>greffier</i>, <i>gardemarteau</i>, <i>sergent du
garde</i>, etc.)</p>

<p>A stamping hammer (kept by the <i>gardemarteau</i>)
was employed for marking trees which defined the
boundaries, or which were to be reserved in the fellings.
In addition to these regular officers there were employed
a great number of <i>capitaines des chasses</i> whose
functions, as the title indicates, related mainly to the
chase. The function of the forestmasters did not
stop with the supervision of the use of the forest and
sale of wood, but included also the jurisdiction of all
misdemeanors and crimes committed in the royal,
and later, in all forests. They became thus gradually
a privileged class of immense power. Graft and sale
of offices became the order of the day. Sometimes
the offices were made hereditary, and again were
limited to three or four years&#8217; tenure, in the endeavour
to break up the shameful practices. For nearly three
centuries all efforts at reform were failures.</p>

<p>The method of prescribing the rules and regulations
during the 12th to 17th century was by ordinances
like those issued by the German princes; the
first ordinance on record being that issued by Louis VI
in 1215. These ordinances usually appeared under
the name <i>Le fait des eaux et for&ecirc;ts</i> (the matters of waters
and woods), curiously enough thus suggesting the
relation of the two. The latter term was used exactly
like that of the German <i>Forst</i>, designating the reserved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
territory under the ban, while <i>bois</i> is used to designate
actual woodland (silva).</p>

<p>In 1376, Charles V, in his endeavor to build up a
navy against England, made reservations for naval
timber and also issued the ordinance of Melun, a
general forest code, the provisions of which lasted
largely until the reform of 1669. In 1402, the many
ordinances, often contradictory were codified under
one text, and another codification was made under
Francis I in 1515.</p>

<p>By the middle of the 17th century the devastation
of forests had progressed so far, and the abuses in the
management of the royal domain had become so evident
that Louis XIV&#8217;s great minister, <i>Colbert</i>, was induced
to make the historical remark &#8220;France will perish
for lack of woods.&#8221; Again the needs of the navy
was the prime incentive of the vigorous reform which
he instituted after a most searching investigation.
The result was the celebrated forest ordinance of 1669.
For this purpose he appointed, in 1662, a commission
which not only investigated conditions but was
clothed with power to reform the abuses which it
might discover. For this work he selected four trusted
men outside of the forest service, to whom later more
were added, and gave them the aid of technical advisers,
among whom <i>Froudoir</i> seems to have been most
prominent. Colbert himself gave close attention to
this work of reform. As the first act, the commission
recommended the ceasing of all cutting in the royal
forests, and, after deliberation and consultation with
interested parties through eight years, the final law
was enacted, a masterpiece whose principles and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
prescriptions to an extent have persisted into the 19th
century. The commission from time to time made
reports, giving their findings in detail, and these form
a most interesting record of conditions prevailing at
that time. As one of the historians (Joubain) puts it,
&#8220;the commissioners did not recoil before long hours
of inspection nor high influence, they neither hesitated
to declare against, nor prosecute, great and small
alike, nor to pronounce a most serious sentence.&#8221; A
thorough cleaning up was done and a complete reorganization
secured.</p>

<p>By this ordinance, three special courts of adjudication
in matters pertaining to the forests were established,
with special officers whose duties were carefully
defined, namely the courts of the <i>Gruries</i>, of the
<i>Ma&icirc;trises</i> and the <i>Tables de Marbre</i>. The first named,
lower grade courts took cognizance of the lesser
offences, abuses, wastes and malversations, disputes
in regard to fishing or chase, and murders arising out
of these; <i>gruries</i> being the woods belonging to individuals
in which the jurisdiction and the profit
from such jurisdiction belonged to the king, or at
least to the seigneurs. The courts of the ma&icirc;trise
referred to the forest territory placed under administration
of the <i>ma&icirc;tres particuliers</i> (Forstmeister), and
were established near the many royal forests as courts
of appeal in forest matters. A final appeal could be
made to the <i>tables de marbre</i> (courts of the marble
table), which also decided on the more weighty questions
of proprietorship by whatever term held, and
especially civil and criminal cases relating to the <i>eaux
et for&ecirc;ts</i>; the wrong doings in the discharge of official<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
duties (<i>abus</i>), contraventions to the orders and regulations,
misdemeanors or depredations (<i>d&eacute;lit</i>); and
all kinds of fraud not included under those cited
(<i>malversations</i>).</p>

<p>The whole country was divided into 18 arrondissements
of <i>grandes-ma&icirc;trises des eaux et for&ecirc;ts</i> and these
were divided into 134 <i>ma&icirc;trises</i>, each under a <i>ma&icirc;tre
particulier</i>, with a <i>lieutenant</i>, a <i>garde-marteau</i>, a <i>garde
g&eacute;n&eacute;ral</i>, two <i>arpenteurs</i> and a number of <i>gardes</i>. A
financial branch for the handling of moneys, and the
judicial branch represented by the three courts described
above, completed the organization, which
lasted until the revolution, albeit some details were
changed soon after its enactment, and the offices
became again purchaseable and hereditary.</p>

<p>The sale of royal forests was again forbidden,
penalties being provided for the eventual purchaser.
Theft and incendiarism were severely punished,
and specific rules of management were established.</p>

<p>Clearings could only be made by permission even
on the part of private owners. The methods of sale
and harvest were determined. The prescriptions of
older ordinances were renewed to the effect that at
least 13 to 16 seed trees (<i>baliveaux</i>) per acre in the
coppice, and 8 seed trees in timber forest, were to be
reserved in all forests without exception. Private
owners were not to cut these seed trees before they
were 40 years old in the coppice, and 120 years in the
timber forest, while in the public and church forests
these seed trees were treated like reserves. Similarly,
the prescription that no woods were to be cut before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
10 years of age was revived from former ordinances,
the time later (1787) being increased for public forests
to 25 years. Also the obligation to keep one-fourth
of the forest in reserve, which Charles IX had decreed
in 1560, was renewed for the public forests (those
belonging to corporations and other public institutions).
For the fir forests of the mountains, which
had become important as furnishers of ship masts,
special regulations were issued, and the mast timber
reserved for the crown.</p>

<p>There was lively opposition to the enforcement of
these prescriptions, especially where they interfered
with property rights, nevertheless they persisted
until the changes brought about by the revolution
of 1789.</p>

<p>Certain prescriptions, as for instance the exclusion
of sheepherding were never enforced, and this practice
continues even to-day in certain sections.</p>

<p>As a result of the reform, however, the revenues
from the royal forests trebled in 20 years.</p>

<p>During the 18th century, several famines occurred
and led to the encouragement of extending farm
operations at the expense of the forest, notably in
the sixties, when among other similar efforts some
200 families returning from Canada after the English
conquest were colonized in the forests of Poitou. At
that time, also the &#8220;declaration&#8221; of 1766 exempted
those who cleared land for farm purposes for 15 years
from all taxes. As a result of this invitation some
750,000 acres were cleared, and the practice of clearing
for farm use continued until the middle of the
19th century. In this way, by inconsiderately exposing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
soil which would not everywhere be found
adapted to farm use, wastes naturally existing were
greatly increased.</p>

<p>The revolution brought with it sudden and disastrous
changes. The law of 1791 abolished not
only the jurisdiction of the <i>ma&icirc;trises</i>, but removed
all restraint, and thereby inaugurated widespread destruction
and devastation of forest property against
which legislative attempts of the republican government
were entirely powerless. Not only did the
peasants take advantage of the disorder, and the
municipalities cut their reserves without hindrance
but extraordinary fellings in the state forests were
necessitated by the needs of the navy and the exchequer.
In 1801, after various previous attempts
at organization, Napoleon reorganized the service,
with five administrators, 30 conservators, 200 inspectors
and 8,600 inferior officers. At that time, it
appears that the revenue from the public forest domain
amounted to $6,000,000, a sum justifying such elaborate
organization. But otherwise the methods of
Colbert&#8217;s ordinance were revived. Devastation, however,
continued.</p>

<p>Incompetence in the service, was again introduced
when in 1811 half the number of officials was recruited
from superannuated army officers. In 1817, the whole
forest service was abolished, and the properties placed
in the hands of the fiscal agents of the government
without any technical knowledge. The old order of
things was, however, re-established in 1820, and soon
after the final organization which has lasted to date
was effected.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p>

<h4>3. <i>Development of Modern Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>In 1822, a commission composed of foresters was
instituted to revise the ordinance of 1669, which, here
and there modified, had continued to be valid, except
during the revolutionary period. The result of the
work of this commission was the <i>Code Forestier</i> (1829)
which is the law of the present day. In it, principles
are laid down under which the state, communal and
other public forests are to be managed.</p>

<p>All forests submitted to the <i>r&eacute;gime forestier</i>, namely,
the state and communal forests and those belonging
to public institutions, are entirely managed by the
state forest administration, the communities or
other public forest owners paying for the service not
to exceed 9 cents per acre, or 5 per cent. of the revenue.
All jurisdiction and execution of forestry laws is in
the hands of the officials of the Forest Administration.
The foresters of the state have the exclusive
responsibility of making and executing working plans,
without interference by the municipalities after the
plans have once been submitted and approved by
them. The corporations have not even the right to
appoint their own guards, all such being appointed
by the prefects of the departments upon recommendation
by the forest department.</p>

<p>The fellings, usually performed by the purchaser,
(the wood being sold on the stump), are supervised
most rigorously, making even the smallest deviations
from the conditions of the contract sale, which otherwise
would only entail the payment of damage, punishable
by fine; and the responsibility for any trespass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
which may occur on the land reaches 250 yards beyond
the limits of the purchaser&#8217;s territory, unless he gives
proper warning and tries to find out the perpetrators
of the same. Legal proceedings are brought before
the courts of correction, and are greatly simplified,
as is customary in Germany.</p>

<p>The public forests may not be sold, mortgaged or
divided, and the product can be sold only through
state foresters. As in the olden times, one-quarter
of the stands in the timber forests, and one-fourth
of the felling budget in the coppice is placed in reserve
for urgent or unforeseen needs.</p>

<p>In addition to these and other restrictions which
refer to the <i>public</i> forests, there are prescriptions
which apply to <i>all</i> woods in general. All foresters
employed, even on private properties, have sheriff&#8217;s
power. Walking in the woods with axe, saw and wagon
outside of the public roads which pass through them,
is forbidden; the making of fires is forbidden; the
making of fire lines, 20 yards wide, between private
forests can be enforced by either owner, and railroads,
along their rights of way, are required to make such.
By special law of 1893, the setting of fires even within
200 yards of a wood is forbidden in certain regions,
and the punishment of infractions of these laws is
very severe.</p>

<p>The rights of user are gauged by the administration
according to the possible yield, even in private forests,
and are surrounded by many other restrictions; the
wood falling under such rights of user is cut and delivered
by the forest agents, and the rights can be
forcibly extinguished by exchange of territory.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p>

<p>The supervision of the communal forests which
had, indeed, existed since the 16th century was by
no means an easy task. The opposition to it which
had always existed and was, in earlier times, justified
by the incompetence and graft of the officials, continued
even after this justification of it had ceased. Thanks
to the tact and efficiency of the officials of the modern
period, the opposition has been largely overcome,
and, thanks to the progress made in enforcing these
rigorous laws, their necessity has almost vanished,
and, at present, relatively few infractions need to be
investigated and punished. Moreover, the rigor of the
original law was somewhat abated by the law of 1859.</p>

<p>There are, however, voices which proclaim that the
supervision by the government is not as thorough
as it should be, and that the conditions of the communal
property have deteriorated.</p>

<p>While the supervision of the management of communal
property is mainly based on fiscal considerations,
the <i>Code forestier</i> also authorizes the administration
to interfere in the management of forests
whose influence on the public welfare can be demonstrated.</p>

<p>In order to assure the possibility of such interference,
every private owner who desires to clear land
is required to advise the government of his purpose,
when the administration can prevent such clearing,
if deemed necessary to prevent landslides, erosion
and torrential action, to protect watersources, sand
dunes, <i>for defensive purposes at the frontier</i> (!), and
for public health. Otherwise, the management of
private forest is unhampered.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p>

<p>By special legislation, enacted in 1860 and 1882,
however, the special cases of torrential action were
taken care of in a special manner, which will be set
forth in <a href="#Ref02">following pages</a>. The reboisement law of 1882
authorizes the administration to acquire by expropriation
mountain forests or mountain slopes needed
for reforestation for the sake of safeguarding them
and preventing torrential damage.</p>

<p>For Algiers, the same authorization to expropriate
was extended by law of 1903 to include all such areas
on which according to the <i>Code forestier</i> the administration
might forbid clearing, and such extension
is advocated for the mother country.</p>

<p>As a rule the administration has been able to avoid
expropriation and secure the territories by voluntary
sale at less than $10 per acre.</p>

<p>At present, the forest service is under the Minister
of Agriculture as President of the Forestry Council,
with a Director-General as Vice President and
technical head, and three <i>Administrateurs V&eacute;rificateurs
g&eacute;n&eacute;raux</i>, chiefs of the three bureaux into
which the administration is divided, each with two
chiefs of sections, Inspectors, and the necessary office
staff. For purposes of the local administration the
forest area is divided into 32 conservations, each
under charge of a <i>Conservateur</i> equivalent to the
German Oberforstmeister. These are again subdivided
into <i>Chefferies</i> or <i>Inspections</i>, two to twelve
in each conservation, which are administrative units,
under the supervision of Inspectors (200) and Assistant
Inspectors (210). In addition, a special service
for forest-organization and reboisement employs 14<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
inspectors and some 20 assistants. The forest districts
or <i>cantonments</i> (ranges) finally are under
the direct charge of <i>Gardes g&eacute;n&eacute;raux</i> (162), with
the assistance of <i>Gardes g&eacute;n&eacute;raux stagiaires</i> (67)
and underforesters or guards (<i>Brigadiers</i>) (3,650);
altogether a personnel of over 4,400 officials. While
this is a larger force per acreage, yet the expense for
personnel per acre is less than one-half that of the
Prussian forest administration, and one-quarter of
that in several of the other German state administrations.</p>

<p>In 1909, a reorganization was effected improving
to some extent the salaries.</p>

<p>The legislation of 1909 also further strengthens
State influence by placing certain private properties
under the control of the Administration, and allowing
the latter to undertake the management of private
properties at the request of owners for a consideration.</p>

<p>The budget for 1911 places the total expenditure for
the Forest Administration at 3 million dollars (98 cents
per acre), of which 950,000 for reboisement and other
improvement work. The receipts for the last five
years have averaged near 7 million dollars, so that
a net result of $1.60 per acre seems attained, considering
the expense of reboisement as new investment.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Work of Reforestation.</i></h4>

<p>The most noted work of the forest administration,
and one for which it deserves high credit, has been
that of the reclamation of waste lands, of which, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
1879, it was estimated there were still 20,000,000 acres
in extent. Especially the &#8220;reboisement&#8221; work in
the Alpine districts, as a result of the law of 1882, has
become celebrated.</p>

<p>The movement for recovery of waste lands dates
from the beginning of the 19th century, and to-day
reforestation by state, communal and private effort
encouraged by legislative acts during the last sixty
years, has restored well-nigh more than 3,000,000 acres
of ground which had been lost to forest production.</p>

<p>There are four definite regions of large extent in
which systematic effort in this direction has been
made, namely, the sand dunes of Gascony and the
Landes of Southwestern France; the sandy plains of La
Sologne; the limestone wastes of Champagne; and the
mountain slopes in the Vosges and Jura-Alps.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The sand dunes on the coast of France comprise
around 350,000 acres; those on the coast of Gascony
in Southwest France alone have an extent of nearly
250,000 acres, these being the most important and
having for a long time endangered the adjoining
pastures and fields. It seems that the land occupied
by dunes was originally forested, and that these were
created by deforestation.</p>

<p>As early as 1717, successful attempts at reforestation
were made by the inhabitants of <i>La Teste</i>, and
from that time on sporadically small plantings came
into existence. But the inauguration of systematic
reforestation was begun only after a notable report
by <i>Br&eacute;montier</i>, who, in 1786, secured, as chief engineer
of the department of Bordeaux, a sum of $10,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
to be employed in ascertaining the possibilities of
draining the Landes by means of a canal, and of
fixing the dunes. As a result of this beginning, the
method for their recovery having been, by 1793, experimentally
determined by Br&eacute;montier, 275,000
acres of moving sand have been fixed during the last
century. The revolutionary government, in 1799,
created a Commission of Dunes, of which Br&eacute;montier
was made president, and annual appropriation of
$10,000 was made, later (in 1808) increased to $15,000.
In 1817, the work was transferred to the <i>Administration
des Ponts et Chauss&eacute;es</i>. The appropriations
were increased until, in 1854, they reached $100,000
a year, and in 1865, the work being nearly finished,
the dunes were handed over to the forest administration.
There being still about 20,000 acres to be
recovered, this was achieved in 1865, when 200,000
acres had been reforested at an expense of about
$2,000,000, and an additional expense of $700,000
to organize the newly formed pine forests&mdash;<i>Pinus
maritima</i> was entirely used. These, at present,
with their resinous products and wood are furnishing
valuable material. An unfortunate policy of ceding
some of these forest areas to private and communal
owners, who claimed them as of ancient right, and
also of sales was inaugurated just as the planting
was finished, so that at present only 125,000 acres
remain in the hands of the state. The returns from
the sales, however, reimbursed the cost of the reboisement
in excess by $140,000, so that the state
really acquired for nothing, a property, now estimated
to be worth $10,000,000.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>

<p>A similar plantation on moving sands, of 35,000
acres, is found north of this tract.</p>

<p>To the eastward of this region of dunes stretch the
so-called <i>Landes</i>, a territory triangular in shape,
containing 2,000,000 acres of shifting sands and
marshes, on which a poor population of shepherds (on
stilts) used to eke out a living. In 1873, <i>Chambrelent</i>,
an engineer of the administration of bridges and roads
(<i>administration des ponts et chauss&eacute;es</i>), conceived
the idea of improving this section by reforestation,
and at his own expense recovered some 1,200 acres
in the worst marsh by ditching and planting. The
success of this plantation invited imitators, and, by
1855, the reforested area had grown to 50,000 acres.
This led, in 1857, to the passage of a law ordering
forestation of the parts of the land owned by the state
as well as by the communities, the state at the same
time undertaking the expense of building a system of
roads and making the plans for forestation free of
charge. The communities were allowed to sell a part
of the reclaimed land in order to recover the expense,
and sold some 470,000 acres for 2.7 million dollars,
of which less than $300,000 were used to forest the
250,000 acres belonging to them. From 1850 to 1892,
private owners imitating the government and communal
work, altogether nearly 1,750,000 acres were
covered with pine forest at a cost of $4.00 to $5.00
per acre, or, including the building of roads, for a
total expenditure of around $10,000,000. In 1877,
the value of the then recovered area was estimated
at over $40,000,000, this figure being arrived at by
calculating the possible net revenues of a pinery under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
a 75 years rotation, which was figured at $2.50 per
acre, with a production of 51 cubic feet per acre and
200 quarts of resin (at $3). An estimate of recent
date places the value of the recovered area at
$100,000,000.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Centrally located between the valleys of the Loire
and the Cher, near Orleans, lies the region of <i>La
Sologne</i>, a sandy, poorly drained plain upon an impenetrable
calcareous sub-soil giving rise to stagnant
waters; this region too had been originally densely
wooded, and was described as a paradise in early
times; but from the beginning of the 17th century
to the end of the 18th it was deforested, making it
an unhealthy, useless waste. By 1787, 1,250,000
acres of this territory had become absolutely abandoned.</p>

<p>About the middle of the 19th century, a number of
influential citizens constituted themselves a committee
to begin its work of recovery, the Director General
of Forests being authorized to assume the presidency
of that committee. As a result, a canal 25 miles in
length and 350 miles of road were built, and some
200,000 acres, all non-agricultural lands, were sowed
and planted with Maritime and Scotch Pine, the state
furnishing assistance through the forest service and
otherwise. A set-back occurred during the severe
winter of 1879, frost killing many of the younger
plantations, which led to the substitution of the
hardier Scotch Pine for the Maritime Pine in the
plantings. The cost per acre set out with about 3,500
two-year old seedlings amounted to $5.00. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
estimate of the value of these plantations places it
at, not less than $18,000,000, so that lands which
50 years ago, could hardly be sold for $4.00 per acre,
now bring over $3.00 as an annual revenue.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>In the province of <i>Champagne</i>, South of Rheims, a
plain of arid lime-stone wastes of an extent which
in the 18th century had reached 1,750,000 acres is
found. About 1807, the movement for the recovery
of these wastes began; first in a small way, gaining
strength by 1830 after some sporadic experiments
had shown the possibility of reforestation, and to-day
over 200,000 acres of coniferous forest (mainly Austrian
and Scotch Pine), largely planted by private
incentive, are in existence, the better acres being
farmed. It is interesting to note that land which 50
years ago was often sold without measurement by
distance, &#8220;as far as the cry would carry,&#8221; and rarely
for more than $4.00 per acre, is to-day worth over
$40.00 at a cost for planting of less than $25.00. The
stumpage value of a thirty years&#8217; growth is figured at
from $50 to $100, the total forest area is valued at
$10,000,000, with net revenue from the 200,000 acres
at $2.00 per acre.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p id="Ref02">France is unfortunate in having within her territory,
although so little mountainous, the largest proportion
of the area in Europe liable to torrential action.
Not less than 1,462 brooks and mountain streams
have been counted as dangerous waters in the Alps,
the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees mountains; or two-thirds
of the torrents of Europe. An area nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
1,000,000 acres in extent, of mountain slopes, is exposed
to the ravages of these waters by erosion.</p>

<p>Here the most forcible demonstration of the value
of a forest cover in protecting watersheds was
furnished by the results of the extensive forest
destruction and devastation which took place
especially during and following the years of the
Revolution.</p>

<p>Long ago, in the 16th century, the local parliaments
had enacted decrees against clearing in the mountains,
with severe fines, confiscation and even corporal
punishment, and these restrictions had been generally
effective; but during the Revolutionary period all
these wholesome restrictions vanished; inconsiderate
exploitation by the farmers began, and the damage
came so rapidly that in less than ten years after the
beginning of freedom, the effect was felt. Within
three years (1792), the first complaints of the result of
unrestricted cutting were heard, and, by 1803, they
were quite general. The brooks had changed to
torrents, inundating the plains, tearing away fertile
lands or silting them over with the debris carried
down from the mountains. Yet in spite of these
early warnings and the theoretical discussions by such
men as Boussingault, Becquerel and others, the destructive
work by axe, fire and over-pasturing progressed
until about 8,000,000 acres of tillable land had
been rendered more or less useless, and the population
of 18 departments had been impoverished or reduced
in number by emigration.</p>

<p>A young engineer, <i>Surell</i>, was the first to study the
possibility of coping with the evil and proved in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
<i>Etude sur les torrents</i>, in 1841, its relation to forest
cover, and the need of attacking it at the sources.
The first work of recovery was tentatively begun
in 1843, but the political events following did not
promote its extension, until, in 1860, a special law
charged the Forest Department with the mission of
extinguishing the torrents. There were recognized
two categories of work, the one, considered of general
public interest being designated as obligatory, the
other with less immediate need being facultative; the
territories devastated by each river and its affluents
on which the work of recovery was to be executed
were known as perimeters. In the obligatory perimeters,
private lands were to be acquired by the state
by process of expropriation, the communal properties
were to be only for a time occupied by the state and
after the achievement of the recovery were to be
restituted on payment of the expense of the work;
or else the corporation could get rid of the debt by
ceding one-half of its property to the state.</p>

<p>In the facultative perimeters, the state was simply
to assist in the work of recovery by gratuitous distribution
of seeds and plants, or even by money subventions
in some cases. It appeared hard that the
poor mountaineers should have to bear all the expense
of the extinction of the torrents, and much complaint
was heard. In response to these complaints, in 1864,
a law was passed allowing the substitution of sodding
instead of forest planting for at least part of the
perimeters, with a view of securing pastures; but this
method seems not to have been successful and was
mostly not employed.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p>

<p>Finally, by the reboisement law of 1882, the complaints
of the mountaineers were properly taken
care of by placing the entire expense of the reboisement
work on the state. The attitude of the mountaineers,
which was at first hostile, due to the restriction
of the pasture, has been overcome by the beneficial
results of the work, and now the most hostile
are ready to offer gratuitously their territory to the
Forest Department. Wherever necessary the state
has bought territory, and from year to year has increased
its holdings, and continues to acquire land
at the rate of 25,000 to 30,000 acres per year, the
budget of 1902, for instance, containing $1,000,000
for this purpose; that of 1911, only $40,000.</p>

<p>Altogether the state had, up to 1900, acquired
400,000 acres, of which 218,000 have been planted,
and it is estimated that about 430,000 acres more
will have to be acquired. The total expense, outside
of subventions to communities and private owners,
up to 1900 has been over $13,000,000, of which somewhat
over $5,000,000 was expended for purchases,
it is estimated that round $25 to $30 million more
will be needed to complete the work. Of the 1,462
torrents there were in 1893, 163 entirely controlled,
and 654 begun to be &#8220;cured.&#8221; Among the former,
there were 31 which 50 years ago were considered
by engineers incurable. It is estimated that, with
the expenditure of $600,000 per annum, the work
may be finished by 1945. The names of Matthieu
and Demontzey, especially the latter, are indelibly
connected with this great work.</p>

<p>Lately, however, Briot in his classical work <i>Les<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
Alpes fran&ccedil;aises</i> criticizes severely as improperly
extravagant the large expenditures in places where
the result does not warrant them, and proclaims as
illusory some of the methods adopted.</p>

<h4>5. <i>Forestry Science and Practice.</i></h4>

<p>Until the 16th century, whatever regulations
had been issued regarding forest use were merely of
administrative or police character and had nothing
to do with management or silviculture, except perhaps
so far as the number of <i>baliveaux</i>, reserved
trees to be left, might be considered as bearing upon
the subject. The <i>r&eacute;formateurs</i> who were from time
to time appointed had to deal only with judicial questions
and abuses; and usually the ordinances referred
only to special forests, but in 1563, the <i>Table de
marbre</i> of Paris issued instructions which were to
serve in all forests.</p>

<p>A futile attempt to secure statistical knowledge of
the forest domain was made, apparently with a view
to regulation of the cut, by de Fleury, the chief of
the forest service in 1561. In default of data from
many of the <i>ma&icirc;trises</i>, a provisional partial order
to regulate the cut was issued in 1573, which remained
in force for a hundred years, and was regularly disregarded,
extraordinary cuts being made without
authority and with the connivance of the officers.</p>

<p>An ordinance of 1579 describes the deplorable condition
of the forests at length, and calls for statistical
data, but again without result. A number of further
ordinances also made no impression upon the callous
and corrupt officials of the forest service.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p>

<p>A first class attempt to secure more conservative
forest use and to regulate the cut was made by Henry
IV in instituting a commission, and, as a result of its
report, issuing his general order of Rouen, in 1597, a
highly interesting document giving insight into conditions
and opinions of the foresters of that period.
It also remained without any result whatsoever.</p>

<p>Repeated replacement of the higher officials had no
more effect than the issuance of ordinances.</p>

<p>Not until Colbert&#8217;s vigorous reform in 1669 came
a change in conditions.</p>

<p>Meanwhile, some forestry notions had been developed:
a sequence of felling areas in the coppice, and
hence an area division, an idea of rotation and of
the exploitable age (10 to 20 years, although sometimes
down to 3 and 4 years), the leaving of overwood,
which became obligatory in the royal domain,
and a kind of regulation of its age (40 years&mdash;too
short according to one writer of the time to furnish
valuable trees), and some proper considerations of its
selection.</p>

<p>In the timber forest, the fellings proceeded by area
in regular order from year to year, leaving a prescribed
number of marked seed trees, at least 6 to 8
per acre, on such areas as were outside the rights of
user and removed from the likelihood of depredations;
the felling age being at least 100 years, under
the notion that the oak, the most favored species,
&#8220;grows for one hundred years, keeps vigorous but
stands still for another hundred, and declines in a
third hundred.&#8221; Sowing of acorns on prepared
ground was also ordered in the 16th century, and perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
occasionally done. Young growths were sometimes
protected by ditches or fences against cattle,
although objections were raised against the former
as impeding the chase. A diameter limit sometimes
reserved all oak and beech two feet in circumference
at six inches from the ground, the height of the stump.
Even improvement cuttings (called <i>rec&eacute;pages</i>) are on
record in Normandie, mainly for the purpose of cutting
out softwoods and freeing the young valuable
reproduction, repeated in decennial returns. Later,
thinnings assumed the character of selection fellings
and, indeed, received the name of <i>jardinage</i>. They
were continued until the time for final cut and regeneration
had arrived. In the coniferous mountain
forests, selection cutting, pure and simple, was the rule.</p>

<p>It appears, then, that quite sane notions of silviculture
existed, albeit they may not have been very
generally and very strictly carried out. Especially
during the 16th century, the maladministration of
the royal domain brought with it a decadence of the
practice in the woods; the area of the coppice increased
by clear cutting at the expense of the timber
forest, and, by Colbert&#8217;s time, all forestry knowledge
had wellnigh become forgotten.</p>

<p>The forest ordinance of 1669 attempted to reform
not only the administrative abuses but to improve
the method of exploitation hitherto practised; at
least it put in writing, codified as it were, the best
usage of the time. A commission of 21 was instituted
to make working plans and prescribe the practice.</p>

<p>The prescriptions had reference both to management
and silvicultural practice. A felling budget<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
(<i>&eacute;tat d&#8217;assiette</i>) was prescribed annually by the <i>grand
ma&icirc;tre</i> for each <i>garderie</i> (district), and felling areas
were also, sometimes, but not always, definitely
located. Besides, extraordinary fellings might be
ordered.</p>

<p>The <i>garderies</i> were divided into <i>triages</i> (now called
<i>cantons</i>), management classes or site classes under
different rotations, and the fellings proceeded in each
<i>triage</i> in sequence.</p>

<p>In each felling area, as had supposedly been the
practice, at least 8 seed trees per acre, and generally
16, besides those under the diameter limit, were to
be left&mdash;the method <i>&agrave; tire et aire</i>.</p>

<p>Intermediary fellings&mdash;thinnings&mdash;were avoided and
frowned down upon, probably because of the abuses
to which they had given rise. Meanwhile their need
grew more and more, especially in those places where
the felling method did not produce satisfactory regeneration,
and softwoods impeded the development
of the better kinds. To improve the chances for
valuable regeneration and to keep the softwoods
down, the foresters proposed the reduction of rotations
from 100 to 50 and even 40 years, and, as with
each felling the number of reserve trees had to be
left, the forest assumed a form resembling the coppice
under standards.</p>

<p>In the coniferous woods of the mountains (fir),
which in Colbert&#8217;s time appear almost like a new
discovery to his reformers, the selection forest with
a diameter limit (e.g., 6 inch at the small end of the
21-foot log) was the method most generally in vogue,
and is still to a large extent the method in use, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
somewhat better regulated and modified, sometimes
with improvement fellings added. In some parts,
especially in Lorraine, for a time, artificial regeneration
and a strip system were tried, and even a group
selection with a regeneration period of probably 25
to 30 years and an exploitable age of 100 years, was
practised in the 18th century.</p>

<p>Buffon, in 1739, proposed a treatment for the
pineries to secure natural regeneration by cutting
one-third to one-half, leaving 40 to 50 seed trees
per acre, while Duhamel (1780) considers selection
method best for larch and pine as well as fir,
although pine might, like oak, be readily reproduced
by sowing.</p>

<p>While system and orderly progress of fellings
in selection forest had gradually been established,
during the revolution this was largely
disregarded and unconservative fellings became the
order.</p>

<p><i>Guiot&#8217;s Manuel forestier</i>, published in 1770, gives
a good idea of the status of forestry at that time. It
appears that for timber forest, mostly royal woods,
rotations varying from 60 to 200 years, for coppice
from 10 to 20 years, were in use on the royal domain;
that fellings were regulated according to species, soil
quality and the most advantageous yield. To facilitate
regeneration, a superficial culture of the soil is
also advocated.</p>

<p>The prescription of Colbert&#8217;s ordinance to leave a
certain number of seed trees, no matter for what
species or conditions of soil or climate had as early as
1520 been pointed out as faulty by one of the grand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
masters, <i>Tristan de Rostaing</i>, who had recommended
a method of successive fellings. This prescription,
applied pretty nearly uniformly as a matter of law,
removed from the officials all spirit of initiative and
desire or requirement of improving upon it. No
knowledge beyond that of the law was required of
them, hence no development of silvicultural methods
resulted during the 17th and 18th century. The seed
trees left on the felling areas grew into undesirable
and branchy &#8220;wolves,&#8221; injuring the aftergrowth,
or else were thrown by the wind or died, and many
of the areas became undesirable brush. Not until
the first quarter of the 19th century was a change
in this method proposed through men who imported
new ideas from Germany.</p>

<p>When the inefficiency of the <i>m&eacute;thode &agrave; tire et aire</i>
was recognized, the only remedy appeared to lie in
a clearing system with artificial reforestation (recommended
by <i>R&eacute;aumur</i> and <i>Duhamel</i>); and, indeed, the
ordinance of 1669 recognized the probable necessity
of filling up fail places in that manner. Yet the
success of the plantings in waste lands does not seem
to have brought about much extension of this method
to the felling areas. As late as 1862, Clav&eacute;, complaining
of the conditions of silviculture in France,
and of the ignorance regarding it, refers to the clearing
system as <i>m&eacute;thode allemande</i>, the German method.
The shelterwood system, <i>la m&eacute;thode du r&eacute;ensemencement</i>,
which was introduced in theory from Germany
by Lorentz in 1827, was hardly applied until the
middle of the century. Indeed, the promulgation of
this superior method cost Lorentz his position in 1839,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
and other officers suffered similarly for this &#8220;German
propaganda.&#8221; (see <a href="#Page_242">p. 242</a>)<a name="FNanchor_7_7"
id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
In this statement we follow Clav&eacute; and other authors. Huffel takes exception
to this conception of the origin of the shelterwood system, because he finds in
some documents allusion to a modified application of the <i>tire et aire</i> method
which might be construed into shelterwood regeneration. Indeed, Guiot (1770)
and Varennes de Fenille (1790) describe methods of procedure which resemble
somewhat this method of regeneration. But as the method of successive fellings
was practised in Germany since 1720, and fully developed in all its detail by 1790&mdash;Hartig
formulating merely into rules what was long practised&mdash;it is likely that
the French authors had heard of it. Moreover, in another place (vol. III, p. 271)
Huffel says: &#8220;At this time (1821) one made several tentative regeneration cuttings
by successive fellings according to the new formula&mdash;but without success.&#8221;</p>

</div>

<p>At the present time large areas of coppice and
of coppice with standards characterize the holdings
of the municipal and private owners, and the
selection forest still plays a considerable part even in
the State forests; the method of shelterwood in compartments,
being still more under discussion than
found in practice.</p>

<p>The main credit for advance in silvicultural direction
which belongs to the French foresters in particular
is the development of new and fertile ideas regarding
the operations of thinnings; here the differentiation
of the crop into the final harvest (<i>le haut</i>) and
the nurse crop (<i>le bas</i>) (see <a href="#Page_105">page 105</a>) and the differentiation
of the operations, <i>par le haut</i> and <i>par le bas</i>,
seems to have been for the first time described by Boppe
in 1887. Indeed, the theory of thinnings, at least,
seems to have been well understood by Buffon, who
advanced his theories in a memoir to the Academy of
France, in 1774, and gives a very clear exposition of
the value of thinnings and improvement cuttings.</p>

<p>Nevertheless, thinning practice, while often accentuated
in the literature, is too often omitted in practice,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
or exercised only in long intervals, while otherwise silvicultural
practice is excellent, especially in the coppice.
Most valuable lessons may be had especially from
the experience in converting coppice into timber forest.</p>

<p>At the International Congress of Silviculture, convening
in connection with the Universal Exposition
in 1900, supposedly the best home talent was represented,
but it cannot be said that anything new, or
striking, or promotive of the art or science transpired.
The desirability of establishing experiment stations
outside the one in existence at Nancy (established in
1882), and the desirability of constructing yield tables
still required arguments at this meeting.</p>

<p>In the direction of forest organization, it is stated
by Clav&eacute; that in 1860 only 900,000 acres of the State
domain were under a regulated management, namely
380,000 acres in timber forest and 520,000 in coppice
with standards, leaving about 1,500,000 acres at that
time still merely exploited. The same writer states
that of the corporation or communal forests hardly
any are under management for sustained yield, and
private forest management is not mentioned in this
connection. Even to-day less than one-third of the
total area is under systematic control. In 1908 still,
about 14% of the State forests were without working
plans, and 15% in selection forest.</p>

<p>The method of forest organization employed, outside
of the crude determinations of a felling budget
in the selection forest, is an imitation of Cotta&#8217;s combined
area and volume allotment, with hardly any
attempt of securing normality, introduced in 1825.
Characteristic, and differing from the German model,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
is the practice of actually collocating in each district
(<i>canton</i>) the periodic felling areas (<i>affectations</i>) on the
ground so as to secure a schematic felling series or
periodic block (<i>s&eacute;ries</i>). This is done often at great
sacrifice. Lately, various, more pliable modifications
have come into vogue (<i>m&eacute;thode de l&#8217;affectation unique</i>)
and freer methods (<i>m&eacute;thode du quartier de r&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;ration</i>),
somewhat similar to Judeich&#8217;s stand management,
are proposed. Altogether working plans, such as are
elaborated in Germany, are rare, and yield tables are
still looked upon by Huffel as doubtfully useful.</p>

<p>The management of the State forests is extremely
conservative, large accumulations of old stock, the
holding over of one quarter for reserve, and high
rotations&mdash;only apparently based on maximum volume
production, since the statistical data are scanty&mdash;are
characteristic. The opposite conditions appear
in the private forests.</p>

<h4>6. <i>Education and Literature.</i></h4>

<p>In the earlier times the service established was as
we have seen, often, nay mostly in incompetent hands;
the offices of forestmasters were purchasable, were
given to courtiers as benefices, and became hereditary.
In all these, higher professional knowledge was unnecessary.
The ignorance of the subordinates was
as great as that of their German counterparts, but
lasted longer. Hardly any book literature on the
subject of forestry developed before the 19th century,
and educational institutions had to wait until long
past the beginning of that century.</p>

<p>The first, and up to the present, only forest school,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
came into existence after a considerable campaign,
directed by Baudrillart, Chief of Division, Administration
G&eacute;n&eacute;rale des For&ecirc;ts, and professor of political
economy. His campaign in the <i>Annales Foresti&egrave;res</i>,
the first volume of which appeared in 1808, and in
other writings as in his <i>Dictionnaire des eaux et for&ecirc;ts</i>
(1825), led to the establishment of the forest school at
Nancy in 1825.</p>

<p>The first director of this school, <i>Bernard Lorentz</i>,
having become acquainted with and befriended by
G. L. Hartig, and his assistant, afterward his son-in-law
and successor, <i>Adolphe Parade</i>, having studied
under Cotta (1817-1818) in Tharandt, this school introduced
the science of forestry as it had then been developed
in Germany; but later generations under
<i>Nanquette</i>, <i>Bagneris</i>, <i>Broillard</i>, <i>Boppe</i> and <i>Puton</i>,
imbued with patriotism, attempted in a manner to
strike out on original lines.</p>

<p>As a consequence of the &#8220;unpatriotic&#8221; German
tendencies of its first directors the continuance of the
school at Nancy was several times threatened, there
being friction between the administration of the school
and the service, which in 1844 came to a climax, agents
in the service being employed without preparation in
the school, a condition which lasted until 1856.</p>

<p>Even to date an active service of 15 years is considered
equivalent to the education in the school for
advancement in the service.</p>

<p>In 1839, Lorentz was disgracefully displaced, in
spite of his great merits, because he advocated too
warmly the application of the superior system of
regeneration under shelterwood to replace the coppice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
and selection forest, an incident almost precisely repeated
in the State of New York in abandoning its
State College at Cornell University; and in other
respects the two cases appear parallel.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a
href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Parade, the
successor of Lorentz being imbued with the same
heretical doctrines was constantly in trouble, and in
1847, a most savage attack in the legislature was
launched which threatened the collapse of the school.
This condition lasted until Parade&#8217;s death, in 1864,
when <i>Nanquette</i> assumed guidance of the school
and steered in more peaceful waters by avoiding
all ideas at reforms and innovations, but otherwise
improving the character of the school and introducing
the third year study. But he, too, was much
criticized and in difficulties until 1880; nor was <i>Puton</i>,
his successor, free from troubles, until in 1889 a new
regime and new regulations were enacted.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
According to others (a reviewer of this volume), the difficulties which befell
the institution were financial ones, &#8220;the too rapid conversion into timberforest
reducing receipts, which the Minister of Finance resented.&#8221; Guyot&#8217;s history of
the school, however, leaves little doubt of the above interpretation being correct.
In the case of the State College at Cornell University, a later historian might
similarly claim financial difficulties, the school having actually been closed for
lack of appropriation; nevertheless political trickery was the real cause of this
lack.</p>

</div>

<p>The school is organized on military lines. The
students, who intend to enter the State service are
chosen from the graduates of the Institute national
agronomique of Paris, only a limited number being
admitted. It has 12 professors, two for forestry, two
each for natural science, mathematics, and one each for
law, soil physics and agriculture, for military science
and for German. A three year course, which includes
journeys through the forest regions of France, leads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
to government employment; indeed, the first paid
position as <i>garde g&eacute;n&eacute;ral stagiaire</i> is attained after two
years study and before leaving school.</p>

<p>For several years, (1867 to 1884) English students
preparing for the Indian service received their instruction
here, and 380 foreigners have received their
education in this school since its foundation.</p>

<p>For the education of the lower grades, an imperial
rescript ordered the establishment of several schools,
which were, however, never organized. In 1863, were
proposed, and in 1868, opened, four schools, where
efficient forest guards were to secure some knowledge
that would assist them to advancement; three of these
schools persisted until 1883. In 1873, an additional
school for silviculture for the education of underforesters
was organized at Barres-Vilmorin, where
annually a limited number of students are permitted
to enter. This institution has persisted to
date.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The French <i>forestry literature</i> has never been prolific,
and to this day occupies still a limited amount
of shelf room. The first book on record is a translation
of the well known volume of the Italian, Peter de
Crescentiis, translated at the instance of Charles V
in 1373. In the 16th century we have reference to
an encyclop&aelig;dic volume, probably similar to the
German Hausv&auml;ter, by <i>Oliver de Serres</i>, <i>Th&eacute;atre
d&#8217;Agriculture et Mesnage des Champs</i>, in which a
chapter is devoted to the forests. During the 18th
century, just as in Germany the cameralists, we have
in France a number of high class writings, not by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
foresters, but by savants or students of natural history,
the names of R&eacute;aumur, Duhamel, Buffon and
Micheaux appearing with memoirs transmitted to
the Academy of France, the highest literary and
scientific body of men, on subjects relating to forestry.
<i>R&eacute;aumur</i>, in his <i>R&eacute;flexions sur l&#8217;&eacute;tat des for&ecirc;ts</i>, in 1721,
recommended the conversion of coppice forests into
timber forests by a system of thinnings, but it is
evident that his words were not heard beyond the
Academy. <i>Duhamel</i> (in 1755, 1764, 1780) repeats
the recommendation of R&eacute;aumur in his three memoirs,
<i>Semis et Plantations</i>, <i>Exploitation des Bois</i> and <i>Trait&eacute;
de la Physique des Arbres</i>, in which he exhibits considerable
learning, while <i>Buffon</i>, the great naturalist,
in 1739 and after, presented several memoirs on forestry
subjects full of excellent advice. <i>Varennes de
Fenille</i>, another one of the Academicians, but also one
of the conservators is on record with two memoirs
(1790, 1791) on the management of coppice and
timber forests in which also the theory of thinnings
was well developed. But among the foresters of the
service there seems not to have been sufficient education
to appreciate these writings, or, with the exception
of <i>Guiot</i> with his <i>Manuel forestier</i> (1770), to bring
forth any contributions to the literature and art, until
the 19th century. In 1803, we find the first encyclop&aelig;dic
volume in <i>Trait&eacute; de l&#8217;Am&eacute;nagement des For&ecirc;ts</i>,
which was followed, in 1805, by a very incorrect translation
of Hartig&#8217;s <i>Lehrbuch</i>, both by Baudrillart,
professor of political economy, who also published
in 12 volumes his <i>Trait&eacute; G&eacute;n&eacute;ral des Eaux et For&ecirc;ts</i>.
<i>Perthuis</i>, in 1796, and <i>Dralet</i>, a forester, in 1807,
also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
brought out treatises on forest management, which
include all branches of the subject.</p>

<p>According to Huffel, the foresters of this period
(Louis XV and XVI) were of superior character, and
forestry in France the first in the world; the writings
of French authors were being translated into German
and studied by foreign foresters. He has to admit,
however, that the majority of these authors were
not really members of the forest service.</p>

<p>In 1836 appeared <i>Parade&#8217;s</i> <i>Cours El&eacute;mentaire de
Culture des Bois</i>, an excellent book, recording the
teachings of Hartig and Cotta. This seems to have
been all-sufficient until 1873, at least. Such things
as yield tables are still a mere wish, when <i>Tassy</i> wrote
his <i>Etudes, etc.</i>, in 1858, while <i>de Salomon</i> a little later
reproduced Cotta&#8217;s yield tables, and to this day this
needful tool of the forester is still almost absent, at
least in the literature of France. <i>Nanquette</i>, <i>Broillard</i>,
<i>Bagneris</i>, <i>Puton</i>, <i>Reuss</i>, <i>Boppe</i>, all directors or professors
at the forest school, enriched the French
literature by volumes on silviculture and forest
management, and <i>Henry</i> on soil physics. He also
translated from the German Wollny&#8217;s <i>D&eacute;composition
des mati&egrave;res organiques</i>. It is claimed by <i>Guyot</i>, that
a truly &#8220;French science&#8221; (!) of forestry dates from
<i>Broillard&#8217;s Cours d&#8217;am&eacute;nagement</i> in 1878. <i>Demontzey&#8217;s
Reboisement des montagnes</i>, 1882, is a classic
volume. Of more modern book literature may be
mentioned three voluminous publications, namely
<i>Trait&eacute; des arbres</i> by <i>Mouillefert</i> (1892-1898) in 3
volumes, and <i>Trait&eacute; d&#8217;exploitation commerciale des bois</i>
by <i>Matthey</i> in two volumes, and <i>Guyot&#8217;s</i> <i>Cours de<span
class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
droit forestier</i> in two volumes. A very complete
work on valuation of damage under the misleading
title <i>Incendies en for&ecirc;t</i> was published by <i>Jacquot</i>
in 1903.</p>

<p>But the latest and perhaps most ambitious work
in the French language and especially of intense
interest from the historical point of view, tracing
not only the development of forest policies but of
silvicultural and managerial practices in France, is
<i>G. Huffel&#8217;s</i> <i>Economie Foresti&egrave;re</i> in three volumes
published 1904-1907.</p>

<p>There should not be forgotten as among the non-professional
promoters of forest questions, <i>Chevandier</i>,
a chemist and manufacturer, who, in 1844, made investigations
regarding the influence of irrigation on
wood growth and on the influence of fertilizers, and
in connection with <i>Wertheim</i>, laid the foundation for
timber physics.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>One bi-weekly magazine, <i>Revue des Eaux et For&ecirc;ts</i>,
in existence for 50 years, the successor to the <i>Annales
foresti&egrave;res</i>, begun in 1808, satisfies the needs of current
literature, besides the journals of various forestry
associations, among which the Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
de Franche Comt&eacute; et Belfort has for a long time taken
a prominent rank.</p>

<p>A very active propagandist literary and association
work has within the last decades been inaugurated,
and forestry associations of local character abound.
Among these the &#8220;Touring Club,&#8221; a sporting association
with some 16,000 members in 364 branches is
active by writing out prizes and promoting waste<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
land planting. Through its agency some 4000 acres
had been planted by 1910, some 900 nurseries furnishing
plant material.</p>

<p>An active Section of Silviculture in the <i>Soci&eacute;t&eacute; des
Agriculteurs</i> some time ago absorbed the forestry
association and is also doing practical work in the
direction most needed, improvement of forestry
practice among private woodland owners.</p>

<h4>7. <i>Colonial Policies.</i></h4>

<p>The French possess extensive colonies in Africa,
Asia, America and Oceania, covering not less than
four million square miles with over 90 million people,
to some of which at least they have extended some
features of their forest policy, notably in Algeria,
Tunis, Indo-China and Madagascar.</p>

<p><i>Algeria</i>, which was conquered in 1828, is about four-fifths
of the size of France, but only 5.5 per cent.
is forested. Besides the desert, there are two
forest regions, the northern slope, the so-called Tell,
abutting on the Mediterranean, which, with 20 per
cent. forested, contains the most valuable forests of
Cork Oak, various other oaks, and Aleppo Pine; and
the high plateau to the south, a region of steppes with
about 6% forested, mostly with brushwood. The
adjoining <i>Tunis</i> also contains some 2 million acres of
forest, a part of which clothed with the valuable
Cork Oak.</p>

<p>Although the population does not exceed 5 million,
import of wood from Sweden and elsewhere to nearly
one million dollars in amount is necessary. The first
advance of civilization led to wide-spread destruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
of the originally larger forest area; fire and pasture
being specially destructive.</p>

<p>Before the French occupation, the 8 million acres of
forest were all, as usual in the mussulman&#8217;s empires,
the property of the sultan, but were used like communal
property by the people. By 1871, the larger
portion, some 6 million acres remained in possession
of the state, much encumbered by rights of user.</p>

<p>At the same time, considerable areas (some 700,000
acres) had been ceded to communities outright, and
others (1.25 million acres) had been sold to private
parties. At first, these latter lands were let for exploitation
of the cork oak on 40 year leases, later
extended to 90 years with indemnities for damage
by fire&mdash;an incentive to allow these to run, until in
1870, the fire damage having become onerous, all
areas burned after 1863 were gratuitously ceded to
the contractors, more than one-third the areas involved,
and the other two-thirds were then sold at a
ridiculously low price and under the easiest conditions
of payment, in the same shameful manner in
which the timberlands of the United States were
given away.</p>

<p>In 1836, a forest administration for the state domain
was inaugurated, but the unfortunate division of
powers between military and civil authorities was a
hindrance to effective improvement of conditions.
The fire ravages of 1871 led to a thorough re-organization
under the direction of Tassy, in 1873.</p>

<p>Nevertheless, in 1900, Lefebvre, Inspector of
Forests, in his book, <i>Les for&ecirc;ts de l&#8217;Alg&eacute;rie</i>, still complains
that the forests are being ruined, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
by pasturing, the means allowed the administration
being too niggardly measured.</p>

<p>The Forest Code of the home country and special
laws enacted from time to time applies. The administration
of the state and communal forest is
directly under the home department and is regulated
in similar manner.</p>

<p>A re-organization and a special forest code for
Algiers was enacted in 1903. This legislation relies
still largely on the general principles of the Code of
1827. The most interesting features are the provision
for expropriation and addition to the state domain of
forests the preservation of which is of public interest,
and the rigorous forest fire legislation, which permits
the treatment of incendiaries as insurrectionists, makes
the extinction of forest fires a duty of the forest officials,
and provides the forcible establishment of fire lines
(rides) between neighbors.</p>

<p>In the forests placed under the forestry regime,
permits from the governor-general are required for
clearing. For the administration of these properties,
the state receives ten per cent. of the gross yield.
Reforested hilltops or slopes and sand dunes are relieved
from taxes for 30 years, burnt areas for 10 years.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>In the other African possessions, unregulated exploitation
of the tropical forests, largely for by-products,
like caoutchouc, kola, and fine furniture
woods, is still the order of the day, except in <i>Madagascar</i>,
which with 25 to 30 million acres of tropical
forest area, was, in 1900, provided with a forest service,
which is under the Minister of Colonies. Here,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
a license system is in vogue, giving concessions to exploit
limited areas for a given time, at an annual rent
of less than one cent, per acre per year. The concessions
run from 5 to 20 years, and on 12,500
acres or more, the time of their duration being extended
from the lowest term for one year for every
2,500 acres. Police regulations and fines are intended
to check abuses, and to regulate the rights of
user exercised by natives.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>In <i>Indo-China</i> (Cochin-China, Cambodia, Anam,
Tonquin) the total forest area is still unknown.
Only that of Cochin-China with 2.5 million acres,
and of Cambodia with 10 million acres can be stated,
and Cochin-China seems to possess the only approach
to a forest service. Although it is estimated that in
1901 in the whole of Indo-China, with 18 million
people, some 85 million cubic feet of wood were cut
(nine-tenths fire wood) an import of over $200,000
worth of workwood from Europe was needed.</p>

<p>The first attempts at regulating forest use in these
Asiatic possessions date back to 1862, when exploitation
was confined to delimited areas. The administration,
however, remained inefficient, and under
impracticable and heterogeneous orders, which were
issued from time to time, devastation progressed
with little hindrance.</p>

<p>For Cochin-China, a more definite forest policy was
formulated in 1894-5, when not only the State domain
but also the private forest property was placed under
the <i>r&eacute;gime forestier</i>. The supervision of the private
forests consists in requiring the marking of trees to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
be cut by government agents, and a permit for their
removal.</p>

<p>The State forests are of two classes: Reserves in
which all cutting is forbidden, only some 200,000
acres; and those in which licenses to cut may operate.
Such licenses are given for one year and for a price
of 100 piastres. The villagers have free use of the
less valuable woods, their only obligation being to
assist in protection against fire and theft.</p>

<p>A real forest service was not instituted until 1901
a director with four assistants being placed in charge
under the Department of Agriculture. Until recently
reports of the deplorable condition due to absence of
technical management reached the outside, but lately
(1911), the Governor-General discussing the situation
not only speaks approvingly of the forest service,
which on the two million acres under its immediate
management had, by 1909, trebled the revenue, but
talks of extending its activities to planting up waste
places in order to secure favorable water conditions
for irrigating lands.</p>

<p>The rest of the colonies are being merely exploited.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>

<h2>RUSSIA AND FINLAND.</h2>

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Les For&ecirc;ts de la Russie, Minist&egrave;re de l&#8217;Agriculture, Paris Exposition Universelle</i>,
1900, pp. 190, gives a very detailed description of forest conditions,
markets and management, with a few historic points.</p>

<p><i>Russlands Wald</i>, by <span class="smcap">F. v. Arnold</span>, Berlin, 1893, pp. 526, contains historic
notes and a profuse discussion of the law of 1888.</p>

<p><i>The Industries of Russia: Agriculture and Forestry</i>, issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Ministry of Crown Lands, at World&#8217;s Columbian Exposition,
translated by <span class="smcap">J. M. Crawford</span>, 1893, contains a chapter on Forestry by <span class="smcap">Roudzski</span>
and <span class="smcap">Shafranov</span>, professors at the Forest Institute, in 35 pp.</p>

<p>Annual reports by the Russian Forest Administration are published since 1866.</p>

<p>Four diffuse volumes, by <span class="smcap">John Croumbie Brown</span>, treat of Russian conditions,
namely,</p>

<ul class="nostyle">
<li><i>Forests and Forestry in Poland, Lithuania</i>, etc., 1885;</li>
<li><i>Finland, its Forests and Forest Management</i>, 1883;</li>
<li><i>Forestry and Mining districts of the Ural Mountains</i>, 1884;</li>
<li><i>Forests and Forestry of Northern Russia</i>, 1884.</li>
</ul>

<p>Numerous articles and Reviews by <span class="smcap">O. Guse</span>, scattered through the German
forestry journals, give insight into Russian forest conditions.</p>

<p>An excellent idea of prevailing forestry practice can be gained from an extended
article by <span class="smcap">Dr. Schwappach</span>, <i>Forstliche Reisebilder aus Russland</i> in
Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Forst- und Jagdwesen, 1902.</p>

<p>For Finland an article by <span class="smcap">B. Ericson</span> in Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt,
1896, and another article by <span class="smcap">P. W. Hannikainen</span> in Allgemeine Forst- und
Jagdzeitung, 1892, both native foresters, give considerable information.</p>

<p><i>Finland: Its Public and Private Economy</i>, by <span class="smcap">N. C. Frederiksen</span>, 1902,
306 pp.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>While Germany and France were forced into the
adoption of forest policies through necessity, after the
natural woods had been largely destroyed or devastated,
Russia started upon a conservative forest
management, long before the day of absolute necessity
seemed to have arrived.</p>

<p>Indeed, even to-day Russia is one of the largest and
increasingly growing exporter of forest products in
the world, its annual export having grown in the five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
years, 1903 to 1908, from 4 to 6 million tons and from
35 to 62 million dollars. A vast territory of untouched
woods is still at her command, representing roughly
two-thirds of the forest area of Europe.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The vast empire, second only to the British empire
in extent, gradually acquired since the 15th century,
occupies in Europe (including Finland) somewhat
over 2 million square miles with over 120 million inhabitants,
and in Asia somewhat over 6.5 million
square miles, with only 30 to 40 million people.</p>

<p>Until 1906, when as a result of a revolution, a kind
of representative government was secured, the hereditary
Czar was ostensibly and by title an autocrat,
governing with the assistance of four great councils
and 12 ministers, but in reality the government was
in the hands of a bureaucracy and court cabal, to a
large extent corrupt, and hence the many good laws
and institutions of which we read, may not always
be found executed in practice as intended.</p>

<p>The European section of the country is divided
into 98 governments or provinces, each under a
governor, who is, however, largely dependent on the
central power. The large territory of Siberia is
divided into three governor-generalships, much of it,
as well as of the other Asiatic provinces, is still unorganized,
undeveloped and unexplored, or at least
little known. Originally used mainly as a penal colony
for criminal and political exiles, since the completion
of the great Trans-Siberian railway, the country has
been peopled by Russian farmers.</p>

<p>Both European Russia and Siberia are in the main<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
vast plains, the former sloping northwestward from
the Ural mountains in the East and from the Caucasus
in the South, and the latter from the Altai, Lyan and
Yabloni mountains north to the Arctic Ocean. Both
sections exhibit in the southern ranges the effect of
continental climates, prairie and plains country: the
steppe; and in its northern ranges the effect of an
arctic climate, short hot summers and long, severe
winters: tundra and swamps.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions and Ownership.</i></h4>

<p>Both the forest area and the ownership conditions
vary very much throughout the empire. Russian
statistics are very unreliable and are based on estimates
rather than enumerations, and vary from year
to year.</p>

<p>So little is known of conditions in Asia, where Russia
occupies a territory three times as large as its European
possessions, that we can dispose of them briefly.
There exists a vast forested area, almost unknown
as to its extent and contents, or value. This area is
mainly located in Siberia, and although its extent
is uncertain, it is known to exceed 700 million acres,
but it is also known that its character is very variable,
and much of it is &#8220;taiga&#8221; or swamp forest, much of
it devastated, and much of it in precarious condition,
fires having run and still running over large portions,
destroying it to such an extent that in several of the
provinces within the forest belt, the question of wood
supplies is even now a troublesome one. The natives
are especially reckless, and devastation difficult to
control. The railroad has only increased the evils.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>

<p>Here, in Siberia, the first attempt at a management
was made in 1897 in the government forests, which
are estimated at over 300 million acres; in addition
about 400 million acres have been declared reserved
forests. Not one-third, however, even of the government
forests is well stocked and less than 4 million
acres are under some form of management.</p>

<p>In European Russia, the forest area comprises about
465 million acres, or 36% of the land area. The
population being now over 120 million (nearly one-half
escaped from serfdom only since 1861), the forest
area per capita is only about 4 acres, somewhat less
than in the United States, half of what is claimed for
Sweden and Norway, although seven times as large
as that of Germany or France.</p>

<p>It will be seen, therefore, that Russia, although
still an exporting country, has reasons for a conservative
policy, even if only the needs of the domestic
population are considered, which alone probably
consumes more than the annual increment of the
whole forest area; and the consumption is growing
with the growth of civilization as appears from the
increase of wood consuming industries, which in
1877 showed a product of 8 million dollars, in 1887,
of 12<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> million, in 1897, of 50 million dollars.</p>

<p>This assertion, that the era of over-cutting has
actually arrived, may be made in spite of the stated
fact, that in the northern provinces only two-fifths
of what is supposed to be a proper felling budget, is
cut and marketed, and that other most uncertain
estimates make the cut 17 cubic feet per acre of productive
forest area, and the annual growth, on still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
more uncertain basis, 31 cubic feet.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The same
reasons that operate in the United States contribute
to wasteful practices, namely uneven distribution of
forest and population.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
An idea of the supposed productive conditions may be gathered from the
estimates which have been made, in 1898, for the State forests and the operations
in these.</p>

<p>In the two northern provinces, in which the state owns nearly the entire forest
area it is estimated that 8 cubic feet per acre would be available felling budget,
but only 10 per cent. of this is actually cut and sold. Outside of this territory the
available felling budget is calculated at 24 cubic feet per acre, but only 60 per
cent. or 14 cubic feet is being cut. Altogether in 1898 there were cut in the State
forests (somewhat over 300 million acres), 1,860 million cubic feet, say 6 cubic feet
per acre or 40 per cent. of the estimated proper felling budget. The administration
claims that three-fifth of the projected felling budget is saleable. In 1906, the
budget was placed at 345 million cubic feet, but only 130 million were cut.</p>

<p>An estimate of the cut in the communal forests with 12 cubic feet, in the
peasants holdings with 20 cubic feet, and in the private forests with 40 cubic feet
per acre, brings the total for the country to round 10 billion cubic feet, worth
round 100 million dollars for stumpage. It is assumed that 30 cubic feet should
be the annual increment per acre, when it would appear that only 70 per cent. of
the increment is cut.</p>

<p>The cut in the State forests was sold for 21 million dollars (1898), or at an
average of less than 1c. per cubic foot. The highest price paid in the Vistula
district was 2.5 cents, which scales down to 1c. in Siberia and to one-third cent.
in the Caucasus. This refers to stumpage, nearly all sales being made on the
stump to wood merchants by bids, the trees being marked in some parts, in others
the area only being designated. The transportation is almost entirely by river.
From 1883 to 1901 the net revenue from the State forests increased from 16 to
47 million dollars, while the expenditures dropped from 29 per cent. of the gross
revenue to 18.4 per cent. The gross result is 46 cents per acre. In 1906, the
returns were $27 million, and expenses $5 million.</p>

</div>

<p>As in the United States the East and West are or
were well wooded, with a forestless agricultural region
between, so in Russia the North and the South
(Caucasus Mountains) are well wooded, with a forestless
region, the steppe, between. This leads, as with
us, to an uneconomical exploitation of the woods, the
inferior materials being wasted because not paying for
their transportation in one section, and dearth of
timber and fuelwood in the other section.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p>

<p>The two most northern provinces of Archangel and
Vologda, in size equal to all Germany, are wooded to
the extent of 75 and 89 per cent. respectively, and
the 14 northern provinces together contain nearly
one-half the entire forest area. Here the forest covers
64 per cent. of the land area, and nowhere below 20
per cent., and the acreage per capita ranges from 3 to
over 200.</p>

<p>These largely unsettled provinces are the basis of
the active wood export trade, and, as in the similarly
conditioned areas of North America, the territory is
devastated by fires, which sweep again and again
over large areas without check.</p>

<p>Southern Russia (excepting the Caucasus), is largely
prairie or steppe, forest cover sinking below 20 per
cent. on the whole, down to 2 per cent., and less than
one-half acre per capita.</p>

<p>Altogether, one-half the country and three-fourths
of the population are, with less than 14 per cent. of
the forest area, exposed to a dearth of timber.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The northern forest, the most important economic
factor, is composed largely of pure or mixed coniferous
woods (74%), principally Norway Spruce (34%) and
Scotch Pine (29.5%) with only slight admixtures of
larch and fir, and more frequently White Birch.
Open stand, comparatively poor development, and
slow growth, characteristic of northern climate, reduce
its productive capacity, while frequent bogs
and other natural waste places outside of those produced
by mismanagement reduce its productive area
by not less than 20 per cent.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>

<p>Toward the south, deciduous species are more
frequent, oak finally becoming the prevailing timber
and forming forests, with beech, maple, ash and elm
as admixtures. As the plains are approached pure
deciduous forest indicates the change of climate. The
forest of the Caucasus is principally of coniferous
composition.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>There are six classes of forest property: the government
domain; the apanage or imperial family (crown)
forests; private forests; peasant or communal forests;
institute or corporation forests; and forests of mixed
ownership in which government and private owners
participate.</p>

<p>The larger part of the forest area of European
Russia is in control of the Crown or State, namely,
nearly 278 million acres, or a little less than two-thirds
of the whole, and a similar amount in Asia,
besides the so-called apanage forests of 14 million
acres set aside for the support of the court. Especially
the northern forest is in government control, in
some governments (Archangel) the entire area; 67%
of the domain forest lies in the two governments of
Archangel and Wologda.</p>

<p>In the less wooded districts State property, is insignificant.
The area under government control in
Europe and Asia is estimated in the official report for
1908 at around 957 million acres. This is, however,
not the exclusive property of the State; only about
260 million acres are so claimed, the larger balance
includes 170 million acres which are to be apportioned
to the liberated peasants, 200 million acres in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
the government is only part owner, or the ownership
is in dispute; and the rest is only temporarily placed
under the management or surveillance of the administration.
Yet, 60% in Europe and 13% in Asia is
exclusive State property. In 1907, the area in Europe
under working plans of the Forest Administration,
however, was only 48 million acres, 86 million having
been examined for working plans. Of the State
property in Europe 34% is spruce forest, 30% pine,
and 26% mixed conifer forest; altogether 88% of
coniferous timber. The Asiatic area is also over 80
per cent. coniferous.</p>

<p>The apanage or crown forests, the yield of which
goes toward maintenance of the imperial family, comprise
about 16 million acres, or 3.4%. Private forest
property to the extent of over 100 million acres (23%)
is most developed in the Baltic provinces and along
the Vistula. Mining corporations and other institutes
own about 7 million acres.</p>

<p>The peasants, who until 1861 were mere serfs and
had no ownership of any kind, being supplied with
their necessities by the landed proprietors, still largely
supply themselves in the northern provinces by the
exercise of rights of user from the public domain on
designated areas. In the central and southern provinces,
farm and forest land, the latter to the extent
of nearly 40 million acres, were given to them in
communal ownership. As stated above, about 170
million acres classed as government domain still
awaits partition and cession to the peasants.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>The first record of attention to the woods as a
special property dates from Michael, the founder, and
Alexis, the second of the house of Romanoff, the
former becoming Czar in 1613, the latter in 1645.
He it was who began to introduce Western civilization.
He confined himself, however, to regulating property
rights, which up to that time had remained somewhat
undefined, the forest, as elsewhere, being considered
more or less public property. He issued deeds of
ownership, or at least granted exclusive rights to the
use of forests, somewhat similar as was done in the banforests.
Soldiers alone were permitted to help themselves,
even in private forests, to the wood they required.
Protection against theft and fire was also provided.</p>

<p>The peasants, being serfs, were bound to the glebe,
and had, of course, no property rights, being maintained
by the bounty of the seigneurs.</p>

<p>Alexis&#8217; successor, the far-seeing Peter the Great,
who in his travels in Germany and other European
countries had, no doubt, been imbued with ideas of
conservatism, inaugurated in the end of the 17th
and beginning of the 18th century a far-reaching
restrictive policy, which had two objects in view,
namely economic use of wood, which he had learned
to appreciate while playing carpenter in Amsterdam,
and preservation of ship timber, which his desire
to build up a navy dictated. All forests for 35 miles
alongside of rivers were declared in ban, and placed
under the supervision of the newly organized Administration
of Crown forests. In these banforests, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
felling of timbers fit for ship building was forbidden.
Minute regulations as to the proper use of wood for
the purposes for which it was most fit were prescribed,
and the use of the saw instead of the axe was ordered.
These rules were to prevail in all forests, with a few
exceptions, and penalties were to be exacted for contraventions.</p>

<p>This good beginning experienced a short setback
under Catherine I (1725), Peter&#8217;s wife, who, influenced
by her minister, Menshikoff, abolished the
forest administration and the penalties, and reduced
the number and size of banforests. But the entire
legislation was re-enacted within three years after
Catherine&#8217;s death (1727) under Anna Ivanovna&#8217;s
reign, and many new prescriptions for the proper
use of wood were added and additional penalties
enforced.</p>

<p>At this time, under the influence of a German
&#8220;forest expert,&#8221; <i>Fokel</i>, the increase of forest area by
sowing oak, etc., in the poorly wooded districts, was
also inaugurated; and this planting was made obligatory,
not only on the administration of crown forests,
but also upon private owners, who in case of default
were to lose their land and have it reforested by the
forest administration. To Fokel&#8217;s initiative is also
to be credited the celebrated larch forest on the
Gulf of Finland.</p>

<p>These restrictions of private rights and the tutelage
exercised by the forest administration were abolished
<i>in toto</i> by Catherine II, in 1788, and although it was
reported by the admiralty, concerned in the supply
of shipbuilding materials, that as a consequence the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
cutting, especially of oak timber, was proceeding
rapidly, no new restrictive, but rather an ameliorative
policy was attempted, such as, for instance,
the offering of prizes for plantations in certain localities
by the provincial governors.</p>

<p>Upon the abolishment of the serfdom of the peasants,
under Alexander II, in 1863, lands, both farm
and woodlands, were allotted to them, and in this
partition, in some parts as much as 25 to 50% of this
forest property was handed over to them. Immediately
a general slaughtering, both by peasants and
by the private owners, who had suffered by losing
the services of the serfs, was inaugurated, leading
to wholesale devastation.</p>

<p>Servitudes or rights of user also prevailed in some
districts and proved extremely destructive.</p>

<p>By 1864, complaints in regard to forest devastation
had become so frequent that a movement for
reform was begun by the Czar, which led to the promulgation
of a law in 1867, followed by a number of
others during the next decade, designed to remedy
the evils. This was to be done by restricting the
acreage that might be felled, by forbidding clearings,
and by giving premiums for good management and
plantations. Finally, in 1875, a special commission
was charged with the elaboration of a general order
which, after years of hearing of testimony and of deliberation,
was promulgated in 1888, a comprehensive
law for the conservation of forests, private and
otherwise, which in many respects resembles the
French, in other respects the Swedish conservation
laws.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p>

<p>The devastation and its evil consequences on
waterflow and soil conditions had been especially
felt in the southern districts adjoining the steppe,
and these experiences were the immediate cause
for the enactment of the law, which, however, was
framed to apply conditionally to the entire European
Russia.</p>

<p>The law makes an interesting distinction between
&#8220;protective,&#8221; &#8220;protected&#8221; and non-protective, or
unprotected forests, as well as between different
ownership classes, and it makes distinction of four
regions as to the extent of its application. In the
far northern governments, densely forested (60%)
and thinly populated, only the protective forests
are under the operations of the law. In the Caucasus
also, none of the restrictions of private property except
in protective and communal peasant forests are
to apply, perhaps because the forest area (averaging
not over 17%) is there largely owned by members
of the imperial house and by nobles. In certain
districts adjoining the northern zone (with 37%
forest) also only the last two classes of forest, namely
protective and communal properties, with institute
forests added, are subject to the provisions of the law.
The rest, a territory of over one million square miles
with only 12% in forest, is subject to all the provisions
of the law, which is remarkably democratic in treating
State, imperial and private forests alike.</p>

<p>This law declares as &#8220;protective forests,&#8221; to be
managed under special plans prescribed by the Crown
forest department, those forest areas which protect
shifting sands and dunes, the shores of rivers, canals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
and other waters; and those on the slopes of mountains,
where they serve to prevent erosion, landslides
and avalanches.</p>

<p>Conversion of these protective forests to farm use
is forbidden, and the use of a clearing system in
forest management, as well as pasturage and other
uses supposed to be detrimental, may be interdicted,
and the method of management may be prescribed.
An instruction regarding the execution of the law
promulgated in 1889 prohibited clear cutting in conifer
forests, permitting only selection forest, and in especially
endangered localities only the use of the dry
wood and such trees as interfere with natural reproduction.</p>

<p>&#8220;Protected&#8221; forests are those which are located
at the head waters and upper reaches of streams
and their affluents. Here the rules as regards clearing,
mismanagement, reforestation and pasture applicable
to the non-protective forests, prevail, except
that clearing may be prohibited or permitted, if the
committee deems it not dangerous owing to the
small size of the clearing.</p>

<p>In forests, which are not protective forests, conversion
into farms or clearing with the sanction of
the committee is permitted, if thereby the estate is
improved, <i>e.g.</i>, if the soil is fit for orchards and vineyards.
Such clearing may also be allowed if the soil
is fit for temporary field use, but in that case the area
must be eventually reforested. Clearing is also permitted,
if another formerly farmed parcel of the same
size has been reforested at least three years prior to
the proposed clearing; or if in artificial plantations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
the growth is not yet 20 years old; also in a few special
cases where property boundaries are to be rounded
off, roads to be located, etc. If after six months
from the time of the application the committee
has not forbidden the clearing, it is considered
as permitted. It is also forbidden to make fellings
which prevent natural regeneration, and the running
of cattle in young growth is prohibited. Private
owners are not required, but are permitted, to submit
working plans, and if these are accepted, they are
exempted from any other restrictions. Such plans
may be considered as accepted if the committee does
not express itself within one year. All clearings made
in contravention to the committee&#8217;s decision must
be replanted within a prescribed time or may be
forcibly reforested by the committee.</p>

<p>The most interesting feature, because thoroughly
democratic, is the creation of the local forest protection
committees, which are formed in each province
and district, composed of various representatives
of the local administration, one or two foresters included,
the justice of the peace or other justice, the
county council and two elected forest owners, in all
nine to eleven members, under the presidency of the
governor.</p>

<p>This committee is vested with large powers. It
decides, without appeal, what areas are included in
protective forests and approves of the working plans
for these as well as for the unreserved forests; it determines
what clearings may be made, and exercises
wide police powers with reference to all forest matters
working in co-operation with the Forest Administration,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
which latter has the duty of making working
plans free of charge for the reserved forests, and, at
the expense of the owner for the private unreserved
forests. Owners of the latter are, however, at liberty
to prepare their own plans subject to approval.
Appeal from decisions of the Forest Committees lies
through the Committee to the Minister of Crown
lands and Minister of the Interior.</p>

<p>In case the owner refuses to incur the extra expense
arising from measures imposed upon him, the domain
ministry may expropriate him, but the owner may
recover within 10 years by paying costs with 6%
interest in addition to the sale price. In addition
to the above cited and other restrictive measures,
some ameliorative provisions are also found. All
protective forests are free from taxes forever; those
artificially planted also for 30 years.</p>

<p>Some of the best forest officials are detailed to give
advice gratuitously to forest owners (forest revisor&mdash;instructors)
and prizes are given for the best results
of silvicultural operations. At the recommendation
of the Forest Committees, medals or money rewards
or other distinctions are given to the forest guards
and forest managers of private as well as public forests.
Plant material is distributed free or at cost price, and
working plans for protective forests are made free
of charge.</p>

<p>The Imperial Loan Bank advances long term loans
on forests, based upon detailed working plans made
by the State, which insure a conservative management.
In 1900, over 7,000,000 acres were in this way
mortgaged under such management.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>

<p>The minutest details are elaborated in the instructions
for the execution of this most comprehensive
law. How far this law is really executed and what
its results so far have been, it would be difficult to
ascertain. It is, however, believed that it has worked
satisfactorily. By 1900, 1.5 million acres had been
declared protection forests, nearly 2 million protected
or river forests, and nearly 100 million private and
communal forests had been placed under the regime.
In 1907, the total area under the regime had grown to
over 136 million acres. Of private forests, 18 million
acres in 6015 forests were being managed according
to working plans made or approved by the forest
committees. In these plans, usually, the strip system
or seed tree system with natural regeneration under
60 year rotation for conifers, and at least 30 year
rotation for broadleaf forest, is provided.</p>

<p>In 1903, the application of the law was extended to
the Caucasus, the Trans-caucasian and other southern
provinces, but in the absence of suitable personnel
and in a half civilized country, no result for the immediate
future may be anticipated.</p>

<p>The surveillance of the execution of this law lies,
with the assistance of the Forest Committees, in the
hands of the State Forest Administration.</p>

<p>This latter, centralized in the Department of Agriculture,
consists of a Director General with two Vice-Directors
and a so-called bureau of forests with seven
division chiefs, a number of vice-inspectors and assistants.
The local administration in the governments
is represented by the Direction of Crown lands with
a superintendent or supervisor and several inspectors.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
The crown forests, divided into some 1260 administrative
units, are under the administration of superintendents,
with foresters and guards of several
degrees.</p>

<p>The whole service comprised, in 1908, about 3790
higher officials, some 850 of whom in the central office
at St. Petersburg, and over 30,000 lower officials some
20,000 of whom are educated underforesters.</p>

<p>Large as this force appears to be, it is small in comparison
with the acreage, and inadequate. Although
the net income from the 300 million acres of State
forest which are actually worked is now close to thirty
million dollars, the expenditures being near 6 million,
the pay of the officials is such as to almost force them
to find means of subsistence at the cost of their charges.
Perhaps nowhere else is there so much machinery and
so much regulation with so little execution in practice.
Nevertheless, progress is being made in gradually
improving matters, and the forest property, or at
least the cut, has become more and more valuable.
While in the middle of the last century the income
from the domain forest was only $500,000, by 1892
it had grown to $10,000,000, by 1901 to $23,000,000,
in 1908 to nearly $30,000,000, besides several million
dollars&#8217; worth of free wood. In 1908, the department
spent over half a million dollars on planting and assisting
natural regeneration. Timber is sold as a rule
to contractors by the tree or acre, and a diameter
limit is almost the only restriction. In 1897, however,
an arrangement was made by which the lumberman
was obliged to reforest, or at least to pay a
certain tax into a planting fund, and a part payment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
of $2 to $4 per acre as guarantee must be made before
cutting. This order has, however, remained mostly
a dead letter, the buyer preferring to allow his guarantee
to lapse. In 1906, there stood $3,000,000 to the
credit of this planting fund, and only half of it had
been applied. Meanwhile the unplanted area increases,
since natural regeneration generally proves
a failure.</p>


<p>3. <i>Education and Literature.</i></p>

<p>The attempts at forestry education date back to
the year 1732 when a number of foresters were imported
from Germany to take charge of the forest
management as well as of the education of foresters,
each forstmeister having six pupils assigned to him.
This method failing to produce results, the interest
in ship timber suggested a course in forestry at the
Naval Academy, which was instituted in 1800. Soon
the need of a larger number of educated foresters led
to the establishment of several separate forest schools,
one at Zarskoye Selo (near St. Petersburg) in 1803,
another at Kozlovsk in 1805, and a third at St.
Petersburg in 1808. This latter under the name of
the Forest Institute absorbed the other two, and
from 1813 has continued to exist through many vicissitudes.
Now, with 15 professors and instructors and
an expenditure of nearly $250,000, and over 500
students, it is the largest forest school in the world.
It prepares in a four years&#8217; course for the higher
positions in the forest service. &#8220;The history of this
Forest Institute is practically the history of forestry
in Russia.&#8221;</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p>

<p>A second school at Novo-Alexandria, near Warsaw,
was instituted in 1860. In these schools, as in the
methods of management, German influence is everywhere
visible.</p>

<p>In addition to these schools, chairs of forestry were
instituted in the Petrovsk School of Rural Economy
in Moskau and in the Riga Polytechnic Institute,
and also in seven intermediate schools of rural economy.</p>

<p>In 1888, ten secondary schools were established
after Austrian pattern for the lower or middle service,
rangers and underforesters; their number, by 1900,
having been increased to 30 and, in 1908, to 33, with
460 students. These are boarding schools in the
woods, where a certain number of the students are
taught free of charge, the maximum number of those
admitted being 10 to 20 at each school. The course
is of two years&#8217; duration, and is mainly directed to
practical work and theoretical study in silviculture.
The total expense of such a school is about $3,300,
of which the State contributes $2,500, the total expenditure,
in 1908, being $84,134.</p>

<p>A number of experiment stations were established
in various parts of the country by the Administration
of Crownlands, and a very considerable and advanced
literature testifies to the good education and activity
of the higher forest service.</p>

<p>Two forestry journals, <i>Lesnoj Journal</i> (since 1870)
and <i>Lessopromychlenny Vestnik</i>, the first bi-monthly,
the latter weekly, besides several lesser ones, keep
the profession informed.</p>

<p>There are in existence several general societies for
the encouragement of silviculture. Probably the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
oldest, which ceased to exist in 1850, was the Imperial
Russian Society for the Advancement of Forestry
which was founded in 1832. It published a
magazine and provided translations of foreign books,
among which the Forest Mathematics of the noted
German forester K&ouml;nig, who also prepared yield
tables for the Society. (See <a href="#Page_135">p. 135</a>.) A society of
professional foresters was founded at St. Petersburg
in 1871, another exists in Moscow, and recently two
associations for the development of forest planting
in the steppes have been formed.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Among the prominent writers and practitioners
there should be especially mentioned <i>Theodor Karlowitsch
Arnold</i>, who is recognized as the father of
Russian forestry. He was the soul of the forest organization
work, for which he drew up the instructions in
1845, and as professor, afterwards director, of the
Institute for Agronomy and Forestry at Moscow
since 1857, he became the teacher of most of the
present practitioners. Finally he became the head
of the forest department in the Ministry of Apanages
where he remained until his death in 1902. He is
the author of several classical works on silviculture,
forest mensuration, forest management, etc., and,
in conjunction with <i>Dr. W. A. Tichonoff</i>, published
an encyclop&aelig;dic work in three volumes. In the first
volume, <i>Russland&#8217;s Wald</i> (1890), which has been
translated into German, the author makes an extended
plea for improved forestry practice and describes
and argues at length the provisions of the law
of 1888. In 1895, he published a history of forestry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
in Germany, France and Russia. Of other prominent
foresters who have advanced forestry in Russia
we may cite <i>Count Vargaci de Bedemar</i>, who made
the first attempt to prepare Russian growth and yield
tables in 1840 to 1850.</p>

<p><i>Professor A. F. Rudzsky</i>, who was active at the
Forest Institute until a few years ago, developed in
his volumes especially the mathematical branches
and methods of forest organization. The names of
<i>Tursky</i>, <i>Kravchinsky</i> and <i>Kaigodorov</i> are known to
Russian students of dendrology and silviculture, and
among the younger generation the names of <i>Morozov</i>,
<i>Nestorov</i>, <i>Orlov</i>, and <i>Tolsky</i> may be mentioned.</p>

<p>It is well known how prominent Russian investigators
have become in the natural sciences, and to
foresters the work of the soil physicists, <i>Otozky</i> and
<i>Dokuchaev</i> would at least be familiar.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Forestry Practice.</i></h4>

<p>While then a very considerable activity in scientific
direction exists, the practical application of forestry
principles is less developed than one would expect,
especially in view of the stringent laws. So far not
much more than conservative lumbering is the rule.</p>

<p>Generally speaking, the State and crown forests
are better managed than the private, many of which
are being merely exploited; and in the northern departments
large areas remain still inaccessible.</p>

<p>Some notable exceptions to the general mismanagement
of private forests are furnished by some of those
owned by the nobility, like those of Count Uwaroff
with 150,000 acres under model management by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
German forester, and of Count Strogonoff with over
1,000,000 acres under first-class organization with a
staff of over 230 persons.</p>

<p>A regular forest organization was first attempted
in the forests attached to iron furnace properties in
1840. By this time some 100 million acres have come
under regulated management, half of the area being
government forests. The method of regulation employed
is that of area division and sometimes area
allotment according to Cotta. In some regions a
division by rides into compartments, ranging from
60 to 4,000 acres each, according to intensity of exploitation,
has been effected. It is estimated that
at the present rate of progress it would take 300 years
to complete the work of organization.</p>

<p>The selection method is still largely employed, a
felling budget by number of trees and volume being
determined in the incompletely organized areas; while
a clearing system with artificial reforestation is used
in most cases where a complete yield calculation has
been made. The rotations employed are from 60 to 100
years for timber forest, 30 to 60 years for coppice.</p>

<p>In the pineries, the strip system in echelons is mostly
in vogue, the strips being made 108 feet wide, leaving
four seed trees per acre, and on the last strip, which
is left standing for five years, this number is increased
to eight which are left as overholders. This
method, according to some, seems to secure satisfactory
reproduction. To get rid of undesirable
species, especially aspen and birch, these are girdled.
In spruce forest, 50 to 60 per cent. of the trees are
left in the fellings, when after three to four years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
the natural regeneration requires often repair, which
is done if at all by bunch planting; after eight to ten
years the balance of the old growth is removed.</p>

<p>While for a long time natural regeneration was
alone relied upon, now, at least, artificial assistance
is more and more frequently practiced. Yet, although
over 2 million acres were under clearing system, not
more than 5% of the revenue, or $100,000, was in
1898 allowed for planting as against 7.5% in Prussia;
the total budget of expenses then remaining below
3 million dollars.</p>

<p>But, ten years later, over half a million dollars was
employed by the government in planting, the planting
fund contributed by the lumberman (see <a href="#Page_269">p. 269</a>)
furnishing the means.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The forest administration of the province of Poland,
where the State owns over 1.5 million acres was for
some time independent, but, about 1875, was reorganized
and placed under the central bureau at
St. Petersburg. Although the forests of Poland are
the most lucrative to the government and, with good
market and high prices for wood, which are now
rapidly increasing, would allow of intensive management,
the stinginess of the administration, the low
moral tone of the personnel, and long established bad
practice have retarded the introduction of better
methods. The private forests of Poland comprise
over 4.5 million acres, and are mostly not much better
treated than the State forest; in the absence of any
restrictive policy they have diminished by 25% in
the last 20 years.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>

<p>Considerable efforts have been made towards reforesting
the steppes in southern Russia, first as
in our own prairies and plains by private endeavor,
but lately with more and more direct assistance of
the State forest administration.</p>

<p>This planting was begun by German colonists at
the end of the 18th century, but without encouraging
results, although over 25,000 acres had been planted
by the middle of the 19th century. Since 1843, the
government has had two experimental forest reserves
in the steppes of the governments of Ekaterinoslav
and Tauride, on which some 10,000 acres have been
planted; the originator of this work being <i>von Graff</i>,
a German forester, whose plantations, made with
8,000 plants to the acre, are still the best. Later,
the number of plants was reduced to one-half, and
the results have not been satisfactory. Altogether,
planting on large areas on soils unfit for the purpose
and by wrong methods has produced poor results.
At present the policy is not to create large bodies of
forest, but to plant small strips of 20 to 80 yards
square in regular distribution, which are to serve
as windbreaks, and the result has been satisfactory,
especially in the government of Samara. There are
now annually 2,000 acres added to these plantations.</p>

<p>The reclamation of shifting sands and sand dunes
has also received considerable attention and, to some
extent, the reboisement of mountain slopes in the
Crimea and Caucasus. Of the former, some 10 million
acres are in existence in European Russia, and in the
province of Woronesh alone each year 100,000 acres
are added. For 50 years sporadical work in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
recovery was done. Not until 1891 and 1892, when
two droughty famine years had led to an investigation
of agricultural conditions, was a systematic
attempt proposed, and this was begun in 1897. By
1902, some 80,000 acres had been fixed, and by 1904,
150,000 acres. In this work the government contributes
36% of the cost, the benefited communities
the balance. In addition, 1,500 square miles of swamps
in Western Russia were reclaimed by extensive canals
and recovered with meadow and forest at a cost of
$300,000, of which the Imperial Treasury paid one-third,
the owners one-half, the local government the
balance.</p>

<p>While rational forest management, as we have seen,
is far from being generally established, the government
tries at least to prevent waste and to pave the
way from exploitation to regulated management.</p>

<h3>FINLAND.</h3>

<p>The Grand Duchy of Finland in the northeast of
Russia is still in some respects independent of Russia.</p>

<p>Finland, the &#8220;land of a thousand lakes&#8221; and of
most extensive forests, is hardly less important as
a wood producer than Russia itself; its wood exports
amounting at present to around 200 million cubic
feet and over 25 million dollars in value, represent
over 50 per cent. of its trade, and its most important
resource.</p>

<p>Settled in the 7th century by an Aryan tribe, the
Finns, congeners of the Magyars, who subdued the
aboriginal Laplanders, Finland became by conquest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
in the 12th century, and remained for 500 years, a
province of Sweden. In the wars between Sweden
and Russia; parts of this province were conquered
by Russia, and finally, in 1809, Sweden lost the whole;
but the Finns succeeded in preserving national unity
and partial independence under a constitution,
adopted in 1772 and recognized by the Czar.</p>

<p>Finland stands very much in the same relation to
Russia as does Hungary to Austria, the union being
merely a personal one: the Czar is the ruler or Grand
Duke, but the administration is otherwise largely
separate from that of the empire, under a Governor-General,
appointed by the Czar, and a Senate of 18
members at Helsingfors, with a national parliament
of the four estates, nobles, clergy, burgers, peasants,
which convenes every five years; the Czar having the
veto power over its legislation. The War Department
of Russia, however, is in charge of military affairs,
and other departments seem to be under more or
less supervision of the Russian administration.
Lately repressive measures are threatening or have
nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy.</p>

<p>Of the 145,000 square miles of territory, nearly
50% is occupied by lakes and bogs, marshes or tundra;
less than 9 million acres (9.7%) is in farms, and 37.5
million acres or 42%, is forestland, actual or potential;
The major part of this is located in the northern and
eastern sections, where the population is scanty,
agriculture little developed, and sand soils prevail.
Beyond the 69th degree, forest growth ceases, and
naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth
partakes of the character of all northern forests.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
Not more than 2.5 million acres, mostly in the southwestern
sections, are actually under cultivation; the
population being short of 2.5 million.</p>

<p>The rigorous climate makes a large consumption of
fuelwood necessary, and, since houses are also mostly
built of wood, the home consumption is over 32 cubic
feet per capita. Over 10 million cubic feet of pine
are consumed in making tar, and a like amount for
paper pulp. The total cut is in the neighborhood of
370 million cubic feet, four-fifth of which comes from
private forests of the middle and southern area, and
over one-third of it is being exported.</p>

<p>The country generally is a tableland with occasional
low hills. The forest consists principally of pine, the
latter a variety of the Scotch Pine (or species?), called
Riga Pine which excels in straightness of bole and
thrifty growth, and of spruce (10 per cent. of the
whole, mainly in the southeast). Aspen, alder and
birch, especially the latter, are considered undesirable
weeds, and fire is used to get rid of them where coniferous
aftergrowth is desired, although birch is also
employed for fuel, bobbins and furniture, and aspen
for matches. Basswood, maple, elm, ash and some
oak occur, and larch (<i>Larix sibirica</i>) was introduced
some 150 years ago.</p>

<p>Long, severe winters and hot, dry summers produce
slow growth, the pine in the north requiring 200
to 250 years, in the middle sections 140 to 160 years
to grow to merchantable size.</p>

<p>Fires, used in clearing, have from time to time run
over large areas and have nearly killed out the spruce
except in the lowlands, but the pine being more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
resistant has increased its area and in spite of the
deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Originally the forest was communal property, but
in 1524, Gustav Vasa declared all forest and water
not specially occupied to belong to &#8220;God, King and
the Swedish Crown,&#8221; although he allowed the usufruct
to the people free of charge or nearly so. These
rights of user are still the bane of the forest administration.
Being left without supervision it mattered
little who owned the land, the forest was ruthlessly
exploited. Later, the rights of user thus originating
were bought off by ceding lands to the peasants.</p>

<p>Not until 1851 did an improvement in these conditions
occur when a provisional administration of
the State forests was provided in connection with the
Land Survey; but a rational organization materialized
only after an eminent German forester, v. Berg,
Director of the forest school of Tharandt, had been
imported (1858) to effect a reconstruction. His
advice was, however, only partially followed, and the
organization was not perfected until 1869.</p>

<p>Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the
administration developed, because it could not at
once show increased profits, and the personnel which
had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the
large districts into which the State property had been
divided were still further enlarged, and to this day,
improvement in these respects has been only partial.</p>

<p>The State forest area, situated mainly in the north
is stated as between 35 and 45 million acres (variable
because of clearing for farms and new settlements),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors
and much other waste land, which reduces the productive
forest area to about 12 million acres (35%), leaving
65% of the productive forest area to private ownership.</p>

<p>This State forest was divided (1896) into 53 districts,
the districts being aggregated into 8 inspections,
and the whole service placed under a central
office with a forest director and 5 assistants under
immediate control of the Senate. The forest guards
numbered 750, their ranges averaging 50,000 acres,
while the districts average 600,000 acres and several
contain as high as 2.5 million acres; the Forstmeister
in charge may live sometimes 200 miles from the
nearest town and 60 miles from the nearest road.
His function is mainly to protect the property, to
supervise the cutting and sales, and to teach the
people the need of conservative methods. In spite
of this insufficient service, considerable reduction in
forest fires and theft has been attained.</p>

<p>Beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire, and
conservative lumbering of the State forest, positive
measures for reproduction have hardly yet been
introduced, both personnel and wood values being
insufficient for more intensive management.</p>

<p>At present, with a cut hardly exceeding 100 million
cubic feet, the revenue is still almost nominal, say
$600,000, and hardly the annual growth is cut.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Selection forest is, of course, the rule, but since no
trees are marked and cut less than 10 inch diameter
at 25 feet from the ground (!), at least the possibility
for improved management will not be destroyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
when, through the exhaustion of the private forests
and increased wood prices, more intensive management
has become practicable.</p>

<p>When the market is good, a clearing system with
100 to 160 year rotation is practised; on the clearings
about 20 seed trees are left, and after 6 years the
natural regeneration is repaired by planting.</p>

<p>This latter method is especially prescribed on the
government farms. These form an interesting part
of the State property, some 900 small farms with
woodlots aggregating over 500,000 acres, mostly in
the southern districts. These came into existence
in the 17th and 18th centuries, being granted as fiefs
to officers of the army as their only compensation.
They reverted to the State and are rented for terms
of 50 years upon condition that the woods are to be
managed according to rules laid down by the State
department; and special inspectors are provided to
supervise this work. This system, in vogue since
1863, at first met with opposition on the part of the
renters on account of the impractical propositions of
the department. At present the department manages
many of these woodlots directly, as well as those which
the clergy have received in lieu of emoluments.</p>

<p>Since 1883, a corps of forest surveyors has been
occupied in making working plans based upon diameter
accretion at the curiously selected height of 25 feet
from the ground. A commission was also instituted
some years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in
the State domain with a view of disposing of the
latter preparatory to improved management of the
remaining forest area.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p>

<p>The State has also in a small way begun to purchase
absolute forest soils in the southern provinces with
a view to reforestation.</p>

<p>The private forest areas, located in the more settled
southern portions are found mostly in small parcels
and in peasants&#8217; hands, although the nobility also
owns some forest properties, but the size of single
holdings rarely exceeds 1,000 acres. These areas
are mostly exploited without regard to the future,
furnishing still four-fifths of the large export, and
according to competent judges will soon be exhausted.</p>

<p>Although attempts have been made from time to
time to restrict the use of private forest, practically
little has been accomplished, and such restrictions as
have been enacted are hardly enforced.</p>

<p>A law, enacted in 1886, forbids clearing along waters
adapted to fishing, and orders the leaving of seed trees
or &#8220;providing otherwise for regeneration,&#8221; if more
than 12 acres are cut at one time.</p>

<p>The method of utilizing the ground for combined
forest and farm use, which is still frequently practised,
was forbidden on the light sandy soils of the pineries,
or was otherwise regulated. Forest fire laws are also
on the statutes.</p>

<p>Propositions for further restrictions, made in 1891,
were promptly rejected by the parliament.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Educational opportunities are offered in the Forest
Institute at Evois, first established in 1862 as a result
of v. Berg&#8217;s visit, and re-organized in 1874. It accepts
new students only every second year for the two years&#8217;
course. It has had a precarious existence, being left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
sometimes without students, and is naturally not of
a high grade, practical acquaintance with woodswork
being its main aim.</p>

<p>Since 1876, a school for forest guards and private
underforesters has been in existence, where 6 students
are annually accepted for a two years&#8217; course.</p>

<p>In addition there are two instructors provided by
the government, wandering teachers who are to
advise private owners. Premiums are paid for the
best managed woodlots on the government farms.</p>

<p>The Finnish forestry association, which is in part
of propagandist nature, was organized in 1877. It
supplies, besides an annual report, other forestry
literature, and employs an experienced planter to
direct efforts at reforestation.</p>

<p>A forestry journal (quarterly) is also published,
and a professional literature is beginning to start into
existence.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>It may be of interest in this connection to cite a
rough calculation made by Dr. Mayr of the available
material in European Russia and Finland combined,
which he places at 4,500 million cubic feet, and of
which he considers one-half available for export.</p>

<p>It is impossible to prognosticate what position
Russia and Finland, together the largest wood producers
in Europe, will take in the future world commerce,
and how rapidly better practices, for which the
machinery is already half started, will become generally
adopted. At present, especially in Russia
proper, the general corruption of the bureaucracy
is an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p>

<h2>THE SCANDINAVIAN STATES.</h2>

<blockquote>

<p>In the English language the <i>Report on Forestry in Sweden</i>, by Gen. <span class="smcap">C. C.
Andrews</span>, U. S. Minister at Stockholm, 1872, revised 1900, 35 pp., gives a statement
of present conditions with historical notes.</p>

<p>A very good idea in detail of the wood trade of Sweden may be obtained from
<i>The Wood Industries of Sweden</i>, published by TIMBER TRADES JOURNAL
of London in 1896.</p>

<p><i>La Su&egrave;de, son Peuple et son industrie</i>, by <span class="smcap">G. Sundbarg</span>, 1900, 2 vols., contains
several pertinent chapters. It is an official work, very complete, and was translated
into English in 1904.</p>

<p><i>The Economic History of the Swedish Forest</i>, by <span class="smcap">Gunnar Schotte</span>, 1905.
32 pp., in Swedish, published by the forestry association, gives a brief account of
conditions and data of the forestry movement.</p>

<p><i>Norway.</i> Official publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900, contains a chapter
on Forestry by K. A. Fauchald, pp. 322-350, with a map of forest distribution.</p>

<p><i>Skogsvaesenets Historie</i> ved Skogs direktoren, I Del, Historik, 1909, is an
official publication of the Norwegian Forest administration, giving a full account
of the development during the 50 years from 1857 to 1907, with notes of the earlier
history.</p>

<p><i>Le Danemarc. Etat Actuel de sa civilization et de son organization sociale</i>,
by <span class="smcap">J. Carlsen</span>, <span class="smcap">H. Olric</span> and
<span class="smcap">C. N. Starcke</span>, 1900, 714 pp.</p>

<p><i>Denmark, its history and topography, etc.</i>, by <span class="smcap">H. Weitemeyer</span>, 1891.</p>

<p><i>Bidrag til det Danske Skovbrugs Historie</i>, by <span class="smcap">O. L&uuml;tken</span>, 1900, was not
accessible to the writer.</p>

<p>Extensive notes are found through the German, Austrian and French forestry
journals. Especially an article in the Centralblatt f&uuml;r das gesammte Forstwesen,
1905 (briefed in Forestry Quarterly, vol. III, p. 292) and another (briefed in same
Quarterly, vol. IX, p. 45) gives extended accounts of forest conditions in Sweden.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>Under the name of Scandinavian States we may
comprise the countries of Sweden, Norway and
Denmark, which were settled by the same group of
German tribes, the so-called Norsemen; they originally
spoke the same language, which only later
became more or less differentiated. The settlement
of the country by these tribes seems to have been
accomplished in the main by the end of the 8th century;
and the separation into the three several kingdoms
in the ninth to twelfth centuries, during which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
time they were sometimes united, or at least under
one ruler, sometimes at war with each other, and
always torn by interior dissensions bordering on
anarchy.</p>

<p>In 1397, by the Calmar convention, a more permanent
union into one kingdom was effected between
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under Margaret,
&#8220;the Semiramis of the North.&#8221; After another period
of variable fortunes, Sweden, about 1523, became an
independent constitutional monarchy under Gustav
Vasa, and Norway remained joined to Denmark
under Frederick I.</p>

<p>Sweden then started on a career of conquest, being
almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and
especially with Russia and Poland, whereby, especially
under Gustavus Adolphus and the adventurous
Charles XII, her territory was greatly enlarged.
With the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt (1720
and 1721) she came into more peaceful waters, but
permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained
until the election of Bernadotte, one of Napoleon&#8217;s
administrators, to the kingship, and by the peace of
Kiel, in 1814, Sweden became a constitutional hereditary
monarchy in the modern sense. At the same
time, Norway was taken away from Denmark and
forced to a union with Sweden, which persisted until
1907, when a peaceful separation took place by the
action of the Norwegian people. The union has
always been hateful to the Norwegians, although
only the king and the department of foreign affairs
(in which Norway was represented by a delegation
from its Council) were in common, all other matters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
of administration being separate as well as the parliaments
(Storthing in Norway, and Riksdag in Sweden).</p>

<p>Denmark, powerful in the 11th century under
Canute, who subjugated not only Norway but
England, losing both these countries shortly after his
death, was shorn by Sweden of much of its territory
in the 17th century, and, in 1814, was separated from
Norway. Originally an elective monarchy, largely
dominated by the nobility, the crown in 1661 became
hereditary and absolute, and Sweden did not become
a constitutional monarchy until 1849.</p>

<h3>SWEDEN.</h3>

<p>This country is of greatest interest to the world at
large in forestry matters, because it has been until
lately the largest exporter of wood and has only just
fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest
management: the law of 1903 promises to bring about
very decided changes, and to curtail the exports upon
which other European nations so much rely.</p>

<p>Sweden, with 172,876 square miles, occupies the
eastern two-thirds of the Scandinavian peninsula.
It is not like Norway, a mountain country, but the
greater part consists of low granitic hills. The mountain
range (Koelen) which forms the boundary towards
Norway falls off in a long slope towards the
gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic sea, the coast being
a broad level plain, with a series of islands, larger or
smaller, girdling the outer coast line and forming an
archipelago.</p>

<p>The country is cut into numerous water sheds, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
many rivers (called elfs), furnishing means of transportation,
expanding frequently into lakes (sj&ouml;) in the
upper reaches, and falling with cataracts into the
lower plain, giving rise to fine water powers. Eight
per cent. of the total area is in lakes. Only 12 per
cent. of the land area is in farms. The forest area,
with nearly 50 million acres, occupies nearly 48 per
cent., leaving 40 per cent. waste land or otherwise
occupied.</p>

<p>Half of the population of over 5 million pursues
agriculture, while iron manufacture and the lumber
industry occupy one-quarter.</p>

<p>Of the three main divisions of the country, the
southern, G&ouml;taland, is richest in lowlands and agricultural
soils, and, as it has also a favorable maritime
climate, farming is the main industry. Here, a population
of 50 to 60, and in parts up to 190 per square
mile is found. Beech and oak are here the principal
trees, with spruce occasionally intermixed.</p>

<p>In the central part, Svealand or Sweden proper,
the forest region begins, with pine and spruce, pure or
in mixture, covering the granite hills and plateau;
birch and other hardwoods, oak, beech, elm, basswood
and aspen being found in the river valleys; but the
third division, Norrland, is the forest region of commercial
importance, the seat of the extensive export
trade. It is a vast, almost unbroken forest country,
with hardly more than 3 people to the square mile,
in the northernmost part, called Lapland, Laps and
Finns forming a not inconsiderable part of the population.
Pine and spruce are the timber trees, with White
Birch intermixed. Towards the northern boundary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
the pine increases, in more and more open stands as
one goes northward into the drier climate. An open
stunted growth of birch and aspen forms the transition
to the treeless tundra.</p>

<p>A treeless alpine region occupies the northwestern
frontier, fringed at lower elevations by a belt of birch
in natural coppice, a result of repeated fires. The
northeastern part is a level coast plain, but the climate
is too severe for agriculture and the forest growth also
is short and of inferior quality.</p>

<p>Large areas of swampland are found in nearly all
parts, recoverable for farm or forest use, and mismanaged
and devastated forest areas are found all
over the country.</p>

<p>The forest, nearly 10 acres per capita, on account
of its accessibility to the sea by means of the many
rivers, plays an important r&ocirc;le in the economy of
Sweden, not only because it covers such a large area
and favorable composition (80% coniferous), but
because it has long been a prominent source of income.
Especially after the abolition of the English import
duties, in 1866, and of the Swedish export duties which
had restricted trade, in 1863, did a rapid increase in
wood exports take place, until in 1900, it amounted
to over 54 million dollars (of which 12 million for
woodenware), being the leading export article and
representing over one-half of all exports.</p>

<p>In addition to this export which may represent at
least a round 300 million cubic feet of wood, there are
about 250 million cubic feet of pulpwood and 150
million feet used for charcoal, besides the domestic
fuel consumption. The total draft on the forest may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>
be estimated to come near to 1,200 million cubic feet
which is believed far in excess of the annual growth,
much of the nearly 50 million acres of forest area
having been devastated or deteriorated by axe and
fire and being located in a northern zone where the
growth is slow (1 inch in 12 to 15 years). According
to others, the cut remains below the increment by
about 25 per cent., the latter being figured at 25 cubic
feet per acre. In the State forests, to be sure, mostly
located in the more northern tiers, the cut is kept
between 6 and 7 cubic feet effective, but here a waste
of sometimes 40% is incurred in the exploitation due
to the difficulties in transport.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Property Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>It was Gustav Vasa who, in 1542, declared all uncultivated
lands the property of the Crown. Parts
of them, however, were given to colonists, and these
as well as the resident population had the right to
use the neighboring forest to supply their needs for
wood and pasture. By the continued exercise of this
right, the forest came to be considered commons,
proprietary rights remaining long in doubt. Finally,
a division came about, some of the lands becoming
the property of the parishes, others of smaller districts
(the hundreds), others again encumbered or
unencumbered property of the State, and some remained
in joint ownership of State and private individuals
under various complicated conditions.</p>

<p>The State now owns somewhat over 16 million
acres, of which, however, only 70% are really forest,
and controls more or less 4 million more, of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>
about 900,000 acres are ecclesiastical benefices and
forests belonging to public institutions, and 2.7 million
acres in State farms, which are rented.</p>

<p>Since 1875, the State has pursued a policy of purchase,
which has added over 500,000 acres (at $7 per
acre) to the domain. Lately, this policy has found
considerable opposition. In this way, by reforesting,
and by settlement of disputed titles the State property
in absolute possession of the government has grown
by nearly 5 per cent., to 10 million acres.</p>

<p>In Lapland the entire forest area used to belong to
the State, but in order to attract settlers these were
given forest property for their own use, from 10 to
100 times the area which they had cleared. This
forest area the settlers disposed of to wood merchants
(lumbermen), until the law of 1873 intervened, restricting
the settlers to the usufruct alone, the government
taking charge of the cutting of wood for sale
and limiting the cut to a diameter of 8 inch at 16 feet
from the base.</p>

<p>This interference with what was supposed to be
private rights seems to have been resented, and has
led to wasteful practices, in the absence of a sufficient
force of forest guards. Nevertheless the law was
extended to Westerbotten in 1882.</p>

<p>In other provinces, Wermland, Gestrikland, etc.,
the government vested in the owners or ironworks
the right to supply themselves with charcoal from
State forests. But about the middle of the 19th century,
when, owing to railroad development in other
parts, some of the ironworks became unremunerative
and were abandoned, their owners continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
to hold on to the forest privileges, and by and
by exercised them by cutting and sawing lumber
for sale, or even by selling the forest areas as if they
were their properties; and in this way these properties
changed hands until suddenly the government began
to challenge titles, and commenced litigation, about
1896.</p>

<p>Grants of certain log cutting privileges on government
lands were also made to sawmills in past times,
usually by allowing sawmillers to cut a certain number
of logs annually at a very low price. In 1870 these
grants, which were very lucrative, were modified
by substituting the right of an increased cut for a
stated number of years at a modified price, after
which the grant was to cease. In 1900, there were
still some 300,000 acres under such grants.</p>

<p>No wonder that under these circumstances the
value of the State forest property was, in 1898, assessed
at only $1.60 per acre; the net income being $1,680,753,
or about 12 cents per acre; the expenditures for administration,
supervision, and forest school amounting
to $423,659, to which should be added an undetermined
amount for the participation of the domain
bureau, the agricultural department and provincial
governments, all taking part in the forest administration.</p>

<p>Many of the towns and country districts (<i>haerad</i>)
have received donations of forest areas from the
Crown, which have been a considerable source of
revenue to them. The parish of Orsa, e.g., realized
from its forest property some 2.5 million dollars, and
other similar results are recorded.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p>

<p>These communal and institute forests of various
description comprise somewhat over 2.6 million acres,
or 5.5%, and are placed under management of local
committees, with the governor of the province as
chairman. The management consists in selling stumpage
of all trees over 13 inches in diameter 5 feet above
ground, to be cut by the purchaser under regulations.</p>

<p>In the years from 1840 to 1850, the government
sold to English wood merchants considerable tracts
of timberland, and in the latter part of the 19th
century, as the sawmill industry expanded, many
mill firms acquired wood-cutting leases for 50 year
terms for prices which were often realized from the
forest in the first winter. At present longer leases
than for 20 years are prohibited by law. The diameter
limit of 12 inches, 18 or 20 feet above ground, was
usually the basis of the leases; and as the owners
could then lease away other sizes, it might happen
that 2 or 3 persons besides the original owner would
have property rights in the same forest. Of late
years many of the mill owners have endeavored to
get rid of the resulting inconvenience by buying the
fee-simple of the land. This movement has resulted
in the aggregation of large areas in single hands or
more often in the hands of large mill companies.</p>

<p>By the acquisition of these properties a certain
amount of cultivated land is usually included, which
is then left to the former owner at a nominal rent,
provided that he pays the taxes on the whole; thereby
creating a class of renters in lieu of owners of farms.
The area thus privately owned, mostly by sawmill
companies, must be over 25 million acres; the total<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
private forest area, which includes the bulk of the
commercial forest, is about 30 million acres (61.3%),
unreclaimable waste lands swelling the figure to over
50 million.</p>


<p>2. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></p>

<p>From the times of Olaf Trat&acirc;lja, the first Christian
king of Sweden (about 1000 A.D.), who gained fame
by the part he took in exploiting the forests of Wermland,
down to the 14th century Sweden suffered from
a superabundance of forest. Nevertheless, by the end
of that century restriction of the wilful destruction
by fire was felt necessary, and an ordinance with that
object in view was promulgated.</p>

<p>It is questionable whether this order had any effect
in a country, where the homestead law provided,
that a settler might take up &#8220;as much pasture and
arable land as he could make use of, twice as much
forest, and in addition on each side of this homestead
as much as a lame man could go over on crutches
without resting.&#8221;</p>

<p>Not till 1638, do we again find an attempt at forest
conservancy, this time in the interest of supply of
charcoal for the iron industry, by the appointment of
overseers of the public forests.</p>

<p>The first general forest code, however, dates from
1647, which among other useless prescriptions made
the existing usage of planting two trees for every one
cut obligatory, and this provision remained on the
statutes until 1789. In spite of this and other, restrictive,
laws, exploitation by the liege lords and the
communities continued until, in 1720, a director of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
forests for the two southern districts, Halland and
Bohus, was appointed, and, at least in this part of the
country, the execution of the laws was placed under
a special officer.</p>

<p>This appointment may be considered the first germ
of the later forest department.</p>

<p>A policy of restriction seems to have prevailed
during the entire 18th century, although it is questionable
whether the restrictions were enforced since
there was no personnel to watch over their enforcement,
and the governors, in whose hands the jurisdiction
lay, had other interests, more engrossing.
A law, enacted in 1734, restricted the peasant forest
owners in the sale of wood from their own properties,
and, in 1789, this restriction and other supervision
was extended to those of the nobility.</p>

<p>It appears that soon after this a considerable sentimental
solicitude inside and outside the Riksdag was
aroused regarding an apprehended deterioration of
climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of
further forest destruction&mdash;in the light of present experience
a rather amusing anticipation. These jeremiads,
however, after an unsatisfactory attempt at
legislation in 1793, led, in 1798, to the appointment of
a commission which reported after 5 years of investigation.
A new set of forest regulations was enacted
as a result in 1805.</p>

<p>In further prosecution of these attempts at regulating
forest use a commissioner, Prof. F. W. Radloff,
was sent to Germany, in 1809, to study methods employed
in that country. Long before that time,
about 1762, some of the iron masters, owning large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
forest areas had imported a commission of German
forest experts (among them von Langen and Zanthier,
the same who had done similar work in Norway and
Denmark) with a view of systematizing the forest
use; but apparently without result.</p>

<p>After much discussion of Radloff&#8217;s report, and consultation
with the provincial governors, who suggested
the propriety of different plans for different localities,
new legislation was had in 1810, 1818, 1823, and new
regulations for the crown forests were issued in 1824.</p>

<p>Yet at this very time not only the partition of the
communal forests but also the sale of town forests
was ordered; and this policy of dismemberment lasted
till 1866, over 1 million acres having been sold by that
time. Nor was any diminution in wasteful practices
to be noted as a result of legislation, and it seems
that, while on the one hand restrictive policies were
discussed and enacted, on the other hand unconservative
methods were encouraged. Indeed, in 1846, the
then existing restrictions of the export trade were
removed; apparently a reversion of restrictive policy
had set in, and exploitation increased, in the belief of
inexhaustible supplies. On the other hand, encouragement
of reforestation was sought by giving bounties
for planting waste land and for leaving a certain
number of seed trees in the felling areas, also by paying
rewards for the best plantations; all without result.</p>

<p>Meanwhile a check to the wood trade had occurred
through the imposition of exorbitant customs duties
by Great Britain, and at the same time the government
imposed an export duty to discourage export
from Norrland, and this was not abated until 1857.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span></p>

<p>A further project of forest supervision was attempted
through a report by a new commission appointed
in 1828, which formulated rules for the control of
public and private forests, and recommended the
establishment of a Central bureau for the management
of forest affairs, as well as the organization of a
Forest Institute, for the teaching of forestry. This
Institute was established at Stockholm in 1828, but,
instead of organizing the bureau, the director of that
institute was charged with the duties of such bureau.
Again for years, committee reports followed each
other, but led to no satisfactory solution of the problems.</p>

<p>In 1836, however, a forestry corps (<i>skogstaten</i>) was
organized for the management of the State forests
under the direction of the Forest Institute, and, as a
result of persistent propaganda, the central bureau of
forest administration (<i>skogsstyrelsen</i>) was created in
1859 with <i>Bj&ouml;rkman</i> at the head, charged with the
supervision of all the State, royal, communal and
other public forests, and the control of private forest
use.</p>

<p>The law of 1859, however, did not settle upon any
new policy of control over private forest properties.
Again and again, forest committees were appointed
to propose proper methods of such control, but not
until 1903 was a general law enacted, which was to
go into effect on January 1, 1905.</p>

<p>Previous to this, locally applicable laws were enacted.
In 1866, a law was passed which referred only
to a particular class of private lands, namely those
forests of Norrland which the State was to dispose of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
for ground rent, or which had been disposed of and
on which the conditions of settlement had not been
fulfilled. In 1869, a law applicable only on the island
of Gotland provided a dimension limit, and that in
case of neglect of regeneration on private fellings the
owner may not cut any more wood for sale, until the
neglect had been remedied.</p>

<p>Exactly in the same manner as the homestead and
other colonization laws in the United States have
been abused to get hold of public timber lands, so in
Sweden large areas of government land had been taken
up for settlement, but actually were exploited. It
was to remedy this evil that in 1860 an examination
of the public lands was ordered with a view of withdrawing
portions from settlement and of making
forest reservations. The royal ordinance of 1866 resulted,
which was to regulate the cutting on settled
lands and in such new settlements as were thereafter
allowed.</p>

<p>Here, private owners at first were allowed to cut
only for their own use, and the new law prescribed
the amount of yearly cut and required the marking
of timber designed for sale by the government
officers.</p>

<p>This &#8220;compulsory marking&#8221; or &#8220;Lapland&#8221; law
with a dimension limit, was, in 1873, extended to all
private forests in Norbotten, and in 1888, to Vesterbotten.
This law limits the diameter to which fellings
are to be made (8 inches at 15 feet from base), and
if the cutting of smaller trees is deemed desirable for the
benefit of the forest these are to be designated by
forest officials.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p>

<p>The law for Gotland was renewed in 1894, adding
a reforestation clause, the governor being authorized
to prohibit shipping of timber under 8 inch diameter,
and that not until new growth was established; or at
least no new fellings may be made until this condition
is fulfilled. The same law applies to sand dune
plantations in other, southern districts. Altogether
one-quarter of the private forest property was in
this manner subjected to restrictions, until the present
conservation law came into existence.</p>

<p>This law, of 1903, which became operative in 1905,
was the result of a most painstaking, extended canvass
by the legislative committee, appointed in 1896, which
reported in 1899, and of a further canvass by the
Director of Domains, who reported in 1901. A
large amount of testimony from private forest owners,
sawmill men, provincial and local government officials,
etc., was accumulated, and it may be reasonably expected
that this new legislation will be more effective
than most of the preceding seems to have been.</p>

<p>The law requires in general terms the application
of forestry principles in the management of private
woodlands. For this purpose, a Forest Protection
Committee, one for each province, is constituted
which has surveillance over all private forests, an
institution similar to that existing in Russia.</p>

<p>The Committee, or Forest Conservation Board,
consists of three persons who are appointed for three
years, one by the government, one by the County
Council, one by the managing committee of the
County Agricultural Society. In addition, where
the communities desire, elected Forest Conservation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
Commissioners may be instituted to make sure of the
enforcement of the law. The Board secures the
services of an expert adviser from the State forest
service paid by the government but leaves to the
Board discretion as to the interpretation of the law
which is for the most part expressed in general terms,
to secure conservative management. Hence different
Boards have worked in different ways, but gradually
all are coming to similar methods, and all apply
persuasive means rather than force.</p>

<p>The law requires regeneration, but does not prescribe
detail methods as to how re-growth is to be
obtained, leaving these to be determined by the
Board in consultation with the owners. If no agreement
can be arrived at, or if the measures stipulated
are not taken by the owner, the Board may
enforce its rulings by Court proceedings, in which injunctions
to prevent further lumbering, confiscation of
logs, or of lumber, or money fines may be adjudged.</p>

<p>The time of contracts for logging rights is reduced
from 20 to 5 years. Short courses of instruction to
forest owners, and the issuing of popularly written
technical publications (<i>Folkskrifter</i>) is one of the
efficient methods of securing the result, which seems
to have been attained in the few years since the law
is in operation, namely in arousing such interest
that opposition has become very small.</p>

<p>An export duty (4 to 8 cents per 100 cubic feet of
timber, 8 to 14 cents per ton of dry wood pulp) is
levied for the purpose of carrying out the law the
export duty amounting to over $160,000, and a more
general export duty is under contemplation.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></p>

<p>The management of communal forest is to be placed
under the State forest administration, the corporations
paying 1.6c. per acre; but this feature does not seem
entirely settled.</p>

<p>Protective forests under special regulations are
established at the alpine frontier and on the drift-sand
plains, which are planted up.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Forest Administration and Forestry Practice.</i></h4>

<p>The central forestry bureau as it exists now was
organized in 1883 as the Domain Bureau in the Department
of Agriculture with, at present, a forester
as General Director, and under it a forestry corps
(<i>skogstaten</i>) (reorganized in 1890) which has charge of
the public forests, and also of the forest control in the
private forests where such control exists outside of
the Conservation Boards. For the purpose of this
administration the country is divided into 10 districts,
each under an inspector (or <i>&ouml;fverj&auml;gm&auml;stare</i>); the districts
are divided into ranges (<i>revir</i>), now 90, each
under a chief of range (or <i>j&auml;gm&auml;stare</i>) with assistants
and guards (<i>kronoj&auml;gare</i>); the nomenclature of the
officers suggesting the hunt rather than the forest
management. In addition, 6 forest engineers are
employed on working plans, engineering works, and
in giving advice and assistance to private owners
who pay for such service.</p>

<p>When it is stated that the ranges in the northern
provinces average over 300,000 acres of public and
400,000 acres of private forest; in central Sweden
150,000 acres of public and 145,000 acres of private
forest, and in the southern provinces nearly 55,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
acres of State and communal forest, it will be understood
that the control cannot be very strict.</p>

<p>The net revenue from the State forest during the last
30 years has increased from $300,000 to $1,750,000.</p>

<p>The management of even the State forests can only
be very extensive. The State still sells mostly stumpage,
rarely cutting on its own account. The lumbering
is carried on very much as in the United States
by logging contractors, and the river driving is done
systematically by booming companies. Selection
forest is still the general practice, now often improved
into group system, although a clear cutting system
with planting has been practised, but is supposed to
be less desirable, probably because it entails a direct
money outlay or else because it was not properly
done. A seed tree management preferred by private
owners for pine seems frequently not successful. Of
the State forests 90% are under selection system, and
of the private forest 60%.</p>

<p>In the southern provinces where planting is more
frequently resorted to, 2-3 year old pines and 2-5 year
old spruces, nursery-grown, 2,000 to the acre, are generally
used or else sowing in seedspots is resorted to, which
is more frequently practised in the middle country.</p>

<p>Some 10,000 acres were, for instance, planted by
the forest administration in 1898, at a cost of $2 per
acre, and the budget contains annually about $20,000
for such planting.</p>

<p>That private endeavor in the direction of planting,
has also been active, is testified by a plantation of
over 26,000 acres, now 35 years old, reported from
Finspong Estate.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p>

<p>Complete working plans are rare even for the State
forests, a mere summary felling budget being determined
for most areas, the trees to be cut being marked.</p>

<p>Under instructions issued in 1896, working plans
for the small proportion of State forest management
by clearing system are to be made. In these an area
allotment method is employed with rotations of 100
to 150 years.</p>

<p>Forest fires are still very destructive, especially in
northern Sweden, although an effective patrol system,
greatly assisted in some provinces by watch towers,
has reduced the size of the areas burnt over. The
coniferous composition and the dry summers in the
northern part together with the methods of lumbering
are responsible for the conflagrations. In this
direction too, the activities of the Conservation
Boards have been highly useful.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Education and Literature.</i></h4>

<p>Among the propagandist literature, which had advanced
the introduction of forestry ideas in Sweden
it is proper to mention the writings of <i>Israel Adolf
of Str&ouml;m</i>, who after extensive travels in Germany
established the first private forest school in 1823,
and was instrumental in securing the establishment
of the State Forest Institute in Stockholm (1828).</p>

<p>In regard to education a most liberal policy prevails.</p>

<p>At the Institute the tuition is free and in addition
4 students receive scholarships of 250 dollars per
year; appointment to assistantships follows immediately
after promotion, and in 10 years the position of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
j&auml;gm&auml;stare may be attained. The number of students
is limited to 30. The director of this school
is also general adviser in forestry matters. Besides
the director, six professors are employed. The course
at this school is two years of 11 full months.</p>

<p>There are now a higher and a lower course, the
former requiring previous graduation from another
preparatory forest school, either the one at Omberg
(founded 1886), or that at Kloten (1900), where a
one-year course, mainly in practical work, is given.</p>

<p>For the lower service there are not less than 6
schools in various parts of the country, each with one
teacher and assistants, managed under a chief of
range. In these, not only is tuition free but 10 pupils
receive also board and lodging; the course lasting
8 months. These schools prepare for State service,
as well as for managers of private forests.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>A forest experiment station was organized in 1903,
an independent institution in the Domain Bureau,
under the direct charge of a practitioner. Every
third year, a commission is to determine what work
is to be undertaken. The appropriation, which so
far is hardly $5,000 per annum, will not permit much
expansion. The first number of its publication,
<i>Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsf&ouml;rs&ouml;ksanstalt</i>, was
issued in 1904, and work of a superior character has
been accomplished since then.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>That a forestry public exists in Sweden is attested
by a forest association with an organ <i>Skogsvards
F&ouml;reningens Tidskrift</i>, which was founded in 1902.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
This journal is really the continuation of an earlier
magazine, <i>Tidskrift for Skogshushallning</i>, a quarterly,
begun in 1869 and running until 1903. A forestry
association for Norrland alone which also issues a
yearbook, was organized a few years ago. A periodical
for rangers, etc., is also in existence under the
name of <i>Skogsv&auml;nnen</i>.</p>

<p>In 1902 also, there was formed a lumberman&#8217;s trust
to regulate the output, which the forest owners proposed
to meet by an associated effort to raise stumpage
charges. The attempt of the lumbermen to restrict
the cut in 1902 was, however, a failure, for the export
of that year was 10% larger than the previous year.</p>

<p>It is expected that the new law will have the tendency
of decreasing the cut and of inaugurating a new
era in forestry matters generally.</p>

<h3>NORWAY.</h3>

<p>Originally divided up among a number of petty
kings, Norway was brought under one rule by Harold
in 863; and united to Denmark in the 11th century,
becoming gradually a mere dependency. Its later
political fortunes and changing relations with Denmark
and Sweden have been referred to on <a href="#Page_286">p. 286</a>.
The history of the forestry development, however,
has proceeded more or less independently of the other
two countries.</p>

<p>Norway, occupying with 124,445 square miles over
one-third of the Scandinavian peninsula, is for the
most part a mountainous plateau with deep valleys
and lakes. Its numerous fjords and water ways make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
accessible much of the interior mountain forest, yet
a large part of the inland area still remains inaccessible
and trackless.</p>

<p>More than 75% of the country is waste land and
water; only 3% in farms, leaving for the forest area
21%, or little over 17 million acres. According to
latest data (1907) from this productive area a further
2 million acres must be deducted as non-producing.</p>

<p>The distribution of this forest area is most uneven.
The bulk and the most valuable portion of it is found
in the south-eastern corner around Christiania in
eight counties, in which the forest per cent. exceeds
40 to 50, with conifer growth (pine and spruce) up to
the 3,000 foot level. Again in the three counties
around Trondhjem a large and important forest area
is located at the head of the fjords. But the entire
western coast and the higher elevations are devoid of
valuable forest growth and the northern third of the
country (north of the Arctic circle) is mostly heath
and moors with only 7% wooded, mainly birch growth
of little commercial value.</p>

<p>The commercially important forest area is, therefore,
locally confined. It is estimated that one-half
of the territory has to import its lumber, one-quarter
has sufficient for home consumption, and the excess
which permits exportation is confined to the last
quarter. This export, mostly in logs and staves,
which amounts to nearly 20 million dollars (40% of
the total export) half of it woodpulp is estimated to
represent only one-fifth or one-sixth of the total cut,
which is stated as about 350 million cubic feet, or at
the rate of 23 cubic feet on the productive area while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
the annual growth is estimated at less than this
amount, namely at the rate of nearly 21 cubic feet
in the southern districts, and in the northern not over
12 cubic feet.</p>

<p>Scotch Pine is the principal timber, and occurs
beyond the Arctic Circle&mdash;the northernmost forest
in the world&mdash;where its rotation becomes 150 to 200
years, with Norway Spruce more or less localized,
these two species forming 75 per cent. of the forest
growth; oak, ash, basswood and elm occurring sporadically,
and White Birch being ubiquitous.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Forest property developed on the same lines as in
Sweden and in other European countries, hence we
find State, communal, and private property.</p>

<p>When in the ninth century, upon Harold&#8217;s accession,
the commons were declared the property of the king,
the rights of user, both to wood and grazing, were
retained by the <i>m&auml;rker</i>, and the so-called State commons
(<i>stats-almenninger</i>) remain to date encumbered
by these rights, similar to conditions in Sweden.
From the end of the 17th to the middle of the 19th
century it was the policy of the kings to dispose of
these commons whenever their exchequer was low,
and the best of these lands became, by purchase,
property of the districts (<i>bygdealmenning</i>), provinces,
city and village corporations, or else became private
property on which the rights of user continued (<i>privatalmenninger</i>).</p>

<p>At present the State owns, largely in the northern
districts, somewhat over 4.8 million acres (28.5%);
but of this hardly 2 million acres are productive, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>
of these productive acres half a million consists of
encumbered commons from which the State receives
hardly any income. The district commons or communal,
and other public institute forests comprise
around 7,800,000 acres (46%); but here again only
580,000 acres are productive. The balance then, or a
full one-quarter is in private hands.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Export trade in wood had been very early carried
on, and had been considerably developed in the 13th
and 14th century. By the middle of the 17th century
the coast forest of oak had been cut out by Dutch
and English wood merchants who had obtained logging
privileges under special treaties of 1217 and
1308, and by Hanseatic cities, especially Hamburg
entering this market in the middle of the 16th
century.</p>

<p>There are records which would make it appear that
at least some of the now denuded coast was forested
in olden times. The development of the iron industry
increased the drain on these supplies, which forest
fires, insects and excessive grazing prevented from
recuperating.</p>

<p>As early as the middle of the 16th century we find
attempts to arrest the devastation by regulating the
export trade and supervising the sawmills, forbidding
especially the erection of sawmills intended to work
for export only.</p>

<p>In the 17th century, various commissions were appointed
by Christian IV to make forest reconnaissances
and elaborate rules for proper forest use. In
1683, Christian V issued a forest ordinance increasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>
the number of forest inspectors instituted by his
predecessor, and giving in detail the rules governing
forest use, many of which proved impractical.</p>

<p id="Ref03">In 1725, a commission, the socalled forest and
sawmill commission, was appointed to organize a
forest service. It functioned until 1739, when the
first <i>Generalforstamt</i> was established and the first
attempt at real forest management was made. This
came into existence through the efforts of two famous
German foresters, J. G. von Langen and von Zanthier,
who with six assistants were called in from the Harz
mountains (as also afterwards to Denmark and
Sweden), during the years 1736 to 1740, to make a
forest survey and organize a management. Descriptions
and instructions were elaborated in German
and the service was largely manned by German &#8220;wood
foresters&#8221; (<i>holzforsterne</i>). The strictness of the department
which had been organized after von Langen&#8217;s
departure in 1739, made it, however, unpopular, and,
in 1746, it was abolished, von Zanthier returning to
his country, the sole survivor, the other assistants
having succumbed to scurvy. The administration
was again placed in the hands of a commission which
continued till 1760.</p>

<p>Only the forests connected with mines remained
under the administration as instituted, and those
belonging to the copperworks of Roras continued
under its forest inspectors until 1901.</p>

<p>In that year, 1760, another shortlived attempt to
organize a forest administration was made, but the
new organization did not fare any better and was
superseded in 1771. Then followed an interim<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
regimen, during which the general government and
district officers were in charge.</p>

<p>The old orders under which forest use had been regulated
remained mostly in force until in 1795 all the
reasonable and the unreasonable obstructions to export
were removed. The sawmill privileges, under which
English lumbermen held large areas for long terms
and devastated them without regard to the impractical
regulations, were, however, not ended until 1860.
The wood industries were then relieved entirely from
restrictions, and forest destruction progressed even
more rapidly with the increasing facilities for transportation.</p>

<p>This final cessation of the destructive policy was
the outcome of a campaign which started once
more with a forest commission instituted, in 1849, to
take stock and make new propositions. This commission
reported in 1850, and pointed out not only
the necessity of terminating the sawmill privileges,
which was done in 1854, giving time till 1860, but also
very wisely accentuated the need of technically educated
foresters if anything for forest recuperation
was to be done.</p>

<p>To meet this latter want, young men were sent to
Germany at government expense to study forestry.
Some 10 or 12 men were educated in this way during
the next decade and thereby the basis for a technical
forest management was laid. In 1857, the first two
professional foresters, Mejdell and Barth, were placed
in charge of affairs under the Interior Department,
and when in 1859 a new commission was charged
with organizing a forest service, these two men were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
members. Gradually an organization took shape
under the direction of these two <i>forestmeisters</i>, and,
finally, in 1863, the modern forest department and
forest policy was established by law, placing the
State domain and other public forests under an effective
management, making provision for the extinction
of the ruinous rights of user and also for reducing
the mismanagement of private forests.</p>

<p>The forest service, as now constituted after a reorganization
in 1906, is in the Department of Agriculture
under a director (<i>Skovdirector</i>) and 4 <i>Forstmeister</i>
or inspectors with some executive officers under
various names, and 360 rangers (<i>skogsvogternes</i>),
including the rangers employed in the public forests
outside the State domain. The ranges are so large,
sometimes several million acres, and many of them
so inaccessible that only the most extensive management
is possible; the officials being poorly paid and
poorly educated, the management is, of course, not
of a high order.</p>

<p>Besides a &#8220;forest engineer,&#8221; who is a public lecturer,
the officers of the forest department are under the
obligation of advising private forest owners in their
management, under contracts somewhat similar to
the present practice of the U. S. Forestry Bureau, the
owners agreeing to follow the advice.</p>

<p>Since 1860, the State has begun to purchase forest
lands for reforestation in the forestless districts and
where, for protective reasons, it is desirable. In late
years, regular appropriations of $15,000 to $20,000
were annually made for this purpose, besides extraordinary
grants. In this way, the cut-over lands,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span>
neglected by their owners, are cheaply acquired by
the State. Besides its own planting, the State assists
private owners by advice and money grants and
plantmaterial in reforesting their waste lands.</p>

<p>The communal forests are under government
supervision; they are usually worked under plans and
under supervision of foresters with a view to supply
the needs of the community. Only when the area
is more than sufficient may they obtain the right to
cut for sale outside of their parish; on the other hand
all fellings may be prohibited by the government, if
this is found desirable. As regards private property
there seems to be little or no supervision, although
the law of 1863 had declared <i>Kulturplight</i> and <i>Kulturtvank</i>,
i.e., the duty of reforesting, but it had not defined
that duty, and the law remained a dead letter.</p>

<p>In 1874, a special commission was charged to consider
the forest policy which the public welfare required.
The commission reported in 1879 with propositions,
which were submitted to the officials of
the department and the district. A new proposition
was worked out and submitted in 1882, but it was
pigeonholed until 1891, when the forest administration
brought in not a general law but one merely forbidding
the export from Nordland, Tromsoe and
Finmarken, the thinly forested northern provinces.</p>

<p>Finally, in 1893, legislation was had enabling municipalities
to protect themselves against destruction
of forests needed for their protective function. This
gives to them the right to formulate rules which are
to prevent devastation, as for instance a diameter
limit for felling, or reforestation of clearings. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>
the costs of such restriction must be borne by the
municipalities as well as half the cost of inspection,
the other half being paid by the State. The procedure
to determine the protective quality of forests
and the financial difficulty have left the law unused.</p>

<p>In 1878, however, a committee of private owners
formed itself, to fix the sand dunes, which with the
State subventions started work the following year.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Many of the State forests are so burdened with
rights of user, which were granted to help in developing
the country, that the financial results of the
forest administration and the conditions of the State
property are most unsatisfactory, and the application
of silviculture greatly circumscribed.</p>

<p>The silvicultural system applied is most generally
the rough selection forest or an approach to group
system, relying upon voluntary reproduction entirely.
Management is much hampered by rights
of user to certain dimensions, and in the more distant
districts by the difficulty of disposing of any but the
best sizes. An orderly organization is still almost
unknown. The stumpage is sold and removed by the
buyer and the axe is still mainly used.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Higher forest schools there are none, but three
schools for the lower grades had existed for some time,
the first having been established in 1875 at Kongsberg;
one of them was abandoned in 1889. Forestry is also
taught at two farm schools.</p>

<p>Until recently the higher class foresters had to get
their education in Germany, or in the Swedish Forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
Institute at Stockholm; but in 1879, a chair of forestry
was instituted in the Agricultural college at Kristiania.</p>

<p>In 1881, the first forestry association was formed,
which by 1898 had over 500 members, and then was
re-organized with a special view to elevate private
forestry practice. It has now (1907) 1,500 members,
and employs a forester paid by the State, to give
professional advice, and works with State aid. It
has set out over 50 million trees besides sowing
8,000 lbs. of seed. It publishes a journal <i>Tidskrift
for Skogsbruk</i>, and a Yearbook. There is also another
journal, <i>Forstligt Tidskrift</i>, and a professional Society
of Foresters.</p>

<p>Altogether forestry is not yet on a high level in this
country, but the subject is now being brought even
into the primary schools, and the efforts to improve
conditions are widespread.</p>

<h3>DENMARK.</h3>

<p>Forestry in Denmark is of interest especially on
account of the intensive methods developed on small
areas, and of the efforts at reforestation of sand dunes,
moors and heaths.</p>

<p>Greatly curtailed in area when, as a result of the
war of 1864, Prussia detached the provinces of Schleswig
and Holstein, Denmark now has an area of 15,360
square miles with 2.5 million people (or 163 to the
square mile). It is largely a farming country, 80 per
cent. being productive, only 6.3 per cent. of it, or less
than 600,000 acres being under forest, and this also
mostly on soil capable of farm use; hence an import<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>
of over 7 million dollars worth of wood material is
required.</p>

<p>In addition, there are about 75,000 acres of heaths
and other wastes in process of reforestation. Especially
on the island of Sj&auml;lland, on which the capital
Copenhagen, is situated, the forest area is now increasing
by planting. The balance, or nearly 20 per
cent. of the land area, consists of heaths, moors, peatbogs
and sands.</p>

<p>Half the forest area is located on the islands, and
as these represent about one-third of the total area,
they are twice as densely forested as the peninsula
of J&uuml;tland. This latter along the north and west
coast for 200 miles represents a large sandbank with
extensive sand dunes, shifting sands, heaths and
moors, a desolate almost uninhabited country of
sterile downs, called Klitten, the recovery of which
has been in progress for a hundred years. According
to some, this once bore a coniferous forest, more likely
it was never forested.</p>

<p>While originally beech was and is still the predominant
timber (60%) with considerable additions of
oak (7%) and other hardwoods, a conifer forest of
spruce and pine, covering more than 20% of the
forest area, has been established by planting. This
planting has been mainly done on the dunes and sandwastes,
and in the reclamation of the extensive heaths
and moors or peat bogs, especially in the northern
Limfjord district, which occupy one-sixth of the unproductive
area.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>As was natural, the forest stocking on good farm<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
land had to yield early to plow and pasture. Attempts
at conservative use of the forest area date back to
1557 when Christian III issued a forest ordinance
directing his vassals or liege lords to permit the
peasants to secure their domestic wood requirements
at a cheap rate, but not to permit cutting for sale or
export, and reserving to himself all returns from such
sales. There were also regulations for the pasture,
especially as to goats, and for the use of the mast,
which then formed more than one-quarter of the
income from the royal forests.</p>

<p>In the 18th century the need of forest management
was recognized, and in 1762 the two eminent German
foresters, von Langen and von Zanthier (see <a href="#Page_88">p. 88</a>)
were invited to visit Denmark and Norway (see <a href="#Ref03">above</a>)
with a view of organizing such management. In
1760, eight young Danes were sent to von Langen in
Wernigerode to study his methods for three years,
and these with the two German foresters returned
in 1762, and under the direction of von Langen organized
the Seeland forest areas and started the first
plantations of conifers, which are now the pride of
Danish foresters.</p>

<p>In 1781, the State forests were altogether placed
under an organized administration.</p>

<p>By the beginning of the 19th century the reduction
of forest areas had progressed to such an extent that,
in 1805, a law was enacted providing that the then
existing forest area containing beech and oak should
be maintained as such forever, or at least that for
any new clearing an equivalent area be planted to
forest. This law was perhaps the result of a journey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
in 1802, to Germany made by two leading officials of
the forest department, German influence through
Cotta and Hartig being at this time visible everywhere.</p>

<p>Other restrictions in the disposal of peasants&#8217; farms
or woodlands and in the manner of farming the large
estates (otherwise than by renting to farmers), were
also enacted in order to secure stability of the peasant
class. It was at this time that the accumulative
taxing of landed estates now under heated discussion
in Great Britain, was used effectively to break up
the aggregation of landed property and changed the
country from one of baronial estates to small farmer&#8217;s
holdings. In this reform movement the name of Count
<i>Reventlow</i>, Chief of the State forest department,
appears as the leading spirit.</p>

<p>The forest area, which until 1820 was on the decrease,
has since that time increased steadily, and is
especially now increasing through reforestation of
waste lands.</p>

<p>At present, most intensive forest management
is practised in the State forest as well as in the communal
and private forest areas, which latter as stated,
are largely in farmers&#8217; wood lots since the law forbids the
union of small farms into large estates. There is little
communal property, and large private estates are
also rare. The State owns about 24% of the forest
area or 142,000 acres, of which one third is nonproductive
or otherwise occupied, and one third consists
of coniferous plantations. Excepting in the beech
forest, most of the timber is of the younger age classes,
below 60 to 80 years, and it is anticipated that the cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
will have to be reduced, and the import of wood and
woodenware increased.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Artificial reproduction is the most general silvicultural
practice except in the beech forest which is reproduced
naturally after preparation of the soil and
sowing acorns for admixture at the same time, spending
altogether $12 to $15 per acre in this preparation.
Since 1880, thinnings have been based on the idea
of favoring final harvest trees somewhat after the
French fashion; they are begun in the twentieth to
thirtieth year and are repeated every three years,
aided by pruning. Then in each subsequent decade
the return occurs in as many years as the decade has
tens. Especially in the direction of thinnings, the
German practice and even theory is outdone, the
thinnings being made severer and recurring more
frequently.</p>

<p>More than a hundred years ago the State began the
reclamation work of the dunes and heaths, but it progressed
more actively only since the sixties of last
century as a result of legislation had in 1857. In
1867, a special Dune Department was instituted, and
through the effort of a State engineer, Capt. <i>Dalgas</i>,
an association was formed for the reclamation of
heaths and moors. A small subvention of $600 started
the work of the association, in its useful campaign under
the advice of Staats planteur (State forest planter)
<i>Jensen Tusch</i>. The State subvention now amounts
to about forty thousand dollars annually, and the
success of the association has been such that it has
become almost a fad for large land owners and others<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
to buy up these waste lands and have them planted
through the agents of the Heath Association. The
planting is mainly of spruce in plow furrows at a cost
of $10 to $12 per acre; 60 to 80 year old stands of
earlier plantings testifying to the possible results.</p>

<p>In the last 40 years nearly 200,000 acres of heath
have been planted, of which over one-half are to the
credit of the association.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>For the education of the higher grade foresters a
department of forestry (now with two professors) was
instituted in the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural
High School at Copenhagen in 1869, with a course of
five years including one and a half year of practical
work. This education is given free of charge.</p>

<p>The Heath Association educates its own officers, including
in their subjects the management of meadows
and peatbogs.</p>

<p>A Forestry Association, composed one-half of forest
owners, with its organ <i>Tidskrift for Skovvaesen</i>, in
existence since 1888, and a valuable book literature,
in which the problems of the heath are especially
fully and authoritatively treated, places Denmark in
the foremost rank in the forestry world in these
particulars.</p>

<p>Among the prominent contributors are to be mentioned,
besides Reventlow and Dalgas, <i>P. E. M&uuml;ller</i>,
well known by his discussions of the problems of moor
soils. From 1876 to 1891, he issued a magazine, in
which <i>Oppermann</i> contributed a history of Danish
forestry. The latter author also, in co-operation with
<i>Hauch</i>, published in 1900 a Hand-book of Forestry.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span></p>

<h2>THE MEDITERRANEAN
PENINSULAS.</h2>

<p>Geographically, and to some extent climatically,
the three peninsulas of the Mediterranean Sea, the
Iberian, Italian, and the Balkan, are situated alike.
Their people, if not in race, are in temper and characteristics,
and in their political economy more or less
alike. They represent the oldest civilization in
Europe, and in their long history have been frequently
in collision with each other. Their forests, through
centuries of abuse, are wherever accessible, in poorest
condition. Long-continued political disturbances,
which have prevented peaceful development, and
poverty, have been the greatest hindrances to economic
reforms like the recuperation of forests, which
require sacrifices. Ancient rights of user, and the
necessity of politicians to respect them are also responsible
for the fact that, while praiseworthy attempts
in legislation have been made, execution has
been usually lagging behind.</p>

<p>The accessibility to sea, permitting readily importation,
the temperate climate, the simple life and abstemiousness
of the people, and the lack of industrial
development have made the deficiency of wood
material less felt than it would otherwise be, but the
detrimental influence of forest destruction is being
repeatedly experienced in floods and drouths.</p>

<p>There is probably no more potent cause of forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span>
devastation in all this section of the world than the
pasturing of the woods, especially with sheep and
goats.</p>

<p>While Italy is now a united country, and only two
peoples, Spain and Portugal, occupy the Iberian
peninsula, the Balkan peninsula is occupied by eight
separate peoples, if we include all the country south
of the Danube River and East of the Carpathian
Mountains.</p>

<h3>TURKISH AND SLAVISH TERRITORIES.</h3>

<p>The Turks for centuries warred with, had under
vassalage or otherwise controlled, and misruled all
the Slavish States, as well as Macedonia and Greece&mdash;a
territory of around 170,000 square miles and
16,000,000 people&mdash;until, by the Congress of Berlin
(1878), ending the Russo-Turkish war, these States
were recognized as independent kingdoms, namely
Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Roumelia, and Roumania,
while Bosnia-Hercegovina was placed under
Austrian administration (see <a href="#Page_155">page 155</a> and <a href="#Page_166">166</a>).</p>

<p>With the exception of Roumania, these people are
still in the lower stages of civilization, the countries
undeveloped, the forest still serves largely for the
mast and pasturage, probably less than 24 per cent.
of the country being forest covered, mostly with
deciduous trees, oak, beech and walnut, etc.</p>

<p>Roumania alone has systematically taken advantage
of her freedom from Turkish rule in developing
a modern civilization, and can also boast the beginning
of a forestry system.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span></p>

<p><i>Roumelia</i>, comprising <i>Macedonia</i>, <i>Albania</i> and
<i>Thrace</i>, the Turkish possessions in Europe, with 67,000
square miles and 5,000,000 people, contain large areas of
untouched forest (not less than 5,000,000 acres in Macedonia
alone<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10"
class="fnanchor">[10]</a>) with valuable oak and walnut, which have
remained unused owing to their inaccessibility and
the undesirability of developing them under Turkish
rule. Where accessible, the forest is maltreated or
destroyed.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
Lacretelle, Rapport sur les for&ecirc;ts de la Mac&eacute;doine, 1893.</p>

</div>

<p><i>Bulgaria</i>, to which, in 1885, East Roumelia was
attached, represents now 38,000 square miles and
over 4,000,000 people, independent under a German
prince as king since 1879. The forest area<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a
href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> of 7.5
million acres (30 per cent. of the land area), mostly
deciduous (oak, beech, walnut, etc.), and largely confined
to the mountains, is one-half in communal ownership,
one-sixth in private hands, mostly small woodlots,
and one-third State property; but ownership
rights are still much in doubt, and until 1869 the State
forests were freely open to the use of all, when some
sort or regulation of the cut according to the needs of
different communities was attempted. Since within
10 years such rights of user establish ownership, endless
litigation has resulted, until in 1883 a law was
enacted ordering the stoppage of rights of user, substituting
money payment (10 per cent. of value), and
another restricting the diameter to which the most
valuable export timber, walnut, may be cut. Changes
in detail were made in 1897, but political exigencies,
absence of an adequate organization, and other undeveloped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>
conditions have largely prevented enforcement
of these laws, and rough exploitation continues
in spite of the nominal State control.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
<i>Forstliche Rundschau</i>, 1903.</p>

</div>

<p>Owing to inaccessibility of many of the agricultural
districts to the wooded mountains, a large import
was necessary, but lately export almost equals
the import, and indeed the export of walnut has increased
fourteenfold in a few years. The forest administration
is vested in a bureau under the Minister
of Commerce and Agriculture, with a chief, an inspector
general, and two assistant chiefs. When it
is stated that in 1905 the entire budget for forestry
was $150,000, the inefficiency of the service is apparent.</p>

<p><i>Servia</i>, a kingdom with 19,000 square miles and
2,000,000 people, has over 42 per cent. (five million
acres&mdash;according to others only 32%) still in untouched
forest, with valuable oak and walnut, the
forest being mainly used for hograising. Over 36%
is State forest, over 43% communal and institutional
forest, leaving about 20% in private hands; but, just
as in Bulgaria, property conditions are still somewhat
unsettled. Like Bulgaria also on account of the
uneven distribution of forest area, lack of transportation
and systematic development&mdash;a large part of
the population are more cheaply supplied by importation,
which amounts to near one million dollars.
Curiously enough, by the law of 1891 only the wood
cut from State and church forests could be exported
free of duty. This export duty was abolished in
1904, and the first attempt was made by the Minister
of Agriculture to bring order into the forest administration
by importing German foresters.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span></p>

<p>The law of 1891, with various subsequent additions
and changes, placed private forest property located
on exposed mountain slopes or on shifting sands, or
on bogsoils under government surveillance, and relieved
plantations made under direction of the government
of taxes for 10 years.</p>

<p><i>Roumania</i>,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a
href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> with 50,000 square miles and nearly
6,000,000 people, under the capable administration
of a Hohenzollern prince, King Charles, was in Roman
times as <i>Dacia felix</i> one of the most prosperous
provinces, half of it hilly and mountainous, the other
half in the rich alluvial valley of the Danube, now
largely deforested. The hill and mountain country
was until the end of the eighteenth century still well
wooded. A rapid depletion then took place by the
demands of the Turkish markets, until now not quite
17 per cent. (according to others 18 or 20 per cent.)
of the area is forested, and multifarious rights of user,
which made commons of the woods, have naturally
led to widespread devastation in the accessible parts.
In 1847, the National Assembly attempted regulation
of the cut and of the rights of user, but with little
effect. In 1894, the total area had decreased to less
than 5 million acres (according to others 6.7 million
acres), of which two-fifths is in private hands, two-fifths
State property and Royal forest (formerly, until
1863, in the hands of the monks), the small balance
belonging to communities and institutes. In the
higher mountains, fir and spruce with some pine and
larch form the forest; but broadleaf forest, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
oak and beech is the prevailing type occupying the
middle altitudes and the hill country. The private
forest of small owners is being rapidly depleted, only
the State forest and that of large proprietors being in
good condition.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
<i>Die forstwirtschaftlichen Verh&auml;ltnisse Rumaniens</i>, Von Mihail Vasilescu,
1891. <i>Notice sur les for&ecirc;ts de Roumanie, in Statistica p&acirc;durilor Statulin.</i> 1903.</p>

</div>

<p>In 1863, when the cloister property was secularized
and taken over by the state, the rights of user in this
property were suspended, and sales at auction to
contractors were inaugurated, under condition that
a certain number of seed trees per acre be left. There
was little enforcement of this rule.</p>

<p>The first comprehensive law organizing the State
property and inaugurating a protective policy was
enacted in 1881. This law recognized State, Royal
and Communal property as of public concern, and
also placed such private property under supervision
as was situated on steep slopes, near watercourses,
and near the boundaries (of strategic importance).
These areas, coming under the protective policy,
comprise 84 per cent. of the whole forest area. They
were not to be cleared except by special permit, and
not to be exploited except under specially approved
working plans.</p>

<p>In 1885, three French foresters were called in to
organize a State forest department and to inaugurate
the making of working plans. The personnel (25
inspectors and 89 district officers) being insufficient,
and wood prices low (the income from state property
being not over $400,000), the progress of the work was
slow. Although, in 1894, the income had doubled,
the administrative forces had not been enlarged to
any great extent (137 foresters of various grades),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
and by that time only 150,000 acres had been brought
under working plans. By 1900, about 200,000 acres of
State property, or 14 per cent., and 500,000 acres of
private forest, or 22 per cent., were organized in some
fashion. Lack of means of transportation, however,
prevents a really well regulated management. Altogether
only 65 per cent. of the State property is
accessible so that it can be worked, and the working
plans consist mainly in leaving a number of seed trees.</p>

<p>In 1889, a Forestry Association (<i>Progressul Silvic</i>)
was formed, which with its organ, <i>Revista p&acirc;durilor</i>,
pushes the propaganda. In 1890, an energetic Minister
of Domains, Carp, sought strenuously to bring
improvement into the situation. A budget of $500,000
for foresters&#8217; dwellings was secured to bring the forest
managers into closer contact with their charges, a
planting fund of $100,000, later increased to $140,000
per annum, was voted, and reforestation and reclamation
of sand dunes was begun. A forest improvement
fund was inaugurated in 1892 by setting aside
2 per cent. of the gross forest yield. But, in the political
struggles, Carp&#8217;s party was displaced, and, depression
in agricultural prosperity causing financial
distress, an era of increased exploitation followed, so
that the export of forest products, largely cooperage,
(mainly to Greece, Italy and France) which had been
declining to less than half, rose again to about four
million dollars annually. The financial embarrassment
of the State led even to a proposition to sell
State forests, but, before contracts for this purpose
were consummated, relief came and the danger was
averted.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span></p>

<p>The State cuts about 22,000 acres annually, yielding
about $1,000,000, the administration costing (in 1903)
$240,000, leaving a net yield of 30 cents per acre. In
1898, the Forest Department, in the Direction of
Domains under the Ministry of Agriculture consisted
of a Forest Director with 156 foresters academically
educated (mostly in France, and since 1892 in the
Agricultural Institute at Bucharest), and over 2,500
underforesters and guards. Of some 30,000 acres of
sand dunes, one-half belonging to the State, about
18,000 acres have been recovered by planting Black
Locust, and some 9,000 acres of plains country have
been reforested, for which 330 acres of nurseries
furnish the material. In spite of all these efforts, excessive
pasturing, although forbidden in the State
forest, and fires continue to devastate the property.</p>

<p>Private forestry is, of course, much less developed;
yet some large properties (Princess Schoenburg, with
20,000 acres) are under efficient German forest management.
Here, money is spent on developing means
of transportation, and a better revenue is secured
than in State forests.</p>

<h3>GREECE.</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Chloros</span>, Waldverh&auml;ltnisse Griechenlands. Thesis for the Doctorate at
Munich. 1884. 45 pp.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Anderlind</span>, Mittheilungen &uuml;ber die Waldverh&auml;ltnisse Griechenlands. Allgemeine
Forst- und Jagdzeitung. 1884.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The history of the country has been so unfortunate,
and political conditions so unsettled that only lately
efforts at improvement in economic conditions could
hope to receive attention. For centuries after Greece
had become a Roman province (146 B.C.), it changed
rulers, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, Venetians following
each other, until, between 1460 and 1473, it came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>
under the Turkish yoke. As a result of an insurrection
started in 1821, freedom, but no settled order as
yet, was attained in 1829 through the assistance of
Great Britain, France and Russia, and the elected
kings, Otho (of Bavaria), Alfred (of England) and
George (of Denmark) successively tried to secure
social order and efficient constitutional government.</p>

<p>By the time this new era had arrived there was
probably little valuable forest worthy of the name
left, except in the inaccessible mountain districts.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>Although certain districts, like Attica, were already
practically denuded in Plato&#8217;s time, there is little
doubt that originally the whole of Greece with small
exceptions was a continuous forest. The destruction
of the forest, protected by thousands of gods and
nymphs in holy groves, proceeded slowly under the
regime of the ancient Greeks, until the fanaticism
of the Christian religion led to a war against these
pagan strongholds, and the holy groves were reduced
by axe and fire. Turkish misrule for centuries, over-taxation,
reckless cutting, extensive herding of goats
and sheep, and fires have reduced the forest area until
now it occupies only 12 or 14 per cent. of the land area
(25,000 square miles). In 1854, a survey developed
about 2 million acres of woodlands (probably an excessive
figure) for the now 2.5 million people, while
67 per cent. of the surface is a useless waste, and only
20 per cent. under cultivation, so that the general
aspect of the country is desolate. The many islands
are entirely deforested, and so are the seashores.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
&#8220;Where in olden times dense shady poplars stood,
now only infertile sand and dreary rock waste remain.&#8221;</p>

<p>The forest in northern and middle Greece is confined
to the two rugged mountain ranges with numerous
spurs which run parallel, north and south, with
Mt. Olympus (nearly 9,000 feet) and Mt. Pindus
(6,000 feet) the highest elevations. The large fertile
plains of Thessaly and Boeotia are forestless. So is
the large Arcadian plateau of the Peloponnesus, and
the other smaller, hot but fertile plains and plateaus.
The most valuable conifer forest is found on the higher
ranges between the 2,500 and 5,000 foot level, below
the snow-clad mountain tops, where especially two
species of fir, <i>Abies Apollinis</i> and <i>Abies regin&aelig; Amaliae</i>
(a species remarkable for its sprouting habit), with
other firs and several species of <i>Juniperus</i> and <i>Cupressus</i>,
form sometimes extensive forests. Other
common trees are chestnut, sycamore, several species
of oak and poplar, and, on the coast, <i>Pinus halepensis</i>.</p>

<p>The firs occupy about 35 per cent. of the forest area,
oaks and deciduous forest 45 per cent. Among the
forest products which are exported, we find galls,
vermillion and sumach prominent.</p>

<p>It is believed that Greece in ancient times was more
fertile than it is now, and that the deterioration is
due to deforestation. Undoubtedly soil conditions
favored such deterioration, for, with the exception of
the Pindus range, which is composed of metamorphic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
rock, a poor, dry limestone is characteristic of the
country except where fertile, alluvial and diluvial
deposits cover it in valleys along the coast. The
climate is, however, so favorable that even the poor
soil would readily reclothe itself if left alone. The
winters are short, hardly three months, and with
hardly any snow or ice except on the high mountains,
making the vegetative period nine months; and, with
temperature ranges from 20 to 106 degrees F.; rainfall
average 400 mm.; the summers, to be sure, rainless
and dry, but the other seasons humid, somewhat less
than in middle Europe, rapid growth is the result of
these conditions. But the continued pasturing of
goats and sheep&mdash;some six million&mdash;prevents any
natural reforestation. Increased taxation on this
industry has had no effect, and the practice of permitting
the people to gather dry wood for fuel is an
incentive for making dry wood by setting fires, which
also serve to improve the pasture; perhaps nowhere
are forest fires more frequent, in spite of heavy penalties.
That a baneful influence on the water condition
and river flow has been the result is historically
demonstrated by Chloros.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span
class="label">[13]</span></a> See <i>Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung 1884</i>, p. 183 ff., and 1887, p. 327 ff.
for interesting details.</p>

</div>

<p>In the mountains some fine and quite extensive
bodies of fir still exist, lack of transportation having
preserved them. Elsewhere the rights of user, and
the herding of goats are so well established that reforms
appear, indeed, difficult.</p>

<p>Firewood, 3 loads for each person, supposed to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
taken from the dead or otherwise useless trees, and
small dimension material is free to all. For the right
to cut workwood, the government charges a tax of
25 to 30 per cent. of the value of the material, the
price for this being annually determined. On the
material cut in private forests, the government also
levies a tax of from 12 to 18 per cent. of its value.
This pernicious system of promiscuous cutting leads
to the most wasteful use imaginable, not only high
stumps, but large amounts of good material are left
in the woods so that it is estimated that hardly 50 per
cent. of what is cut is really utilized. The cut, as far
as the tax gives a clue to it, amounts to around 2.7
million cubic feet workwood, but with the firewood
included it was estimated that near 90 million cubic
feet are cut annually. Importation to the amount
of 1.5 million dollars, mostly from Austria and
Roumania, makes up the deficit in work material,
especially for the box factories which manufacture
the packages for the large export of currants, some
2 million boxes. The tax during the decade from 1862
to 1871 produced an annual income of $600,000, a
little less in 1895.</p>

<p>The forest has been from olden times, and is now
almost entirely, State property (some 80 or 90 per
cent.) and in nearly all the remaining, private, communal
and cloister property the State has a partial
ownership or supervision. The waste land of probably
3 million acres extent also belongs to the State,
the whole State property covering over 30 per cent. of
the land area.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Policies.</i></h4>

<p>A first definite attempt to regulate matters was
made by Otho, who being a German, took a personal
interest in this forest property, and instituted for
each province forest inspectors (dasarchys) under one
chief inspector, with forest guards, to prevent devastation
by fire and theft. The mistake was made of
employing in these positions superannuated Bavarian
army officers, who were merely a burden on the
treasury. No management or even regular fellings
were attempted. The population could, as before,
supply its needs upon permits, always granted, from
the governor of the province, one of the forest guards
being supposed to vise these, and to see that the wood
was properly employed, not, however, to supervise
the cutting.</p>

<p>In 1877, further legislation was had, instituting in
the Ministry of Finance, a forest inspector, technically
trained, with two assistant inspectors, also
technically trained, to superintend the outside work.
A forest survey was begun in 1879, but interrupted in
1880 for lack of funds and personnel. The same law
placed the duty of guarding the State property in the
hands of the general police or gendarmerie, 50 officers
and some 340 guards, and during the fire danger (June
to October) 110 more, being detailed for this service
under direction of the Minister of War. The pernicious
permit system, however, was continued.</p>

<p>Dr. Chloros, who obtained his education in Germany,
became finally Forest Director and was responsible
for securing further legislation in 1888, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span>
object of which was, as a first step towards improvement,
to survey and delimit and round off the State
property. It provided that enclaves, and all absolute
forest soil was to be expropriated. If no amicable
agreement with the owner could be reached, the price
was to be determined by the net yield which had
been obtained from the property during the last five
years, capitalized at 5 per cent. No attempts, however,
at an efficient organization or change of the
destructive permit system were made.</p>

<p>By general law, the State has the right to surveillance
of private property, although the extent of this right
is not fully defined. The government may take for
its own use, by paying for it, upwards of one-sixth of
the annual cut; it collects a tax of 12 to 18 per cent.
for all woodwork cut; it forbids the pasturing of woods
that have been burned within 10 years, and obliges
all owners of over 1200 acres to employ forest guards.
This and other interference with property rights
naturally acts as deterrent to private forest management.
A notable exception is the small private royal
forest property near Athens, which, since 1872 under
a Danish forester, appears to have been managed
under forestry principles.</p>

<p>A thorough re-organization of the forest service
was effected in 1893, when 20 district foresters were
employed, the number of forest inspectors was increased
to four, and a regular Division of Forestry
was instituted in the Finance Department. The
general police or gendarmerie was continued as forest
guards. Until a native personnel could be educated
by sending young men to Germany, foreigners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>
were to be employed for the making of working
plans.</p>

<p>Yet in 1896, the then Director of the Forest Department,
a lawyer, still complains of the absence of
a proper organization and of any personnel with forestry
knowledge. Apparently no progress had been
made. In that year, however, the gendarmerie was
to be replaced by forest guards (52 superior and 298
subaltern) who were to be appointed from graduates
of a special secondary school, which had been instituted
at Vytina some two years before. This replacement
could, of course, not be effected at once, since
hardly more than 25 men could be graduated annually;
hence even this improvement in the lower class police
would not be completed for six or eight years. No
steps had been taken to educate officers for the higher
grades, and in this direction, propositions merely were
discussed.</p>

<p>In 1899, a change in the permit system was made,
but hardly for the better, justices of the peace being
empowered, under certain conditions, to issue such
permits. Nor do we find in 1901 anything more than
expressions of good wishes, and desire for further
legislation, besides some attempts at popular education
through the formation of tree-planting associations
under the patronage of the Crown Princess.
In 1905 no change in conditions are reported. Forest
fires still continue as a common occurrence.</p>

<p>While the government makes efforts to improve
conditions, the indifference, stupidity, cupidity, and
malevolence of the people, and the long established
abuses prevent rapid progress at reform.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span></p>

<h3>ITALY.</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Bolletino ufficiale per l&#8217;amminstrazione forestale Italiana.</i></p>

<p><i>Direzione generale dell&#8217; Agricoltora: Relazione interno all&#8217; amministrazione
dei boschi domaniali inalienabili.</i></p>

<p>Various essays by Prof. <span class="smcap">Vittorio Perona</span> of Vallambrosa in German magazines;
notably in <i>Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung</i>, 1882, 1888.</p>

<p><i>Archeologia forestale. Dell&#8217; antica storia e giurisprudenza forestale in Italia.</i>
<span class="smcap">A. Di Berenger.</span> 1859.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Maffei</span>, <i>Revista forestale</i>.</p>

<p><i>Italy.</i> By Prof. <span class="smcap">W. Deeke</span>. 1904.</p>

<p><i>Il rimboschimento dello Appennino meridionale</i>, by <span class="smcap">Luigi Savastano</span>, 1893.
An exceedingly well written popular treatise on silviculture, which gives also
briefly insight into forest conditions and forest practices.</p>

<p><i>I boschia e la nostra politica Italiana</i>, by <span class="smcap">Bertagnolli</span>, 1889.</p>

<p><i>Italia moderna.</i> 1904, article by <span class="smcap">Lunadoni</span>.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The efforts to secure improvement in the treatment
of forest resources have been more active and
strenuous in Italy than in Greece. They were induced
especially by the urgent need of protecting
watersheds, the rivers throughout Italy having been
turned into torrents by deforestation. But, owing to
the weakness of the government and to poverty, the
actual execution of the very good laws has lagged
behind. Indeed, while ample legislation has been
enacted, the people, overburdened with debt, and
needing the small income that can be derived from
pasturing or renting the pasture in the woods, make
it difficult to carry on any reform, and the enforcement
of the laws has again and again led to serious
trouble. &#8220;Forestry is a sore point in the national
economy of Italy, as it involves sacrifice of money and
time.&#8221; Italy, therefore, is still in the transition period
from forestal rapine to forest culture.</p>

<p>Densely populated (33 million on 110,600 square
miles), with fully one-fifth of its area unproductive,
or at least unused, and one-quarter of this almost or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
quite beyond redemption, no country offers better
opportunities for studying the evil effects of deforestation
on soil and waterflow. As a result of the
combination of geology (slates and limestones), topography
(steep slopes), climate, and forest devastation
or destruction, mainly by pasturage of goats (two
million), the Italian rivers are invariably flooded in
March and mostly dry in summer; the melting of the
snow coinciding with the heavy spring rains turns
them into raging torrents (<i>fiumare</i>), silting over the
fertile lands in the valleys and occasional landslides
in the mountain country, where extensive tracts are
nearly bare of vegetation. Especially the rivers
around Bologna, which in 1897 again caused damage
in excess of one million dollars, are dreaded.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>Situated similarly to Greece as regards accessibility
and climate, and similarly torn by wars and political
strife, and in unstable conditions for centuries, Italy
has in proportion to population, if not to area, reduced
her forest resources even more than Greece; less than
one-third of an acre per capita remains, with a total
of somewhat over twelve million acres, or about 17
per cent. of the land area, and this includes much
useless brushland, over 2 million acres. Apparently,
if the uncertain statistics may be relied upon, a reduction
of several million acres has taken place even
since 1870. Some 15 million acres of waste land and
swamps offer ample opportunity for increasing this
forest area without infringing on the 42 million acres
of usefully employed agricultural soil.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p>

<p>Of the forest area, 25 per cent. is to be found in the
Alps, about 50 per cent. on the Apennines, the one
mountain range which forms the backbone of Italy;
less than one-quarter is distributed over the plains,
and the small balance is found on the islands, especially
Sicily, which is a hill and mountain country, once
magnificently wooded, now largely denuded (4 per
cent. wooded), and on Sardinia, which, with nearly
45 per cent. under forest, is the best wooded part of
Italy, although the condition of the forest is here no
better than elsewhere.</p>

<p>With the exception of the slopes of the Alps (2.5
million acres of spruce, fir, beech, larch), and the tops
of the Apennines and remote plateaus (4.5 million
acres), and of a few special places on which now and
then even magnificent remnants of virgin forest may
be found&mdash;lack of transportation having preserved
them&mdash;most of the area is occupied by miserable
brush forest, coppice or else open forest with scattered
trees among a shrub undergrowth of thorns, hazel and
chestnut (called macchia, i.e., chaparral), so that
most Italians have never seen a real forest. Nevertheless,
Italy is by no means as treeless as this condition
of forest would imply, for trees (poplar, ash,
elm) are dotting the plains and slopes, planted for vine
supports and boundaries, unshapely through pollarding
and lopping the branches for firewood. Olive
and chestnut groves on the hills (of the former 2
million acres, of the latter over 400,000 acres planted
for the fruit), and 8.5 million acres in vineyards
add to the wooded appearance of the country and
to the wood supply. The annual product of firewood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
from these planted trees is estimated at
6 million cords.</p>

<p>On the sand dunes and near the seashore, especially
in the marshes, the Maritime, the Aleppo Pine, and
the umbrella-shaped <i>Pinus pinea</i>, and picturesque
Cypresses are sometimes found in small groves, while
the calcareous hills in this region up to 1200 feet are
studded with olives, cork and evergreen oak. Osier
growing is here also quite extensively practiced. In
the mountains, above the 2700 foot level, conifer
forest, composed of <i>Pinus silvestris</i> and <i>laricio</i>, and
<i>Abies pectinata</i>, has been reduced to less than 7 per
cent. of the whole, mixed conifer and deciduous forest
represents 4 per cent., the bulk being deciduous forest
of oak (several species) and beech, with chestnut.
Forty-eight per cent. of the forest area is in coppice
(<i>ceduo</i>), and of the 52 per cent. of high forest, the bulk
is managed under selection system (<i>a scelta</i>), a small
part under clearing system (<i>ad alto fusto</i>), although
management can hardly be said to exist except in
small groves.</p>

<p>That supply of workwood is insufficient for the
needs of the population, and is decreasing, is attested
by the fact that the importations more than doubled
in the decade from 1892 to 1903 to near 14 million
dollars, 80 per cent. of which was saw material, in
addition to 2 million dollars of wood manufactures,
while nearly 5 million dollars&#8217; worth was exported
in the last named year, mostly cork, casks, thin box-boards,
olive wood manufactures, and charcoal. No
better picture of the forest conditions can be had than
by a statement of the home production, which, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>
1886, (last official data) was placed at 48 million cubic
feet of workwood, valued at 3.4 million dollars, 223
million cubic feet firewood, valued at 4.1 million, 106
million cubic feet charcoal, worth 3.6 million, and
by-products to the large amount of 6.4 million dollars,
altogether a little less than 17.6 million dollars. Firewood
and charcoal, which represent over 80 per cent.
of the product, are, of course, furnished by coppice,
and in addition by the pollarded material, almost the
only fuel to be had.</p>

<p>The ownership of the forest area is for the greater
part private (53 per cent.) and communal (over 43
per cent.), the State owning a little over 400,000
acres, less than 4 per cent. The State property being
so small, supervision of communal and private forest
has become the policy.</p>

<p>The State forest is of two classes, the alienable,
under the Department of Finance, the larger part,
about 375,000 acres, and the inalienable, so declared
by law of 1871, which was then about 115,000 acres,
and was placed under a forest administration in the
Department of Agriculture; but of this about 20 per
cent. is not forest, and even in 1896, some of this small
area was sold so that now only 40,000 acres remain.
This area is to serve for demonstration of model
management, and to supply government needs.
Beech and oak with fir, pine and larch, mostly in
timber forest, characterize this property, which is
managed mostly in selection system. Curiously
enough, in 1888, the difficulty of disposing advantageously
of the old timber is complained of, due to lack
of means of transportation. The personnel of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
administration consists of a central bureau with one
Inspector General, three Inspectors, and a Council.
For each province, and in some cases for two or more
provinces together, an Inspector with several Sub-inspectors
and a number of guards or <i>brigadieri</i> are
charged with the management of the State property
and the enforcement of the forest laws.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>For centuries, since the fall of the Roman Empire
(476 A.D.) until the end of the eighteenth century,
Italy has been the victim of war and strife with neighbors
or within its borders, being divided into numberless
commonwealths, almost each city being independent.
Hence, no economic improvements could
take place until, under the influences of the French
Revolution, the regeneration period began. Not,
however, until the seven or eight states, which the
Congress of Vienna (1815) had established, were
moulded into one united Italy under Victor Emmanuel,
during the years 1859 to 1870, could an effective
reconstruction be inaugurated.</p>

<p>It is true that some of the republics in earlier times
paid attention to their forest property. Notably in
Venice, old forest ordinances<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a
href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> date back to 697, and,
in 1453, a regular forest administration was instituted,
especially to take care of the large forest area in
Istria and Dalmatia, which fell into the hands of the
Venetians about 1420. A tolerably conservative
management continued here until the beginning of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span>
the eighteenth century when, in consequence of political
complications, supervision became lax, and devastation
began which continued through the century,
leaving to the new century, and finally to the Austrians,
the legacy of the Karst (see <a href="#Page_173">p. 173</a>).</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
<span class="smcap">Berenger</span>, Saggio storico della legislacione Veneta forestale, 1863. An excellent
source.</p>

</div>

<p>Florence too, managed to prevent the deforestation
of the summit of her mountains until the beginning of
the eighteenth century, and in other republics, kingdoms
and duchies, similar efforts at forest administration
existed. Yet Genoa, which in Strabo&#8217;s time
was the principal timber market of Italy, had by 1860
nearly all its mountain slopes denuded.</p>

<p>Before the general legislation for all Italy was
enacted there were at least a dozen laws in operation
in the various provinces; in Lombardy, the law of
1811; in Naples, the law of 1826; in Rome, of 1827;
in Umbria, of 1805; in Bologna, of 1829; in Tuscany,
of 1829; in Piedmont, of 1833; in Sardinia, of 1851; etc.
If these had been heeded much better conditions
would have been inherited by the new kingdom.</p>

<p>With the arrival of a national spirit, many schemes
for the promotion of forestry and of forest policy
were discussed. The academies of Florence, Milan,
Modena, Palermo, and Pesaro offered premiums for
reforesting of mountains, and called for popular
treatises on silviculture. A forestry journal came
into being, furthering the propaganda. In 1860 a
very well written account of &#8220;Present Conditions of
Forestry and Production of Sulphur in Sicily,&#8221; a
collection of reports, was published by Shiro. In
1860 also, an investigation of forest conditions in
each province was ordered by royal decree, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
propositions for their improvement were called for,
which led to legislative proposals, introduced in
1862, and legislation enacted in 1863.</p>

<p>The law of 1863 still treated each province independently:
forest inspectors for each province, and for
Naples an Inspector General, with district foresters
and a large number of forest guards were appointed.</p>

<p>Another law, applicable only to certain parts of the
Kingdom, was enacted in 1874, intended to check the
progress of deforestation and prevent turning waste
woodlands into pasture; these absolute forest soils
were to be reforested within five years. The law
remained a dead letter, yet it is still in force in part,
with modifications enacted in 1886.</p>

<p>The final unification of the country as far as legislative
unity is concerned, was completed in 1877,
and in that year the first general forest law for all
Italy was also enacted.</p>

<p>This law, which has mainly in view the protective
influence of forest cover as a factor in the public
welfare, leaving all private property not falling under
the character of protection forest entirely free, established
provincial forest commissions&mdash;conservation
boards&mdash;unpaid, who were to enact rules and regulations
best adapted to their localities. The Board
of Commissioners consisted of the prefect of the province,
<i>ex-officio</i> president; an inspector of forests,
the technical officer who administers the government
property; an engineer appointed by the governor;
and three members chosen by the provincial council;
in addition, each communal council was to send
one member to take part in the deliberations of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
the board as far as his particular commune was
interested.</p>

<p>By this law the country is divided into two sections
vertically, namely the territory above the limit of chestnut,
and that below this limit, the latter representing
the farming country, the territory above being
unfit for agricultural use. To the former the restrictions
of the law apply as a rule (<i>terreni soggetti al
vincolo forestale</i>&mdash;ban forest), to the latter, as exception,
namely where the removal of forest or brush
cover might cause landslides, or affect stream flow
or health conditions unfavorably. The chestnut
limit naturally varies in different parts, but, generally
speaking, lies between 1,800 and 2,000 feet elevation.
The determination of these areas was to be made by
the provincial forest committees, and it is significant
to note that in these the State forest administration
did not have the majority.</p>

<p>The territory under restriction, was in 1887, after
various revisions, established as comprising 7.5 million
acres of forest and 2.5 million acres of brush and waste,
nearly 71% of the forest area being thus placed under
restriction; leaving 2.5 million acres of forest and over
2 million of brush and waste outside the working of
the law; these latter areas are left entirely without restrictions,
except as general police regulations apply.
The execution of the law and regulations is left to
the State Forest Department with an organization
of forest guards (some 3,000 in 1883), appointed by
the prefect of the province with the advice of the
forestry commission, but acting under the State
forest administration. Their pay was to come to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span>
the extent of two-thirds from the communes, the other
third from the provincial treasurer.</p>

<p>In the forests placed under the law, clearing and
agricultural use is forbidden. Fellings and cultures
must be made under direction of the Committee.
No compensation is made for this limitation in use
except where hygienic influence was the basis for
placing the forest under ban.</p>

<p>If the regulations of the commissions had been
observed to their full extent, all would have been
well in time, but it is evident from subsequent legislative
efforts that the execution of the laws was not
what could be desired. Political exigencies required
leniency in the application of the law. An interesting
report on the results of the first quinquennium
shows that during that time 170,000 acres were
cleared, over 40,000 without permission, and by 1900,
it was estimated, deforestation had taken place on
about 5 million acres.</p>

<p>Wrangling over the classification of the lands under
ban has continued until the present, and local authorities
have continued to favor private as against public
interest, to withdraw lands from the operation, and
to wink at disregard of the law. Moreover, rights of
user to dead wood, pasturage (goats are by law excluded)
and other privileges continued to prevent
improvement, although several laws to effect their
extinction had been passed.</p>

<p>The devastating floods of 1882 led to much agitation,
and, upon a report of a special commission in
1886, the law of 1874, which had obligated the communities
to reforest their waste lands within five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
years or else to sell, was revived, extending the term
of obligatory reforestation in the endangered sections
to ten years. By that time, out of 800,000 acres
originally declared as requiring reforestation, not
more than 40,000 acres had been planted, but the
acreage involved had also been gradually scaled down
by the forest committees to 240,000 acres. The report,
on the other hand, found that the area needing
reboisement was at least 500,000 acres, requiring an
expenditure of 12 million dollars. The law of 1877
did not contemplate enforced reforestation of banforests;
it sought to accomplish this by empowering
either the Department of Agriculture or the provinces
or the communities or special associations to expropriate
for the purpose of reforestation. Results were
nil.</p>

<p>A revision and broadening of the law led to the
general reboisement act of 1888,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a
href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> which has in view
the correction of torrents, fixing of mountain slopes
and sand dunes&mdash;one of the best laws of its kind in
existence anywhere.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
For details see <i>Fernow</i>, in Garden and Forest, 1888, page 417.</p>

</div>

<p>The principal features of the law are: obligatory
reboisement of mountains and sand dunes according
to plans, and under direction of the Department of
Agriculture, the areas to be designated by the department,
with approval or disapproval of the forest committees;
contribution to the extent of two-fifths
(finally raised to two-thirds) of the expense by the
government; expropriation where owners do not consent,
or fail to carry out the work as planned; right
to reclaim property by payment of costs and interest,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>
or else sale by government; right of the department to
regulate and restrict pasture, but compensation to
be paid to restricted owners; encouragement of co-operative
planters&#8217; associations. The area to be
reforested was estimated at somewhat over 500,000
acres and the expense at over 7 million dollars.</p>

<p>The execution of the law was not any stricter than
before. In 1900, the Secretary of Agriculture reports
that &#8220;the laws do not yet receive effective application.&#8221;
The difficulty of determining what is and what
is not necessary to reforest, what is and what is not
absolute forest soil made ostensibly the greatest
trouble and occasioned delay, but financial incapacity
and political influences bidding for popularity are
probably the main cause of the inefficiency.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the forest department tried to promote
reforestation by giving premiums from its scanty
appropriation and distributing from its 130 acres
of nurseries, during the years from 1867 to 1899, some
46 million plants and over 500 pounds of seed, and
furnishing advice free of charge.</p>

<p>In 1897, again a commission was instituted to
formulate new legislation. This commission reported
in 1902, declaring that all accessible forests were more
or less devastated, accentuating the needs of water
management, and proposing a more rigorous definition
of ban forests, a strict supervision of communal forests,
and the management of private properties under
working plans by accredited foresters or else under
direct control of the forest department, the foresters
to be paid by the State, which is to recover from the
owners. It was found that in the past 35 years of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
the 125,000 acres needing reforestation urgently only
58,300 acres had been planted at an expense of
$1,340,000.</p>

<p>In 1910, conditions seem not to have much improved,
for again a vigorous attempt at re-organization
and improvement on the law of 1877 was made by
the Minister of Agriculture; so far without result.</p>

<p>It is to be noted that Italy is perhaps the only
country where forest influence on health conditions
was legally recognized, by the laws of 1877 and 1888.
The belief that deforestation of the <i>maremnae</i>, the
marshy lowlands between Pisa and Naples, had produced
the malarial fever which is rampant here, led
the Trappist monks of the cloister at Tre Fontane to
make plantations of Eucalyptus (84,000) beginning
in 1870, the State assisting by cessions of land for the
purpose. A commission, appointed to investigate
the results, in 1881, threw doubt on the effectiveness
of the plantation, finding the observed change in
health conditions due to improvement of drainage;
and lately, the mosquito has been recognized as the
main agency in propagating the fever. The new propositions,
however, did not any more recognize this
claimed influence as a reason for public intervention.
Incidentally it may be stated that to two Italians is
due the credit of having found the true cause of salubriousness
of forest air, namely in the absence of
pathogenic bacteria.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Education and Literature.</i></h4>

<p>The first forest school was organized by Balestrieri,
who had studied in Germany, at the Agricultural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>
School near Turin about 1848, transferred to the
Technical Institute in Turin in 1851. This school continued
until 1869, and from 1863 on, had been recognized
by the State, assuring its graduates employment
in State service. In 1869, the State established
a forest school of its own (<i>Institute Forestale</i>) at
Vallambrosa near Florence, with a three years&#8217; course
(since 1886, four years) and, in 1900, with eleven
professors and 40 students. In spite of the State subvention
of $8,500, it appears that some peculiar economies
are necessary, for owing to the absence of stoves
the school is closed from Nov. 1 to March 1. In spite
of the existence of this school, the State Service is
recruited also from men who have not passed through
this school.</p>

<p>The legislative propositions brought forward in
1910 also provide for transfer of this school to
Florence, leaving only the experiment station in
Vallambrosa, and also for raising the standard of
instruction. At the same time, however, there was
at the old institution ordered a &#8220;rush course&#8221; to be
finished in 15 months, since it appeared that not
enough foresters were in existence to carry out the
proposed re-organization.</p>

<p>In 1905, a school of silviculture for forest guards was
instituted in Cittaducale, the course being 9 months.</p>

<p>Besides the technical school at Vallambrosa, agricultural
schools have chairs of forestry or arboriculture,
as for instance the Royal school at Portici.
As an educational feature, the introduction of Arbor
Day, in 1902, <i>la festa dei alberi</i>, should also be mentioned.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span></p>

<p>The existence of a forest school naturally produces
a literature. While a considerable number of popular
booklets attempt the education of the people, who are
the owners of the forest, there is no absence of professional
works. Among these should be mentioned
Di Berenger&#8217;s <i>Selvicoltura</i>, a very complete work,
which also contains a brief history of forestry in the
Orient, Greece and Italy. G. Carlos Siemoni&#8217;s <i>Manuele
d&#8217;arte forestale</i> (1864), and the earlier <i>Scienza selvana</i>
by Tondi (1829) are encyclopedias of inferior quality.</p>

<p>In 1859, R. Maffei, a private forester, began to
publish the <i>Revista forestale del regno d&#8217; Italia</i>, an annual
review, for the purpose of popularizing forestry in
Italy, afterwards changed into a monthly, which
continued for some time under subventions from the
government.</p>

<p>A number of propagandist forestry associations
were formed at various times, publishing leaflets or
journals, one of these <i>L&#8217;Alpe</i>, a monthly, in 1902.
In 1910, the two leading societies combined into a
federation <i>Pro montibus ed enti affini</i>, merging also
the <i>Rivista forestale italiana</i> with <i>L&#8217;Alpe</i>, which serves
both propagandist and professional needs.</p>

<h3>SPAIN.</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Revista de Montes</i>, a semi-official journal, established in 1877, is the best source.</p>

<p><i>El Manuel de Legislacion y Administracion Forestal</i>, by <span class="smcap">Hilario Ruiz</span>, and
<i>Novisima Legislacion Forestal</i>, by <span class="smcap">Del Campo</span>, 1901, elaborate the complicated
legislation up to 1894.</p>

<p><i>Dicionaro Hispano-Americano</i>, 1893, contains an article (<i>montes</i>) on the administrative
practice of the forest laws.</p>

<p><i>A Year in Spain</i>, by a young American (<span class="smcap">Slidell</span>) 1829, gives an excellent
account of physical conditions of the country and character of the people at that
time.</p>

<p><i>Das Moderne Geistesleben in Spanien</i>, 1883, and <i>Kulturgeschichtliche und
Wirtschaftspolitische Betrachtungen</i>, 1901, by <span class="smcap">Gustav Dierks</span>, details character
of institutions and people.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>&#8220;Poor Spain&#8221; is the expression which comes to the
lips of everybody who contemplates the economic
conditions of this once so powerful nation, almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
the ruler of the world. Once, under the beneficent
dominion of the Saracens, a paradise where, as a
Roman author puts it, &#8220;Nil otiosum, nihil sterile
in Hispania,&#8221; it has become almost a desert through
neglect, indolence, ignorance, false pride, lack of communal
spirit, despotism of church, and misrule by a
corrupt bureaucracy.</p>

<p>With the exception of a narrow belt along the seashore,
the whole of the Iberian peninsula is a vast high
mesa, plateau or tableland, 1,500 to 3,000 feet above
sea level, traversed by lofty mountain chains, or
sierras, five or six in number, running parallel to each
other, mainly in a westerly and southwesterly direction.
These divide the plateau into as many plains,
treeless, and for the most part, arid, exposed to cold
blasts in winter, and burning up in summer. They
are frequently subjected to severe droughts, which
sometimes have lasted for months, bringing desolation
to country and people. The rivers, as they usually
do in such countries similar to our arid plains, form
ca&ntilde;ons and arroyos, and, being uncertain in their
water stages, none of them are navigable although
hundreds of miles long, but useful for irrigation, on
which agriculture relies. The great mineral wealth
had made Spain the California of the Carthaginians
and Romans, and it is still its most valuable resource.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span></p>

<p>Spain awakened to civilization through the visits
of Phoenicians and Carthaginians followed by the
Romans. During the first centuries of the Christian
era there occurred one of the several periods of extreme
prosperity, when a supposed population of 40
million exploited the country. After the dark days
of the Gothic domination, a second period of prosperity
was attained for the portion which came under
the sway of the industrious and intelligent Moors or
Saracens (711 to 1,000 A.D.) who made the desert
bloom, and whose irrigation works are still the mainstay
of agriculture at present. Centuries of warfare
and carnage to re-establish Christian kingdoms still
left the country rich, when, in 1479, the several kingdoms
were united into one under Ferdinand and
Isabella, and the Moors were finally driven out altogether
(1492). This kingdom persisted in the same
form to the present time with only a short period as
a republic (1873). Spain was among the first countries
to have a constitution.</p>

<p>After the Conquest of the Moors, and with the discovery
of America, again a period of prosperity set in
for the then 20 million people, but, through oppression
by State and Church (Inquisition), which also led to
the expulsion of the Jews and large emigration to
America, the prosperity of the country was destroyed,
the population reduced to 10 million in 1800,
and the conditions of character and government
created which are the cause of its present desolation.
Since the beginning of the century, the population has
increased to near 18 million, but financial bankruptcy
keeps the government inefficient and unable to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
accomplish reforms even if the people would let it
have its way.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>It has been a matter of speculation whether Spain
was, or was not, once heavily wooded (see <a href="#Page_11">page 11</a>).
In Roman times, only the Province of La Manca is
reported as being unforested, and, in the 13th and 14th
centuries, extensive forest zones are still recorded.
The character of the country at present, and the
climate, both resembling so much our own arid plains,
make it questionable to what extent the forest descended
from the mountain ranges, which were undoubtedly
well wooded.</p>

<p>At present the forest is mainly confined to the
higher mountains. The best is to be found in the
Pyrenees and their continuation, the Cantabrian
mountains.</p>

<p>The area of actual forest (<i>bosques</i>) is not known
with precision, since in the official figures mere potential
forest, i.e., brush and waste land, is included
(<i>montes</i>), and the area varies, i.e., diminishes through
new clearings, of which the statistics do not keep
account. Moreover, the statistics refer only to the
&#8220;public forests,&#8221; leaving out the statement of private
forest areas, if any.</p>

<p>In 1859, this area was reported as over 25 million
acres or 20 per cent. of the land area (196,000 square
miles); in 1885, the acreage had been reduced to about
17.5 million acres; and, in 1900, about 16 million acres,
or 13 per cent. of the land area remained as public<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
forest, and the total was estimated at somewhat over
20 million acres.</p>

<p>The following peculiar classification, published in
1874, gives (in round figures) at once an insight into
the meaning of <i>montes</i>, and the probable condition of
the &#8220;public forest&#8221; area:</p>

<table summary="Table p. 353">

<tr>
<th>&nbsp;</th>
<th class="center"><i>Acres.</i></th>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">State Reserves</td>
<td class="right">865,000</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Salable State Property</td>
<td class="right">4,550,000</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Public Institute Forest</td>
<td class="right">20,000</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Communal Forest</td>
<td class="right">9,860,000</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Open Commons for Wood and Pasture</td>
<td class="right">1,880,000</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padr3">Common Pasture for Draft Animals</td>
<td class="right">425,000</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td class="left padl4 padr3">Total</td>
<td class="right bt">17,600,000</td>
</tr>

</table>

<p>An estimate of the actual forest (timber and coppice),
does not exceed 12 million acres for a population
of 18 million, or .7 acres per capita. The latest
official figures claim as State property around 600,000
acres, and municipal institutional property 11.5
million acres; these constituting the public forests.
According to official classification, these public forests
are to the extent of 5.3 million acres high forest, 3
million coppice, the balance brushwoods.</p>

<p>In spite of this evident lack of wood material, except
for firewood or charcoal, the importations in
1903 did not exceed 13.5 million dollars, accentuating
the absence of industrial development. The official
statement of imports reports 6.5 million dollars
more than the above figure, but this includes horses
and cattle enumerated as forest products&mdash;products<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
of the &#8220;montes.&#8221; These also figure in the exportations
of 15 million dollars, which to the extent of one-half
consists of cork (some 5 million dollars from
630,000 acres) and tanbark, while chestnuts, filberts
and esparto furnish the balance. In 1908, the imports
of lumber and staves alone amounted to
$7,382,000.</p>

<p>In 1882, all the public forests produced from wood
sales only $900,000, but the value of the products
taken by rights of user was estimated at nearly twice
that amount. In 1910, the average income of the
forest service was reported as having averaged for
the decade in the neighborhood of 2 million dollars,
and the expense approximately 1 million, a net yield
of about 30 cents per acre on the area involved resulting,
the total cut being 5.7 million cubic feet
annually.</p>

<p>The forest flora and its distribution is very similar
to that of Italy, and is described fully in two volumes
prepared by a special commission appointed for this
purpose.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>Spain is noted for its comprehensive legislation
without execution; it is also known that official reports
are rarely trustworthy, so that what appears
on paper is by no means always found in reality,
hence all statements must be accepted with reservations.</p>

<p>The forest laws of Spain are somewhat similar to
those of Italy, yet show less appreciation of the needs
of technical forest culture. The value of forest resources<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>
and need of economy in their use was, indeed,
recognized early. Recommendations for their conservative
use are recorded from the 13th century on.
An ordinance of Pedro I, in 1351, imposed heavy fines
upon forest destroyers. Ferdinand V, in 1496, expressed
alarm at the progressing devastation, and,
in 1518, we find a system of forest guards established,
and even ordinances ordering reforestation of waste
lands, which were again and again repeated during
the century. In 1567 and 1582, notes of alarm at the
continuing destruction prove that these ordinances
had no effect. The same complaints and fears are
expressed by the rulers during the 17th and 18th
centuries, without any effective action. In 1748,
Ferdinand VI placed all forests under government
supervision, but in 1812, the Cortes of Cadiz, under
the influence of the spirit of the French Revolution,
rescinded these orders and abolished all restrictions.</p>

<p>An awakening to the absolute necessity of action
seems not to have arrived until about 1833, when a
law was enacted and an ordinance issued, at great
length defining the meaning of &#8220;montes,&#8221; and instituting
in the Corps of Civil Engineers a forest
inspection. At the same time, a special school was
to be established in Madrid. This last proposition
does not seem to have materialized, for, in 1840, we
find that several young men were sent to the forest
school at Tharandt (Germany).</p>

<p>No doubt, under the influence of these men on their
return, backed by <i>La Sociedad Economica</i> of Madrid,
a commission to formulate a forest law was instituted
in 1846, and in the same year, carrying out ordinances<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
of 1835 and 1843, a forest school was established at
Villaviciosa de Odon, later (1869) transferred to the
Escurial near Madrid. This school, under semi-military
organization, first with a three-year, later a
four-year, course, and continually improved and enlarged
in its curriculum (one Director and 13 professors
in 1900), is the pride of the Spanish foresters,
to all appearances deservedly so. It was organized
after German models by Bernardo della Torre Royas
as first Director.</p>

<p>The creation of a forest department, however,
<i>Cuerpo de Montes</i>, had to wait until 1853. This
department, under the Minister of Public Works
(now under the Minister of Agriculture), is a close
corporation made up of the graduates of the school
as <i>Ingenieros de Montes</i>, acceptance into which is
based upon graduation and four years&#8217; service in the
forest department as assistants besides the performance
of some meritorious work. The school stands
in close relation to the department service.</p>

<p>The first work of the new administration was a
general forest survey to ascertain conditions, and
especially to determine which of the public forests,
under the laws of 1855 and 1859, it was desirable to
retain. The investigation showed that there was
more forest (defined as in the above classification)
than had been supposed, but that it was in even
worse condition than had been known. The public
forests, i.e., those owned by the State, the communities
and public institutions, were divided into three
classes according to the species by which formed,
which was the easiest way of determining their location<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span>
as regards altitude, and their public value; namely,
the coniferous forest and deciduous oak and chestnut
forests, which were declared inalienable; the forests
of ash, alder, willow, etc., naturally located in the
lower levels, therefore without interest to the state,
which were declared salable; and an intermediate
third class composed of cork oak and evergreen oak,
whose status as to propriety of sale was left in doubt.
In 1862, a revision of this classification left out this
doubtful class, adding it and the forest areas of the
first class which were not at least 250 acres in extent
to the salable property. The first class, which was
to be reserved, was found to comprise nearly 17
million acres (of which 1.2 million was owned by the
State), while the salable property was found to be
about half that area.</p>

<p>Ever since, a constant wrangle and commotion has
been kept up regarding the classification, and repeated
attempts, sometimes successful, have been
made by one faction, usually led by the Minister of
Finance, to reduce the public forest area (<i>desamortizadoro</i>),
opposed by another faction under the lead of
the forest administration, which was forced again and
again to re-classify. In 1883, the alienable public
forest area was by decree placed under the Minister
of Finance, the inalienable part remaining under the
Minister of Public Works (<i>Fomento</i>); very much the
same as it was in the United States until recently.
The public debt and immediate financial needs of
the corporations gave the incentive for desiring the
disposal of forest property, and, to satisfy this demand,
it was ordered, in 1878, that all receipts from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
State property and 20 per cent. of the receipts from
communal forests were to be applied towards the
extinguishment of the debt.</p>

<p>The ups and downs in this struggle to keep the
public forests intact were accentuated on the one hand
by the pressing needs of taking care of the debt, on
the other hand by drought and flood. Thus, in 1874,
the sale in annual instalments of over 4.5 million
acres in the hands of the Minister of Finance was
ordered, but the floods of the same year were so disastrous,
(causing 7 million dollars damage, 760 deaths,
28,000 homeless), being followed by successive
droughts, that a reversion of sentiment was experienced,
which led to the enactment of a reboisement
law in 1877. This law, having in view better management
of communal properties, ordered with all sorts
of unnecessary technical details, the immediate reforestation
of all waste land in the public forests,
creating for that purpose a corps of 400 cultivators
(<i>capatacas de cultivos</i>). To furnish the funds for this
work the communities were to contribute 10 per cent.
of the value of the forest products they sold or were
entitled to. But funds were not forthcoming, and,
by 1895, under this law only 21,000 acres had been
reforested (three-fourths by sowing).</p>

<p>The financial results of the management of the
public forests, although the forest department probably
did the best it could under the circumstances, had,
indeed, not been reassuring. In 1861, a deficit of
$26,000 was recorded; in 1870, $600,000 worth of
material was sold, 1.3 million dollars worth given
away, and $700,000 worth destroyed. Altogether, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
fire and theft, it was estimated that 15 per cent. of the
production was lost. In 1885, this loss was estimated
at 25 per cent., when the net income had attained
to 15 cents per acre, or, on the 17.5 million
acres to less than three million dollars.</p>

<p>When it is considered that the governors of provinces
and their appointees, besides the village authorities,
had also a hand in the administration, it is no
wonder that the forest department was pretty nearly
helpless. While, under the law of 1863, the department
was specially ordered to regulate the management
of communal forests and to gauge the cut to the
increment, the political elements in the administration,
which appointed the forest guards, made the regulations
mostly nugatory.</p>

<p>At last, in 1900, a new era seems to have arrived, a
thorough reorganization was made, which lends hope
for a better future. The technical administration was
divorced from the political influence and placed under
the newly created Minister of Agriculture. The
machinery of the <i>Cuerpo de Montes</i> was remodeled.
This consists now of one Chief Inspector-General,
four Division Chiefs, ten Inspectors-General for field
inspection, 50 chief engineers of district managers,
185 assistants, and 342 foresters and guards, the latter
now appointed by the department, instead of the
Governors, and not all, as formerly, chosen from veteran
soldiers. The better financial showing referred
to above was the result.</p>

<p>In 1910, a special reboisement service, the <i>Servicio
Hidrological Forestal</i>, was also placed on a new footing,
the country being divided into ten districts for this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>
purpose, and an engineer placed in charge of each.
But from a statement that, in 1910, of some 300,000
acres planned to be recovered only 31,000 had been
completed it may be inferred that financial difficulties
still retard the work.</p>

<p>Private forests, which had been without any interference,
were, in 1908, placed under government
control so far as located within a defined protective
zone (<i>zona protectora dasocratica</i>). Such must be
managed under plans provided by the Forest Service,
and in case of refusal on the part of owners expropriation
proceedings are provided, but the money for
taking advantage of this provision would probably
not be in the Treasury. Indeed, according to Professor
Miguel del Campo at the Escurial forest school,
results so far are nil.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Since 1896, popular education is attempted through
Arbor days, various associations fostering the idea;
in 1904, <i>La Fiesta del Arbol</i> was made a national holiday,
and premiums are distributed for plantations
made on that day.</p>

<p>The <i>Revista de Montes</i>, a semi-official monthly
journal, began its publication in 1877, and serves the
purpose of propaganda, as well as the professional
needs. A considerable book literature is also developed.</p>

<h3>PORTUGAL.</h3>

<blockquote>

<p>A pamphlet written for the International Exposition at Rio de Janeiro in 1908,
contains a chapter written by a forester, Borges, which gives most recent and
authentic information.</p>

<p>Besides notes scattered through the literature, an article by L. Pard&eacute;e, a
French botanist, in Revue des Eaux et For&ecirc;ts, 1911, gives an extensive description
of forest conditions and especially of the forest of Leiria.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The small kingdom which occupies the west coast
of the Iberian peninsula, with 34,000 square miles
and 6 million people, is in many respects similar to
Spain, except that a larger portion is fertile, being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
situated in the litoral region, the climate less excessive,
and the people somewhat more enterprising. Not
much more than one-half of the country, however,
is utilized; nearly 15,000 square miles being waste.</p>

<p>Three sections or zones are recognized, the northern,
bounding on Spain which is mainly mountainous but
also contains extensive sand dunes, is the best wooded;
the central, which is hilly and less well wooded, contains
(in Estremadura and Beira) one of the most
desolate regions of Europe and at the same time the
best managed forest; the southern, the richest in farm
lands, with semi-tropic climate and flora, the zone of
evergreen broadleaf flora.</p>

<p>About 10% of the land area, or 4 million acres are
under forest, although 2 million more are wooded
with olive, fig, almond plantations, or open woodlands
and brushwood. Of the actual forest area the
State owns only 82,000 acres, 30,000 of which reforested
areas or sand dunes in process of recovery.</p>

<p>The composition is nearly one-half of pine (<i>Pinus
maritima</i> and <i>pinea</i>), one-fifth, cork oak &#8220;with
pastures,&#8221; a little over one-fifth, other evergreen oaks
&#8220;with pastures,&#8221; and the balance, chestnut and
deciduous oaks.</p>

<p>The fact of the extensive private ownership and the
reference to the pastures in the enumeration of forest
areas suffice to give an idea of the condition of most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>
of them. The oak forest is also to a large extent still
used for hog raising.</p>

<p>Besides the native forest areas, there are in existence
a number of parks and plantations of exotics,
the climate of Portugal in parts resembling that of
California and permitting a wide range of introductions,
even tropical. There is perhaps nowhere such
a good opportunity of seeing the most varied forest
flora in fine development as the forest parks of Montserrate,
of Bussaco, and in the various botanical
gardens.</p>

<p>Extensive Eucalyptus and Acacia plantations,
some 1500 acres, of high economical value, near
Abrant&eacute;s, are the enterprise of a private landowner,
W. C. Tait.</p>

<p>The deficiency of wood supplies is covered by an
importation of about 1.5 million dollars against which
there is an export of a little over half a million, mainly
cooperage stock. The best developed forest industry
is the growing of cork giving rise to an export of
around 5 million dollars. A considerable naval store
production is also developed.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The first attempt at a real management of the
State&#8217;s property dates from 1868; a regular organization,
however, did not take place until 1872, when,
under the Director-General of Commerce and Industries,
a forest administrator with a technical staff of
three division chiefs, corresponding to the three
sections of country, and six forestmasters were
installed.</p>

<p>At present, the staff of the Inspector consists of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
8 technically educated assistants, each in charge of
some branch of service. Under these, there are a
number of field agents or supervisors (some 14 in
1903) with less education, and underforesters and
guards.</p>

<p>The only really well managed forest, the pride of
the Portuguese foresters, is the forest of Leiria in
Estremadura, a planted pinery of about 25,000 acres,
on which over 50 men of various grades are employed,
with naval store distilleries, impregnating works, and
saw mills. Its management (in natural seed tree
system) dates from 1892.</p>

<p>Besides attending to the management of the State
forests, a committee composed of the administrator
and some of the technical staff, were to examine the
country and decide what parts needed reforestation.
As a result of a very full report, in 1882, a reboisement
law was enacted under which some of the sand dunes
were fixed.</p>

<p>In 1903, a more thorough organization of this work
took place, which, with liberal appropriations, promises
more rapid progress.</p>

<p>This law recognizes two ways of placing private
property under a forestry regime, namely obligatory
and facultative or voluntary. Territory in the mountains
and on dunes may if deemed by the superior
Agricultural Council as requiring it from the point of
view of public utility be placed under the regime by
royal decree. Or else private owners may ask to
have their properties so placed, either merely securing
police protection, obligating themselves to keep the
property wooded, or working under a working plan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
or reforestation plan provided by the Forest Service.</p>

<p>In either case the owner is obliged to pay the guards
and at the rate of about 2 cents per acre for the working
plans. Planting material is furnished free or at
cost price, and exemption from taxes for 20 years
is granted for reforested lands. Expropriation of
waste lands declared as of public interest is provided, if
owners object to enforced reforestation. Some
275,000 acres have so far been placed under the forestry
regime.</p>

<p>There are provisions for forestry education in the
School of Agriculture at Lisbon, or the education
for the higher positions in the forest service may be
secured at German or French forest schools, and some
have secured it at Vallambrosa.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span></p>

<h2>GREAT BRITAIN AND HER
COLONIES.</h2>

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Historical Inquiries concerning Forests and Forest Laws</i>, by <span class="smcap">Percival Lewis</span>,
1811, gives a full account of the practices in the old ban forests.</p>

<p><i>English Forests and Forest Trees</i>, 1853, anonymous, gives an interesting
account of the old &#8216;forests&#8217; and their history.</p>

<p><i>Our Forests and Woodlands</i>, by <span class="smcap">John Nisbet</span>, 1900, has a chapter on the
historical development of forest laws.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Wm. Schlich</span>, Manual of Forestry, vol. I, 3d ed., 1906, brings in convenient
form an account of conditions in various parts of the British Empire.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Schwappach</span>, <i>Forstliche Zust&auml;nde in England</i>, Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Forst- und
Jagdwesen, 1903, is an account of forest conditions from the pen of a practical
observer.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">B. Ribbentrop</span>, Forestry in India, 1900. Also various reports of the forest
departments of the various British Colonies.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>It is a remarkable fact that the nation which can
boast of the most extensive forest department in one
of her colonies, has at home not yet been able to come
to an intelligent conception even, not to speak of
application, of proper forest policy or forest economy.</p>

<p>One of the English authorities on the subject writes
still in 1900: &#8220;With so much land of poor quality
lying uncultivated in many parts of the British Isles,
the apathy shown towards forestry in Britain is one
of the things that it is impossible to understand.&#8221;</p>

<p>If we should venture to seek for an explanation, we
would find it in geographical and physical conditions,
but still more in personal and political characteristics,
historically developed, such as also in the United
States make progress of forestry slower than it would
otherwise be.</p>

<p>Due to her insular position with which in part the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
development of her naval supremacy is connected,
England can readily supply her needs by importations.
Situated within the influence of the Gulf stream, the
climate is much milder than her northern location
would indicate, and is in no respect excessive. The
topography is mostly gentle, except in Scotland and
Wales, and the riverflow even all the year. Hence the
absence of forestcover has not been felt in its physical
influences.</p>

<p>Britons, Picts, Scots, Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons
and Normans are the elements which have amalgamated
to make the English people. Through endless
warfare and political struggle the three countries,
England, Scotland and Ireland had, by the year 1600,
come under one ruler, although final legislative union
with Scotland did not take place until 1707, and with
Ireland not until 1800.</p>

<p>Theoretically, forming a constitutional monarchy,
practically, an aristocracy with republican tendencies,
the history of the islands has been a struggle, first to
establish race supremacy, then to secure the ascendency
of the nobility and landholders over the king
and the commoners, in which the former have been
more successful than the barons in other parts of
Europe.</p>

<p>Politically, the Englishman is an individualist,
jealous of his private interests and unwilling to submit
to government interference for the public welfare.
Hence, State forestry, which is finally the only solution
of the forestry problem, appears objectionable.
Commercial and industrial enterprise rather than
economic development appeals to him; the practical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
issue of the day rather than demands of a future and
systematic preparation for the same occupy his mind.
He lacks, as Mr. Roseberry points out, scientific
method, and hence is wasteful. Moreover, he is conservative
and self-satisfied beyond the citizens of
any other nation, hence if all the wisdom of the world
point new ways, he will still cling to his accustomed
ones. In the matter of having commissions appointed
to investigate and report, and leaving things to continue
in unsatisfactory condition he reminds one of
Spanish dilatoriness. These would appear to us the
reasons for the difficulty which the would-be reformers
experience in bringing about economic reforms.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>C&aelig;sar&#8217;s and Strabo&#8217;s descriptions agree that Great
Britain was a densely wooded country. The forest
area seems to have been reduced much less through
long-continued use, than through destruction by fire
and pasture, and by subsequent formation of moors,
so that it is now, excepting that of Portugal, the
smallest of any European nation in proportion to
total area, and, excepting that of Holland, in proportion
to population.</p>

<p>Of the 121,380 square miles, which Great Britain
and Ireland represent, less than 4 per cent., or 3
million acres, (880,000 in Scotland, 303,000 in Ireland)
are forested, one-fourteenth of an acre per capita;
but there are nearly 33% of waste lands, namely over
12 million acres of heaths, moors and other waste
lands capable of forest growth, and another 12 million
acres partly or doubtfully so, while the agricultural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>
land in crops and pasture comprises about 48 million
acres. The waste areas re-forested, it is believed,
could meet the consumption now supplied by importations.
Notably in Scotland, extensive heaths and
moors of many hundred square miles in the Northern
Highlands and the Grampian mountains&mdash;well wooded
in olden times, the woods having been eradicated
supposedly for strategic reasons&mdash;are now without
farms or forests, and are mainly used for shooting
preserves. In the last thirty years, the land under
tillage has continuously decreased, and now represents
less than 25 per cent. of the whole land area,
grasslands occupying 38 per cent.</p>

<p>The agricultural land as well as the mountain and
heath lands, are to the largest extent owned by large
proprietors (in 1876, 11,000 persons owned 72 per
cent. of the total area of the British Islands). With
the exception of 67,000 acres of crownlands, the entire
forest area is owned privately, and that mostly by
large landed proprietors, there being no communal
ownership, except that the municipality of London
owns a forest area (Epping Forest) devoted to pleasure,
and the Water Board of Liverpool has begun
to plant some of its catchment basins.</p>

<p>Practically the entire wood supply is imported, and
the rate of importation is rapidly increasing. While
in 1864 it was 3.4 million tons, in 1892, 7.8 million
tons worth 92 million dollars; in 1899, 10 million
tons and 125 million dollars; in 1902, it had grown to
138 million dollars, and in 1906 to 141 million (700
million cubic feet) in which $7.4 million of wood
manufactures, against which an export of $19 million<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
mainly wood manufactures, must be offset. This
makes England the largest wood importer in the world,
Germany coming next, and the amount paid to other
countries exceeds the value of her pig iron output.
Nearly 90 per cent. of the import is coniferous material,
from Sweden, Russia and Canada. The home product,
mostly oak ties, mineprops, etc., satisfies about one-sixth
of the consumption. In addition to timber and
lumber, over 10 million dollars of wood pulp, and 60
million dollars of by-products are imported. The
total wood consumption per capita is between 12
and 14 cubic feet, half of what it was 50 years ago.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Pine is the only native conifer of timber value, and
oak is the most important native deciduous tree,
found mostly in coppice or in old, overmature, straggling
pasture woods. Compact larger forest areas
are entirely absent, but there are many small plantations
and parks. For, while Englishmen have not
been foresters, they have been active treeplanters,
and the mild climate has permitted the introduction
of many exotics, especially American conifers. Most
of these plantings have been for park and game purposes.
The most noted forest plantations are found
in Scotland, among them the larch plantations of the
Duke of Athole (begun in 1728), of at one time over
10,000 acres, the ducal woodlands now covering
over 20,000 acres; the pinery of 25,000 acres, belonging
to the Countess of Sealfield, the best managed forest
property, partly in natural regeneration, and others.
But these plantations too are mostly widely spaced
and trimmed, hence not producing timber of much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>
value, so that timber of British production is usually
ruled out by architects.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Policies.</i></h4>

<p>The Saxons and Normans were primarily hunters,
and this propensity to the chase has impressed itself
upon their forest treatment into modern times.</p>

<p>The Teutonic Saxons undoubtedly brought with
them the feudal and communal institutions of the
Germans, under which territory for the king&#8217;s special
pleasure in the chase was set aside as &#8216;forest&#8217;, and
this exclusive right and privilege was on other territory
extended to the vassals, while the commoners
were excluded from the exercise of hunting privileges
on these grounds.</p>

<p>The Normans not only increased the lands under
&#8216;ban&#8217;, but they increased also in a despotic manner
the penalties and punishments for infraction of the
forest laws, and enforced them more stringently than
was done on the continent. The feudal system was
developed to its utmost. Besides &#8216;forests&#8217; in which
the king alone had exclusive rights, and in which a
code of special laws, administered under special courts,
was applied, there were set aside &#8216;chases&#8217;, hunting
reserves without the pale of the forest laws; &#8216;parks&#8217;,
smaller, enclosed hunting grounds; and &#8216;warrens&#8217;,
privileged by royal grant or prescription as preserves
for small game. Whole villages were wiped out, or
lived almost in bondage to satisfy this taste for sport.
In the &#8216;forests&#8217;, of which in Elizabeth&#8217;s time not less
than 75 distinct ones were enumerated, withdrawing
an immense area from free use, both &#8216;vert&#8217; and &#8216;venison&#8217;,&mdash;wood<span
class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>
and game,&mdash;belonged to the king; a host
of officers,&mdash;stewards, verderers, foresters, regarders,
agistors, woodwards,&mdash;exercised police duties, and
oppressed and ground the people by extortions, while
special courts,&mdash;&#8216;woodmote&#8217;, &#8216;swainmote&#8217;, &#8216;court of
justice seat&#8217;,&mdash;enforced the savage and cruel laws.
The first of these laws was supposed to date from
Canute the Great, in 1016, but was eventually found
to be a forgery perpetrated by William I in order to
lend historical color to his assertion of &#8216;forest&#8217;
rights.</p>

<p>A partial reduction of forests, and a modification
of the cruelty and unreasonableness of the laws was
obtained by the <i>Charta de Foresta</i>, in 1225, which
formulated the laws into a code, and again by the
Forest Ordinance of 1306. But not until 1483, under
Edward IV, were the people living within &#8216;forests&#8217;
permitted to cut and sell timber, and to fence in for
seven years portions of the reserved territory. The
last territory was &#8216;afforested&#8217;, i.e., withdrawn for
purposes of the chase, under Henry VIII, but he had
to secure the consent of the freeholders. The Long
Parliament, in 1641, stopped at least the extension of
forests, and modified the application of the laws to a
more reasonable degree.</p>

<p>The forest laws are still on the statutes, but have
fallen into desuetude; the last &#8216;forest court of justice
seat&#8217; was held under Charles I. The &#8216;forests&#8217; themselves
have also almost entirely vanished, some being
abolished as late as Queen Victoria&#8217;s time, by act of
parliament, but the last action under the &#8216;forest laws&#8217;
was had in 1862 when the Duke of Athole tried to
establish his right as &#8216;forester&#8217; for the crown. A
full account of the forest laws is contained in Manwood&#8217;s
volume, the title page of which is here reproduced.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/illo384.png" alt="" width="369" height="600" />
<p class="caption">Facsimile of Title page of Manwood&#8217;s celebrated volume.<br />
(Original, the property of Mr. Joly de Lotbini&egrave;re).</p>
</div>

<div class="treatise">

<p class="center">A<br />
TREATISE OF THE<br />
LAWES OF THE FO-<br />
rest: Wherein is declared not onely<br />
<i>those Lawes, as they are now in force, but also the ori</i>-<br />
ginall and beginning of Forests: And what a Forest is in<br />
his owne proper nature, and wherein the same doth dif-<br />
fer from a Chase, a Parke, or a Warren, with all such<br />
things as are incident or belonging there into, with<br />
their seuerall proper tearmes of Art.</p>

<p class="center">ALSO A TREATISE OF THE<br />
Pourallee, declaring what Pourallee is, how the<br />
same first began, what a Pourallee man may do, how he may hunt<br />
and vse his owne Pourallee, how farre he may pursue and fol-<br />
low after his chase, together with the limits and bounds, as<br />
well of the Forest, as the Pourallee.</p>

<p class="center">Collected, as well out of the Common Lawes and<br />
<i>Statutes of this land, As also out of sundrie learned auncient Au</i>-<br />
thors, and out of the Assises of Pickering and Lancaster,<br />
by <span class="smcap">Iohn Manvvood</span>.</p>

<p class="center"><i>Whereunto are added the Statutes of the Forest, a Trea</i>-<br />
tise of the seuerall offices of Verderors, Regardors, and Fore-<br />
sters, &amp; the Courts of Attachments, Swanimote, &amp; Iustice seat<br />
of the Forest, and certaine principall Cases, Iudgements,<br />
and Entries of the Assises of Pickering and Lan-<br />
caster: neuer heretofore printed for
the publique</p>

<hr class="full" />

<p class="center">LONDON,<br />
Printed for the Societie of Stationers,<br />
<i>Anno Dom.</i> 1615.</p>

<p class="center"><i>Cum Priuilegio.</i></p>

</div><!--treatise-->

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span></p>

<p>In Scotland the same usages and laws existed, only
very much less rigorously enforced, until, in 1681, the
extension of &#8216;forests&#8217; was discontinued by parliamentary
act.</p>

<p>It will be understood that the term forest did only
distantly refer to woodland and that no economic
policy had anything to do with the laws. Only incidentally
was forest growth protected and preserved
for the sake of the chase&mdash;the same medieval policy
which still largely animates the forest policy of the
State of New York.</p>

<p>The woods outside the &#8216;forests&#8217;, which had mainly
served for the raising of hogs, and for domestic needs,
experienced at various times unusual reduction by
fire. General Monk, among others, laid waste large
areas on the Scottish borderland in Cromwell&#8217;s time.</p>

<p>The first serious inroads by extensive fellings occurred
under Edward III in the first half of the 14th
century to enrich the treasury for the French wars.
Again, Henry VIII in the 16th century, when he
seized the church properties for his own use, turned
them into cash. A hundred years later, James I
reduced the forest area, especially in Ireland, by his
colonization schemes. Yet both, Henry VIII and
James I, are on record as encouraging forest planting
for utility. Charles I, James&#8217; successor, always in
need of cash, alienated many of the crown forests,
and turned them into cash, besides extorting money<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>
through the forest courts. During the Revolution,
beginning in 1642, and during Cromwell&#8217;s reign a
licentious devastation of the confiscated or mortgaged
noblemen&#8217;s woods took place.</p>

<p>Finally, under Charles II, the needs for the royal
navy forced attention to the reduction of wood supplies,
and as a result of the agitation to encourage the
growth of timber, a member of the newly formed
Royal Society was deputed to prepare an essay,
which, published in 1662, has become the classic work
of English forest literature, namely John Evelyn&#8217;s
<i>Sylva</i>, or &#8220;<i>A Discourse of Forest Trees</i>,&#8221; which has
experienced eleven editions. It should, however, be
mentioned that an earlier writer, whom Evelyn often
quotes, Tuffer, before the reign of Elizabeth, in 1526,
published his &#8220;Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,&#8221;
a versification in which treeplanting received attention.
Ever since that time, periodically and spasmodically,
the question of forestry has been agitated,
without much serious result.</p>

<p>From 1775 to 1781, the Society of Arts in London
offered gold medals and prizes for treeplanting, and
in the beginning of the 19th century a revival of arboricultural
interest was experienced, perhaps as a result
of an interesting report by the celebrated Admiral
Nelson on the mismanagement of the forest of Dean,
concern for naval timber giving the incentive, in which
he recommended the planting of oak for investment.</p>

<p>At that time, a Surveyor-General, with an insufficient
force, was in charge of the crown forests. In
1809, the management was placed under a board of
three Commissioners, one of whom being a member<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span>
of the parliament was to be changed with the administration.
Under this management, graft became so
rampant that, in 1848, a committee of the House of
Commons was appointed, whose report revealed the
most astonishing rottenness, placing a stigma on
government management such as we still uncover in
the United States from time to time. A reorganization
took place in 1851. At that time the royal forests
and parks, reduced in extent to about 200,000 acres,
showed a deficiency of $125,000, mostly, to be sure,
occasioned by the parks. There was then still a
tribute of some 600 bucks to be delivered to various
personages, as was the ancient usage.</p>

<p>At present there are some 115,000 acres classed as
royal forest, but only 67,000 acres are really forest,
consisting of more or less mismanaged woods, under
the administration, not forest management, of the
Commissioners of Woods and Forests, with Deputy
Surveyors in charge of the ranges. Although there
are a few notable exceptions in the management, it
is to be noted that the same stupid ignorance, which
introduced the clause into the Constitution of the
State of New York, was enacted into law in 1877 by
the English Parliament, forbidding in the New Forest
all cutting and planting. In 1900, there existed just
one planting plan, made by a professional forester,
namely, for a portion of the forest of Dean, while now
only two other State properties and two or three
private estates are managed under working plans.</p>

<p>In 1887, a Committee appointed to inquire into the
administration of this property, expressed itself most
dissatisfied, but a Committee of Parliament in 1890<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span>
whitewashed the administration and reported that
the management was satisfactory.</p>

<p>These committees, as well as an earlier one,
in 1885, were also to recommend measures for
the advancement of forestry. They laid in their
recommendations the main stress upon education, but
no action followed, and it can be said that the government
has never done anything for the advancement
of forestry in the home country, whatever it may have
done for the dependencies. A Departmental Committee
again reported in 1902 with all sorts of recommendations,
which have remained unheeded.</p>

<p>The interests of forestry as far as the government
is concerned are at present committed to the Board of
Agriculture, an unwieldy body created in 1889, from
which this Departmental Committee was appointed.
There is now, however, a strong movement on foot, led
by foresters returned from India, to commit the government
to some action with reference to the waste
lands, and towards providing for educational means.</p>

<p>Another committee, appointed in 1908 to enquire
into prospects of afforestation in Ireland, reported in
favor of acquiring 300,000 acres of wood and 700,000
acres of unplanted land, dwelling especially on the
benefit to be secured by providing employment and
a check upon emigration of the rural population.
Instead of acting upon this proposition the
government directed the Royal Commission on
Coast Erosion, which had issued its first report in
1907, to suspend its inquiry into the inroads of the
sea and apply themselves to the inquiry as to
&#8220;whether in connection with unclaimed lands or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span>
otherwise it is desirable to make an experiment in
afforestation as a means of increasing employment
during periods of depression, and how, and by whom
such experiment should be conducted.&#8221;</p>

<p>In 1909, the Royal Commission on Afforestation and
Coast Erosion reported at length, proposing the reforestation
by a special Commission of nine million
acres of waste land at a rate of 75,000 or 150,000
acres a year to be acquired by purchase&mdash;an elaborate
plan, which so far has remained without result.</p>

<p>The government, although various committees have
recommended it, has remained also callous in respect
to educational policy, except that, in 1904, the Commissioners
of Woods and Forests instituted a school
(one instructor) in the Forest of Dean for the education
of woodsmen and foremen.</p>

<p>As illustrative of the government&#8217;s peculiar attitude
to forest policy in general, we may note a curious
anachronism, namely the act of 1894, which relieves
railway companies from liability for damage from
locomotive fires, if they can prove that they have
exercised all care, although traction engines cannot
offer this excuse.</p>

<p>The first attempt to secure educational facilities
dates to 1884 when a chair of forestry was established
in the Royal Engineering College at Cooper&#8217;s Hill,
an institution designed to prepare for service in India
purely. Through private subscriptions, another chair
of forestry was instituted in 1887 at the University
of Edinburgh, and several agricultural colleges, notably
that of Cirencester, as well as the Universities of
Cambridge and Oxford, had made provisions for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span>
teaching the subject in a way, but outside of Cooper&#8217;s
Hill no adequate education in forestry was obtainable
in Great Britain, until 1905.</p>

<p>In 1905, the forest department in Cooper&#8217;s Hill
was transferred to Oxford, the three years&#8217; course&mdash;one
year to be spent in the forests of Germany or
other countries&mdash;being as before designed mainly for
aspirants to the Indian forest service. Now, besides
Oxford, some nine other institutions offer courses in
forestry&mdash;the reason for this educational development
being difficult to imagine.</p>

<p>The name of Sir William Schlich, a German forester,
and for some time the head of the Indian forest department
now in charge of this school, is most prominently
connected with the reform movement.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Altogether forest management and silvicultural
practice are still nearly unknown in England, and,
until within a few years, the useful idea of working
plans had not yet penetrated the minds of owners of
estates. This apathy is, no doubt, in part due to the
fact that the government is in the hands of the
nobility, who prefer to keep their &#8220;shooting ranges&#8221;,
and do not see even a financial advantage from turning
them into forest as long as they can derive a rent of
from 10 to 40 cents per acre for shooting privileges.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Private endeavor has been active through the two
arboricultural societies, the Royal Scotch, founded
in 1854, and the Royal English, beginning its labors
in 1880. The transactions of these societies in annual
or occasional volumes represented the current magazine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span>
literature on forestry since the monthly Journal
of Forestry and Estates Management, which began its
career in London in 1877, transferred to Edinburgh
in 1884, ceased to exist in 1885.</p>

<p>At present, a very well conducted Quarterly Journal
of Forestry, started in 1907 by the Royal English
Arboricultural Society replacing its Transactions and
that of the Irish Forestry Association, also the Journal
of the Board of Agriculture, occasionally, supply the
needs of the continuously improving chances for
development on forestry lines. Until within a short
time the English professional book literature has been
extremely meager, although a considerable propagandist,
arboricultural, and general magazine literature
exists. Schlich&#8217;s <i>Manual of Forestry</i>, first in three
volumes published from 1889 to 1895, now in its
second to fourth edition, enlarged to five volumes, is
the most comprehensive publication. Another author
deserving mention is John Nisbet, known by his
<i>Studies in Forestry</i> (1894), who also engrafted continental
silvicultural notions into later editions of
James Brown&#8217;s <i>The Forester</i>, an encyclop&aelig;dic work
of merit. Several German and French works have
been translated into English, notably K. Gayer: Die
Forstbenutzung; R. Hess: Der Forstschutz; H. F&uuml;rst:
Waldschutz.</p>

<p>John Croumbie Brown&#8217;s sixteen volumes on forests
and forestry in various countries may be mentioned
among the propagandist literature. The Arboricultural
Societies mentioned also make a brave effort to
advance professional development of forestry in their
publications.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span></p>

<h3>INDIA.</h3>

<p>While so neglectful of her forest interests at home,
Great Britain has developed in her possessions in the
East Indies a far-seeing policy, and, under the lead
of German influence, has established there one of the
largest, if not most efficient, forest departments in the
world.</p>

<p>Contrary to a frequently expressed idea that the
conditions and problems of India are comparable to
the conditions and problems of the United States, so
that the example of Great Britain in India rather than
that of any European country might serve us in the
United States, the writer thinks that the very opposite
is true. Not only are the natural conditions for the
most part different, India being mainly tropical with
an entirely different flora and different conditions of
growth, but industrial, cultural, social and political
conditions are also entirely different; all of which
entails difference in methods of procedure. There
are, to be sure, a few points of similarity: the large
size of country under one government, and that in the
hands of an English speaking race; the fact that the
fire scourge, as with us, but from different reasons, is
still the greatest problem; that there are arid regions
and deserts (not over 10 per cent.), and irrigation
problems and flood dangers to deal with; and finally
the long delay in establishing a definite forest policy.
Although this policy was inaugurated over 40 years
ago, India has not yet, and will by the nature of things,
not soon pass out of the first stage of development
which we may confidently expect to pass through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span>
much more rapidly, due to the conditions in which we
resemble Europe more closely.</p>

<p>The greater part of India, namely 62 per cent. of
the 1,773,000 square miles, is under British administration,
and is peopled by a subject race of nearly
240 million, without a voice in their government,
which is carried on by a small handful of the conquerors
(about 100,000 Englishmen are living in
India), while the balance, around 700,000 square
miles with 53 million people, is divided among a large
number of more or less independent native States,
very different in their civilization from ours.</p>

<p>Industrially, the difference will appear from the
statement that about 70 per cent. of the population
is engaged in agricultural pursuits, hence there is no
active wood market as with us, except for domestic
purposes, and, as the woods, like those of most tropical
forest, are mainly cabinet woods, even the export
trade is insignificant, amounting to hardly 3 million
dollars, while minor forest products (lac, cutch and
gambier, myrobalan, caoutchouc, etc.) represent about
12 million dollars.</p>

<p>Climatically, as is to be expected, on such a large
territory, great variation exists, which is increased by
differences in altitude from the sea level to the tops
of the Himalayas. The climate is, of course, largely
tropical, with a rainfall which varies from the heaviest
known, of 600 inches, to almost none at all.</p>

<p>Nevertheless, in spite of these differences from our
conditions, much may be learned from Indian experience
in the matter of organization, both to follow and
to avoid, and the fact that this can be done without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span>
the need of a foreign language will be attractive to
most Americans.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The British, like other nations, gained a foothold in
India for trading purposes during the 17th century.
This they extended during the 18th century, especially
after they had attained the ascendancy by Clive&#8217;s
subjection, in 1757, of the great Mogul, one of the
most powerful native princes. By conquest and
amicable arrangement, the territory of British influence
was gradually increased through the agency
of the East India Company, until, in 1858, the British
government in India was formally established by
royal proclamation; and, in 1877, it was declared an
empire.</p>

<p>As stated, native princes still control, under British
influence and restrictions, over one-third of the country,
or a territory of nearly 700,000 square miles,
divided into 13 feudatory states. The total area
under direct British control and government is
1,087,000 square miles, of which 25 per cent. (280,000
square miles) is probably forested and waste, some
232,000 square miles or nearly 150 million acres of
which are so far declared government property.</p>

<p>The British territory is divided into three presidencies
(Madras, Bombay and Bengal) and nine
provinces, each with a separate government under a
governor, or commissioner, with a council, and all
subject to control by the resident governor-general
or viceroy and his council, and he in turn is responsible
to the Secretary of State at home.</p>

<p>There is, however, little centralization of government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span>
functions, the provincial governments being to
a large degree at least semi-autonomous, like the
states in the United States, and considerable variation
exists in the conduct of affairs. The difficulties
in introducing something like a uniform forest policy
were, indeed, not small, and much credit is due to
the wisdom and tact of the three German foresters,
who in succession filled the difficult position of head
of the Imperial Forest Department and organized
the service&mdash;Brandis, Schlich and Ribbentrop.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>In the tropics, rainfall conditions more than any
other factor determine forest conditions. The rains
of India depend on extraordinary sea winds, or &#8220;monsoons,&#8221;
and their distribution is regulated by the
topography of land and relative position of any district
with regard to the mountains and the vapor-laden
air currents. Thus excessive rainfall characterizes
the coast line along the Arabian Sea to about
latitude 20 degrees N., and still more along the coast
of Lower Burma, and to a lesser extent also the delta
of the Ganges and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
A moderately humid climate, if gauged by
annual rainfall, prevails over the plateau occupying
the larger part of the peninsula and the lower Ganges
valley, while a rainfall of less than 15 inches occurs
over the arid regions of the lower Indus.</p>

<p>The rainfall, so unevenly distributed territorially,
is, moreover, as unevenly distributed through the
year. In most districts the principal rains are experienced
in summer, the rainy season being followed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span>
by a long dry season. But on the Eastern coast the
summer rains are slight, and the principal rainy
season is delayed into October and November, while
in Northern India and the Himalayas, also winter
rains occur, irregular and of short duration.</p>

<p>Even where a relatively large rainfall prevails, the
climate is dry on account of the high temperature,
hence some 30,000,000 acres of the cultivated acreage
(which comprises 225,000,000 acres in all) depend on
irrigation, over half of this irrigated area lying in the
tropical zone.</p>

<p>Roughly speaking, at least four climatic zones with
many sub-types, may be recognized: the truly tropic,
intensely hot and wet (over 75 inch rainfall), prevailing
on the plains and tablelands of the lower half of the
peninsula; the hot and dry (below 15 inch rainfall)
climate of the Northwestern Indus plain and plateau;
the moderately warm and dry to humid (30-75 inch
rainfall) climate of the Ganges plain and central
plateau; and the temperate to alpine, humid climate
of the Himalaya mountains, with snow and ice in
winter, and moderate heat in summer.</p>

<p>In keeping with this great diversity of climate,
both as to temperature and humidity, there is a great
variation in the character and development of the
forest cover. At least six types can be recognized,
namely the evergreen forest, found along the West
coast, in Burma, Andaman Islands, and the sub-Himalaya
zone, which is composed of broadleaved
species with a dense undergrowth of small trees and
tangled lianas (vines), but few shrubs, as is characteristic
of most tropical forest; the deciduous forest,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
mainly in the interior of Central India, with Sal, Teak
and Ironwood as characteristic trees; the arid region
forest, found in the Punjab, in Raiputana, and in
Sindh, of varying composition, from the open shrub
forests of the latter province, composed of acacias,
tamarisk and mesquite, to the denser, more diversified,
dry, low tree forest of the former; the alpine coniferous
forest of the Himalayas and of the mountains of
Afghanistan, Belutchistan, and Burma, composed of
pine, deodar, juniper, with oak, walnut, boxwood,
approaching our own forest types. In addition, there
may be segregated the coast forest, of small extent,
composed of trees which, like the mangrove, will
bear salt water; the overflow forest along rivers; and
river forests in the desert regions, of which latter
large areas exist.</p>

<p>The natural differences in the forest cover are emphasized
by the action of man, who for many centuries
has waged war against the forest, clearing it permanently
or temporarily for agricultural purposes, or else
merely burning it over to improve grazing facilities,
or for purposes of the chase.</p>

<p>Statistics, except of government properties, are
somewhat doubtful. Apparently, the forested area
of the whole of India comprises somewhat over 40
per cent. of the land area. The government forests,
settled and unsettled, represent at present about 24
per cent. of the area under British rule (149 million
acres), not over 20 per cent. being under cultivation,
leaving about 56 per cent. either natural desert, waste,
or grazing lands.</p>

<p>The great forests of India are in Burma; extensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span>
woods clothe the foothills of the Himalayas and are
scattered in smaller bodies throughout the more humid
portions of the country, while the dry northwestern
territories are practically treeless wastes. Large areas
of densely settled districts are so completely void of
forest that millions of people regularly burn cow dung
as fuel, while equally large districts are still impenetrable,
wild woods, where, for want of market, it
hardly pays to cut even the best of timbers.</p>

<p>The great mass of forests in India are stocked with
hardwoods, which in these tropical countries are
largely evergreen, or nearly so, although the large
areas of dry forest are deciduous by seasons; only a
small portion of the forest area is covered by conifers,
both pine and cedar, these pine forests being generally
restricted to higher altitudes in the Himalayas. The
hardwoods, most of which in India truly deserve this
name, belong to a great variety of plant families, some
of the most important being the Leguminos&aelig;, Verbenace&aelig;,
Dipterocarpe&aelig;, Combretace&aelig;, Rubiace&aelig;,
Ebenace&aelig;, Euphorbiace&aelig;, Myrtace&aelig;, and others, and
a relatively small portion represented by Cupulifer&aelig;
and other families familiar to us. The most important,
valuable species are Teak, Sal, and Deodar.</p>

<p>In the greater part of India the hardwood forest
consists not of a few species, as with us, but is made
up, like most tropical forest, of a great variety of trees
unlike in their habit, their growth, and their product;
and, if our hardwoods offer on this account considerable
difficulties to profitable exploitation, the case
is far more complicated in India, several thousand
species entering into the composition. In addition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span>
to the large variety of timber trees there is a multitude
of shrubs, twining and climbing plants, and in
many forest districts also a growth of giant grasses
(bamboos), attaining a height of 30 to 120 feet, which
is ready to take possession of clearings. These bamboos,
valuable as they are in many ways, prevent
often for years the growth of any seedling trees, and
thus form a serious obstacle to the regeneration of
valuable timber. The growth of timber is generally
quite rapid, although to attain commercial size, Teak
requires usually a rotation of 150 years. But in spite
of their rapid growth and the large areas now in forest
capable of reforestation, India is not likely&mdash;at least
within reasonable time&mdash;to raise more timber than it
needs. In most parts of India, the use of ordinary
soft woods, such as pine, seems very restricted, for
only durable woods, those resisting both fungi and
insects (of which the white ants are specially destructive),
can be employed in the more permanent structures,
and are therefore acceptable in all Indian
markets.</p>

<p>At present, Teak is the most important hardwood
timber, while the Deodar (a true cedar) is the most
extensively used conifer. Teak occurs in all moist
regions of India except the Himalayas, grows usually
mixed with other kinds, single, or in clumps, is girdled
two or three years before felling, is generally logged
in a primitive way, commonly hewn in the woods and
shipped&mdash;usually floated&mdash;as timber, round or hewn,
and rarely sawn to size.</p>

<p>In 1905-6, the cut in the State forest area was
240,000,000 cubic feet, timber (25%) and fuel, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span>
which 20 per cent. was given to grantees or those
holding rights of user free of charge, and less than
2 per cent. was exported. In addition, over 200 million
bamboos and nearly two million dollars worth of by-products,
such as lac, caoutchouc, cutch, gambier,
myrobalans, were secured.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Property Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>Prior to the British occupation, the native rulers,
or rajahs, laid claim to a certain proportion of the
produce from all cultivators of the soil. They also
reserved absolute right to the forests, and to all unseated
or waste lands, although usually the people
were allowed to supply their needs from these. The
English government, by right of conquest, fell heir
to these rights as well as to the properties, but, without
care in asserting its rights, the unimpeded use of
unguarded forest property led to the assertion of rights
of user by the people, and such were also sometimes
granted by the government. &#8220;Joint village&#8221; communities
in some parts, i.e., settlements which occupy
contiguous areas, claimed and occupied large areas
of forest and waste as commons, and in general the
original property rights of the government became
uncertain.</p>

<p>The necessity of bringing order into this question led
to various so-called settlements, by which the rights
were defined, properties de-limited, and payment in
kind changed into cash payments.</p>

<p>After attempts to regulate these matters by local
rules, the first general Indian Forest Act, passed in
1865, modified by the Forest Act of 1878, laid down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>
the basis upon which the rights of forest property were
to be settled. These acts divide the forests into three
classes, namely, those in which the right of the State
is absolute; those in which the State has property
rights, but which are burdened with prescriptive or
granted rights of user; and those which are private
property, but on which the State reserves the right
to cut certain kinds of trees for government use, Teak,
Sandalwood, and in some parts Deodar, these being
considered &#8220;royal trees.&#8221; The forest act being
throughout applicable only at the choice and under
the construction of the provincial governments, modified
acts, applicable to different parts of the Empire,
and different in details, were passed from time to time,
and many different local rules were issued by the provincial
governments, but all agree in fixing one definite
policy, namely declaration or demarcation of government
forests, after inquiry into all existing rights,
and division of the declared government forests into
three classes, reserves or permanent state forests,
protected forests, and unclassed, the latter two still
open to change in ownership, and adjustment in
rights of user, etc.</p>

<p>The absolute and relative areas of government property,
therefore, are continuously changing. In 1900
the reserve forests comprised 81,400 square miles, or
8.6% of the total territory controlled by the British
government; the protected forest 8800 square miles,
and the demarcated but unclassified area, 117,000
square miles. These figures had, in 1904, changed to
91,567 for permanent reserves (58 million acres),
9865 for protected, and 131,269 for unclassed, showing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span>
the rapid change now taking place in the status of
classification.</p>

<p>The name of B. H. Baden-Powell, at one time conservator
of the Punjab and Acting Inspector-General
of Forests during 1872-4, is closely connected with
placing this forest legislation on a sound basis. The
object of this legislation was mainly to settle the question
of ownership and rights, hence reserved forests
are not necessarily set aside for forest purposes like
the forest reservations in the United States, although
ultimately this will probably be their condition.</p>

<p>Rights of user were under this legislation regulated
or commuted. In some parts, even on the reserved
forest areas, there are still retained rights to cut
<i>taungyas</i>, i.e., to make partial clearings for temporary
agricultural use, under the restriction of not destroying
teak trees over 18 inches in diameter, and with
the right of the cultivators to supply their domestic
needs, under obligation to cut out fire traces, burning
the brush, and instituting similar protective measures.</p>

<p>The title to the forest property having been secured,
its permanent demarcation and a survey of the same
were the next steps; the first having gradually been
nearly accomplished, the latter being still far in arrears.</p>

<p>The area of private and communal forests is not precisely
known, but, including waste land and lands of
uncertain conditions, there are at least 500,000 square
miles so owned, including those of feudatory rulers
within the provinces. Of these, some 500 square miles
or more of forest are leased to the government and
under its control; and in some cases forest administrations
are instituted by the rajahs themselves.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span></p>

<p>In the Act of 1878, there was a clause calling for
protection of private forest property against trespass
and encroachment, but this remained a dead letter.
By later legislation the government is entitled to exercise
control over private forests and lands, if it appears
necessary for the public weal, or if the treatment
which such forests have received from their owners
affect the public welfare or safety injuriously; but in
such cases the owner can require the government to
expropriate the land in question.</p>

<p>The forest act also provided that the government
may assign to village communities from the reserved
forest area so-called village forests, and make rules for
their protection, use and management. How far this
policy has been applied does not appear.</p>

<p>There are still areas the ownership of which is not
settled, and rights which are still in doubt, the work
of the so-called forest settlements still going on, several
thousand square miles being annually changed in
status, and several thousand dollars annually spent to
quiet rights of user.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>Through the long history of India that preceded the
arrival of the Mohammedans in the 10th to 12th
centuries, it appears that the forest area was only
slowly encroached upon by the Hindoo civilization.
Even when the invaders, nomads by habit, drove
many of the native race into the jungle to eke out a
precarious existence, owing to the remarkable recuperative
powers of a tropical nature the impression
made was not permanent. Although much forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span>
growth was then destroyed, cleared or mutilated,
changes took place only slowly.</p>

<p>It has been claimed, that in consequence of the
destruction, which was incident to the nomadic life
of the Mohammedans and the shifting agriculture of
the aborigines, climatic changes were produced, but
the proof for this assertion has remained questionable.</p>

<p>When in the 18th century the British entered India
in rivalry with the French and other European nations,
it was, of course, only for purposes of exploitation, and
for a long time after the British had attained the ascendancy
and had subjected most of the territory
now ruled by them, not much concern was had about
the forests; they furnished but small values, excepting
in one particular, namely supplies of Teak for naval
purposes. In the beginning of the 19th century the
Government became concerned regarding these supplies,
which under the rough exploitation threatened
to become exhausted.</p>

<p>The first step towards securing some conservative
management dates back to 1806, when Captain Watson
was sent to India as Conservator of Forests, to
look after the interests of the East India Company
in this direction. His inability to compromise with
those who had secured timber privileges led to his
removal and an abandonment of the office, in 1823.
Ineffective, sporadic efforts at administration by the
provincial governments then followed.</p>

<p>In 1839-40, the government of the Bombay Presidency
stopped the cutting of Teak trees on government
property. In 1834, M. Connolly, Collector of
Malabar in the Madras Presidency, began to plant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span>
Teak on a large scale at Nilambur. In 1847, Dr.
Gibson was appointed Conservator of Forests in
Bombay; from 1848 to 1856, Lieutenant (now General,
C. S. I.) James Michael conducted the government
timber operations in the Anamalai Teak forests
(Madras), and made the first recorded attempts to
protect Indian forests from injury by annual jungle
fires.</p>

<p>In 1856, Dr. Hugh Cleghorn was appointed Conservator
of Forests in Madras. He checked the
destructive practices of temporary cultivation in the
government forests of that Presidency, a measure,
which at first was strongly opposed by the people,
but his well-known desire to promote native interests
inspired the rulers of the country with confidence,
and finally his measures were successful.</p>

<p>Various attempts at some kind of regulation of the
exploitation by lumbermen were also made by the
general government, after various examinations and
reports, and, in 1847, even a small and ineffective
forest department was organized.</p>

<p>The annexation of the Province of Pegu in lower
Burma, in 1852, introduced a new complication, and
proved the turning point in forestry matters. In this
province, the right to cut Teak had been reserved by
the native princes, and hence became a right of the
crown, but private lumbermen began to cut this
timber, and, after an investigation and report, it was
decided to take definite steps to regulate the use of
these valuable Teak forests at least.</p>

<p>Lord Dalhousie, the then Governor-General, upon
the basis of the report of the superintendent of forests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span>
at Pegu, Dr. McClelland, in 1855 laid down in statesmanlike
manner an outline of a permanent forest
policy for the government, and introduced the first
professional adviser.</p>

<p>In 1856, a German forester from Hesse, Dietrich
Brandis (afterward Sir) was installed as superintendent
of forests for Pegu with wide powers under contract
for 10 years, at a liberal salary, and pension
after retirement. The only possible check that could
at first be applied was to force the lumbermen to make
contracts, limit the diameter to which the exploitation
was to be allowed, and mark the trees to be felled.
This was done, naturally not without a large amount
of friction.</p>

<p>The result of this experiment in forest conservancy,
as the English are pleased to call it, was so satisfactory,
that, in 1862, it was decided to organize a forest department
for all India; Brandis was entrusted with
the organization, and, in 1864, he was appointed head
of the new department under the Secretary of Public
Works with the title of Inspector-General, acting as
adviser of the various provincial governments.</p>

<p>The forests of India during the next 20 years during
which Brandis held office, were, province by province,
brought under the regime of the Imperial Forest
Department, although the provincial governments
retain full and independent administrative power.</p>

<p>The first problem was to settle ownership conditions,
which was done in the manner described before, by
the act of 1865, and by later acts.</p>

<p>The discontent which was created by this act came
very near wrecking the whole enterprise, and much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span>
difference of opinion between the local and general
governments existed, the government of Madras
going so far as to declare the impossibility of establishing
State property in view of the acknowledged
rights of the villagers over waste lands. The general
policy, however, finally prevailed, and an increasingly
harmonious cooperation of the provincial governments
has allowed the development of an efficient
forest service.</p>

<p>Various provincial legislation was considered, passed
and repealed, until, in 1878, the Indian Forest Act VII
settled the policy at least for the majority of the provinces,
Madras and Burma and some minor districts
still declining to extend its provisions to their forests.
The Burma government enacted, however, similar
legislation in 1881, and the Madras government in
1882, and, much later, the other outstanding governments
followed (1886 to 1891), so that, while the
detail of application varies not inconsiderably, the
general policy regarding forest property of the State
is the same throughout the empire. Whatever of
uniformity exists had to be secured mainly by persuasive
means.</p>

<p>The forest acts, as stated on a previous page, contain
certain provisions regarding formation of village
forests and control of private forest property, but
no interference with private forest property has been
attempted, although in some parts this is more important
and larger than the State holdings. Most
of the owners merely exploit their property, but
some of the larger, more enlightened native princes
have established forest administrations, imitating the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span>
example of the Imperial government. Those of Mysore
and Kashmir and Hyderabad have placed this administration
under an imperial forest officer, furloughed
for this purpose, and derive handsome revenues;
the Kashmir forests of about 2500 square miles
yielding round $180,000; those of Mysore, near 2000
square miles, over $330,000, this largely derived from
sales of sandal wood; those of the Nizam of Hyderabad,
with 5200 square miles in reserves and 4400 in
protected forests, deriving a revenue of $75,000, seven
times what it was ten years before.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Forest Organization and Administration.</i></h4>

<p>The condition of affairs in the forest department can
be briefly summarized as follows for the year 1909.</p>

<p>Total area under government control: 241,774
square miles, namely, Reserved, 94,561; Protected,
8,835; Unclassed, 138,378.</p>

<p>Officials (in 1905): Higher grades, 312; Lower
grades, 1,663; Guards, 8,533. The controlling staff
was in 1909 increased by 34; and numbers in all
other grades increased.</p>

<p>Rounded off Expenditures, $4,500,000; Revenues,
$8,225,000; Net Proceeds, $3,675,000 (45% of gross).
Variation in the value of the rupee makes comparison
with earlier years uncertain.</p>

<p>In spite of the many difficulties, a poor market (no
market at all for a large number of woods), wild,
unsurveyed, and practically unknown woodlands,
requiring unusual and costly methods of organization
and protection, the forestry department has succeeded,
without curtailing the timber output of India, in so
regulating forest exploitation as to insure not only a
permanence in the output, but also to improve the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span>
woodlands by favoring the valuable species. It has
prepared for an increase of output for the future, and
at the same time has yielded the Government a
steadily growing revenue, which bids fair to rank before
long among the important sources of income.</p>

<p>In 1865 the net revenue was only $360,000, it had
about doubled by 1875, and more than trebled by
1885, and since then has more than quadrupled.</p>

<p>While in the period of 1870 to 1874 the expense of
the administration was still 70 per cent. of the gross income,
it has gradually been reduced to near 45 per cent.,
while the outturn in material has in the last five years
increased by 35% over the preceding quinquennium.</p>

<p>At first, the department and its operations as well as
its finances were Imperial, the local governments having
no control over its officers or over the revenue derived,
but, in 1882, decentralization was effected, the
local governments obtaining a direct interest in the
revenues. As a result the financial interest overruled
the conservative policy, and over-cutting was
the consequence. In 1884, the general government
recognized the need of a change. After some struggle,
the Imperial department was placed at least in charge
of preparing the working plans, and pressure for their
execution if not direct enforcement can be brought
through appeal to the general government by the
Inspector-General, which, however, has never been
necessary to use.</p>

<p>The organization of the forest service passed through
various stages, and the arrangement in the different
provinces is even now not quite uniform.</p>

<p>The forest service, then, is peculiarly organized as
regards division of responsibilities and relationships<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span>
between the imperial and the provincial governments,
the autonomy of the latter being jealously guarded.
It is divided into the Imperial and the Provincial
Service, the former consisting of the higher grade
officials entirely recruited from England, the latter, the
executive service, being in administrative functions
independent of the former.</p>

<p>An Inspector-General, directly under the Secretary
of Revenue and Agriculture, (for some time under the
Home Department) is the head of the service, and acts
as professional adviser both of the Imperial and the
Provincial Governments. But this head of the service
is shorn of most of executive functions, all administrative
matters being reserved to the provincial
authorities.</p>

<p>The Inspector-General has charge only of the forest
school administration, of forest surveys, and of the
making of working plans, which later, after approval
by the Provincial government, are in their execution
inspected and critically supervised by him, but without
power to enforce them, or to give direction directly
to the Conservators in charge (at least in Madras and
Burma). He also watches over and reports on the
progress of all forestry matters in the empire.</p>

<p>Peculiarities and great variety are also found in
other official relations and in the appointing power,
the general and provincial governments exercising
certain rights in this respect.</p>

<p>The Controlling Staff (57 officers in 1869, now about
300) under the Inspector-General, consists of Conservators,
Deputy Conservators and Assistant Conservators.
The Conservators, now some 20, so far as they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span>
not directly acting as assistants in the Inspector-General&#8217;s
office, are the heads of the provincial departments
and conservatorships, and in that capacity directly subordinate
to the local government, which in Madras and
Bombay also has their appointment; each is in charge
either of the entire forest business of the Province, or
of a circle forming part of a Province and the administration
unit in India. These are, therefore, the
most influential and most responsible agents in introducing
forestry practices. Conservatorships are
divided into divisions, each in charge of a divisional
forest officer, a member of either the Imperial or the
Provincial Controlling Staff; but these have to acknowledge
subordination to the Chief Civil officer, the
Collector of the district in which they are located, in
order to harmonize the financial and forestal interests.</p>

<p>About 80 per cent. of the Controlling Staff in the
Imperial Service are appointed by the Secretary of
State from graduates formerly from the forest school
at Cooper&#8217;s Hill College, now Oxford, the remaining
20 per cent. from Englishmen in the provincial service,
the members of which have passed through the
Dehra Dun forest school and through the lower
branches of the service. In addition to this Superior
Staff, a Subordinate Staff of Extra Deputy Conservators
and Extra Assistant Conservators forms
the Provincial Service, which is mainly recruited from
the natives.</p>

<p>The districts are divided into ranges, for which an
Executive Service is organized, of rangers (over 400),
who are now selected from graduates of the forest
school in Dehra Dun. Deputy rangers and foresters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span>
a lower grade (some 1700), and guards, having their
separate beats (over 8500), form the Protective
Service, mostly or all recruited from the better class
of natives.</p>

<h4>5. <i>Forest Treatment.</i></h4>

<p>With the irregular distribution of forests, the peculiarities
of Indian government affairs and population,
and the wild and difficult forest conditions themselves,
it is but natural that the work thus far has been
chiefly one of organization, survey, and protection.</p>

<p>In the protection against unlawful felling or timber
stealing and grazing, the Government of India has
shown itself fully equal to the occasion by a liberal
policy of supplying villagers in proximity of the forests
with fuel, building material, pasture, etc., at reduced
prices or gratis. Over $1,500,000 worth is thus disposed
of annually, the incentive to timber stealing
being thereby materially reduced. A reasonable and
just permit system for grazing, where again the needs
of the neighboring villagers are most carefully considered,
not only brings the government a yearly
revenue of over $800,000, but enables the people to
pasture about 14,000,000 head of animals in the State
forests without doing any material damage to tree
growth. Thirty-one per cent. of the total forest
area is open to grazing.</p>

<p>The work of preventing and fighting fires can with
the means available not be carried on over the entire
forest area, of which large tracts are not even crossed
by a footpath, and in a land where the regular firing
of the woods has become the custom of centuries,
and where, in addition, intensely hot and dry weather,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span>
together with a most luxuriant growth of giant grasses,
render these jungle fires practically unmanageable.
Each year, however, additional territory is brought
under protection. In 1902, nearly 37,000 square
miles, or nearly 40% of the area in reserve, but only
12% of the total government forest area, were under
protection at a cost of $4.00 per square mile or less
than one cent per acre, half of what it was 10 years
before, and over 2 per cent. of the gross revenue.
Nearly 5,000 fires occurred, to be sure, which burnt
over 3,000,000 acres, that is to say over 90 per cent. of
the area the protection was effective. For nearly
half the fires the cause remains unknown. Danger
from fire has, however, become less in protected areas
because of the changes in herbage and moisture conditions.
Yet it costs still about two per cent. of the
gross revenue to protect the area, and the figures just
cited show that this expenditure is only partially
effective. In 1909, the protected area had increased to
43,000 square miles, the cost to $5, the efficiency to
94 per cent.</p>

<p>The first successful attempts to deal with forest
fires were made in 1864 by Major (later Colonel) G.
F. Pearson, who was then Conservator of Forests in
the Central Provinces, and who devised a system of
cleared fire lines or &#8220;fire traces,&#8221; surrounding the
areas to be protected, which were cut and burned over
early in the season, a system now in vogue in all India.
In the jungle forests the traces must be broad; the
grass often taller than an elephant must be cut and
burned before the grass on either side of the fire lane is
dry enough to burn.</p>

<p>This protection forms the most important duty of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span>
the forest officials, a trying one as it has to be carried
on during the hot season.</p>

<p>A separate branch of the forest service carried on the
work of surveying and mapping the forest area instead
of the regular Survey of India, with the result of
cheapening the cost. Some 74,000 square miles had
been mapped on the scale of 4 inch to the mile, the
standard, some smaller areas on smaller scale, at the
rate of $25 per square mile. In 1908, however, this
work was handed over to the Survey.</p>

<p><i>Silviculture.</i> Silvicultural practices are naturally
but little developed. Protection against fire, grazing,
overcutting has been the first requisite. The unregulated
selection system with a diameter limit,
which Brandis introduced, still prevails mostly, although
beginnings of a compartment and group system
in converting miscarried selection forest of Deodar,
Pine and Sal have been made, or rather of an
improved selection method, which seeks to secure reproduction
in groups. Clearcutting with seed trees
held over is practised in the coniferous mountain
forest. Coppice and coppice with standards (reserves
of sprouts) is a natural condition over large
areas, especially with Teak and Sal. Even improvement
cuttings or sowing on barren hillsides with
remarkable success, are not absent.</p>

<p>The attempts at securing reproduction, especially
in the truly tropic forests have often miscarried, inferior
species filling the openings. Girdling of inferior
species to favor the better classes has hardly
had the desired result. In the deciduous forest, the
same difficulty of undesirable aftergrowth is experienced,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span>
deteriorating the composition, except in the
case of the gregarious Sal tree (<i>Shorea robusta</i>), the
treatment of which for reproduction has, after many
failures, been well established. Other gregarious
species also can be satisfactorily reproduced. The
culled and burned-over forests, of which, there are
many, are re-habilitated in a manner by merely
removing the old overmature and defective timber,
with comparative success.</p>

<p>In some parts, the large gregarious bamboos are a
serious obstacle to reproduction. Here, the only
chance for reproduction exists when they flower and
die. Killing the bamboos by cutting the annual
shoots proved a failure, but burning over the whole
area and sowing seems to be followed by success.</p>

<p>In other parts, as in the large Teak forests of Burma,
as well as of other provinces, the useless kinds of trees
are girdled, huge climbers are cut off, and a steady war
is waged against all species detrimental to teak regeneration
with satisfactory results. With Teak, even
planting on a larger scale is resorted to, especially by
means of <i>taungyas</i>, i.e. plantations, where the native
is allowed to burn down a piece of woods, use it for
a few years as field (though it is never really cleared)
on condition of planting it with teak, being paid a
certain sum for every hundred trees found in a thrifty
condition at the time of giving up his land. Similarly,
the department has expended large sums in attempting
to establish forests in parts of the arid region of
Beluchistan, and, on the whole, during 1894-95 about
$150,000 were expended on cultural operations,
which up to that time involved about 76,000 acres of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span>
regular plantations and 36,000 acres <i>taungyas</i> (mostly
teak,) making a total of 112,000 acres, besides numerous
large areas where the work consisted merely in
aiding natural reproduction.</p>

<p>But, in 1909, the plantations seem to have been reduced
to 59,000 acres, (probably through failures),
the taungyas however increased to 84,000 acres, and
the budget for plantings and other cultural measures
formed a little over two per cent. of the gross revenues.</p>

<p>We see then, that though the forests of India are
now, and will continue for some time to be little more
than wild woods with some protection and a reasonable
system of exploitation in place of a mere robbing or
culling system, yet the work of actual improvement
steadily increases in amount and perfection.</p>

<p>In disposing of its timber the Government of India
employs various methods. In some of the forest districts
the people pay merely a small tax and get out of
the woods what and as much as they need. In other
cases, the logger pays for what he removes, the amount
he fells being neither limited in quantity nor quality.
The prevalent systems, however, are the permit
system, when a permit is issued indicating the amount
to be cut and the price to be paid for the same, and
the contract system, when the work is more or less
under the control of government officers and the material
remains government property until paid for.
To a limited extent the governments carry on their
own timber exploitation.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><i>Working Plans.</i> Only a relatively small part of the
total forest area, each year, however, increasing, is as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span>
yet worked under plans. In 1885, only 109 square
miles, in 1899, 20,000 square miles, and in 1903,
nearly 30,000 square miles, about 13 per cent. of the
total, or 30 per cent. of the reserved area, were operated
under working plans, and each year about 4000
square miles are added, so that now (1909) over half
the reserved area is under working plans.</p>

<p>Only gradually was the character of these plans
brought into practical form, and their execution, in
spirit at least, enforced, the Conservators having the
right to deviate from the plans.</p>

<p>A map, prepared by the survey branch naturally
forms the basis of the plan. The form of the plan is
prescribed by the provincial regulations, and the
preparation is also carried on by the provincial service
under advice and supervision of the imperial department.
The &#8220;strip valuation survey,&#8221; which
Brandis introduced, covering sometimes as much as
30 per cent. of the area, is employed in determining
number of trees and sizes, growing stock and cut,
modeled after the European practice, except that little,
perhaps too little, money is spent on their elaboration,
especially on determining the proper amount of cut.
That the cut is controlled at all is the most important
result.</p>

<h4>6. <i>Education and Literature.</i></h4>

<p>In 1866, Sir Dietrich Brandis selected as assistants
two young men who had been trained in the forest
schools of Germany&mdash;in turn his successors&mdash;and at
the same time arrangements were made for the training
of young Englishmen in the Forest schools of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span>
France and Germany. At the end of 1875 the professional
education was entirely transferred to Nancy.
The present force of Conservators is composed largely
of these men. For some reason, the training of men in
Germany and France became unpopular, and this
objection finally led, in 1884, to the establishment of
a chair of forestry at Cooper&#8217;s Hill College for Engineering
in England. At first, the course of study extended
over 26 months, during 22 of which the candidates
prosecuted their studies at the college; the
remaining four months being spent under suitable
supervision in selected British and Continental forests.</p>

<p>In 1905, this department was transferred to Oxford
University and the course extended to three years,
one year to be spent in continental forests. At
present this time may, however, be reduced to two
years and the vacations in continental forests. This
is a government affair, and probationers receive
stipends from the government.</p>

<p>Mr. Brandis as early as 1869 saw also the necessity
of providing the means of giving the natives of India
some sort of technical education in forestry. The
first step in this direction was to place natives,
selected ones, under one or two officers of the Imperial
Service who were deemed fit to instruct them, and
in this way a few good men were turned out. Another
experiment, after the German pattern, was made
by apprenticing likely young men under some forester
for a year or two and then sending them to an engineering
school for theoretical instruction. This was
also a failure. After much hard work, the Indian
forest school at Dehra Dun was established in 1878,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>
the forests between the Jumna and the Ganges rivers
were set aside as training grounds, formed into a
special Forest Circle and placed under the control
of the director of the school. These forests have been
subjected to regular systems of management, based
on European experience, and excellent results have
been obtained. The first course of systematic theoretical
instruction was opened on the 1st of July,
1881. In 1884 the school was made an imperial institution
by the Government of India, and the Inspector-General
of Forests was charged with its
supervision, under a Board of Control, consisting of
the Inspector-General, the Director, and three Conservators,
with the Assistant Inspector-General as
secretary. This board meets once a year at Dehra,
conducts the examinations, and looks into all of the
workings of the School very carefully. There were
two courses&mdash;one in which the teaching was given in
English for rangers, the other in which the instruction
was given in the vernacular for foresters; courses extending
over 24 months. In 1906 the school was raised
to the rank of a college and the course in the vernacular
abolished. The graduates may aspire to the
rank of division officers. The training of lower grade
officers is left to the provinces. The Bombay Presidency
had for some time their own forest school in
connection with the Engineering College at Poona, but
this is now abandoned. Another school, however, is
located at Tharrawaddy, with a two-year course in
Burmese, and one in Madras with a one-year course;
so that the education of lower grade officials is well
attended to.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span></p>

<p>Forest Experiment and Investigations have never
been systematically instituted, being left to individual
initiative, but lately (1909) provision has been made
in this direction in connection with the Dehra Dun
school by the establishment of an Imperial Research
Institute.</p>

<p>Besides a monthly journal, the Indian Forester
which came into existence in 1875 through Schlich&#8217;s
initiative, and the annual reports of the various conservators
and of the Inspector-General, a small book
literature has developed within the last ten or fifteen
years.</p>

<p>Descriptive volumes of note are J. S. Gamble&#8217;s
<i>Manual of Indian Timbers</i>, new edition, 1902; <i>Trees,
Shrubs and Woody Climbers of Bombay Presidency</i> by
W. A. Talbot, 1902; Ribbentrop&#8217;s <i>Forestry in British
India</i>, 1900, and the earlier publication of H. R. Morgan,
<i>Forestry in Southern India</i>; Brandis&#8217; <i>Indian
Forestry and Distribution of Forests in India</i>. Of professional
interest are E. E. Fernandez <i>Manual of
Indian Silviculture</i>, unfortunately out of print; the
same author&#8217;s <i>Forest Industries</i>; D&#8217;Arcy&#8217;s <i>Manual of
Forest Working Plans</i>; C. C. Roger&#8217;s <i>Manual of Forest
Engineering in India</i>, and B. H. Baden-Powell,
<i>Forest Law</i>.</p>

<p>The influence of the development of the Indian Forest
Service on the forest policy of other British colonies
and of the home country has been considerable
and is growing, Indian forest officers being detailed
to assist in developing forest policies in these other
parts of the British Empire.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span></p>

<h3>CANADA.</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Report on the Forest Wealth of Canada</i>, by the Statistician of the Department
of Agriculture, 1895.</p>

<p>Reports of Crown Lands Departments, of Bureau of Forestry of Ontario, and
of Forestry Branch of the Dominion.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Defebaugh&#8217;s</span> <i>History of the Lumber Industry of America</i>, Vol. I, 1906, brings
together much information on this phase of the subject.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Hough&#8217;s</span> <i>Report on Forestry</i>, Vol. II, 1880, has a compilation of earlier statistics.</p>

<p><i>An Analysis of Canada&#8217;s Timber Wealth</i>, by <span class="smcap">B. E. Fernow</span>, in Forestry
Quarterly, Vol. VI, 1908, attempts a differentiation of commercial forest areas.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The largest single colony of Great Britain and the
most important as regards forest supplies, both as to
quantity and character, Canada has been for a long
time supplying the mother country with a large proportion
of her imports.</p>

<p>Although in size larger than the United States, its
land area being estimated at over 3,600,000 square
miles, Canada has so far attained only one-fifteenth of
the population of her neighbor, namely less than 7
million, although now rapidly growing. Much of her
territory is still unknown, and will remain for a long
time unavailable for civilization owing to its inhospitable
climate. Indeed, as yet not one-third of its
territory may be considered opened up to civilization,
and not much more than 100,000 square miles can be
said to be occupied, one-half improved in farms, and
two-thirds of this in crops.</p>

<p>Much of the northern country remains unorganized
and the vast North West Territory (2,656,000 square
miles) between Hudson&#8217;s Bay and the Rocky Mountains,
as well as Labrador, are for the most part uninhabited
except by Indians and a few military and
trading posts.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span></p>

<p>The central interior region, dotted with lakes and
intricate river systems, is a continuation of the forestless
arid and subarid, plains and prairies of the country
West of the Mississippi River, toward the north
changing by steps into lowlands studded with open
treegrowth, and barren tundra frozen all the year, a
million square miles answering to this last description.
The Pacific Slope is a rough and lofty mountain
country, the extension of the Rockies and Coast
Ranges, with a variable, in part humid and temperate,
in part dry and rigorous climate, more or less heavily
wooded, about 600,000 square miles, with the Fraser
River in the South forming the most important
drainage basin.</p>

<p>The Atlantic portion, south of the plateau-like,
bare, or scantily wooded Hudson Bay and Labrador
country, with a climate, somewhat similar to North
Eastern Germany, is formed by the slopes of the watersheds
of the Great Lakes and of their mighty outlet,
the St. Lawrence River and its Gulf; the slopes rising
gradually northward to the low range of the Height of
Land, a plateau with low hills, not over 1500 feet
elevation, which cuts it off from the northern country
and forms the limit of commercial forest. This
region, the bulk of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec&mdash;a
belt of not exceeding 300 miles in width and
about 1500 miles in length, altogether 300,000 square
miles&mdash;with 93,000 square miles in the maritime
provinces, around 250 million acres in all, represents,
outside of British Columbia, the true forest region of
Canada, and at the same time the centre of Canadian
civilization.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span></p>

<p>Although the Cabot brothers discovered Cape
Breton and Labrador in 1497 and 1500, the first
settlement of Canadian territory was not made until
1541 by French colonists, after the first Captain-General
of Canada, Jacques Cartier, the discoverer
and explorer of the St. Lawrence (in 1534), had taken
possession of the country for Francis I; but not much
progress in colonizing was made until Champlain&#8217;s
arrival in the first years of the next century. Quebec
was founded as early as 1608, and Montreal in 1611,
but Ottawa dates its first beginnings not farther back
than 1800.</p>

<p>The northern country around Hudson&#8217;s Bay was,
under the name of Rupert&#8217;s Land (after Prince Rupert,
the head of the enterprise), undefined in limits,
granted by Charles II, in 1670, to the Hudson&#8217;s Bay
Company, a powerful fur-trading corporation which had
not only a commercial monopoly but, except for occasional
interference by the French, held absolute governmental
sway over the country through 200 years, its
jurisdiction at one time extending to the Pacific Coast.</p>

<p>Friction and warfare with the English resulted in
the latter acquiring by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713,
Newfoundland, and settling their rights on Hudson&#8217;s
Bay. The final conquest of &#8220;New France&#8221; by the
English ended French rule in 1763, but the French
colonists remained peacefully, and their descendants
form to-day, at least in Quebec, the predominating
influence. Indeed, in 1774, by the so-called Quebec
Act, the first permanent system of self government was
established much on the lines of the French feudal
system, and the French civil law was retained.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span></p>

<p>At first, under English rule, the territory, then
including the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan,
Wisconsin and Minnesota, formed one colony,
but after the war of the Revolution, in 1791, the
territory remaining English was divided into two
separately governed provinces, Upper and Lower, or
West and East Canada. They were re-united in
1840, and continued so until 1867 when the so-called
Union or British North America Act effected the
present organization of the Dominion of Canada, a
federal union, comprising only the provinces of Ontario,
Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
After various combinations and subdivisions all of the
British Possessions in North America, except Newfoundland
and its dependencies in Labrador, came into
the union, and, in 1882, the union was completed
with the then seven provinces (those mentioned with
Prince Edward Island, Manitoba and British Columbia)
and all the organized and unorganized territory.</p>

<p>In the same year, four territories, Assiniboia,
Saskatchewan, Alberta and Athabasca, in 1895 the
territory of Ungava in Labrador, and in 1898 that of
Yukon were organized, with a view of their eventual
elevation into provinces, the relationships of the
federation being quite similar to that of the states
and territories in the United States.</p>

<p>In 1905, the Western territories were organized
into two provinces, Saskatchewan and Alberta.</p>

<p>The government, although practically much like
a republic and largely independent of the home
country, is theoretically a limited monarchy, the king
being represented by a Governor-General, appointed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span>
by the king, and a privy council selected by the
governor. The latter also appoints (now 81) senators
for life to form the upper house of the Parliament or
legislative body, while the lower House of Commons is
elected by the people. Besides this imperial government,
each province has its own separate government
with a lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Governor-General,
and an elected legislature; this autonomy
being somewhat similar to that of the states of the
United States and the division of functions between
federal and provincial governments being also
similar.</p>

<p>Although the home government retains the veto
power, the supreme jurisdiction and various other
powers, and although apparently, by the appointment
of officials, its influence is guarded, practically
the party management as exercised in Great Britain
prevails, and independence from imperial influence
and from the home government is continually increasing.
In regard to the crownlands, including
forests, this division as well as this relationship becomes
important. Each provincial government except
those of the three middle provinces administers
the crownlands within its boundaries in its own way,
yet on similar lines, while the Dominion government
controls only the lands located outside of the provinces
together with those of the middle provinces and the
so-called railway belt in British Columbia. These
latter lands were mostly acquired by purchase from
the Hudson&#8217;s Bay Company, the Company relinquishing
its territorial rights in 1868, and the transfer
being completed in 1870 upon payment of &pound;300,000.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span></p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>The forest area has at various times and by various
authorities been roughly estimated as between one and
a quarter and over one and three quarter million
square miles, which would make the forest per cent.
at least over 32. But this includes the open woodlands
of the northern territory and of the prairies,
which, while of great importance to the local settlers,
are for the most part probably or surely not of commercial
value. Commercially valuable forests, actually
or prospectively, are found almost only in British
Columbia and in the old provinces, the two forest
regions separated, just as in the United States, by
a forestless region, except that north of the prairie
region a continuous belt of open woodland extends
to near the mouth of the Mackenzie River. A careful
examination of the sources of information has led
the writer to the conclusion that less than 350,000
square miles or round 200 million acres would cover
fully the commercially valuable forest land, although
the wooded area of the provinces in which the commercial
timber occurs is stated officially as around
450 million acres, two-fifths of which is to be found
in British Columbia.</p>

<p>Indeed, although we are accustomed to look upon
Canada as a great forest country, it really possesses
about 60 per cent. less commercial forest area than
the United States, and about one-quarter of the mature
timber of that country. It will be understood that
all such statistics are merely rough estimates, the
data being slim, and eked out by conjectures based<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span>
on geographical conditions which predicate the character
of the country. Most unreasonable speculations
and calculations<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16"
class="fnanchor">[16]</a> as to amount of timber standing
and value have been made on impossible assumptions.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
As an instance, one statistician by mere mathematical figuring, namely,
deducting the known crop and pasture area from the total land area would
make the forest area of Quebec alone over 209 million acres. This includes
the country north of the Height of Land, of 163 million acres, which by
another mathematical calculation is made to be able to furnish over 65 billion
feet of lumber, besides over 600 million cords of pulpwood and 370 million railroad
ties; but under present conditions, owing to topography and character of
the timber it cannot be utilized and its commercial value is altogether problematic.
This calculation would leave as really or potentially available forest
land south of the Height of Land 46 million acres in addition to over 5
million on farms. It is claimed that this forest area may still produce some
110 billion feet of coniferous and 1.5 billion feet of hardwoods, or 2500 feet to
the acre.</p>

<p>The chief of the provincial Forest Service lately made the forest area of the
province 131 million acres, including 2 million acres of waste land.</p>

</div>

<p>While by the change of standards and by local
needs, forest areas may become commercially valuable
which were not so considered before, and thereby the
above figures may be eventually increased, from the
standpoint of valuable lumber supply for the world
trade, the above named area may be assumed to set
the limit for the present.</p>

<p>A computation based on slender information has
placed the country with open woodlands in the central
region as exceeding 280,000 square miles. The
Director of Forestry estimated that 150,000 square
miles of this area might contain nearly 200 billion
feet merchantable timber.</p>

<p>The southeastern territory south of the Height of
Land was originally all densely wooded. From it a
farm area of round 25 million acres has been cut out,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span>
less than 7 per cent. of the land area included. Especially
the south-western half of Ontario, between the
Great Lakes, which contains the most fertile land, is
densely settled, as also the shores of the St. Lawrence.
A large part of the remaining forest area is cut over
and culled, especially for pine; the amount of White
Pine remaining according to estimates made in 1895
would now be less than 20 billion feet. Extensive
areas have been turned into semi-barrens by repeated
fires.</p>

<p>The Statistician of the Dominion in his report made
in that year comes to the conclusion that &#8220;the first
quality pine has nearly disappeared&#8221; and that &#8220;we
are within measurable distance of the time when,
with the exception of spruce as to wood, and of British
Columbia as to Provinces, Canada shall cease to be
a wood exporting country.&#8221;</p>

<p>The composition in general is the same as that of
the northern forest in the United States: hardwoods
(birch, maple and elm prevailing) with conifers mixed,
the latter, especially spruce, becoming occasionally
pure. The nearly pure hardwood forest of the southern
Ontario peninsula has been almost entirely supplanted
by farms, and here, even for domestic fuel, coal, imported
from the United States, is largely substituted
for wood. Although White Pine, the most important
staple is found in all parts of this forest region, the
best and largest supplies are now confined to the
region north of Georgian Bay. Unopened spruce and
fir lands still abound especially in Quebec on the Gasp&eacute;
peninsula and northward. Spruce forms also the
largest share in the composition of the New Brunswick,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span>
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland forest, the
pine in the first two provinces having practically
been cut out. Extensive, almost pure Balsam Fir
forest, fit for pulp wood, still covers the plateau of
Cape Breton, while Prince Edward Island is to the
extent of 60 per cent. cleared for agricultural use.</p>

<p>Much of this Eastern forest area is not only culled
of its best timber, but burnt over, and thereby deteriorated
in its composition, the inferior Balsam Fir appearing
in largest number in the reproduction.</p>

<p>North of the Height of Land, in Ungava and westward,
spruce continues to timber line, but, outside of
narrow belts following the river valleys, only in open
stand, branchy, and stunted, hardly fit even for pulp,
for the most part with birch and aspen intermixed.
This open spruce forest, interspersed among muskegs
continues more or less to the northern tundra and
across the continent to within a few miles of the
mouth of the Mackenzie River and the Arctic Ocean,
the White Spruce being the most northern species.
In the interior, northern prairie belt, groves of aspen,
dense and well developed, skirt the water courses and
form an important wood supply.</p>

<p>The forests of British Columbia partake of the
character of the Pacific forest of the United States,
the Coast Range along the coast for about 200 miles
being stocked with conifers of magnificent development,
Douglas Fir, Giant Arborvit&aelig;, Hemlock, Bull
Pine and a few others, the Rocky Mountain range
also of coniferous growth, pine and larch, but of inferior
character, large areas being covered with
Alpine Fir (<i>Abies lasiocarpa</i>) and Lodgepole Pine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span>
important as soilcover and for local use in the
mining districts, but lacking in commercial value.</p>

<p>If much of the forest area in the settled provinces is
burnt over and damaged by forest fire, much more
extensive destruction is wrought in this northern
forest by fires sweeping annually over millions of
acres unchecked, many of them said to be started by
lightning. About 50 per cent. of this country is said
to be fire-swept.</p>

<p>Among the large notable forest fires the great
Miramichi fire in New Brunswick in 1825 destroyed
more than 6,000 square miles in a few hours. In 1880
the loss by forest fires in the Ottawa valley alone was
still estimated at $5,000,000 annually. In 1909,
reports indicate over half a million acres burnt over
in that year.</p>

<p>The river systems of Eastern Canada, with the
mighty St. Lawrence permitting sea-going vessels to
come up to Montreal, have been most potent factors
in the development of the lumber industry and export
trade, without the need of railroads. Yet although,
as a consequence this trade was early developed to a
relatively large figure, it has not grown at as rapid a
rate as might have been expected, and to-day with an
export in excess of imports of less than 40 million
dollars is considerably below that of the United
States.</p>

<p>The small export trade of earlier times, having been
stimulated by exempting Canadian timber from paying
duties in the home country, or at least allowing
it a preferential tariff, had by 1820 grown to 15
million cubic feet, all squared timber, and sent to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span>
England. In 1830, it had crept up to only 20 million
cubic feet, but by 1850, it amounted to over 50 million
cubic feet, two-fifths of which was sawed material,
the 2632 mills being reported by the Census (1851)
as having cut 776 million feet B.M. By 1867, when
the Dominion was formed, the total export of forest
products had advanced in value to $18 million; the
next decade, with a climax year in 1873 of $26 million,
saw an increase to $20 million in the average, the
proportion of sawn material being nearly three times
that of hewn wood, and the entire cut of Ontario
going to the United States. At that time it was computed
that the waste of value in shipping square
timber amounted for the province of Ontario alone
still to over $350,000 annually. At present sawed
lumber, deals, boards, planks, etc., form 70 per cent.
of the total export.</p>

<p>In the last 20 years a steady increase in exports at an
average rate of about 3 per cent. per annum is noted,
the total in 1903 culminating at nearly $41 million,
but in the following year sinking to 36.7 million. In
1910, the total export amounted to $53 million,
against which an import of nearly $16 million is to
be offset, nearly double what it was three years before.
Adding wood manufactures, the net export must be
increased by some $36 million. The bulk of the
export goes, of course, to the United States.
But, while exports of forest products thus increased
absolutely, relatively to other exports they have considerably
declined, i.e., the lumber industry has not
grown proportionally to other developments, for
while, in 1868, forest products formed 34 per cent. of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span>
the total export, in 1904 they represented only about
half that figure.</p>

<p>The same conclusion, namely that the lumber
business has not increased rapidly in the last 25 years,
may be derived from the report of the Decennial
Census. While, for 1890, the total cut amounted to
over 5 billion feet and its value to nearly $80 million,
in 1900, the cut or at least the Census report fell below
4 billion and its value to $53 million. In 1909, the
total lumber cut was reported as 3.8 billion feet B. M.
and its value $62.8 million.</p>

<p>A measure of the depletion of the great staple White
Pine is found in the statement that from 1865 to 1893
the average size of pieces decreased by one-quarter to
one-third, and that, in 1863, over 23 million cubic feet
were exported from Quebec as against 1.5 million feet
in 1904, while the price had more than quadrupled in
that period. Spruce has here taken the place of pine,
and Ontario is now the main producer of pine. Yet
in 1909, the White Pine cut in amount almost equaled
that of spruce, and in value exceeded it by 40 per cent.
Spruce, and especially pulpwood, forms an ever increasing
item in cut and export, export of pulpwood
having increased sevenfold in the last decade, to
nearly $2 million, and of woodpulp to over $4
million.</p>

<p>A notable economic improvement has taken place
during the last ten or fifteen years in that the proportion
of raw materials exported, especially logs and
square timber, has decreased in favor of manufactures.</p>

<p>While originally the home country took the bulk
of exports of forest products, the cut of Ontario has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span>
been always, duty or no duty, sent almost entirely
to the United States. In the last six or eight years, the
export to the United States has been doubled,
amounting now to about half of the total export, and
as the States return of its own forest products largely
in the form of manufactures to the extent of about
6 million dollars worth, a balance of trade for the
Canadian forest product of 12 million dollars is left.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Ownership.</i></h4>

<p>When the French took possession of the country,
all the land belonged to the king, and could be held
by others only under feudal tenure, i.e., as a gift under
obligation of counter service. The whole country was
placed as a fief under the rule of the Hundred Associates,
a company which also exercised a trading and
colonizing monopoly, but made no success, and was
dissolved in 1663. It was then that Richelieu introduced
the system of seigniorial tenure, the land being
divided into portions of from 100 to 500 square miles,
usually with a certain amount of river front, and given
outright to younger noblemen, favorites of the court,
and clerics, who were, however, obligated to subgrant
to colonists, thereby becoming so many immigration
agents. These not only treated their colonists as
tenants, exacting rent and service, but exercised
nearly absolute jurisdiction within their domains,
the colonists becoming virtually serfs or retainers of
the seigneurs. This condition continued until 1854,
when an adjustment of rights was formulated by
the Seigneurial Tenures Act, and the government
aided the &#8220;habitans&#8221; to secure their freedom by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span>
indemnifying the seigneurs, or else by paying rent,
which was done mostly.</p>

<p>Under English rule, the granting of lands, without,
however, the seignorial rights, was continued. In
1784, such grants were made along the St. Lawrence
and the Bay of Quinte to veterans of the loyalist army,
some 20,000, in lots of 200 acres for privates up to
5,000 acres for field officers. In 1791, every seventh
section was ordered to be set aside as Clergy Reserves
for the support of the Protestant Church, a measure
which created much friction, and formed, especially
in the Roman Catholic province of Quebec, a chief
grievance in starting the Papineau rebellion of 1837.
Some 3,300,000 acres were gradually withdrawn for
this purpose, and as far as possible leased to secure an
income. Some of these lands were sold after 1827,
and finally, in 1853, a statute was passed to sell the
remainder and turn over the proceeds to municipalities
for educational purposes and local improvement.</p>

<p>Extensive grants and sales were made to lumbermen
and speculators. In this manner, by the granting
of 13,000 acres to an American, Philemon Wright,
in 1800, the great lumber industry of Ottawa was
started, and, in 1836, another American syndicate
secured about a million acres of grants. Out of the
50 million acres granted in aid of railroad construction,
some portion must also have been in timber.
By all these methods as well as by small grants and
sales to settlers a large area of uncertain extent has
become private property.</p>

<p>In Nova Scotia, nearly the entire government domain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span>
has passed by grant and sale into private hands,
some 6 million acres, one-half in small holdings. Of
the lands remaining in the crown at least two-thirds
is on barrens. Similarly, in Prince Edward Island,
the 800 square miles of woodland remaining are almost
wholly owned privately, the 14,000 acres of state land
being, like most of the private property, stripped of
its value.</p>

<p>In New Brunswick over 1.6 million acres, mostly
woodland (containing over 10 billion feet) was granted
to the railway company and another million acres or
so is in other private possession; a liberal disposal of
lands having been continued until 1883, when about
7<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub> million acres of timber and waste land remained
to the crown.</p>

<p>In Quebec some 6 million acres are estimated as
privately owned, mostly in woodlots on farms. In
Ontario the private woodland area of commercial
character may be over 5 million acres.</p>

<p>Besides the large grants which were and still are
probably to the greatest extent in timberlands, the
farms in the various provinces, according to the Census
of 1901, have from 22 to 57 per cent. in woodlots, or
altogether probably in the neighborhood of 30 million
acres.</p>

<p>The total area privately owned may then be placed
at not to exceed, say 40 million acres, and the largest
part of the forest area, is still crown lands, the government
of the different provinces and the Dominion
government in the territories and in the middle
provinces administering them and deriving the
revenue therefrom. This condition has prevailed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span>
since 1837, when the home government gave up its
claim to land and revenues.</p>

<p>The provincial ownership extends over about 500,000
square miles. The Dominion government owns an
area of 20,000 square miles in the railway belt of
British Columbia, 20 miles on each side of the railway
for 500 miles, which contains good timber, and some
722,000 square miles of land in the middle provinces
which contains practically only timber suitable for
local use.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Administration of Timberlands.</i></h4>

<p>In the development of ownership conditions, the
realization of the valuable assets in timber growth
had not been overlooked by the home government,
care of supplies for naval construction giving, as in
the United States, the first incentive to a conservative
forest policy.</p>

<p>Even under the early French rule, the grants of
land were made under reservation of the oak timber
fit for naval use, as is evidenced from a landgrant
made in 1683. This reservation led to considerable
friction as it hampered the colonists in making their
clearings on the best lands. Later, the reservation
was extended to include other timber needed for
military purposes, and when the British occupation
began, these established rights of the crown were
not only continued, but reservations of larger
areas for the timber were ordered, notably around
and north of Lake Champlain. In 1763, and again
in 1775, the home government ordered reservations
to be set aside in every township.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span></p>

<p>But the great timberwealth seemed so inexhaustible
that the governors paid little attention to the wise
instructions of the home government for the creation
of reservations, and whatever regulations regarding
the cutting of timber were made, failed to be strictly
enforced. In 1789, the policy of reserving to the crown
all the timber as far as not granted, and giving licenses
to cut, was inaugurated; but not until 1826 was even
the revenue feature strongly enough realized to attempt
systematically to secure the benefit of it,
namely by allowing anyone to cut timber &#8220;such as
was not required for the navy&#8221; who would pay a
fixed rate for what was cut; a surveyor-general of
woods and forests being appointed to collect the
timber dues with the aid of qualified &#8220;cullers&#8221; (1811).
There was even an attempt made to prevent waste by
doubling the rate of timber dues on all trees cut which
would not square more than 8 inches; this restriction
probably remained a dead letter for lack of supervision.</p>

<p>Lumbermen, however, found it cheaper to buy the
land, making only part payment, and after cutting
the best timber, forfeiting the land; contractors who
had the monopoly for cutting the timber for the royal
navy cut also for their own account; corruption and
graft pervaded the administration, which enriched
its followers with the revenues obtained from the
timber licenses and otherwise. The strong hand
which, in the absence of a strong government, lumbermen
were driven to use in order to protect themselves
from piracy by their neighbors, or else to perpetrate
such, brought about many bloody conflicts. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span>
general maladministration of the so-called &#8220;Family
Compact&#8221; besides other grievances, caused the revolution
of 1837, which, although readily put down, led
to the union of the provinces of Upper and Lower
Canada in 1841, and to reform of the abuses. It was
then, that, after the new governor-general, Lord
Durham&#8217;s admirable report on the situation, the home
government turned over the administration (in part
at least) and revenues of the crownlands to the several
provincial governments. At that time in New Brunswick,
where a thriving export trade had been early
established the dues on $2 million worth of production
were involved, and in Quebec and Ontario the income
amounted to between $200,000 and $300,000.</p>

<p>But even then, the immediate revenue, and not any
concern for its continuation animated the administration
of the public or crown forests. The free-hand
sales for nominal sums were changed into licenses to
cut, and in order to secure larger returns these were
by and by put up at auction for competitive bids, the
premium or &#8220;bonus&#8221; being paid for the limits, (i.e., a
limited territory on which the holder or licensee had
the exclusive right to cut), in addition to the fixed
dues or charges per unit for the timber actually cut.
Later, to discourage the holding of timber limits for
a rise of prices, an annual cut of first 1,000, then 500
feet per square mile of holdings was required. To
still further accelerate the use of the licenses to cut,
the Crown Timber Act of 1849 limited the license to
one year, and provided for an eventual limit in size
of the grants. All these provisions forced to more
rapid cutting and overproduction, and depression in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span>
the lumber market was the result, the supply in 1847
being 44 million feet to meet an export of 19 million.</p>

<p>New rules were promulgated in 1851, introducing a
ground rent system, a set price being paid per square
mile of limit, and doubling the ground rent for unused
limits each year. Needless to say, the impracticability
of this geometric progression in ground rents
became visible in a few years.</p>

<p>The final present systems in the disposal of timber
limits, varying in detail, were gradually perfected in
varying manner by the several provincial governments,
but they agree in general principles, in that they
grant limits for a certain time, some by the year, others
by periods, usually 21 years, during which certain conditions
as to establishment of mills and amount of
manufacture without waste must be fulfilled, and a
ground rent, a bonus, and timber dues for all timber
cut are to be paid by the limit holder, details and
prices varying and being changed from time to time.
A diameter limit below which trees are not to be cut
also mostly prevails. Lately, sales by the thousand
feet B. M. have been inaugurated in Ontario, and
sale by the mile is to be abandoned.</p>

<p>As a rule licenses become negotiable and can be
transferred upon paying a small fee per square mile.</p>

<p>The governments reserving absolute rights to
change conditions of this contract at any time, the
interest of the licensee is to cut as fast as he can;
other unsatisfactory conditions leading in the same
direction.</p>

<p>A Department of Crown Lands in the Dominion
government and in each province (in Nova Scotia the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span>
Attorney-General acting as head) administers the
lands. Scalers or cullers attend to the measuring of
the cut. The revenue derived by this system by all
the provinces amounts now to round 4.5 million
dollars per year, Ontario leading with about 20,000
square miles now under license, (mostly pine), producing
in 1910, $1,835,000; the yearly average for
the decade ending 1910 was 1<sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub> million dollars,
and some 41 million dollars have altogether
accrued since 1867; Quebec, with over 70,000 square
miles under license, (mostly in spruce,) producing
only about $700,000, nearly 30 million dollars
having accrued during the 43 years, or at the rate
of $418 per square mile, two-thirds of which from
dues.</p>

<p>Since land for settlement is, as in the United
States, obtainable by homestead and other entries,
a good many fraudulent applications under
guise of settlement have curtailed the revenue,
until now closer scrutiny of the fitness of land for
settlement is made.</p>

<p>The retention of the lands by the government is
naturally a feature which would permit and should
have earlier induced conservative forestry methods,
but the immediate revenue interest has had and still
has a more potent influence than considerations of
the future.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>The impetus to introduce conservative features
seems to have largely come through the influence of
the forestry movement in the United States, and, although,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span>
voices of prominent Canadians, like that of
James and William Little, and Sir Henry Joly de
Lotbini&egrave;re had been heard before in advocacy of a
more far-seeing policy, the meeting of the American
Forestry Congress at Montreal in 1882, (see <a href="#Page_480">p. 480</a>)
may be set as the date of the inception of this movement
in Canada.</p>

<p>The definite result of that meeting was the inauguration
of forest fire legislation in the various provinces.
In the Province of Ontario, the Fire Act of 1878,
which had until then remained a dead letter, was improved,
in 1885, by inaugurating a fire ranger system,
in which limit holders pay one-half the cost of the
rangers. The force of fire fighters, 37 in the first
year was gradually increased until, in 1910, nearly 1000
were employed at a cost of $300,000. In that year a
change was made, the whole service including inspection
being charged against the limit holder. In
New Brunswick, a fire law was passed in 1885, followed,
in 1897, by the introduction of the Ontario ranger
system. In 1883, Nova Scotia passed a forest fire
law, which, like that of New Brunswick, remained ineffective
for lack of machinery; this was not provided
until 1904, and since then has worked most satisfactorily.
Recently a forest survey of this Province was
made. Quebec also enacted fire legislation in 1883, but
did not provide means to carry it into effect until 1889.
Since at first only $5,000 annually was allowed for
its execution, and by 1901-2 not more than $7,226
was expended for fire protection over an area of 40
million acres, its effectiveness may be doubted. But
in 1905, a special Forest-Protection Branch, with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span>
Superintendent and a ranger system after the Ontario
pattern was organized, and the service has become
more effective.</p>

<p>The need for more organized effort and advice led
to the establishment of special bureaus of forestry.
In Ontario, a Clerk of Forestry was established in the
Department of Agriculture in 1883, and, in 1895, he
was replaced by a Clerk in the Crown Lands Department,
later named Director of Forestry (Mr.
Thomas Southworth). This office, later, was changed to
a Bureau of Forestry and Colonization, and a technically
educated man was appointed as Provincial
Forester, with a view of developing a forest management,
at least in the Reserves. This movement,
however, soon collapsed for lack of appreciation; the
office was transferred back to the Department of
Agriculture, which does not control any timberlands,
the Forester resigned, and the bureau was, finally,
in 1907, restricted to the colonization work, the forestry
part being deliberately abandoned.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the Province of Quebec pursued a more
enlightened course. To control the cut, a Culler&#8217;s
office was established in 1842, which, however, only
checked the square timber, then the principal material.
In 1873, after various futile attempts to secure
better supervision, a corps of forest rangers was
created; but as they worked without organization
the results were only partial until, in 1889, they were
placed under seven chiefs or superintendents. In
1897, the number of superintendents were reduced
to one, but having to work with incompetent men,
political appointees, this improvement in headship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span>
did not produce much result. In 1907, a re-organization
took place by introducing two professional
foresters educated at government&#8217;s expense at American
colleges of forestry who upon their return were
employed to supply the technical supervision of
cutting on licensed lands, and otherwise to forward
forestry reforms. In 1910, the logical sequence occurred
by placing the entire forest service except the
protection against fire under one of these technical
men as chief, with the other one as his assistant, and
a corps of three civil engineers, 40 forest rangers and
six scalers, besides 20 student assistants&mdash;the first
organized provincial forest service in Canada, administered
under the Superintendent of Woods and
Forests in the Department of Crownlands.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a
href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
See Report of Canadian Forestry Convention, 1911.</p>

</div>

<p>In 1898, the Dominion government had also recognized
the need of more technical administration by
instituting a Forestry Branch in the Department of
the Interior under a superintendent with a view of
developing improved methods. At first manned
without technical advisers, who were, indeed, not in
existence, gradually the professional element was introduced,
and the scope of the Branch enlarged, the
irrigation interests of the country being added.
Under the able guidance of the present director&mdash;whose
task under the political conditions surrounding
it is not an easy one&mdash;this department may in a few
years also become fully organized with technical men,
of whom there are now seventeen employed, besides
student assistants.</p>

<p>These various government agencies and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span>
propaganda produced at least the important result of
committing the governments to see the propriety of
setting aside permanent forest reserves.</p>

<p>The first movement in this direction was made in
1893, and in 1895, the first Dominion reservations
were made by Executive Order through the Minister
of the Interior. These, to be sure, were located in
the thinly timbered parts of the province of Manitoba,
the Turtle Mountains and Riding Mountain, mainly
for the protection of water supply.</p>

<p>Several other similar reserves were set aside by the
Minister, but to give more stability to these reservations,
an Act of Parliament was passed in 1906, declaring
their permanence and placing them, 3,380,000
acres, under the administration of the Superintendent
of Forestry. There are so far, some 26 Dominion
Forest Reserves created, or in the act of creation,
comprising an area of over 25,000 square miles. The
Forestry Branch is making a brave beginning to survey
and manage these reserves under forestry principles.</p>

<p>Of the provinces, Ontario was the first to recognize
the principle of reservations in 1893, when a partially
cut over, partially licensed territory of over one
million acres was set aside as the Algonquin National
Park in the Nipissing District, but the first definite
establishment of a forest reserve policy dates from the
Forest Reserve Act, passed in 1898, which authorizes
the Executive, as in the United States, to withdraw
lands for reserves. Some eight reserves and two
parks have so far been established, and the reserved
area amounts to around 20,000 square miles.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span></p>

<p>Of management on forestry lines on these reserves
there is so far little to be heard, except an effort to
keep fires out.</p>

<p>Quebec has followed this example of Ontario, first
by setting aside the Laurentides Park in the Saguenay
region, (1,634,000 acres), which, like Algonquin Park,
was more in the nature of a game preserve. During
1906-7, however, under a law authorizing the Lieutenant
Governor to set aside forest reserves, over 100
million acres were placed in reserve. Apparently,
however, no administration of this preserve in the
forestry sense is as yet attempted.</p>

<p>British Columbia, which until lately was only concerned
in disposing of the well timbered crownlands,
after having disposed of the best parts, has
placed under reservation the balance, and a forest
commission of inquiry has been constituted to devise
further measures in the interest of forestry. Its
report, appearing in 1911, gives a very clear statement
of conditions in the province and the promise
of active organization of a better service.</p>

<p>Of other attempts to foster forestry interests may
be mentioned a law in Quebec, passed in 1882, providing
a bonus of $12 per acre for tree planting, which
seems to have remained without effect; another, providing
for a diameter limit of 12 inches on the stump
for pine and 9 inches for other kinds (these dimensions
are now varied) inaugurated in 1888, may have
preserved some young growth on the limits, although,
since pulpwood is now the main product, and supervision
has been inefficient, not much may be expected
from such laws. Indeed, the chief of the forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span>
service reports that 60% of the regeneration is of
the inferior balsam fir.</p>

<p>In Ontario, a very competent Commission was
created in 1897, with a noted lumberman, Mr. Bertram
as president, to formulate methods of reform;
but the able report remained barren of results.</p>

<p>The Dominion has been active in encouraging tree-planting
in the prairies. The Agricultural Experiment
Station at Ottawa not only set out object lessons
by planting some 20 acres of sample plots, but for a
number of years distributed plant material to settlers.
This work was later taken over by the Forestry Branch
and increased to a larger scale, some 85 acres being in
nursery, and the distribution having grown to 15,000,000
seedlings in 1910.</p>

<p>Ontario, under the direction of its Department of
Agriculture and in co-operation with the Agricultural
College at Guelph, has lately embarked in two movements
of amelioration, namely, establishing a State
nursery from which plant material at cost, with
advice as to its use, is given to farmers, and purchasing
and reforesting waste lands in the agricultural
section.</p>

<p>Tariff legislation is another means which is in the
hands of the Dominion government to be used for
encouraging forest conservancy. It has, however, so
far not been used directly for such purpose, fiscal and
commercial policies being uppermost. But the provinces
have in this respect helped themselves by encouraging
manufacture rather than export of raw materials,
Ontario leading in this matter by prohibiting
export of unmanufactured logs from Crownlands in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span>
1898. Other provinces impose an export duty on
pulpwood cut on crownlands, as does also Ontario.</p>

<p>At present writing, a reciprocity agreement with
the United States is under contemplation, which
would admit wood products from Canada free of
duty&mdash;an arrangement which whatever its commercial
advantages bodes no good for a conservative
forest policy.</p>

<p>Meanwhile private limit holders, here and there,
had begun to see the need of conservative methods,
and by 1908, at least two large Paper and Pulp concerns
had placed foresters in charge of their logging
operations.</p>

<h4>5. <i>Education.</i></h4>

<p>Until 1900, associated effort to advance forestry in
Canada had relied on the international American
Forestry Association. In that year, largely through
the officials of the Dominion Forestry Branch (Mr.
E. Stewart), the Canadian Forestry Association was
formed.</p>

<p>This Association has grown more and more vigorous,
and having escaped the period of sentimentalism
which in the United States retarded the movement so
long, could at once accentuate the economic point of
view and bring the lumbermen into sympathy with
their effort. In 1905, a quarterly magazine, the
Canadian Forestry Journal was started by the Association,
making its work of instruction and propaganda
more effective. The technical literature, as
yet slightly developed is found mainly in Bulletins of
the Forestry Branch.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span></p>

<p>A most promising convention held in January 1906,
with the Premier of the Dominion presiding, participated
by prominent officials and business men,
seemed to foreshadow the time when a real rational
forest management, at least in some parts of the
Dominion would be inaugurated.</p>

<p>But it can hardly be said that the expectations
were realized, and another such convention was held in
1911, which may perhaps be followed by better results.</p>

<p>In 1909, following the precedent of the United
States, a Conservation Commission was appointed
for the Dominion under federal support,
manned by the leading officials and prominent representative
men from all provinces, and here the forestry
interests may find at least educational advancement.
The first two years of the existence of this
Commission have, however, produced little advancement.</p>

<p>While the Ontario government had directly discredited
the forestry movement by abolishing its
bureau of forestry, indirectly it laid the foundation
for a sure future, in 1907, by establishing in its provincial
University at Toronto a Faculty of Forestry,
with full equipment. A year later, the Province of
New Brunswick also established a chair of forestry
in its University, while some time earlier, the Guelph
Agricultural College had introduced the subject of
farm forestry in its curricula. The latest development
in educational direction is the forest school
organized in 1910 by the government of Quebec in
connection with its forest service for the purpose of
educating its own agents.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span></p>

<h3>NEWFOUNDLAND.</h3>

<p>Newfoundland, probably the first discovery of
America by the Norsemen, remained a mere fishing
station until modern times, and, except for the open
coast, unknown as regards the wooded interior, which
was supposed to be largely barren. It became a
possession of Great Britain in 1713. Development
did not begin until 1880 when the first railroad was
built, and has progressed more rapidly since the Newfoundland
Railway traversing the entire island was
opened in 1898. It was found that, while the shores
and a considerable part of the West and South coast
are barren or poorly timbered, and on the interior
plateau large moss barrens exist, there are extensive
timber areas of mixed growth, White and Red Pine,
Balsam and Spruce, with White Birch. A lumber industry,
which by 1904 had grown up to probably not
less than 100 million feet, is rapidly extending over
the whole island, and an extensive paper pulp industry
is preparing to establish itself, on timber
limits under a license system similar to that applied
in other parts of Canada. Some 5000 square miles
are now under license. Forest fires have repeatedly
devastated large areas, especially in 1904. The experience
of that year led to the enactment of a forest
fire law, but without any agency to make it effective.</p>

<p>No forest policy exists, except the commercial
restriction of the license system. A forestry association
has lately been formed.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p>

<h3>OTHER BRITISH POSSESSIONS
AND COLONIES.</h3>

<p>Under the influence of the Indian forest service, or
stimulated by its success, some of the other British
Colonial governments in Africa and Australia have
attempted and sometimes succeeded in establishing a
forest policy.</p>

<p>Of East Indian territories, <i>Ceylon</i>, the nearest
neighbor to India, with over 25,000 square miles, of
which 42 per cent. wooded, mostly with second growth
forest of small value, attempted long ago an organization
with the aid of Indian foresters, but by 1900
had of over 10,000 square miles only 431 in reserves,
in addition to nearly 1800 acres planted. One Conservator
and 8 Assistant Conservators produce a net
revenue of less than $30,000, there being an import of
$250,000 necessary to eke out the wood requirements
of the 3.5 million people.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><i>The Straits Settlement</i>, an area of 1526 square miles,
had, by 1900, a reserved state forest area of 138 square
miles under an experienced Indian forest officer.
Gutta percha, rubber and gums are here the most
valuable products.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The <i>Federated Malay States</i>, with 26,350 square
miles, and heavily wooded, after a report by the Indian
Inspector-General, have begun to reserve forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span>
areas, some 100,000 acres having been set aside,
which are administered by the Conservator of the
Strait Settlement&#8217;s reserves.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The government of the island of <i>Cyprus</i> also employs
a forest officer and guards to look after its 700
square miles of forest.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>In <i>Africa</i>, during the last few years small forest
departments have been established by the governments
of the Soudan, East Africa, Nigeria, Transvaal,
Orange River and Natal, mostly for the purpose of
planting on the treeless plains.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The government of <i>Mauritius</i> had made attempts
at conservancy for many years, but without notable
success.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The most successful attempt in Africa so far is
reported from <i>Cape Colony</i>, which as early as 1819
had a Superintendent of Lands and Woods, and in
1876, a Department of Forests and Plantations,
neither of which have left much of record.</p>

<p>In 1881, a new forest department under a French
forest officer was started, which has grown until now
its consists of one Conservator (D. E. Hutchins),
22 Assistant Conservators, 84 European foresters,
and a few native guards. In 1888, the needed legislation
was had for regulating the working of the
nearly half million acres of forest area, which, in 1902,
was declared inalienable government property. Since
the wood imports amount to over two million and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span>
quarter dollars annually, the need of conservative use
is appreciated especially as climatic conditions are unfavorable
to reproduction. Some 24,000 acres have
been planted during 22 years, at a cost of $1,500,000,
the first plantations beginning to yield a substantial
revenue, and it is believed that another 40,000 acres of
such plantations would supply all the timber needed
in the Colony. Treeplanting by private land owners
and municipalities is encouraged by furnishing advice
gratis and plant material at low cost, and to municipalities
in addition government aid is extended to
the extent of half the cost of planting.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The seven <i>Australian</i> colonies are very variously
situated regarding timber supplies, three of them,
Queensland, Western and South Australia being
poorly wooded, the others more or less heavily forested,
especially Tasmania with 65 per cent., and
New Zealand with 31 per cent. Generally speaking
the forest areas are confined to the coast in narrower
and wider belts, the interior being forestless or with
scrubby growth. This portion is large enough to
reduce the total forest per cent. to less than 6.5.
The mountains and hill ranges facing the Eastern,
Southern and Western coasts are especially heavily
wooded with magnificent Eucalypts, Jarrah and Karri
while the Kauri pine is the most valuable tree in
New Zealand.</p>

<p>The one successful attempt at a forest policy was
made by the almost forestless colony of <i>South Australia</i>,
which in 1882 reserved its scanty forest area
of 217,000 acres and started to plant, (now 13,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span>
acres planted), employing a Conservator and six
Foresters.</p>

<p>In the other colonies at various times unsuccessful
beginnings were made, and there exist in Queensland,
New South Wales, and Victoria so-called Forest
Branches or departments, but mostly without power
or equipment, and no intelligent conception of forest
policy seems practically to exist.</p>

<p>In <i>Queensland</i>, since 1897, the Governor in Council
may reserve forest lands and regulate the cutting by
diameter limit. One and a half million acres have
been reserved, but no staff for administration exists.</p>

<p>In <i>New South Wales</i> six million acres were withdrawn
from settlement, but it is mostly used for pasture,
and withdrawal may be revoked at any time.
No effective system of control exists.</p>

<p>In <i>Victoria</i> five and a half million acres have been
declared reserves under act of 1890, nearly half the
forest area. There exists a forest department of one
Conservator, two Inspectors and 25 Foresters, but no
plan of management. Four State nurseries of doubtful
value seems the whole result.</p>

<p>The other colonies still merely exploit their forest
resources under loosely managed license systems,
without even an inefficient attempt at intelligent
treatment.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span></p>

<h2>JAPAN.</h2>

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Forestry of Japan</i>, 1904, published by the Imperial Bureau of Forestry in
connection with the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and a reprint with additions
in 1910, contains most of the information utilized above.</p>

<p><i>Aus den Waldungen Japans</i>, by Dr. Heinrich Mayr, 1891, gives a full
account of the forest geography, which is also to be found in J. J. Rein, <i>Japan</i>,
1886.</p>

<p><i>Der Wald in Japan</i>, an article by Dr. Hefele in Forstwissenschaftliches
Centralblatt, 1903, gives an insight into forest conditions from the point of
view of a forester.</p>

<p>A very clear analysis of the development of property rights is to be found
in an article by Dr. Zentaro Kawase in Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung,
1894.</p>

<p>An article in Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Forst- und Jagdwesen from the pen of Prof.
H. Matsuno, the first professional forester of Japan, gives a brief account of
the development of forestry, especially in earlier times.</p>

<p>A report by Special Canadian Trade Commissioner W. T. R. Preston, 1908,
contains valuable statistics on the lumber trade.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The modernization of this remarkable island empire
of Niphon (the native name), which began in
1868, included the organization of a forest department
after German models. Curiously enough, there are
other noteworthy points of similarity to be found in
the historic development of forestry in Germany and
Japan.</p>

<p>The empire comprises four larger islands&mdash;Kiushiu,
Shikoku, Hondo or Honshiu, and Hokkaido or Yesso&mdash;and
a host of smaller ones, stretching in a chain of
nearly 3,000 miles north and south along the Asiatic
shore, the width of land being nowhere over 200 miles.
It comprises an area of nearly 150,000 square miles,
with a population approximating 50 million, largely
engaged in fisheries and other sea industries.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span></p>

<p>The islands are of volcanic origin&mdash;part of the
&#8220;girdle of fire&#8221; which reaches from the Alaska peninsula
through the Philippines to the Antilles&mdash;with
many active craters, subject to frequent disastrous
earthquakes and tidal waves; mountainous, with
numerous ranges of high hills and with lofty central
ridges, with numerous short rivers, apt to turn into
treacherous torrents, while hurricanes and waterspouts,
typhoons and equinoctial gales sweep the
surrounding seas frequently.</p>

<p>The soil is nowhere particularly fertile, but the
patient and painstaking labor of the Japanese has
brought every available foot of it&mdash;little more than
10% is arable&mdash;into producing condition, wherever
the climate compensates for the infertility, especially
in the most densely populated part, the southern half
of Hondo.</p>

<p>Extending through 30 degrees of latitude, the
climate naturally varies from the tropical one of
Formosa, through all variations of the temperate, to
the alpine one of the high mountains and the nearly
arctic one of the Kurile islands. The Japan current
skirting the eastern coast, and the mountain ranges,
with elevations generally not exceeding 6,000 feet, occasionally
up to over 13,000 feet, which cut off the
dry continental west winds, also produce great
climatic variations between east and west coasts. In
general, however, the climate of the whole empire
is characterized by a high percentage of relative
humidity and ample rainfall, especially during the
hot season, producing luxuriant growth.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span></p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions, and Ownership.</i></h4>

<p>Due to these great variations in climate, four climatic
regions being differentiated, the forest flora of
Japan almost rivals in variety that of the United
States, with over 200 deciduous, and more than 30
coniferous species of size (besides a large number of
half-trees), although not more than some 50 or 60 are
of silvicultural importance, and not more than 10
or 12 species form the basis of forest management and
of the lumber trade, which requires some two billion
cubic feet annually, and supports an export of over
six million dollars. The value of the total cut was,
in 1907, placed at over 17 million dollars, of which six
million was to the credit of the State Treasury.</p>

<p>In the tropical districts, bamboos form the main
staple; in the subtropical region, the most densely
populated and hence also almost forestless, the broadleaf
evergreens, especially several species of oak, furnish
desirable fuel wood, and two species of pine are
most valued for timber, one, the Red Pine (<i>P. densiflora</i>)
extending its realm rapidly over waste areas;
camphor tree and boxwood furnish ornamental wood.</p>

<p>The region of temperate forest furnishes, out of over
60 species, some 14 conifers and 19 broadleaf trees of
value, the former mainly of the cedar tribe, with
<i>Chamaecyparis obtusa</i> and <i>Cryptomeria japonica</i> the
most widely used, while of the broadleaf species,
which occupy more than 50 per cent. of the forest
area, <i>Zelkowa keaki</i>, of the elm tribe, a chestnut, a
beech, several oaks, a walnut, and an ash count among
the most useful.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span></p>

<p>Spruce, Fir, and White Birch are the trees of the
northern forest.</p>

<p>Mixed forest forms 45%, broadleaf 25%, conifer
21%, and 9% is rated as blank or thinly stocked.</p>

<p>The forest area, which, over the whole, covers,
with the addition of the newly acquired island of
Saghalien, 67% of the land area, or around 75 million
acres (1<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub> acres per capita), is quite unevenly distributed
according to topography and population, being
mostly confined to the mountain ranges and hills
which form the backbone of the country, and to the
northern provinces, which contain still large, untouched
areas. Hokkaido, which was opened up to
colonization only 35 years ago, now with a population
of only 20 to the square mile, has 63% of forest, 15
acres per capita; the northern part of Hondo has a
somewhat greater area per cent., mostly on the high
steep mountains, but only 1.2 acres per capita; on
the southern portion, the low ranges of hills and valleys
the forest area has been reduced to 53%, but shows
only three-quarter acre per capita; and Okinawa,
with 26%, and less than one-third acre per capita,
shows the lowest.</p>

<p>Of this forest area, however, almost one-half is
&#8220;hara,&#8221; brush forest, chaparral, or dwarfed tree
growth&mdash;the result of mismanagement, excessive
cutting and fires&mdash;and in the southern districts,
impenetrable thickets of dwarf bamboo, which crowd
out tree and even shrub growth wherever such mismanagement
gives it entrance. These extensive haras
are cut every two or five years for the brush, which is
used to cover and furnish manure for rice fields.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span></p>

<p>Fire, which, until lately, ran over 5 or 6 million
acres annually, and ruthless cutting, have in the past
and are still deteriorating the forest area.</p>

<p>Grassy prairie and barrens due to natural conditions
are not absent, and are due to excessive drainage
through loose coarse-grained rock soil; they are found,
not extensively, at the foot of volcanoes, and on highest
elevations. The differentiation of land areas is not
quite certain. In 1894, there was still 30.5% of
grassy prairie reported, but some of this, no doubt,
was forested, probably one-half.</p>

<p>The bulk of the forest area is owned by the State and
the Imperial Household. Communal forests are estimated
to aggregate, in 1904, somewhat over four million
acres (7.5%), in 1910 reported as 11%, and private
property some 18 million (26%; in 1910, 22%) leaving
30 million for the State and for Imperial or Crown
forest (66%), the latter comprising some 5.5 million
acres.</p>

<p>These figures are liable to variation, due to sales of
the latter class, and to adjustments of the somewhat
obscure property rights.</p>

<p>The ownership by the State and a conservative
use of the mountain forest is necessitated by the
protective value of the forest cover, the cultivation
of the extensive rice fields being dependent upon irrigation.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Development of Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>The history of Japan dates back to 660 B.C., when
the empire was founded on the island of Kiushiu by
the warrior king Jimmuteno. He established a kind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span>
of feudal government, with the daimios (knights or
barons) holding their fiefs from the mikado, who was
considered the sole owner of the soil, or at least all
exercise of ownership rights emanated from him.
Private property seems then not to have existed at
all, the people having merely rights of user. Colonization
of the islands brought under the mikado&#8217;s
dominion progressed rapidly, and with it, not only
arable portions but even mountains were denuded.</p>

<p>With the beginning of the Christian era, the need
of better protection against floods seems to have been
recognized, and, in 270 A.D., we find the first forest
official appointed, a son of the royal house, who with
assistants was to regulate the use of the forest property,
which, under the rights of user granted by the
mikado, was being excessively exploited and devastated.</p>

<p>In the fifth century, the feudal method of giving
fiefs of land and forest to the deserving vassals had
come generally into vogue, and later, with the rise
of Buddhism, forests were assigned to the temples
and priests, who, as in Germany the monks, were
assiduous in cultivating and utilizing them.</p>

<p>Soon the daimios, similarly to the barons in Germany,
began to assert exclusive property rights, and,
notwithstanding various edicts, issued from time to
time to secure free use to the people, more and more
of the forest area was secured by daimios, and by
priests as temple forests.</p>

<p>In the ninth century, deforestation and excessive
exploitation had so far progressed that not only the
need of protecting watersheds was recognized by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span>
edicts, but fear of a timber famine led even to planting
in the provinces of Noto.</p>

<p>A period of internal strife and warfare during the
following centuries which left forest interest in the
background, led, in 1192, to the establishment of the
rule of the shoguns, the hereditary military representatives
of the mikado, who made him a mere
figurehead, and exercised all the imperial functions
themselves, until the revolution of 1868 restored the
mikado to his rights.</p>

<p>The effort at conservative forest use was renewed
with increased harshness when, after a period of
warfare and devastation, the great shogun family
of Tokugawa (1603) assumed the rule of the empire,
enforcing the restrictive edicts with military severity.
Even at that early age, the protective influence of
forest cover on soil and waterflow was fully recognized,
and a distinction of open or supply forest and closed
or protection forests seems to have been made, the
latter being placed under the ban of the emperor or
shogun, and withdrawn from utilization. The extensive
forests of the province of Kiso, the best
remaining, owe their preservation to these efforts.
The daimios, 260 in number, each in his district, enforced
the edicts in their own way, giving rise thereby
to great differences in forest administration; yet in
the absence of technical knowledge, deterioration continued.
The severity of punishments for depredations
etc., reminds us of those of the German Markgenossen,
a hand or finger being the penalty for theft, death by
fire that for incendiaries.</p>

<p>The idea of protecting or reserving certain species of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span>
trees, which was practiced in India by the rajahs, we
find here again in the beginning of the 18th century, the
number of such protected species varying from one to
seven and even fifteen in different districts. Another
unique and peculiar way of encouraging forest culture
was to permit peasants who made forest plantations
in the State forests, to bear a family name, a
right which was otherwise reserved to the knights or
samurli, or to wear a double-edged sword like the
latter. Arbor days were also instituted, memorial
days and festivities, as at the birth of children, being
marked by the planting of trees.</p>

<p>While in Germany the love of hunting had led to the
exclusion of the people from the forests, in Japan it
was a question of conserving wood supplies that dictated
these policies.</p>

<p>It is claimed that to these early efforts is due the
preservation of the remaining forests. But, while
this may be true in some instances, as in the province
of Kiso, more probably their distance from centers of
consumption and their general inaccessibility preserved
those of Hokkaido and of the northern mountains.
Certainly the brush forests south of Tokyo
do not testify to great care.</p>

<p>The detested shogunate was abolished in 1867 by a
revolution which brought the mikado to his rights
again and crushed the power of the daimios, whose
fiefs were surrendered, and their acquisitions of forest
property, as well as (a few years later) those of the
priests, were declared State property, with the exception
of some which were recognized as communal
properties.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span></p>

<p>Similar to the experiences of France, the disturbances
in property conditions, which implied instantaneous
loss by the people of all rights of user in the
State property as well as removal of all restrictions
from private and communal properties, led to wholesale
depredations from the State domain, and to widespread
deforestation and devastation, an area of a
million acres of burnt waste near Kofu, west of Tokyo,
testifying to the recklessness of these times.</p>

<p>Without any force to guard property rights, stealing
on an extensive scale, similar to past experiences
in the United States, with the accompanying wastefulness,
became the order of the day, and is even now
not uncommon.</p>

<p>A first provisional administration of State forests
was inaugurated, and a forest reconnaissance ordered
in 1875 in order to secure insight into the mixed-up
property relations, and restore to their rightful
owners such portions as had been wrongly taken by
the State.</p>

<p>In 1878, the State forests were placed under a
special bureau organized by Matsuno, who had studied
forestry in Germany (Eberswalde) for five years.
But it was not academic knowledge that was needed
in the situation; it was necessary first to mould
public opinion in order to secure means for administrative
measures.</p>

<p>This he set himself to do through public addresses
and pamphlets, and by organizing a society of friends
of forest culture, and finally, in 1882, by establishing
an experiment station at Nishigahara, and, a year
later, a dendrological school, which four years later<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span>
was combined with the agricultural school at Komaba;
five years later both were joined to the University of
Tokyo.</p>

<p>With the transfer of the forestry bureau to the Department
of Agriculture and Commerce in 1881, and a
reorganization in 1886, a new era seemed to be promised,
yet a substantial progress in organized forest
management of the State property does not seem to
have been made for another decade at least, the slow
progress being largely due to lack of personnel and
the continuance of mixed property conditions, which
involved not only uncertainty of boundaries, but also
mixed ownerships.</p>

<p>Although this last trouble, namely of mixed ownership
by State and private individuals, had been recognized
as inimical to good management, it was deliberately
increased by the law of 1878 in a curious way,
reviving an old custom, namely by permitting private
individuals to plant up clearings in the State forests; in
this way, these individuals secured a certain percentage,
usually 20 per cent., of the eventual profits arising
from the results. Some 200,000 acres were
planted under this arrangement.</p>

<p>To remove the boundary difficulty, a survey of the
boundaries of State property and adjustment of
property rights, as well as segregation of the State
lands to be disposed of, namely small lots and others
not needed, was ordered in 1890.</p>

<p>It was then also that the first provisional working
plan for the fellings on State lands was elaborated,
and gradually with the progress of the survey, more
permanent plans were adopted for district after district.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span></p>

<p>By 1899, the adjustment had progressed far enough
to begin the restoration of properties, which the State
had improperly claimed, to their proper owners. It
was then also that the Imperial forests, intended for
the support of the Imperial household, were increased
to about 5 million acres.</p>

<p>Meanwhile, the personnel had increased in numbers
and improved in character. In 1904, the organization
of the forestry bureau under the Minister of Agriculture
and Commerce, arranged somewhat after
German models, consisted of one director and four
forest commissioners with ten clerks, forming the
head office; the sixteen districts into which the State
forests were divided were presided over by 32 conservators
and 80 inspectors, while 325 district officers
with 880 assistants and 626 guards, altogether over
1,800 employes, formed the field force. In 1910,
the number had increased to 2500, mainly by additional
rangers. This organization applies to the
State forests under control of the Department of
Agriculture. Strangely enough, those in Saghalien,
Hokkaido and Formosa are not under that department,
but under the supervision of the Minister of Home
Affairs, and are merely exploited, while the Imperial
forests are under the Household Department. In
1907, only 7 per cent. of the State forests were under
working plans.</p>

<p>The need of supervision of the ill-managed private
and communal forests, mostly located near the settled
portions, early attracted the attention of the new
regime, mainly on account of their protective value.
Annual losses through floods to the amount of four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span>
million dollars, and similar losses due to unchecked
forest fires gave the incentive to the passage of a law,
in 1882, simply forbidding all forest use in protection
forest, which simple prescription evidently did not
work until a further revision was made in 1897. This
latter does not confine itself to legislation for protection
forests alone, but also authorizes the supervision
of supply forests, under the special control of the local
governors. Under this law, which also extended the
assistance of local authorities to would-be planters,
aided by reforms in the corporation system, remarkable
activity in planting waste lands ensued, so that
in the next two years not less than one million acres
of communal property was set out with trees, numbering
over 800 million, while in the State forests, some
400,000 acres of vacant land had been planted by 1970.
Some sand dune planting and reboisement works are
also the result of this legislation. Further legislation
more closely defining State control was had in 1907.</p>

<p>In connection with this planting, it may be of interest
to record the attitude of Japanese foresters toward
natural regeneration: &#8220;This is no longer popular in
these days when the knowledge of forest management
possessed by foresters has become highly developed,
for if that method is the easiest and least troublesome,
nevertheless it is not advisable, in view of the necessity
of effecting a thorough improvement in our silvicultural
conditions. Only on steep slopes and for
protection forests is it applicable.&#8221;</p>

<p>In 1897, also, some eight experiment stations were
organized, in addition to the earlier one at Nishigahara
organized, in 1882, by Matsuno.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span></p>

<p>Education in forestry has lately run riot in Japan as
it has in the United States. Since the first school, organized
in 1882, not less than 62 institutions had
seen the need of offering the opportunity to become
acquainted with that subject. By 1910, these had
been reduced to 47. Here, however, different grades
are frankly acknowledged. There are three collegiate
institutions whose diploma admits to the higher service,
four are of secondary grade, nineteen give special
courses, and the rest treat the subject merely as a
subsidiary of a practical education including agriculture,
stock-farming and fishery. A ranger school,
which was instituted under Matsuno&#8217;s guidance,
controlled by the forestry bureau, came to an end
during the Russian war for lack of funds, but has
probably been revived again.</p>

<p>A forestry association now with 4000 members
carries on propaganda and publishes a magazine, and
co-operative associations among small owners to
facilitate better management are being formed under
the law of 1907.</p>

<p>In conclusion, we may say that Japan has done
wonders in reorganizing its forestry system in a short
time, but, according to one competent observer,
while all the Japanese care for detail and love for
orderliness is apparent in the office, not all that is
found on paper is to be found as yet in the woods,
and that, for similar reasons as have been indicated
for Russia; many things happen in the woods that are
not known in the office.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span></p>

<h3>KOREA.</h3>

<p>The latest move in forest reform in this part of the
world, as a result of Japanese influence, is to be recorded
from Korea. Indeed, in 1910, Japan annexed
Korea, and will doubtless apply her own methods in
the new province. The forest area of Korea comprises
only about 2,500,000 acres, out of an area of
nearly 53 million acres of very mountainous country.
A concession for the exploitation of the northern forests
to a Russian, which included the re-planting with
&#8220;exotic&#8221; tree species, was the immediate cause of
the Russo-Japanese war. In 1907, by co-operative
arrangements with Japan, a conservative forest
policy was to be inaugurated by laws similar to
those of Japan.</p>

<p>Drouth, floods and erosion of soils have been common
experiences. The preservation of forest cover,
especially at the headquarters of the Yalu and Tumen
in the northern part of the country, is aimed at.</p>

<p>For this purpose the government has taken all
forests under its care. All private owners or lease
holders must report their holdings and have their
property listed, and in case of failure to do so the
property is forfeited. The government may then expropriate,
or else regulate the cutting, or, where protective
functions of the forest cover require it, may
forbid cutting altogether.</p>

<p>A forestry school is also part of the program.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span></p>

<h2>UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.</h2>

<h3 class="dummy">&nbsp;</h3>

<blockquote>

<p><i>Report upon Forestry</i>, 1878-9, by Dr. F. B. Hough; contains references to
the earlier history of forest development.</p>

<p><i>History of the Lumber Industry</i>, by J. E. Defebaugh, 1906-7; is valuable as
a reference to statistical matter.</p>

<p><i>Report upon Forestry Investigations of the United States Department of
Agriculture</i>, 1877-1898, by B. E. Fernow. House Document No. 181, 55th
Congress; contains amplifications of the matter contained in this chapter.</p>

<p>Annual and other reports issued by the Department of Agriculture, by the
various State Forest Commissions, and Forestry Associations.</p>

<p>For latest developments, consult <i>Conservation (American Forestry)</i> and
<i>Forestry Quarterly</i>.</p>

</blockquote>

<p>The great and exuberant republic of the United
States, vast in extent and rich in natural resources
generally, excelled and still excels in extent, importance
and value of her timber resources; and,
having only lately begun to inaugurate rational forest
policies, promises to become of all-absorbing interest
to foresters.</p>

<p>The marvelous growth of the nation, which from
three million in 1780 had attained to a population of
76 million in 1900, and, by the last Census numbered
around 92 million people, has been the wonder of
the world by reason of its rapid expansion; and yet
the limit is far from being reached. Annually some
three-quarters of a million or more immigrants from
all parts of the world arrive, and there is still room and
comfortable living for at least another 100 million,
if the resources are properly treated.</p>

<p>The large land area of nearly two billion acres (over
three million square miles) is undoubtedly the richest
contiguous domain of such size in the world, located<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span>
most favorably with reference to trade by virtue of a
coast line of over 20,000 miles, and diversified in climate
so as to permit the widest range of production.</p>

<p>While a simple mathematical relation would make
the population at present about 31 to the square
mile, such a statement would give an erroneous conception
of economic conditions, for the distribution
of the population is most uneven, a condition which
must eventually diversify the application of forestry
methods in different parts of the country. In Massachusetts
and Rhode Island combined, for instance, the
density of population is 428 to the square mile, exceeding
that of the similar-sized State of W&uuml;rtemberg
in Germany, while in the neighboring State of
Maine it is not 25; the Atlantic Coast States south of
South Carolina, a territory slightly larger than Germany,
show about half, and the Central agricultural
States about one-third the density of that densely
populated country; on the other hand, some of the
Western States, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada, Arizona,
and New Mexico have less than three to the
square mile.</p>

<p>Similar unevenness is found in the distribution of
resources, especially of timber wealth, and, to some
extent at least, the present populational distribution
is explained by the uneven distribution of farm soils
and timber.</p>

<p>Outside of the unorganized territory of Alaska and
the disfranchised District of Columbia, the country
is divided into 46 States and two Territories which
will eventually acquire statehood. In addition, there
are a number of insular possessions under the direct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span>
control of the federal government. Each State being
under the Constitution sovereign in itself as far as its
internal administration is concerned, it is evident that
no uniformity of policies can be expected, except so
far as imitativeness, in which the American citizen
excels, may lead State after State to repeat the experiment
attempted by one. The federal government
has no direct jurisdiction in matters concerning
the management of resources within the States, except
so far as it still owns lands in the Western, so-called
Public Land States, and a few parcels in the
Eastern States over which it still retains jurisdiction.</p>

<p>The severest test of democratic institutions is experienced
when the attempt is made to establish a
policy which shall guard the interests of the future at
the expense of the demands and needs of the present.
Democracy produces attitudes and characteristics
of the people which are inimical to stable economic
arrangements looking to the future, such as are implied
in a forest policy. The vast country with an
unevenly distributed and heterogeneous population
presents the greatest variety of natural, as well as of
economic conditions; the immediate interests of one
section naturally do not coincide with those of other
sections; particularistic and individualistic tendencies
of the true democrat are antagonistic to anything
which smacks of &#8220;paternalism,&#8221; the attitude
under which alone a persistent, farsighted policy can
thrive. Frequent change of administration, or at
least the threat of such change, impedes consistent
execution of plans; fickle public opinion may subvert
at any time well laid plans which take time in maturing;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span>
the true democratic doctrine of restricting State activity
to police functions, and the doctrine of non-interference
with private rights, as well as the idea of
State rights in opposition to federal power and authority&mdash;all
these characteristics of a democratic government
are impediments to a concerted action and
stable policy.</p>

<p>That, in spite of these antagonistic interests, conditions
and doctrines, substantial progress toward
establishing at least a federal forest policy has been
made, is due to the fact that the American, in spite
of his reputation as a materialistic, selfish opportunist,
is really an idealist; that he responds readily
to patriotic appeals; that, in spite of his rabid nationalism,
he is willing to learn from the experiences
of other nations; that, indeed, he is anxious to be
educated. Finally, much credit is due to the men
who with single purpose devoted their lives to
the education of their fellow citizens in this
direction.</p>

<p>It must, to be sure, be added that remarkable
changes in the political attitude of the people have
taken place in the last 30 years since the propaganda
of forestry began; changes, partly perhaps induced by
that propaganda, which have aided this movement,
and which, if they persist, promise much for the future
development of forest policies. A decidedly paternalistic,
if not socialistic attitude has, lately been
taken by the federal government; and by skilful
construction of the Constitution as regards the right
to regulate interstate relations, has led to an expansion
of federal power in various directions. A similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span>
paternalistic attitude has developed in the legislatures
of several States to a noticeable degree. Even
the judiciary has taken up this new spirit, and is
ready to sanction interference with private property
rights to a degree which, a decade ago, would have been
denounced as undemocratic and tyrannical. Two
courts have lately ruled that owners of timberlands
may be restricted, without compensation, as regards
the size of trees they may fell on their property, if
the welfare of the State demands such interference.</p>

<p>The argument of the Roman doctrine <i>utere tuo ne
alterum noceas</i>, which forestry propagandists have so
strenuously used, seems finally to have found favor,
and the inclusion of the community at large, present
and future, as the possibly damaged party does not
appear any more strained. The idea of the <i>providential
function</i> of governments, as the writer has called
it, seems to have taken hold of the people. The
democratic doctrine of State rights, and restriction
of government functions has, even among Democrats,
been weakened through the long continued reign of
the Republican party, the party of centralizing tendencies,
to such an extent that the latest Democratic
platform of a Presidential campaign (1908) outdid
the Republican platform in centralizing and paternalistic
propositions.</p>

<p>It is proper to emphasize the growth of this socialistic
attitude, as it is bound to influence, and influence
favorably, the further development of forest policies.</p>

<p>Nevertheless, it is still necessary to keep in mind
that the States are autonomous, and that, while the
federal government, in spite of the antagonism in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span>
Western States, in which the public lands are situated,
has been able to change its land policy from that of
liberal disposal to one of reservation, it alone cannot
save the situation. While a few of the States have
made beginnings in working out a policy to arrest
the destruction of their forest resources, which are
mostly in private hands, still much water must flow
down the Mississippi before adequate measures will be
taken to stave off the threatening timber famine, and
the energy of the various local and national Conservation
associations will need to be exercised to
the utmost.</p>

<h4>1. <i>Forest Conditions.</i></h4>

<p>Three extensive mountain systems, running north
and south, give rise to at least eight topographic subdivisions
of the country, going from east to west.</p>

<p>1. The narrow belt of level coast and hill country
along the Atlantic shore, from 100 to 200 miles in
width with elevations up to 1,000 feet, but especially
low along the seacoast from Virginia south; drained
by short rivers navigable only for short distances
from the mouth; a farming country, with the soils
varying from the richest to the poorest; some 300,000
square miles.</p>

<p>2. The Appalachian mountain country, nearly of
the same width as the first section, with elevations up to
5,000 feet; the watershed of all the rivers to the Atlantic,
of several rivers to the Gulf, and of the eastern
affluents of the Mississippi; a mountain country, of
about 360,000 square miles extent, rich in coal, iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span>
and other minerals, except in its northern extension
formed of archean rock.</p>

<p>3. The great river basin of the Mississippi, a Central
plain of glacial and river deposit, rising gradually from
the Gulf to the headwaters for more than 1200 miles,
and nowhere over 1,000 feet above sea level; the
richest agricultural section, 700,000 square miles,
more or less, in extent.</p>

<p>4. The plateau, rising towards the Rocky Mountains
from 1,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, some
870,000 square miles in extent, a region of scanty
rainfall, hence of prairie and plain, but mostly rich
soil of undetermined depth, capable of prolific production
where sufficient water supply is available.</p>

<p>5. The Rocky Mountain region, rising from 5,000
to near 10,000 feet (except some higher peaks), an
arid to semi-arid district of rugged ranges, covered
mostly with forest growth, often open and of inferior
kind, with tillable soils in the narrow valleys, requiring
irrigation for farm use; a mining country, rich in
gold and silver, extending over 150,000 square miles.</p>

<p>6. The Sierra Nevada Mountain Range, including
the Coast Range, rarely over 7,000 feet elevation,
arid to semi-arid on the Eastern slopes; humid, and
supporting magnificent forest growth on the Western
slopes; some 190,000 square miles.</p>

<p>7. The Interior Basin, lying between the two
preceding mountain ranges, some 400,000 square
miles; for the most part a desert, although in parts
supporting a stunted growth of pinon and juniper,
and, where irrigation is possible, productive.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span></p>

<p>8. The interior valleys of the Sierra, comprising
about 30,000 square miles, which, under irrigation,
have become the garden spots of the Pacific.</p>

<p>To these topographic subdivisions correspond in
part the climatic and the forest conditions, although
variation of soil, and of northern and southern climate
produce further differentiation in types, and in
distribution of field and forest.</p>

<p>The first three sections were originally densely
wooded&mdash;the great Atlantic forest region&mdash;but farms
now occupy most of the arable portions; the fourth
and seventh are forestless, if not treeless, while the
fifth and sixth were more or less forested&mdash;the Pacific
Coast region.</p>

<p>Floristically also, these topographic conditions are
reflected, namely in the wide, north and south distribution
of species, unimpeded by intervening
mountain ranges, and in the change in composition
from east to west. The two grand floristic divisions
of the Atlantic and the Pacific forest, having but few
species in common, are separated by the plains and
prairies. The Atlantic forest is in the main composed
of broadleaf trees with conifers intermixed, which
latter only under the influence of soil conditions form
pure stands, as in the extensive pineries of the South
and North, and in the northern swamps and on
southern mountain tops. The central region west of
the Alleghanies exhibits little conifer growth in its
composition, and is most widely turned to farm use.
White Pine, hemlock and spruce are the important
coniferous staples of the northern section, and a number
of Yellow Pine species, with Bald Cypress and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span>
Red Cedar, are the valuable conifer species in the
South. As regards valuable hardwoods, there is but
little change from north to south.</p>

<p>The Pacific forest flora is almost entirely coniferous,
but here also climatic conditions permit a distinction
of two very different forest regions, the Rocky
Mountain forest being mostly of rather inferior
development, and the Sierra forest exhibiting the
most magnificent tree growth in the world.</p>

<p>Nearly half the country is forestless, grassy prairie
and plain, some 400 million acres being of the latter
description, while open prairie and brush forest, or
waste land occupies 600 million acres.</p>

<p>Within the forest region of the East some 250
million acres have been turned into farms, leaving
still two-thirds of the area either under woods, or
else wasted by fire. Although any reliable data regarding
this acreage are wanting, the area of really
productive woodland in this section may probably
be set down as not exceeding 300 million acres, which
would be nearly 40% of the total area, varying from
13% in the Central agricultural States to 50% in the
Southern States; Maine, New Hampshire and Arkansas
being most densely wooded, with over 60%.
The Rocky Mountain and Sierra forests, each with
100 million acres, would bring the total productive
woodland area to a round 500 million acres, or about
26% of the whole. (Later estimates including
brushlands of doubtful productive capacity, increase
this area to 550 million acres.)</p>

<p>It is almost idle to attempt an estimate of the timber
still standing ready for the axe; not only are the data<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span>
for such an estimate too scanty, but standards of
what is considered merchantable change continuously
and vitiate the value of such estimates. The writer&#8217;s
own estimate, made some years ago, of 2,500 billion
feet, which by others has been treated as authoritative
and forming a basis for predicting the time of a
timber famine, and which was lately sustained by an
extensive official inquiry, must nevertheless be considered
only as a reasonable guess, ventured for the
purpose of accentuating the need of more conservative
treatment of these exhaustible supplies, in
comparison with the consumption which represents
around 45 billion feet B.M., and altogether 23 billion
cubic feet of forest-grown material, the ultimate
value of all forest products reaching the stupendous
sum of around 1,250 million dollars. And, as in
other countries, this lavish consumption of forest
growth, from five to fifteen times that of Europeans,
has shown in the past a per capita increase of 30 per
cent. for every decade.</p>

<p>The bulk of the standing timber is to be found along
the Pacific Coast, in the Sierra, and in the Southern
States with their extensive pineries; the Northern
and Eastern sections are within measurable time of
the end of their virgin supplies of saw timber. The
practice of culling the most valuable species has
changed the composition in the regeneration, making
it inferior, and large areas have been rendered worthless
by fires.</p>

<p>The loss by fire, the bane of American forests, as
far as loss in material is concerned probably does not
exceed 2 or 3 per cent. of the consumption, and may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span>
valued at say 25 million dollars per annum. But the
indirect damage to forest and soil, changing the composition,
baring the soil, and exposing it to erosion and
washing, turning fertile lands into wastes, and brooks
and rivers into torrents, is incalculable.</p>

<p>There is no doubt that at the present rate of consumption
the bulk of the virgin supplies will be used up
in a measurable time, which will force a reduction in
the use of wood materials; a more or less severe
timber famine is bound to appear,&mdash;indeed, has begun
to make its appearance; and all recuperative
measures will not suffice to stave it off, although they
may shorten the time of its duration.</p>

<h4>2. <i>Early Forest History.</i></h4>

<p>The early colonizers, settling on the Atlantic Coast
soon after the discoveries of Columbus, did not, as is
usually believed, find an untouched virgin forest. The
aboriginal Indians had, before then, hewn out their
corn fields, and had supplied themselves with fuel
wood and material for their utensils; and fires, accidental,
intentional, or caused by lightning, had, no
doubt, also made inroads here and there. The white
man, to be sure, is a more lavish wood consumer; his
farms increased more rapidly, his buildings and his
fireplaces consumed more forest growth, and carelessness
with fire was, as it is still, his besetting sin. Moreover,
a trade in timber with the Old World developed,
in which only the best and largest-sized material
figured. Wastefulness was bred in him by the sight
of plenty, and the hard work of clearing his farm acres
incited a natural enmity to the encumbering forest.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span></p>

<p>The first sawmill in the New World was erected in
1631 in the town of Berwick, Maine, and the first
gang saw, of 18 saws, in 1650 in the same place,<a name="FNanchor_18_18"
id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
while, before that time, masts and spars, handmade
cooperage stock, clapboards and shingles formed commonly
parts of the return cargoes of ships. By 1680,
nearly 50 vessels, engaged in such trade, cleared from
the Piscataqua River. The ordinances on record
which were issued at the same early times by the
town governments of Exeter (1640), Kittery (1656),
Portsmouth (1660), and Dover (1665), restricting
the use of timber, remind us of the early European
forest ordinances; they were probably not dictated by
any threatening deficiency of this class of material,
but merely intended to secure a proper and orderly
use of the town property.</p>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
See Forestry Quarterly, vol. IV, p. 14.</p>

</div>

<p>The appointment of a Royal Surveyor of the Woods
for the New England colonies in 1699, and the penalties
imposed in New Hampshire (1708) for cutting
mast trees on ungranted lands ($500 for cutting
24-inch trees), and in Massachusetts (1784) for cutting
White Pine upon the public lands ($100), were probably
also merely police regulations, to protect property
rights of the Crown or commonwealth. That
this last move was in no way conceived as a needed
conservatism is proved by the fact that two years later
the Legislature of Maine devised a lottery scheme for
the disposal of fifty townships; and 3,500,000 acres
were disposed of in this way during the twelve years
following the war. Altogether the States sacrificed
their &#8220;wild lands&#8221; at trifling prices.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span></p>

<p>But, when William Penn, the founder and first
legislator of the State which represented his grant, stipulated,
in 1682, that for every five acres cleared one
acre was to be reserved for forest growth by those who
took title from him, that may properly be considered
an attempt to inaugurate a conservative policy,
dictated by wise forethought,&mdash;an attempt, which,
however, bore little or no fruit.</p>

<p>Thoughtful men probably at all times looked with
pity and apprehension upon the wasteful use of the
timber as they do now, yet squander went on, just as
it still does; but the apparently inexhaustible supplies
in those early times called for no restriction in its use.</p>

<p>At the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the
nineteenth century, a fuel-wood famine must have appeared
in some parts of the country, just as in Germany
at that time and for the same reasons, the wood
having been cut along the rivers, which were the only
means of transportation, and hence, the distance to
which wood had to be hauled increasing the cost.</p>

<p>This was probably the reason why the Society of
Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures of New York,
after an inquiry by circular letter, issued in 1791,
published, in 1795, a report on the &#8220;best mode of
preserving and increasing the growth of timber.&#8221;
This condition probably also led the wise Governor of
New York, DeWitt Clinton, of Erie Canal fame, in a
message in 1822, to forecast an evil day, because &#8220;no
system of economy&#8221; for the reproduction of forest
supplies was being adopted; and he added: &#8220;Probably
none will be, until severe privations are experienced.&#8221;</p>

<p>Like Great Britain at that time, the federal government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span>
became concerned as regards supplies for naval
construction, and, by act approved in 1799, appropriated
$200,000 for the purchase of timber fit for
the Navy, and for its preservation for future use.
Small purchases were made on the Georgia coast, but
nothing of importance was done until, in 1817, another
act renewed the proposition of the first, and
directed the reservation of public lands bearing live-oak
or cedar timber suitable for the Navy, as might be
selected by the President. Under this act, a reservation
of 19,000 acres was made, in 1828, on Commissioners,
Cypress and Six Islands, in Louisiana.
Another appropriation of $10,000 was made in 1828,
and some lands were purchased on Santa Rosa Sound,
where, during a few years, even an attempt at cultivation
was made, including sowing, transplanting,
pruning, etc. This was done under a more general
act of 1827, by which the President was authorized
to take proper measures to preserve the live oak timber
growing on the federal lands. Under these acts, altogether
some 244,000 acres of forest land were reserved
in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi.</p>

<p>But, although another act, of 1831, provided for
the punishment of persons cutting or destroying any
Live Oak, Red Cedar, or other trees growing on any
lands of the United States, no general conception of
the need of a broad forest policy, or even of a special
value attaching to the public timberlands dictated
these acts, except so far as the securing of certain
material, then believed necessary for naval construction,
was concerned. Indeed, the act of 1831<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span>
remained for 60 years the only expression of interest
in this part of the federal domain.</p>

<p>In those early times, the extent of our forest domain
was entirely unknown, and the concern of occasional
early voices in public prints regarding a threatened
exhaustion of timber supplies can only be explained
by the fact that, in the absence of railroads, the supplies
near centers of civilization, or near drivable and
navigable rivers, were alone of any account.</p>

<p>That the earlier propagandists of forest culture received
scant attention was due to the fact that conditions
soon changed; and with these changes the
evil day seemed indefinitely postponed, and the necessity
for forest culture apparently vanished. These
changes were mainly wrought by the opening up of
the west, by extending means of transportation
through canals and railroads, and by distributing population,
whereby the need for near-by home supplies
was overcome; a continental supply of apparently
inexhaustible amount was brought into sight and within
reach.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the population began to grow, immigrants
began to pour in by the hundred thousand,
and the westward stream opened up new country and
new timber supplies, and a lumber industry of marvellous
size began to develop. The small country
mill, run in the manner of, and often in connection
with, the grist mill, doing a petty business by sawing
as occasion demanded, to order for home customers or
export, gave way to the large mill establishment as we
know it now; and with the development of railroad
transportation and the settlement of the western<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span>
country, especially the forestless prairies, the industry
grew at an astonishing rate.</p>

<p>It is worth while to briefly trace the history of this
industry, for the sake of which the need of conservative
forest policies is essential.</p>

<p>That the petty method of doing business lasted until
the middle of the century is evidenced by the census
of 1840, which reported 31,560 lumber mills, with a
total product valued as $12,943,507, or a little over
$400 per mill. By 1876, the product per mill had become
$6,500; by 1890, with only 21,000 mills, it was
$19,000; in 1900, nearly the same number of mills
as were recorded in 1840 (33,035) furnished a product
of 566 million dollars, and in 1907, the banner year
of production, the cut of 28,850 mills was reported at
over 40 billion feet, and the gross product per mill had
grown to $23,000, or a value for all of $666,641,367.</p>

<p>In 1909, 48,112 mills cut 44,509,761,000 feet valued
at $684,479,859. Nearly half this product came from
the Southern States.</p>

<p>In the fifty years from 1850 to 1900, the value of
all forest products harvested increased from $59 million
to $567 million, and in 1907 the value had risen to
$1,280 million, representing a consumption of over
20 million cubic feet of forest-grown material.</p>

<p>Especially after the Civil War, the settlements of
the West grew as if by magic; the railroad mileage
more than doubled in the decade from 1865 to 1875,
and with it, the lumber industry developed by rapid
strides into its modern methods and volume. How
rapidly the changes took place may be judged from
the fact that, in 1865, the State of New York still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span>
furnished more lumber than any other State; now it
supplies only insignificant amounts, a little over two
per cent. of the total lumber cut.</p>

<p>In 1868, the golden age of lumbering had arrived in
Michigan; in 1871, rafts filled the Wisconsin; in 1875,
Eau Claire had 30, Marathon 30, and Fond du Lac 20
sawmills, now all gone; and mills at La Crosse, which
were cutting millions of feet annually, are now closed.
By 1882, the Saginaw Valley had reached the climax of
its production, and the lumber industry of the great
Northwest, with a cut of 8 billion feet of White Pine
alone, was in full blast. The White Pine production
reached its maximum in 1890, with 8.5 billion feet,
then to decrease gradually but steadily to less than
half that cut in 1908. Southern development began
to assume large proportions much later; at the
present time, the lumber product of the Southern
States has grown to amounts nearly double that of all
the Northern States combined.</p>

<p>But not only the unparalleled and ever increasing
wood consumption, which now has reached 260 cubic
feet per capita, five times that of Germany and ten
times that of France, threatened the exhaustion of the
natural supplies. Reckless conflagrations almost invariably
followed the lumberman and destroyed generally
the remaining stand, and surely the young
growth. So common did these conflagrations become,
that they were considered unavoidable, and though
laws intended to protect forest property against fires
were found on the statute books of every State, no
attempt to enforce them was made.</p>

<p>No wonder that those observing this rapid decimation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span>
of our forest supplies and the incredible wastefulness
and additional destruction by fire with no attention
to the aftergrowth, began again to sound the note
of alarm. Besides the writings in the daily press and
other non-official publications, we find the reports of
the Department of Agriculture more and more frequently
calling attention to the subject.</p>

<p>In a report issued by the Patent Office as early as
1849, we find the following significant language in a
discussion on the rapid destruction of forests and their
influence on water flow:</p>

<blockquote>

<p>&#8220;The waste of valuable timber in the United States, to say
nothing of firewood, will hardly begin to be appreciated until
our population reaches 50,000,000. Then the folly and shortsightedness
of this age will meet with a degree of censure and
reproach not pleasant to contemplate.&#8221;</p></blockquote>

<p>In 1865, the Rev. Frederic Starr discussed fully and
forcibly the American forests, their destruction
and preservation, in a lengthy article in which, with
truly prophetic vision, he says:</p>

<blockquote>

<p>&#8220;It is feared it will be long, perhaps a full century, before
the results at which we ought to aim as a nation will be realized
by our whole country, to wit, that we should raise an adequate
supply of wood and timber for all our wants. <i>The evils which
are anticipated will probably increase upon us for thirty years to
come with tenfold the rapidity with which restoring or ameliorating
measures shall be adopted.</i>&#8221;</p></blockquote>

<p>And again:</p>

<blockquote>

<p>&#8220;Like a cloud no bigger than a man&#8217;s hand just rising from
the sea, an awakening interest begins to come in sight on this
subject, which as a question of political economy will place the
interests of cotton, wool, coal, iron, meat, and even grain, beneath
its feet. Some of these, according to the demand, can be<span class="pagenumlg"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span>
produced in a few days, others in a few months or a few years,
but timber in not less than one generation. The nation has
slept because the gnawing of want has not awakened her. She
has had plenty and to spare, but within thirty years she will be
conscious that not only individual want is present, but that it
comes to each from permanent national famine of wood.&#8221;</p></blockquote>

<p>The article is full of interesting detail, and may be
said to be the starting basis of the campaign for better
methods which followed.</p>

<p>Another unquestionably most influential, official
report was that upon &#8220;Forests and Forestry in Germany,&#8221;
by Dr. John A. Warder, United States Commissioner
to the World&#8217;s Fair at Vienna in 1873.
Dr. Warder set forth clearly and correctly the methods
employed abroad in the use of forests, and became
himself one of the most prominent propagandists for
their adoption in his own country.</p>

<p>About the same time appeared the classical work of
George B. Marsh, our minister to Italy, &#8220;The Earth
as Modified by Human Action,&#8221; in which the evil
effects on cultural conditions of forest destruction
were ably and forcibly pointed out.</p>

<p>Among these earlier publications designed to arouse
public attention to the subject, should also be mentioned
General C. C. Andrews&#8217; report on &#8216;Forestry
in Sweden,&#8217; published by the State Department in
1872.</p>

<p>The Census of 1870 attempted for the first time a
canvas of our forest resources under Prof. F. W.
Brewer, as a result of which the relative smallness of
our forest area became known.</p>

<p>All these publications had their influence in educating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span>
a larger number to a conception and consideration
of the importance of the subject, so that, when, in
1873, the committee on forestry of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science was
formed and presented a memorial to Congress, pointing
out &#8220;the importance of promoting the cultivation
of timber and the preservation of forests, and recommending
the appointment of a commission of forestry
to report to Congress,&#8221; there already existed an intelligent
audience, and although a considerable amount
of lethargy and lack of interest was exhibited, Congress
could be persuaded, in 1876, to establish an
agency in the United States Department of Agriculture,
out of which grew later the Division of Forestry,
a bureau of information on forestry matters. Dr.
Franklin B. Hough, one of the signers of the memorial,
was appointed to the agency. It is to be noted as
characteristic of much American legislation, that this
agency was secured only as a &#8220;rider&#8221; to an appropriation
for the distribution of seed.</p>

<p>While these were the beginnings of an official recognition
of the subject by the federal government, private
enterprise and the separate States also started
about the same time to forward the movement. In
1867, the agricultural and horticultural societies of
Wisconsin were invited by the legislature to appoint
a committee to report on the disastrous effects of
forest destruction. In 1869, the Maine Board of
Agriculture appointed a committee to report on a
forest policy for the State, leading to the act of 1872
&#8220;for the encouragement of the growth of trees, exempting
from taxation for twenty years lands planted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span>
to trees, which law, as far as we know, remained
without result. About the same time a real wave of
enthusiasm regarding the planting of timber seems
to have pervaded the country, and especially the
Western prairie States. In addition to laws regarding
the planting of trees on highways, laws for the encouragement
of timber planting, either under bounty
or exemption from taxation, were passed in Iowa,
Kansas and Wisconsin in 1868; in Nebraska and New
York in 1869; in Missouri in 1870; in Minnesota in
1871; in Iowa in 1872; in Nevada in 1873; in Illinois
in 1874; in Dakota and Connecticut in 1875; and
finally the federal government joined in this kind of
legislation by the so-called timber-culture acts of
1873 and 1874, amended in 1876 and 1877.</p>

<p>For the most part these laws remained a dead letter,
excepting in the case of the federal government offer.
The encouragement by release from taxes was not
much of an inducement; nor does the bounty provision
seem to have had greater success, except in taking
money out of the treasuries. Finally, these laws
were in many or most cases repealed.</p>

<p>The timber-culture act was passed by Congress on
March 3, 1873, by which the planting of timber on
40 acres of land (or a proportionate area) in the treeless
territory, conferred the title to 160 acres (or a
proportionate amount) of the public domain. This
law had not been in existence ten years when its
repeal was demanded, and this was finally secured in
1891, the reason being that, partly owing to the crude
provisions of the law, and partly to the lack of proper
supervision, it had been abused, and had given rise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span>
to much fraud in obtaining title to lands under false
pretenses. It is difficult to say how much impetus
the law gave to <i>bonafide</i> forest planting, and how
much timber growth has resulted from it. Unfavorable
climate, lack of satisfactory plant material, and
lack of knowledge as to the proper methods, led to
many failures.</p>

<p>A number of railroad companies, opening up the
prairie States, planted at this time groves along the
right of way for the sake of demonstrating the practicability
of securing forest growth on the treeless prairies
and plains.</p>

<p>There was also considerable planting of wind-breaks
and groves on homesteads, which was attended with
better results. Altogether, however, the amount of
tree planting, even in the prairies and plains, was infinitesimal,
if compared with what is necessary for
climatic amelioration; and it may be admitted, now
as well as later, that the reforestation of the plains
must be a matter of co-operative, if not of national,
enterprise.</p>

<p>At this time also, an effort was made to stimulate
enthusiasm for tree planting among the homesteaders
and settlers on the plains by the establishment of arbor
days. From its inception by Governor J. Sterling
Morton, and its first inauguration by the State Board
of Agriculture of Nebraska in 1872, Arbor Day gradually
became a day of observance in nearly every State.
While with the exception of the so-called treeless
States, perhaps not much planting of economic value
is done, the observance of the day in schools as one set
apart for the discussion of the importance of trees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span>
forests and forestry has been productive of an increased
interest in the subject. Arbor days have perhaps
also had a retarding influence upon the practical
forestry movement, in leading people into the misconception
that forestry consists in tree planting, in
diverting attention from the economic question of the
proper use of existing forest areas, in bringing into the
discussion poetry and emotions, which have clouded
the hard-headed practical issues, and delayed the
earnest attention of practical business men.</p>

<p>Private efforts in the East in the way of fostering
and carrying on economic timber planting should not
be forgotten, such as the offering of prizes by the
Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture
(as early as 1804 and again in 1876), and the
planting done by private land holders at Cape Cod,
in Rhode Island, Virginia, and elsewhere. These
efforts, to be sure, were only sporadic and unsystematic,
and on no scale commensurate with the destruction
of virgin forest resources.</p>

<p>A touching attempt of two noble Frenchmen to
teach their American hosts a better use of their magnificent
forest resource, although of little result,
should never fail of mention. Andr&eacute; Michaux and
his son, Andr&eacute; Francois, who, between 1785 and 1805,
explored and studied the forest flora of the United
States, and published a magnificent North American
Sylva in three volumes, left, in recognition of the
hospitalities received, two legacies of $20,000 for the
&#8220;extension and progress of agriculture and more
especially of silviculture in the United States,&#8221; which
bequests became available in 1870. The American<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span>
Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, a trustee of
one of the legacies, has devoted its income to beautification
of Fairmount Park, providing a few lectures
on forest botany and forestry, and collecting a forestry
library, while the other legacy has been used by the
Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture
to aid the botanical gardens at Harvard and
the Arnold Arboretum, besides offering the prizes for
tree planting referred to above.</p>

<h4>3. <i>Development of a Forest Policy.</i></h4>

<p>This first period of desultory efforts to create public
opinion on behalf of a more conservative use of forest
resources was followed by a more systematic propaganda,
in which the Division of Forestry, growing out
of the agency in the Department of Agriculture, took
the lead. This it did officially as well as by assisting
the American Forestry Association, soon after organized
with a view of educating public opinion. For
15 years, the chief of the Division acted either as
Secretary or Chairman of the Executive Committee
of the Association.</p>

<p>The first forestry association had been formed on
January 12, 1876, in St. Paul, Minn., largely through
the efforts of Leonard B. Hodges, who was the first
to make plantations in the prairies for the St. Paul
and Pacific Railroad. This association was aided by
State appropriations, which enabled it to offer premiums
for the setting out of plantations, to distribute
plant material, and also to publish and distribute
widely a Tree Planters&#8217; Manual, revised editions of
which were issued from time to time.</p>

<p>In 1875, Dr. John A. Warder issued a call for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span>
convention in Chicago to form a national forestry
association. This association was completed, in 1876,
at Philadelphia, but never showed any life or growth.</p>

<p>In 1882, a number of patriotic citizens at Cincinnati
called together a forestry congress, incited thereto by
the visit and representations of Baron von Steuben,
a Prussian forest official, when visiting this country
on the occasion of the centennial celebration of the
surrender of Yorktown.</p>

<p>A very enthusiastic and representative gathering,
on April 25, was the result, lasting through the week,
which led to the formation of the American Forestry
Congress. In the same year, in August, a second
meeting was held in Montreal, under the patronage of
the Canadian government, and the name was changed
to the American Forestry Association. In 1898, it
began the publication of a propagandist journal, The
Forester (later changed to Forestry and Irrigation then
to Conservation, and now again to American Forestry).
It has now a member-ship of over 5,000. Much
of the early educational propaganda was done through
this association. Indeed, this association, holding
yearly and intermediate meetings in different parts of
the States, became the center of all private efforts
to advance the forestry movement. Twelve volumes
of its proceedings contain not only the history of
progress in establishing a forest policy, but also much
other information of value on forestry subjects.</p>

<p>Other local or State forestry associations were
formed from time to time, more or less under the lead
of the national association, and exist now in almost
every State, while several other societies, like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span>
Sierra Nevada Club and the Mazamas of the Pacific
coast, and State horticultural societies in various
States, made the subject one to be discussed and to
be fostered. The most active of these associations,
since it was formed in 1886, publishing also a bi-monthly
journal, Forest Leaves (at first less frequently),
is the Pennsylvania State Forestry Association,
which has succeeded in thoroughly committing
its State to a proper forest policy, as far as official
recognition is concerned.</p>

<p>Usually as a result of this associated private effort,
the States appointed forestry commissions or commissioners.
These commissions were at first for the
most part instituted for inquiry and to make reports,
upon which a forest policy for the State might be
framed. Others have become permanent parts of the
State organization, with executive, or merely educational
functions. Such commissioners of inquiry
were appointed at various times, in Connecticut
(1877), New Hampshire (1881 and 1889), Vermont
(1882), New York (1884), Maine (1891), New Jersey
(in Geological Survey 1894), Pennsylvania (1893),
North Carolina (in Geological Survey 1891), Ohio
(1885), Michigan (1899), Wisconsin (1897), Minnesota
(1899), North Dakota (1891), Colorado (1885),
California (1885).</p>

<p>It was but natural in a democratic country that
these movements sometimes became the play balls of
self-seeking men, political wire pullers, and grafters,
or more often of ignorant amateurs and shallow sentimentalists,
aided by half-informed newspaper writers.
Infinite patience was required to steer through these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span>
rocks the ship of true economic reform, and to educate
legislators and constituents to its true needs. The
very first forestry congress was really conceived with
a view of advancing political preferment of one of its
organizers, and many another &#8220;forestry&#8221; meeting
was utilized for a similar purpose, the new, catchy
title attracting the gullible.</p>

<p>One of the first State forest commissions, well endowed
to do its work, soon fell into the hands of
grafters, and created such scandals that they led to its
abolishment, and to a set-back in the movement everywhere.
Arbor day sentimentalism discredited and
clouded the issue before the business world; the movement
was in constant danger at the hands of its friends.
Antagonism of the lumber world was aroused by the
false idea of what the reform contemplated, and, in
the absence of technically trained foresters to instruct
the public and the amateur reformers, and to convince
legislators of the absolute need of discontinuing old
established habits, progress was naturally slow, and
experienced many setbacks.</p>

<p>It was a hard field to plow, grown up with the weed
growth of prejudice and custom, and means and tools
for the work were inadequate.</p>

<p>The federal government was naturally looked to to
take the lead. The first two agents, employed in the
Department of Agriculture to &#8220;report on forestry&#8221;,
unfortunately lacked all technical knowledge of the
subject, the first, a most assiduous worker, being a
writer of local histories and gatherer of statistics, the
second a preacher. The third, the writer himself, had
at least the advantage of this technical training, but,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span>
at the same time, the disadvantage of being a foreigner,
who had first to learn the limitations of democratic
government. Only the paltry sum of $8,000 was at
his disposal for plowing the ground, and even after
the agency had been raised to the dignity of a Division
in 1886, for years no adequate appropriations could
be secured, and hence the scope and usefulness of the
work of the Division was hampered.</p>

<p>The Forestry Association, inaugurated with such a
flourish of trumpets and with such a large membership
at the start, had in the first two years dwindled
to a small number of faithful ones, and was without
funds when the writer became its secretary.</p>

<p>In spite of these drawbacks, the propaganda had
progressed so far in 1891, that, through the earnest
insistence of the then Secretary of the Interior, John
W. Noble, who had been won over to the views for
which the Division and the Association stood, a clause
was enacted by Congress in &#8220;An act to repeal timber-culture
laws and for other purposes,&#8221; giving authority
to the President to set aside forest reservations from
the public domain. Again, this important legislation,
which changed the entire land policy and all previous
notions of the government&#8217;s functions concerning the
Public Domain, was not deliberately enacted, but
slipped in as a &#8220;rider&#8221;, at the last hour, in Conference
Committee. In this connection the name of Edward
A. Bowers, in 1887 Special Agent in the Department
of the Interior, and later Assistant Commissioner of
the General Land Office, deserves mention as most
active in securing this reservation policy.</p>

<p>Acting under this authority, Presidents Harrison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span>
and Cleveland proclaimed, previous to 1894, seventeen
forest reservations, with a total estimated area of
17,500,000 acres.</p>

<p>The reservations were established usually upon the
petition of citizens residing in the respective States
and after due examination, the Forestry Association
acting both as instigator and as intermediary.</p>

<p>Meanwhile no provision for the administration of
the reserves existed, and the comprehensive legislation
devised by the Chief of the Division of Forestry, which
included withdrawal and administration of all public
timberlands, failed to be enacted, although in the
Fifty-third Congress it was passed by both Houses, but
failed to become a law merely for lack of time to secure
a conference report. But the purpose of the advocates
of forestry was to create such a condition as would
compel Congress to act, by continually withdrawing
forested lands that would lie useless until authority
was given for their proper use and administration.</p>

<p>In order to secure influential support from outside,
a committee of the Forestry Association induced the
then Secretary of the Interior, Hoke Smith, in 1896,
to request the National Academy of Sciences, the
legally constituted adviser of the government in
scientific matters, to investigate and report &#8220;upon
the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the
forested lands of the United States.&#8221; After an unnecessary
so-called &#8220;junket&#8221; of a committee of the
Academy to investigate the public timberlands, a
preliminary report was submitted recommending the
creation of thirteen additional reservations, with an
area of over 20 million acres, and later a complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span>
report was made with practically the same recommendations
which had been urged by the Forestry
Association.</p>

<p>President Cleveland, heroically, proclaimed the
desired reserves all on one day, Washington&#8217;s birthday,
1897, without the usual preliminary ascertainment
of local interests, and immediately a storm broke
loose in the United States Senate, which threatened
the overthrow of the entire, toilsomely achieved reservation
policy; and impeachment of the President was
strongly argued in a two-day (Sunday) session. Congress,
however, came to an end on March 4, before it
had taken any action, but, as it had also failed to pass
the annual Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill, it was
immediately recalled in extra session.</p>

<p>Then, again, by a clever trick and in an indirect
and surreptitious manner, instead of by open, direct
and straightforward consideration and deliberation
of a proper policy, most important legislation was
secured in the Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill, which
provided for the temporary suspension of the reservations
lately set aside until they could be more definitely
delimited, private claims adjusted, and agricultural
lands excluded, by a survey, for which
$150,000 was appropriated to the United States Geological
Survey. The agricultural lands were then to
be returned to the public domain for disposal. At
the same time, provisions for the administration of
the remaining reservations, much in the sense of the
legislation advocated by the Division of Forestry and
by the Forestry Association, and especially for the sale
of timber, were hung on to this appropriation clause.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span>
Under this act the reserves were administered until
1904.</p>

<p>If the interior history of this bit of legislation were
revealed, it would probably appear that, not conception
of the importance of the subject, but the need
for the employment of a certain organized survey
party in the Geological Survey was at the bottom
of it.</p>

<p>While this law had set aside one year and a limited
sum to accomplish the survey, this could not, of
course, be done, and hence appropriations were continued,
and the date for the segregation of the lands
was deferred <i>sine die</i>. For years this forest survey
continued, giving rise to magnificent volumes, issued
from the Geological Survey, describing the forest
reservations&mdash;a very useful, educational piece of work,
not at all contemplated by the legislation&mdash;for which
not less than $1.5 million have been expended. By 1905
some 110,000 square miles had been examined when
this work was handed over to the Forestry Bureau.</p>

<p>Thus it happened, almost by accident, that finally
the aims of the reformers were realized, the appointment
of forest superintendents, rangers, etc., to take
charge of the forest reservations was secured, and
rules and regulations for their administration were
formulated by the Commissioner of the General Land
Office, marking the beginning of a settled policy on the
part of the United States government to take care of
its long neglected forest lands. In this work of first
organization the name of Filibert Roth, a German-born
forester, deserves mention.</p>

<p>Meanwhile, the Division of Forestry had continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span>
to bring together and distribute in the shape of reports,
bulletins, circulars, addresses and letters, such
information useful for the education of the public,
of wood consumers, and timberland owners, as its
limited appropriations permitted, undertaking also
some scientific investigations, especially in the line of
timber physics.</p>

<p>Soon after, in July, 1898, when the writer resigned
his position as Chief of the Division of Forestry, to
organize the first professional forest school, the New
York State College of Forestry, Mr. Gifford Pinchot,
took charge of the division. Young, ambitious, aggressive,
with some knowledge of forestry acquired in
Europe and with influential connections and a large
fortune, he easily secured the first need for effective
sowing on the well-plowed field before him&mdash;appropriations.
Whatever had been feebly begun could be
broadly, sometimes lavishly, extended, and the new
idea of making &#8220;working plans&#8221; for private timberland
owners could be developed&mdash;a great educational
work, which, earlier, when even co-operation with
State institutions was considered a questionable
proposition, would have been turned down as too
paternal.</p>

<p>In five years the appropriations had increased tenfold,
to over $250,000; and in the first decade of the
new regime, around $3,000,000 had been spent on forestry
investigations, not counting expenditures on
forest reservation account.</p>

<p>A further strong support came into the field,
when Mr. Roosevelt became President of the
United States, in 1901, and unreservedly threw his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span>
overpowering influence into the balance, to advance
forest policies.</p>

<p>Owing to his interest, the withdrawal of public
timberlands from entry proceeded at a rapid rate: by
1902, the reservations had grown to 65 million acres;
in 1905, there were over 100 million acres included; and
by the end of his administration, 175 million acres
had been placed in reservation.</p>

<p>The anomalous condition, which placed the survey
of the forest reserves in the Geological Survey, their
administration in the Land Office, and the scientific
or technical development of forestry in the Department
of Agriculture, was finally ended in 1904, when,
on February 1st, the whole matter was placed in the
hands of the Department of Agriculture, with its
Forestry Division, which had been changed into a
Bureau of Forestry, and then changed its name again
to Forest Service.</p>

<p>With this transfer, it may be said, the federal forest
policy was fully established, at least for its own lands,
and all that remains to be done is the perfection of details
in their administration and the development of
silvicultural methods.</p>

<p>With appropriations which now (1907) exceed
$950,000 for investigating work alone, limitless opportunity
seems to be open to extend the many directions
of inquiry and solve the silvicultural problems,
and satisfy the educational function of this government
agency.</p>

<p>But, besides the administration of the federal
timberlands and the educational and other assistance
of private owners, a further expansion of the Forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span>
Service is developing under the paternalistic and
socialistic tendencies referred to before, which may
ultimately lead to the purchase and federal control
of forest reserves in the Eastern States. Such expansion,
was, indeed, proposed in the establishment of
reserves in the White Mountains and the Southern
Appalachians, propositions which have been resisted
by Congress for the last seven years, but with ever
weakening resistance. Finally in 1910, success was
attained, and the federal government placed in position
to acquire these forest areas, to the amount of
$10,000,000.</p>

<p>Meanwhile the single states have begun to develop
their own policies.</p>

<p>Outside of legislation aiming at protection against
forest fires&mdash;which nearly every State possessed from
early times, ineffective for lack of machinery to carry
it into effect&mdash;and outside of the futile attempts to encourage
timber planting referred to, no interest in
timberlands was evinced by State authorities for the
first two-thirds of the century, since practically all
these lands had been disposed of to private owners, and
the authorities did not see any further duties regarding
them.</p>

<p>The first State to institute a commission of inquiry
was Wisconsin, in 1867; but with the rendering of the
report, prepared by I. A. Lapham, one of the active
early propagandists&mdash;the matter was allowed to mature
for thirty years.</p>

<p>The next State to move, in a feeble way, in 1876,
was Minnesota, the legislature making an annual
grant of money to its forestry association.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span></p>

<p>The appointment of commissions of inquiry then
became fashionable.</p>

<p>New Hampshire appointed such a commission in
1881, which reported in 1885, without result, and
another commission in 1889, whose report, in 1893,
led to the establishment of a permanent commission
of inquiry and advice, with a partial supervision of
forest fire laws. Vermont followed suit with a commission
of inquiry, in 1882, whose report made in
1884, remained without consequences.</p>

<p>In Michigan the expedient was resorted to of constituting
the State Board of Agriculture a commission
of inquiry, whose report, published in 1888, had also
no consequences except those of an educational character.</p>

<p>Similarly, the State of Massachusetts ordered the
State Board of Agriculture in 1890, to inquire &#8220;into
the consideration of the forests of the State, the need
and methods of their protection,&#8221; with similar results,
or lack of result.</p>

<p>In New Jersey, the matter was referred to the
State Geologist, who, since 1894, has made reports on
forest conditions and needs. Similar reference of the
subject was made in the State of North Carolina, in
1891, and in West Virginia.</p>

<p>The first more permanent State institution deliberately
established as an educational and advisory
agent was the Forestry Bureau of Ohio, in 1885,
which published a number of annual reports, but
eventually collapsed for lack of support.</p>

<p>In the same year, three important States, New
York in the East, Colorado in the Middle States, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span>
California in the West, seemed simultaneously to
have awakened to their duty, largely as a result of
the propaganda of the American Forestry Association.</p>

<p>In California, a State Board of Forestry was instituted,
with considerable power and ample appropriations,
which, however, eventually fell into the
hands of unscrupulous politicians and grafters, the
resulting scandals leading to its abolishment in 1889.</p>

<p>In Colorado, which when admitted to Statehood in
1876, had, in its Constitution, directed the general
assembly to legislate on behalf of the forestry interests
of the State, these interests were rather tardily
committed to a forest commissioner, who was charged
to organize county commissioners and road overseers
throughout the State as forest officers in their respective
localities, to act as a police force in preventing
depredations on timbered school lands and in enforcing
the fire laws. Col. E.T. Ensign, who had been
most instrumental in bringing about this legislation,
was appointed commissioner, and, with singular
devotion, in spite of the enmity aroused by his activity,
which eventually led to a discontinuance of appropriations,
tried, for a number of years to execute this
law. With his resignation from the office, this legislation
also fell into innocuous desuetude.</p>

<p>In New York, concern in the water supply for the
Erie Canal, had led such a far sighted statesman as
Horatio Seymour, twice Governor of the State and
once running for the Presidency, to conceive the need
of preserving the Adirondack watershed in State
hands. Accordingly a law was passed, in 1872, naming
seven citizens, with Horatio Seymour chairman, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span>
State park commission, instructed to make inquiries
with the view of reserving or appropriating the wild
lands lying northward of the Mohawk, or so much
thereof as might be deemed expedient, for a State
park. The commission, finding that the State then
owned only 40,000 acres in that region, and that
there was a tendency on the part of the owners of
the rest to combine for the enhancement of values
should the State want to buy, recommended a law
forbidding further sales of State lands, and their
retention when forfeited for the non-payment of taxes.</p>

<p>It was not until eleven years later, in 1883, that this
recommendation was acted upon, when the State
through the non-payment of taxes by the owners
of cut-over lands had become possessed of 600,000
acres.</p>

<p>In 1884, the comptroller was authorized to employ
&#8220;such experts as he may deem necessary to investigate
and report a system of forest preservation.&#8221;
The report of a commission of four members was made
in 1885, but the legislation proposed was antagonized
by the lumbermen&#8217;s interests. The legislature finally
passed a compromise bill, which the writer had drafted
at the request of Senator Lowe, entitled &#8220;An act
establishing a forest commission, and to define its
powers, and for the preservation of forests,&#8221; the most
comprehensive legislation at that time.</p>

<p>The original forest commission, appointed under the
act of 1885, was superseded in 1895, by the commission
of fisheries, game, and forests, which brought allied interests
under the control of a single board of five
members appointed by the Governor for a term of five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span>
years. In 1903, the commission was changed to a
single commissioner, and another backward step was
taken in 1911 by handing over the work of this commissioner
to the newly created State Conservation
Commission, consolidating with it several other
commissions.</p>

<p>Here, then, for the first time on the American continent,
had the idea of State forestry, management of
State lands on forestry principles, taken shape; a new
doctrine of State functions had gained the day. Not
only was the commission charged to organize a service,
with a &#8220;chief forester&#8221; and &#8220;underforesters,&#8221;
to administer the existing reserve according to forestry
principles, but also from the incomes to lay aside
a fund for the purchase of more lands to constitute
the State forest preserve. Unfortunately, instability
of purpose, the characteristic of democracy, spoiled
the dream of the forester. Both, commission and
chief forester were, of course, political appointees,
and, rightly or wrongly, fell under the suspicion,
when proposing the sale of stumpage, that they were
working into the hands of lumbermen. A set of
well-meaning but ill-advised civic reformers succeeded,
in 1893, in securing the insertion into the Constitution,
then being revised, of a clause preventing
the cutting of trees, dead or alive, on State lands,
declaring that they shall forever be kept as &#8220;wild
lands.&#8221; Later, this constitutional provision was
deliberately set aside by the commission, which began
to plant up some of the fire-wasted areas, the
legislature appropriating money for this breach of
the Constitution because it was popular: and lately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span>
permission has also been granted by the legislature to
remove trees from burnt areas in order to reduce the
fire danger&mdash;the foolish objection of a Constitution
notwithstanding.</p>

<p>In 1897, new legislation was passed to authorize the
State to purchase additional forest lands within a prescribed
limit, to round off the State&#8217;s holdings, a
special agency, the Forest Preserve Board, being
constituted for that purpose. Under this law, some
$3,500,000 have been spent, and by 1907, over one
and a half million acres had been added to the State
Forest Preserve. This large area is withdrawn from
rational economic use, reserved for a pleasure ground
of wealthy New Yorkers, who have located their
camps in the &#8220;wilderness&#8221; under the avowed assumption
that the State can be forced to maintain forever
this anomalous condition.</p>

<p>In later years, private planting has been encouraged
by the Commission selling plant material from the
State nurseries at low rates.</p>

<p>The most important administrative function of the
Commission has been the reduction of forest fires, in
which, also owing to political conditions, only partial
success has been attained. The legislation of 1885 for
the first time attacked this problem in a more thorough
manner, providing for the organization of a
service, and this served as an example to other States
who copied and improved on it. Notably the forest
fire legislation of Maine (1891), of Wisconsin (1895),
and of Minnesota (1895) was based on this model.</p>

<p>Another of the large States to start upon and, differently
from New York, to develop consistently a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span>
proper forest policy, was the State of Pennsylvania.
As a result of a persistent propaganda by the Pennsylvania
Forestry Association, formed in 1886, and especially
by its active secretary, Dr. J. T. Rothrock, a
commission of inquiry was instituted in 1893. Before
its report was established, the legislature of 1895 provided
for an executive Department of Agriculture,
and included in its organization a provision for a Division
of Forestry, the botanist member of the previous
commission, Dr. Rothrock, being appointed
Commissioner of Forestry at the head of the Division.
Two years later, the final legislation, which firmly established
a forest policy for the State, was passed
namely for the purchase of State forest reservations.
All later legislation was simply an expansion of these
propositions. By 1910, the State had acquired by
purchase, wild, mostly culled lands to the extent of
over 900,000 acres, and the Commission had progressed
far towards providing for their management and recuperation.</p>

<p>The unusually disastrous conflagrations of 1894; the
growing conviction that the pleaders of the exhaustibility
of timber supplies were right, accentuated by a
rapid decline in White Pine production and a rapid,
and, indeed, almost sudden, rise in stumpage prices;
the example which the federal government had set
in withdrawing public timberlands from spoliation;
together with an increasing number, not only of advocates
of saner methods, but of technically educated
men, who came from the schools lately organized&mdash;all
these influences had worked as a leaven in all parts of
the country so as to bring in the new century with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span>
realization of the seriousness of the situation. And,
within the first seven years of the century, the change
of attitude, at least, was almost completed in all parts
of the country, and among all classes, the lumbermen
and others depending directly on wood supplies becoming
especially prominent in recognizing the need
and value of forestry.</p>

<p>State after State came into line in recognizing that
it had a duty to perform, and in some way gave expression
to this recognition, so that, by 1908, hardly a
State was without at least a germ of a forest policy.</p>

<p>Two principles had been recognized as correct and
were brought into practice, namely, that the forest interests
of the State called for direct State activity, and
that eventually the State must own and manage at
least portions of the forest area. The first principle
took shape in appointing single State foresters, [as
in Maine (1891 and 1903); in Massachusetts (1904);
in Connecticut (1903); in Vermont (1906); in Rhode
Island (1906)]; or Commissions or Boards [as in New
York (1885), changed to a single commissioner with
Superintendent and State foresters in 1903; in Pennsylvania
(1901); in New Hampshire (1893); Maryland
with a State forester (1905); Wisconsin, with a State
forester (1905); Indiana (1901-03); Louisiana, with
a State forester (1904); Michigan (1899); Minnesota
(1899); California (revived, with a State forester, in
1905); Washington, with a State forester (1905);
Kentucky (1906); in New Jersey, with a State forester
(1904); Alabama (1907).]</p>

<p>A very important feature in these appointments was
the fact, that, more and more professional or technically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span>
educated men displaced the merely political appointees,
or were at least added to the commissions.</p>

<p>The idea of State forests found expression, more or
less definitely, in setting aside forest reservations or
else in enabling the State to accept and administer
donations of forest lands. Among the States recognizing
this principle were New Hampshire, Connecticut,
New Jersey, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Indiana, California.</p>

<p>Where neither of these two principles had as yet
found application, at least some agency was established
to give advice and investigate or experiment in
matters of forest interests, and sometimes to offer
assistance to private woodland owners or planters, as
in Delaware, Ohio, North Carolina, etc.</p>

<p>Meanwhile, largely through the influence and with
the co-operation of the federal Bureau of Forestry,
private owners had begun, if not to apply, at least to
study the possibility of the application of forestry to
their holdings. The Bureau prepared &#8220;working
plans&#8221; which were now and then followed in part, or
at least led to attempts at a more conservative method
of logging. Notably, various paper and pulp manufacturers
realized the usefulness of more systematic
attention and conservative methods in the use of their
properties. In this connection the object lesson furnished
by Mr. G. K. Vanderbilt on his Biltmore
Estate in North Carolina, which was begun by Mr.
Pinchot and conducted by Dr. C. A. Schenck, a
German forester, requires special mention as the first,
and for nearly 20 years continued experiment in
applying forestry methods systematically in America.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span>
At present writing the continuance of this experiment
is in doubt.</p>

<p>With the second decade of the century, we shall
enter upon the flood tide of development, when no
more need of argument for its necessity, and only the
question of practicable methods, will occupy us.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>So far, silviculturally, the selection forest, i.e., culling
the best and the stoutest, practiced hitherto by
the lumberman, without reference to reproduction,
but carried on somewhat more conservatively, is
still the method advocated in most cases by the Forest
Service. This so-called conservative lumbering is,
to be sure, the transition to better methods. According
to reports of the federal Forest Service in 1907,
some million acres of private timberland were under
forest management or conservatively lumbered.</p>

<p>Planting of waste or logged lands, as distinguished
from planting in the prairies, which had, sporadically
and in a small way, been done by individuals here and
there for many years, is practised in ever increasing
amount, both by State administrations and by private
owners; the New York State College of Forestry
starting such planting in its College Forest on a larger
scale and systematically, in 1899. At present writing,
the forestry department of the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company is perhaps the largest single planter in
the country, having set out over four million trees
(by 1910), with the avowed purpose of growing railroad
ties.</p>

<p>By 1908, popular interest in forest conservation
had become so keen, and at the same time paternalistic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span>
tendencies so fully developed by the Roosevelt
administration&mdash;the federal government having entered
upon extensive plans of reclaiming lands by irrigation,
and preparing to develop water powers, and
inland waterways,&mdash;that the time seemed ripe to
bring all these conservative forces into unity.</p>

<p>The President called together in conference the
governors of all the States with their advisers, together
with the presidents of the various national
societies interested, and others, to discuss the broad
question of the conservation of natural resources.</p>

<p>As a consequence national and State Conservation
Associations and Commissions were formed in all
parts of the Union, and a new era of active interest
in economic development seems to have arrived.</p>

<h4>4. <i>Education and Literature.</i></h4>

<p>The primary education of the people at large and
of their governments in particular, the propaganda
for the economic reform contemplated by the forestry
movement, was carried on, as stated, by the federal
Division of Forestry and especially by the forestry
associations, which sprang up in all parts of the country,
by means of their annual and special meetings, aided
by the general press and sometimes by special publications.</p>

<p>The first <i>Journal of Forestry</i>, a monthly publication,
ventured into the world as a private enterprise, edited
by Dr. Hough, soon after the Forestry Congress in
Cincinnati, but it survived just one year, vanishing
for lack of readers. This was followed by irregularly
appearing <i>Forestry Bulletins</i>, of which the writer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span>
prepared four under the aegis of the American
Forestry Association.</p>

<p>In 1886, the Pennsylvania Forestry Association
began the publication of a bi-monthly journal, <i>Forest
Leaves</i>, which has persisted to this day. In 1895,
Dr. John Gifford launched another bi-monthly, the
<i>New Jersey Forester</i>, soon to change its name to <i>The
Forester</i>, and under that name, three years later,
taken over by the American Forestry Association,
continued as <i>Forestry and Irrigation</i>, changed to <i>Conservation</i>
and now again changed to <i>American Forestry</i>.
Now, half a dozen or more similar publications emanate
from the various State Associations. In this
connection there should not be forgotten the journal,
<i>Garden and Forest</i>, edited by Professor C. S. Sargent,
which for ten years, from 1888 to 1897, did much to
enlighten the public on forestry matters.</p>

<p>Some provision for technical education was made
long before opportunity for its application had arisen,
and, indeed, before any professional foresters were in
existence to do the teaching. The new doctrine attracted
the attention of educational institutions, and
the desire to assist in the popular movement led to
the introduction of the subject, at least by name, into
their curricula; the professor of botany or of horticulture,
adding &#8220;forestry&#8221; to his title, and explaining
in a few lectures the objects, and, as far as he knew
them, the methods of forestry; or, at least some lectures
on dendrology and forest geography were introduced
in the botanical courses. By 1897, twenty
institutions&mdash;land grant colleges&mdash;had in this way introduced
the subject.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[501]</a></span></p>

<p>Perhaps the first attempt to present systematically
a whole course of technical forestry matter to a class
of students was a series of twelve lectures, delivered
by the writer, at the Massachusetts College of Agriculture
in 1887, and another to students of political
economy at Wisconsin University in 1897.</p>

<p>The era of professional forest schools, however, was,
inaugurated in 1898, when the writer organized the
New York State College of Forestry at Cornell University,
and almost simultaneously Dr. Schenck
opened a private school at Biltmore.</p>

<p>A year later, another Forest school was opened at
Yale University, an endowment of the Pinchots,
father and sons. In 1903, the University of Michigan
added a professional department of forestry, and then
followed a real flood of educational enthusiasm, one
institution after another seeing the necessity for adding
the subject as an integral part to its courses.
Before there were enough competent men in the field,
some twenty colleges or universities called for teachers,
besides private institutions. An inevitable result of
this over-production of forest schools and of foresters
all at once must be an overcrowding of the profession
with mediocre men before the profession is really
fully established.</p>

<p>Brief reference to the history of the first school,
established by the State of New York, may be of
interest, as exemplifying in a striking manner the
political troubles besetting reforms under republican
conditions. But for a similar occurrence in France
(see <a href="#Page_242">p. 242</a>), this case might be unique in the history
of educational institutions. Although the school<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span>
thrived almost beyond expectation, having in its fourth
year attained in numbers to 70, larger than any French
or German forest school at the time, and readily
finding employment for its graduates, it suddenly
came to an end in 1903. Its appropriation, unanimously
voted in the Legislature, was vetoed by the
Governor, on the alleged ground that the silvicultural
methods applied in the demonstration forest of the
College &#8220;had been subjected to grave criticism.&#8221; It
is true the only silvicultural method officially sanctioned
(by the Forest Service), the selection forest,
had not been applied, yet the war against the College
being waged by two wealthy bankers of New York and
the well-known character of the then Governor suggest
that other &#8220;considerations&#8221; than mere criticism
of professional judgment were at the bottom of his
action.</p>

<p>As from the start, the federal Forestry Bureau naturally
continued in ever increasing degree to be the educator
of the nation, not only as regards popular conceptions
and attitudes, but as regards technical
matter. Its bulletins, circulars, and reports on the
subjects which come under investigation form the
bulk of the American literature on the technical side
of the subject. During the first 20 years of its existence,
some 20,000 pages of printed matter were
produced, and the next decade increased the crop of
information apace. At first intended for popular
propaganda, the matter printed was naturally argumentative,
statistical and descriptive, but gradually
more and more technical matter filled the pages, and
now most of the publications are of technical nature.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span></p>

<p>One of the first extensive and important lines of investigation
undertaken by the Division was that into
the characteristics and strength, the timber physics, of
American woods, which in its comprehensiveness
commanded the admiration of even the Germans,
and gave rise to a series of reports. The biology of
American species, more or less exhaustively studied,
was also begun in the old Division, as well as forest
surveys, etc.</p>

<p>By 1902, enough professional interest was in the
country to make the publication of a professional
journal possible and desirable, the <i>Forestry Quarterly</i>
being launched by the writer, with a Board of Editors
chosen mainly from the forest schools.</p>

<p>The first association of professional foresters was
formed in 1900&mdash;the <i>Society of American Foresters</i>&mdash;which
issues from time to time proceedings containing
technical discussions.</p>

<p>The technical book literature, partly due, no doubt,
to the overpowering publication facilities of the federal
government, is still scanty, and good textbooks especially
are still lacking in most branches.</p>

<p>A series of ephemeral popular books answered the
demands of earlier days, but outside of Professor
<i>Henry S. Graves&#8217;</i> volumes on <i>Forest Mensuration</i> and
lately on <i>The Principles of Handling Woodlands</i>, and
a few minor aid books and lecture notes, there is as
yet nothing of permanent value to be recorded. The
writers&#8217; own publication, <i>Economics of Forestry</i>, is
intended less for foresters than students of political
economy.</p>

<p>Three monumental works can be mentioned in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span>
dendrological line, however, namely the 10th volume of
the XII Census (1880) on the <i>Forests of North America</i>;
Micheaux and Nuttall&#8217;s <i>North American Silva</i> in
5 volumes, 1865; and C. S. Sargent&#8217;s <i>Silva of the United
States</i>, in 14 magnificent volumes,&mdash;three publications
which can take rank with any similar literature
anywhere.</p>

<h3>INSULAR POSSESSIONS.</h3>

<p>The Spanish War, in 1898, brought to the United
States new outlying territory, over 150,000 square
miles, in three locations, the relationship as regards
government varying in the three cases, namely Porto
Rico, the Sandwich Islands, and the Philippine Islands,
besides several smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean.</p>

<p>While the latter are only temporarily under control
or tutelage of the United States, and are expected
sooner or later to attain complete self government,
Hawaii was annexed as a Territory in the same sense
as all other Territories, the inhabitants having become
citizens of the United States, while Porto Rico is a
dependency with partial self-government, but its inhabitants
do not enjoy citizenship in the States.</p>

<p>All these islands are located in the tropics and hence
the composition of the forest is of tropical species.</p>

<p>Commercially, the forests of Porto Rico and of
Hawaii are relatively of little value, but their protective
value is paramount, and a conservative policy
is needed in order to preserve the water supply for
agricultural use (sugar plantations in Hawaii) and to
prevent erosion.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span></p>

<p>For Porto Rico, a beginning of forest policy was
made by setting aside, in 1903, the Luquillo Forest
Reservation, some 20,000 acres in the Eastern mountainous
part of the island, which is under direct control
of the United States government. The rest of
public lands and forests was placed under the Department
of the Interior of the island.</p>

<p>In Hawaii, even before annexation, a movement
on the part of the Sugar Planters Association was made
in 1897, to induce the insular government to devise
protective measures. The result was the appointment
of a Committee who made a report in which the
writer had a hand. But not until 1903 was a Board of
Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry established,
a Superintendent of Forestry appointed,
an organization of district foresters effected, and a
number of forest reservations established. The principle
of State forest was fully recognized by planning
the gradual withdrawal of some 300,000 acres and by
beginning the extension of forested area by plantations.
In 1910, 23 reserves with an area of 575,000 acres had
been made. Distribution of plant material and of
advice to planters is also part of the policy. Annual
Reports are issued which attest the good common
sense in the administration.</p>

<p>In the Philippine Islands, a territory of 120,000
square miles, largely mountainous, not only the protective
but the commercial value of the timberlands
is considerable. The extent is variously estimated as
covering between 40 and 50 million acres (50% of total
area), much of it virgin, and 16 million acres of it commercially
valuable. Of the seven hundred odd species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span>
of trees, mostly heavy woods, composing the forest,
some 160 are marketable at home and in China; yet
almost fifty per cent. of the home consumption is
imported from the States, owing to absence or inaccessibility
of softwoods, and high cost due to excessive
expense of present logging methods.</p>

<p>When the United States took charge of the islands it
was found that the Spaniards had since 1863 a forestry
service, manned by Spanish foresters, and in the lower
ranks by Filipinos. To be sure, the activities of this
forestry bureau went hardly beyond the collection of
dues for timber licenses, which yielded little more than
the cost of the service, although on paper excellent instructions
were found elaborated.</p>

<p>It so happened that an officer of the American
army, Captain George P. Ahern, had for some time
given attention to forestry matters in the States, and
he naturally was placed in charge of this bureau, in
1900. There were found to be around one million
acres private and church property, the rest being considered
State lands, but all private owners were required
to register their holdings before being allowed
to exercise their rights. A system of licenses for
cutting timber, and of free use permits to the poor
population was continued after Spanish models. Not
only was an efficient administration gradually secured,
but the technical side of dendrological and
silvicultural knowledge was developed as rapidly as
possible under the able administration of Captain
Ahern, a continuously growing literature being the
result.</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p id="Page_507"><span class="pagenum">[i]</span></p>

<h2>INDEX.</h2>

<ul class="index1">

<li class="firstlet" id="Ind03"><span class="smcap">Administration</span>, Austria, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; France, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>ff; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>; Greece, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; India, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>ff; Norway, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>; Roumania, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
<li>Africa, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
<li>Alabama, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Albania, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
<li>Algiers, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
<li>Allmende (Germany), <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
<li>Allotment methods, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
<li>Andr&eacute;, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
<li>Andrews, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
<li>Arabia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
<li>Arborday, Germany, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
<li>Area allotment, Austria, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>; France, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
<li>Area division, France, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
<li>Arnold, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
<li>Artaxerxes, regulations by, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
<li>Aschaffenburg, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
<li>Associations, Austria, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>; France, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>; Greece, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>; Roumania, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
<li>Australia, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
<li>Austria, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Baden</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
<li>Baden-Powell, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Bagneris, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Balestrieri, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
<li>Ball planting, Germany, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
<li>Banforest, Austria, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
<li>Barres, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
<li>Baudrillart, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
<li>Baur, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
<li>Bavaria, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
<li>Bechstein, J. M., <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
<li>Beckman, J. G., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
<li>Beckman, J., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
<li>Bedemar, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>v. Behlen, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li>Behm, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
<li>Bein and Eyber, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>v. Berlepsch, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
<li>Berlin forest school, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
<li>Bern, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
<li>Bernhardt, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li>Bertram, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
<li>Betulomania (Germany), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
<li>Biermans, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
<li>Biltmore, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Bohemia, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
<li>Boppe, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Borggreve, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li>Borkhausen, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>Bose, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>Bosnia-Herzegovina, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
<li>Bowers, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
<li>Brandis, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Braun, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>Br&eacute;montier, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
<li>Brewer, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
<li>Breymann, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li>v. Brocke, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
<li>Broillard<span class="pagenum">[ii]</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>B&uuml;chting, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
<li>Buffon, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
<li>B&uuml;hler, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
<li>Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
<li>Bunch planting, Germany, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
<li>Burgsdorf, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
<li>Burkhardt, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li>Butlar, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">California</span>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Calipers, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li>Cameralists, Austria, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
<li>Canada, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
<li>Cape Colony, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
<li>Carlowitz, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
<li>Catalpa (Germany), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
<li>Cato, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
<li>Ceylon, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
<li>Champagne, reboisement (France), <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
<li>Chevandier, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
<li>Church forests, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
<li>City forests (Germany), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
<li>Clav&eacute;, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
<li>Clearing system, France, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; India, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
<li>Cleghorn, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
<li>Cleopatra, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
<li>Cleveland, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
<li>Clinton, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
<li>Cloister forests, Germany, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
<li>Clovis, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
<li>Coaz, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
<li>Cochin China, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
<li>Code forestier, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
<li>Colbert, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
<li>Colbert&#8217;s ordinance, France, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
<li>Colerus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
<li>Colonies, (French), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a>; (Great Britain), <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
<li>Colorado, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
<li>Columella, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
<li>Commissions, Austria, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; France, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
<li id="Ind01">Communal forests, Austria, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; France, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; India, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
<li>Compartment method, Germany, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
<li>Conifer planting, Germany, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
<li>Connecticut, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Conservation, United States, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
<li>Conservation Board, Sweden, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
<li>Consumption, world, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
<li>Coopers Hill, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
<li>Coppice, France, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; India, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
<li>Corporation forests, see <a href="#Ind01">Communal Forests</a>.</li>
<li>v. Cotta, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Cramer, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
<li>de Crescentiis, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
<li>Cyprus, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Dalhousie</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
<li>Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
<li>Dankelmann, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li>D&#8217;Arcy, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Dehra Dun, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
<li>Delaware<span class="pagenum">[iii]</span>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Demontzey, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Denmark, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
<li>Diameter limit, Canada, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>; France, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.
  <ul class="index2">
  <li>pricemaker, Germany, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
  </ul></li>
<li>Diodorus, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
<li>Doebel, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
<li>Dokuchaev, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Dombrowski, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
<li>Dralet, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
<li>Draudt, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
<li>Duhamel, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Ebermayer</span>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Eberswalde, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Egypt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
<li>Eisenach, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Endres, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li>Ensign, United States, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
<li>Entail, Germany, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
<li>Entomology, Germany, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Ethiopia, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
<li>Evelyn&#8217;s Silva, Great Britain, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
<li>Experiment stations, Austria, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; France, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
<li>Exports, see <a href="#Ind02">Imports</a>.</li>
<li>Export trade, Canada, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Faustmann</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
<li>Feldj&auml;ger, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
<li>Felling time, Germany, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
<li>Femelschlag, Germany, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
<li>Fernandez, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Feudal system, France, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
<li>Finland, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
<li>Fires, Canada, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>; France, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; India, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
<li>Fischbach, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>de Fleury, France, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
<li>Forest area, world, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
<li>Forest conditions, ancient, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>; Austria, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>ff; Canada, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>-<a href="#Page_417">417</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; France, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>; Greece, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>; India, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_388">388</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; Turkey, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>-<a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
<li>Forest courts, France, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
<li>Foresters, Forestarii, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
<li>Forest influences, Austria, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>; France, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>-<a href="#Page_347">347</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
<li>Forest management, ancient, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
<li>Forest ordinances, Austria, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>; France, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
<li>Forest organization, Austria, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_172">172</a>; France, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
<li>Forest police, Austria, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-<a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
<li>Forest protection, by ancients, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;   Germany, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Forest rent, Germany, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
<li>Forest schools, Austria, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; France, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>; India, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><span class="pagenum">[iv]</span>; Spain, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
<li>Forest service, see <a href="#Ind03">Administration</a>.</li>
<li>Forest use control, early, Austria, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; France, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>ff; Germany, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>ff, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
<li>Forestry congress, Canada, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
<li>Forestry council, Germany, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
<li>Forestry journals see <a href="#Ind04">Journals</a>.</li>
<li>Forestry, origin, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
<li>Form factors, Germany, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li>Form quotient, Germany, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
<li>Frederick the Great, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
<li>French revolution, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
<li>Frontier forests, ancient, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.
  <ul class="index2">
  <li>France, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
  </ul></li>
<li>F&uuml;rst, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Galicia</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
<li>Gamble, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Gayer, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>German influence, Denmark, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>; France, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; India, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Germany, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
<li>Gibson, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
<li>Gifford, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
<li>Giessen, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>v. Gleditsch, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
<li>G&ouml;chhausen, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
<li>Goeppert, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
<li>Graves, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
<li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
<li>Grebe, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Greece, ancient, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.
  <ul class="index2">
  <li>modern, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
  </ul></li>
<li>Grenzmark, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li>Guiot, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
<li>Guyot, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Gwinner, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Harrison</span>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
<li>Hartig, G. L., <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Hartig&#8217;s rules, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
<li>Hartig, R., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
<li>Hartig, Th., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
<li>Hauch, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
<li>Haug, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
<li>Hausv&auml;ter, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
<li>Hawaii, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
<li>Hennert, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
<li>Henry, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Hess, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Heyer, E., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>Heyer, G., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li>Heyer, K., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
<li>Heyer, K. method, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
<li>Historical periods, Germany, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
<li>Hodges, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
<li>Holy groves, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
<li>Hossfeld, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>Hough, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
<li>Huber, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
<li>Huffel, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
<li>Hundeshagen, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
<li>Hungary, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
<li>Hunting grounds of Romans, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li>Hygienic influences, Italy, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
<li>Hypsometer, Germany, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet" id="Ind02"><span class="smcap">Imports, Canada</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>; France, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; Great Britain<span class="pagenum">[v]</span>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
<li>Improvement fellings, France, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
<li>Increment measuring, Germany, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
<li>Index per cent. Germany, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
<li>India, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
<li>Indiana, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Indo-China, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
<li>Information bureau, Germany, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
<li>Isaiah, reference, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
<li>Israelites, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li>Istria, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
<li>Italy, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Jacobi</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
<li>Jacquot, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
<li>Jaeger, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>Jaeger, holzgerechte, Germany, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
<li>Japan, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
<li>Jews, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li>Josephus, reference to forest destruction, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
<li id="Ind04">Journals, Austria, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>; France, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>; India, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>; Roumania, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
<li>Judeich, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
<li>Judeich and Nitzsche, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Jung, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Kaigodorov</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Kaiser, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>Karl, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>Karlsruhe, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Karst, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
<li>Kauschinger, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Kentucky, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Klipstein, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
<li>Kogl, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
<li>K&ouml;nig, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
<li>Korea, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
<li>Krafft, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>Krain, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
<li>Kravchinsky, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Kregting, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
<li>Krohne, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
<li>v. Kropf, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
<li>Kuntze, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Landes</span>, reboisement, France, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
<li>Landolt, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
<li>v. Langen, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
<li>Lapham, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
<li>v. Lassberg, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
<li>Laurop, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
<li>Lefebvre, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
<li>Lehr, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li>Leiria forest, Portugal, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
<li>Literature, ancient, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; Austria, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; France, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_247">247</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>ff; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; India, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
<li>Litter, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
<li>Logslides, Germany, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
<li>Lorentz, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
<li>Lorey, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
<li>Louisiana, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Lumber industry, United States, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Macedonia</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
<li>Maine, United States, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
<li>Malay States, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
<li>Manteuffel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
<li>Maria Theresa reforms, Austria, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
<li>Mark forests Austria<span class="pagenum">[vi]</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; France, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>ff, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>ff.</li>
<li>Marsh G.P., <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
<li>Maryland, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Matsuno, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
<li>Mauritius, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
<li>Mayer, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
<li>Mayr, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>McClelland, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
<li>Mediterranean countries, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
<li>Meister, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
<li>Mensuration, Germany, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>ff.</li>
<li>Mercantilistic system, Germany, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
<li>Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
<li>M&eacute;thode &agrave; tire et aire, Germany, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; France, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
<li>Meurer, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
<li>Meyer, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li>Micheaux, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
<li>Michigan, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Mine forests, Austria, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
<li>Minnesota, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Moreau de Jonn&egrave;s, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
<li>Morozov, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>v. Moser, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
<li>Mound planting, Germany, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
<li>Mount Lebanon, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
<li>M&uuml;hlhausen, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>M&uuml;ller P.E., <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
<li>M&uuml;ller, U., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>M&uuml;nden, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Munich, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Municipal forests, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Nancy</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
<li>Nanquette, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Napoleon, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
<li>Natural regeneration, development in Germany, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>ff.</li>
<li>Navy reservations, Canada, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; France, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
<li>Nestorov, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
<li>New Hampshire, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>New Jersey, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>New York, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>-<a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
<li>New South Wales, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
<li>Ney, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
<li>Nisbet, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
<li>Noble, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
<li>Noerdlinger, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
<li>Normal forest, Austria, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
<li>North Carolina, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Norway, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
<li>Nurseries, ancient, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
<li>Nursetree method, Germany, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Oettelt</span>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
<li>Ohio, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Oliva de Serres, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
<li>Ordinances, Austria, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; France, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>ff, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
<li>Orlov, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Otozky, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Oxford University, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Palestine</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li>Palladius, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
<li>Parade, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Paradises of Persians, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li>Pasture in forests, Greece, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>; India, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
<li>Pasture woods, Germany, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
<li>Pathology, Germany<span class="pagenum">[vii]</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
<li>Paulsen, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
<li>Pearson, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
<li>Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Pennsylvania Railroad Company, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
<li>Persia, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
<li>Perthuis, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
<li>Peter de Crescentiis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
<li>Pfeil, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li>Physiocratic doctrine, Germany, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
<li>Pinchot, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
<li>Philippines, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
<li id="Ind05">Planting, Austria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; France, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>ff; Germany, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>ff; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>; India, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.
  <ul class="index2">
  <li>fund, Germany, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
  <li>budgets, Germany, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
  </ul></li>
<li>Plant material distribution, Germany, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
<li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
<li>Poland, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
<li>Polewood management, Germany, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
<li>Portugal, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
<li>Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
<li>Pressler, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>Private forests, ancient, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; Austria, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; France, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; Greece, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; India, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
<li>Property conditions, ancient, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; Austria, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; Canada, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; France, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>; India, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>; Portugal 361; Russia, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>ff; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
<li>Protection forest, Austria, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>; France, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
<li>Puton, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Queensland</span>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Railroad</span> planting, United States, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
<li>Ramann, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Ratzeburg, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>R&eacute;aumur, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
<li id="Ind06">Reboisement, Austria, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; France, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
<li>Reforestation, see <a href="#Ind05">Planting</a> and <a href="#Ind06">Reboisement</a>.</li>
<li>Reservations, Canada, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
<li>Reum, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>v. Reuss, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li>Ribbentrop, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Richter, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li>Rhode Island, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li id="Ind07">Rights of user, ancient<span class="pagenum">[viii]</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; France, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; Greece, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>; India, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
<li>Road building, Germany, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>Robinia, Germany, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
<li>Roger, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Romans, forest conditions, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.
  <ul class="index2">
  <li>wood markets, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
  <li>management, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
  <li>ownership, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
  </ul></li>
<li>Roosevelt, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
<li>Rostaing, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
<li>Rotations, France, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
<li>Roth, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
<li>Rothrock, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
<li>Roumania, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
<li>Roumelia, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
<li>Royal trees, India, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
<li>Rudzsky, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Runnebaum, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>Russia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">de Salomon</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
<li id="Ind08">Sand dune planting, Denmark, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; France, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
<li>Sargent, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
<li>Saxony, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
<li>Saw, use, Germany, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
<li>Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
<li>Schenck, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
<li>Schiffel, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
<li>Schilcher, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
<li>Schlich, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
<li>Schneider, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>Schoener, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li>Schroeder, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Schuberg, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
<li>Schwappach, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li>v. Seckendorff, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
<li>Seebach modified beech forest, Germany, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
<li>Seed tree management, France, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
<li>Seed tree methods, Sweden, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
<li>Seigniorage, Austria, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
<li>Selection forest, Austria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; France, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; India, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
<li>Senft, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Servia, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
<li>Servitudes, see <a href="#Ind07">Rights of user</a>.</li>
<li>Seutter, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
<li>Seymour, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
<li>Shelterwood system, Austria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; France, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
<li>Shifting sands, see <a href="#Ind08">Sand dunes</a>.</li>
<li>Siberia, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
<li>Sihlwald, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
<li>Silviculture, Austria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; France, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_240">240</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>ff, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>; India, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; Romans, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
<li>Slavish countries, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
<li>Smalian, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
<li>Smith, Adam, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
<li>Smith, Hoke 484.</li>
<li>Soil knowledge, Germany, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Soil rent, Germany, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
<li>Solitude, school, Germany, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
<li>Sologne, reboisement, France, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
<li>South Australia, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
<li>Southworth, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
<li>Sowing, Germany, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
<li>Sowing cones, Germany<span class="pagenum">[ix]</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
<li>Space number, Germany, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
<li>Spain, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
<li>Sp&auml;th, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
<li>Stahl, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
<li>Starr, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
<li>State foresters, Canada, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>; France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
<li>State forests, Austria, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; France, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>; origin in Germany, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>; Great Britain, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>; Greece, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>; India, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>; Spain, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
<li>State supervision, Austria, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; Greece, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; Hungary, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>; Finland, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; Denmark, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>ff; Japan, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; Norway, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>; Portugal, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>ff; Spain, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; Sweden, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>ff; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
<li>v. Steuben, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
<li>Stoetzer, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>Straits Settlement, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
<li>Strip system, Austria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; Russia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
<li>Styria, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
<li>Successive fellings, Germany, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
<li>Supplies, of world, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
<li>Swamps reclaimed, Russia, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
<li>Sweden, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
<li>Switzerland, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
<li>Syria, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Tariff</span>, Germany, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
<li>Tassy, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
<li>Taungya, Germany, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; India, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
<li>Tax release, Austria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; France, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
<li>Technology, ancient, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
<li>Tharandt, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Thrace, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
<li>Theophrastus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
<li>Tichonoff, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
<li>Thinnings, Denmark, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; France, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>; Switzerland, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
<li>Thirty years&#8217; war, Germany, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
<li>Timber culture acts, United States, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
<li>Timber famine, Germany, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; United States, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
<li>Timber licenses, Canada, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
<li>Timber Physics, United States, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
<li>Tire et aire method, France, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
<li>Tolsky, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Torrents, Austria, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; France, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>; Italy, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
<li>Transportation means, Germany, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
<li>Tree marking, Germany, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
<li>Triage, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
<li>Trunk, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
<li>T&uuml;bingen, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
<li>Tuffer, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
<li>Turkey, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
<li>Tursky, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
<li>Tyrol, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">United States</span>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
<li>Urich, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
<li>Utilization, Germany, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Valuation</span>, Germany, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
<li>Vanderbilt, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Varro<span class="pagenum">[x]</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
<li>Venice, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
<li>Vergil, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
<li>Vermont, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Vienna forest, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
<li>Vizner, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
<li>Volume allotment, Germany, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
<li>Volume tables, Germany, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Wagener</span>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>Wagner, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li>Waldfeldbau, Germany, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
<li>Walther, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li>Wangenheim, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
<li>Warder, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
<li>Wartenberg dibble, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
<li>Washington, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
<li>Waste lands, Canada, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>; France, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
<li>Weber, R., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li>Wedekind, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
<li>v. Wedell, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
<li>Weise, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
<li>Weisswasser, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
<li>Wellenburg, Lang von, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
<li>Wertheim, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
<li>Wessely, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
<li>West Virginia, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
<li>Wiedenmann, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
<li>Willkomm, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
<li>Wimmenauer, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li>Wind danger, Germany, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
<li>Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
<li>Wollny, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li>Wood chopper, league, Germany, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
<li>Wood prices, Switzerland, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
<li>Working plans, France, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; Germany, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,  121, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; India, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>; Japan, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
<li>World, wood supply and consumption, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
<li>W&uuml;rttemberg, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">Yield</span>, regulation methods, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
<li>Yield tables, Germany, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>

<li class="firstlet"><span class="smcap">v. Zanthier</span>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
<li>Z&uuml;rich, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

</ul>

<hr class="chap" />

<div class="tnbot" id="TN">

<h2>Transcriber&#8217;s Notes</h2>

<p>This ebook follows the text of the original printed work, except as mentioned below. Inconsistencies (spelling, &oelig;/oe/&ouml;,
diacritics, hyphenation, capitalisation, compound words, single/double l, etc.) have been retained.</p>

<p>Various pages: German (nick)names ending in -man: the original spelling has been retained (e.g., Beckman is usually spelled Beckmann
(Johann Gottlieb, 1700-1777 and Johann, 1739-1811)).</p>

<p>Page 36. &#8220;its removal theft&#8221;: as printed in the original work.</p>

<p>Page 63, Mitfasten (Easter): Mitfasten is not Easter, but half-lent.</p>

<p>Page 134: (Reuss, Wimmenauer, etc.): there seems to be no reason for the parentheses.</p>

<p>Page 244, &#8220;translated at the instance of&#8221;: as printed in the original work; possibly an error for another word
(instigation?).</p>

<p>Page 442, &#8220;utilized above&#8221;: as printed in the original work, this appears to refer to the first two paragraphs only
(&#8220;The modernization ... other sea industries.&#8221;)</p>

<p>Page 476: closing quote mark missing, this should possibly be inserted after &#8220;lands planted to trees&#8221;</p>

<p>Index: not all entries are in alphabetical order; this has not been changed.</p>

<p>Changes made to the text:<br />
Several chapters have a list of literature at the bottom of the first page. This list has been moved to directly below the chapter
header.<br />
Minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors (including French and German diacritics) have been corrected silently.<br />
Various pages: chauss&eacute; changed to chauss&eacute;e; Forst und Jagd... and Forst-und Jagd... changed to Forst- und Jagd...; Bremontier changed to
Br&eacute;montier; v. Kropf changed to v. Kropff; B. C. changed to B.C.<br />
Page v: order of Introductory and Preface reversed<br />
Page ix: 207 changed to 203 (2x)<br />
Page 21: Beranger changed to Berenger; giurisprudenzia changed to giurisprudenza<br />
Page 24: a round 35 million changed to around 35 million<br />
Page 29: became extent changed to became extinct; separation of from France changed to separation from France (cf. 1st edition)<br />
Page 39: 30 or 30 to the acre changed to 20 or 30 to the acre (cf. 1st edition)<br />
Page 63: wildings changed to wildlings<br />
Page 130: Moreau de Jonn&eacute;s changed to Moreau de Jonn&egrave;s<br />
Page 136: Oetellt changed to Oettelt<br />
Page 180: von Engelshoffen changed to von Engelshofen<br />
Page 214: sergen changed to sergent; closing parenthesis added after etc.<br />
Page 252: Les for&ecirc;ts de la Gaule l&#8217;ancienne France changed to Les for&ecirc;ts de la Gaule et de l&#8217;ancienne France<br />
Page 258: parenthesis added after Caucasus<br />
Page 276: 2.000 acres changed to 2,000 acres<br />
Page 277: 80.000 acres changed to 80,000 acres<br />
Page 319: historal changed to historical<br />
Page 331: round 2.7 million changed to around 2.7 million<br />
Page 337: chapparal changed to chaparral<br />
Page 349: Rivista forestate italiana changed to Rivista forestale italiana<br />
Page 364: Leira changed to Leiria<br />
Page 372: transcription added<br />
Page 426: over one and three quarter million and changed to and over one and three quarter million<br />
Index page vi: Moreau des Jonn&egrave;s changed to Moreau de Jonn&egrave;s<br />
Index page ix: St&oelig;tzer changed to Stoetzer<br />
Index page x: Wellenberg changed to Wellenburg; Wiedenman changed to Wiedenmann</p>

</div>

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