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+The Project Gutenberg EBook History of The United Netherlands, 1609
+#83 in our series by John Lothrop Motley
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+Title: History of the United Netherlands, 1609
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+Author: John Lothrop Motley
+
+Release Date: January, 2004  [EBook #4883]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on April 15, 2002]
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+Edition: 10
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+Language: English
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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1609 ***
+
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+This eBook was produced by David Widger
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+[NOTE: There is a short list of bookmarks, or pointers, at the end of the
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+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED NETHERLANDS
+From the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Year's Truce--1609
+
+By John Lothrop Motley
+
+
+
+MOTLEY'S HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, Project Gutenberg Edition, Vol. 83
+
+History of the United Netherlands, 1609
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LII.
+
+     Vote of the States-General on the groundwork of the treaty--
+     Meeting of the plenipotentiaries for arrangement of the truce--
+     Signing of the twelve years' truce--Its purport--The negotiations
+     concluded--Ratification by the States-General, the Archdukes, and
+     the King of Spain--Question of toleration--Appeal of President
+     Jeannin on behalf of the Catholics--Religious liberty the fruit of
+     the war--Internal arrangements of the States under the rule of
+     peace--Deaths of John Duke of Cleves and Jacob Arminius--Doctrines
+     of Arminius and Gomarus--Theological warfare--Twenty years' truce
+     between the Turkish and Roman empires--Ferdinand of Styria--
+     Religious peace--Prospects of the future.
+
+On the 11th January, 1609, the States-General decided by unanimous vote
+that the first point in the treaty should be not otherwise fixed than,
+thus:--
+
+"That the archdukes--to superfluity--declare, as well in their own name
+as in that of the King of Spain, their willingness to treat with the
+lords States of the United Provinces in the capacity of, and as holding
+them for, free countries, provinces, and states, over which they have no
+claim, and that they are making a treaty with them in those said names
+and qualities."
+
+It was also resolved not to permit that any ecclesiastical or secular
+matters, conflicting with the above-mentioned freedom, should be
+proposed; nor that any delay should be sought for, by reason of the
+India navigation or any other point.
+
+In case anything to the contrary should be attempted by the king or the
+archdukes, and the deliberations protracted in consequence more than
+eight days, it was further decided by unanimous vote that the
+negotiations should at once be broken off, and the war forthwith renewed,
+with the help, if possible, of the kings, princes, and states, friends of
+the good cause.
+
+This vigorous vote was entirely the work of Barneveld, the man whom his
+enemies dared to denounce as the partisan of Spain, and to hold up as a
+traitor deserving of death.  It was entirely within his knowledge that a
+considerable party in the provinces had grown so weary of the war, and so
+much alarmed at the prospect of the negotiations for truce coming to
+nought, as to be ready to go into a treaty without a recognition of
+the independence of the States.  This base faction was thought to be
+instigated by the English Government, intriguing secretly with President
+Richardot.  The Advocate, acting in full sympathy with Jeannin,
+frustrated the effects of the manoeuvre by obtaining all the votes
+of Holland and Zeeland for this supreme resolution.  The other five
+provinces dared to make no further effort in that direction against
+the two controlling states of the republic.
+
+It was now agreed that the French and English ambassadors should delay
+going to Antwerp until informed of the arrival in that city of Spinola
+and his colleagues; and that they should then proceed thither, taking
+with them the main points of the treaty, as laid down by themselves, and
+accepted with slight alterations by the States.
+
+When the Spanish commissioners had signed these points the
+plenipotentiaries were to come to Antwerp in order to settle other
+matters of less vital import.  Meantime, the States-General were to be
+summoned to assemble in Bergen-op-Zoom, that they might be ready to deal
+with difficulties, should any arise.
+
+The first meeting took place on the 10th February, 1609.  The first
+objection to the draught was made by the Spaniards.  It was about words
+and wind.  They liked not the title of high and puissant lords which was
+given to the States-General, and they proposed to turn the difficulty by
+abstaining from giving any qualifications whatever, either to the
+archdukes or the republican authorities.  The States refused to lower
+these ensigns of their new-born power.  It was, however, at last agreed
+that, instead of high and mighty, they should be called illustrious and
+serene.
+
+This point being comfortably adjusted, the next and most important one
+was accepted by the Spaniards.  The independence of the States was
+recognised according to the prescribed form.  Then came the great bone of
+contention, over which there had been such persistent wrangling--the
+India trade.
+
+The Spanish Government had almost registered a vow in heaven that the
+word India should not be mentioned in the treaty.  It was no less certain
+that India was stamped upon the very heart of the republic, and could not
+be torn from it while life remained.  The subtle diplomatists now
+invented a phrase in which the word should not appear, while the thing
+itself should be granted.  The Spaniards, after much altercation, at last
+consented.
+
+By the end of February, most of the plenipotentiaries thought it safe to
+request the appearance of the States-General at Bergen-op-Zoom.
+
+Jeannin, not altogether satisfied, however, with the language of the
+Spaniards in regard to India, raised doubts as to the propriety of
+issuing the summons.  Putting on his most reverend and artless expression
+of countenance, he assured Richardot that he had just received a despatch
+from the Hague, to the effect that the India point would, in all
+probability, cause the States at that very moment to break off the
+negotiations.  It was surely premature, therefore, to invite them to
+Bergen.  The despatch from the Hague was a neat fiction on the part of
+the president, but it worked admirably.  The other president, himself
+quite as ready at inventions as Jeannin could possibly be, was
+nevertheless taken in; the two ex-leaguers being, on the whole, fully
+a match for each other in the art of intrigue.  Richardot, somewhat
+alarmed, insisted that the States should send their plenipotentiaries to
+Antwerp as soon as possible.  He would answer for it that they would not
+go away again without settling upon the treaty.  The commissioners were
+forbidden, by express order from Spain, to name the Indies in writing,
+but they would solemnly declare, by word of mouth, that the States should
+have full liberty to trade to those countries; the King of Spain having
+no intention of interfering with such traffic during the period of the
+truce.
+
+The commissioners came to Antwerp.  The States-General assembled at
+Bergen.  On the 9th April, 1609, the truce for twelve years was signed.
+This was its purport:
+
+The preamble recited that the most serene princes and archdukes, Albert
+and Isabella Clara Eugenic, had made, on the 24th April, 1607, a truce
+and cessation of arms for eight months with the illustrious lords the
+States-General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, in quality of,
+and as holding them for, states, provinces, and free countries, over
+which they pretended to nothing; which truce was ratified by his Catholic
+Majesty, as to that which concerned him, by letters patent of 18th
+September, 1607; and that, moreover, a special power had been given to
+the archdukes on the 10th January, 1608, to enable them in the king's
+name as well as their own to do everything that they might think proper
+to bring about a peace or a truce of many years.
+
+It then briefly recited the rupture of the negotiations for peace, and
+the subsequent, proposition, originated by the foreign ambassadors, to
+renew the conference for the purpose of concluding a truce.  The articles
+of the treaty thus agreed upon were:
+
+That the archdukes declared, as well in their own name as that of the
+king, that they were content to treat with the lords the States-General
+of the United Provinces in quality of, and as holding them for,
+countries, provinces, and free states, over which they pretended
+to nothing, and to, make with them a truce on certain following
+conditions--to wit:
+
+That the truce should be good, firm, loyal, inviolable, and for the term
+of twelve years, during which time there was to be cessation of all acts
+of hostility between the king, archdukes, and States-General, as well by
+sea and other waters as by land, in all their kingdoms, countries, lands,
+and lordships, and for all their subjects and inhabitants of whatever
+quality and condition, without exception of places or of persons.
+
+That each party should remain seized of their respective possessions,
+and be not troubled therein during the truce.
+
+That the subjects and inhabitants of the respective countries should
+preserve amity and good correspondence during the truce, without
+referring to past offences, and should freely and securely entertain
+communication and traffic with each other by land and sea.  This
+provision, however, was to be expressly understood as limited by the king
+to the kingdoms and countries possessed by him in Europe, and in other
+places and seas where the subjects of other kings and princes, his
+friends and allies, have amicable traffic.  In regard, however, to
+places, cities, ports, and harbours which he possessed outside of those
+limits, the States and their subjects were to exercise no traffic,
+without express permission of the king.  They could, however, if they
+chose, trade with the countries of all other princes, potentates, and
+peoples who were willing to permit it; even outside those limits, without
+any hindrance by the king;
+
+That the truce should begin in regard to those distant countries after a
+year from date, unless actual notification could be sooner served there
+on those concerned;
+
+That the subjects of the United Provinces should have the same liberty
+and privilege within the States of the king and archdukes as had been
+accorded to the subjects of the by the King of Great Britain, according
+to the last treaty made with that sovereign;
+
+That letters of marque and reprisal should not be granted during the
+truce, except for special cause, and in cases permitted by the laws and
+imperial constitutions, and according to the rules therein prescribed;
+
+That those who had retired into neutral territory during the war were
+also to enjoy the benefit of the truce, and could reside wherever they
+liked without being deprived of their property;
+
+That the treaty should be ratified by the archdukes and the States-
+General within four days.  As to the ratification of the king, the
+archdukes were bound to deliver it in good and due form within three
+months, in order that the lords the States-General, their subjects and
+inhabitants, might enjoy effectively the fruits of the treaty;
+
+That the treaty should be published everywhere immediately after the
+ratification of the archdukes and States-General.
+
+This document was signed by the ambassadors of the Kings of France and
+Great Britain, as mediators, and then by the deputies of the archdukes,
+and afterwards by those of the lords the States-General.
+
+There were thirty-eight articles in all, but the chief provisions
+have been indicated.  The other clauses, relating to boundaries,
+confiscations, regulations of duties, frontier fortifications,
+the estates of the Nassau family, and other sequestrated property,
+have no abiding interest.
+
+There was also a secret and special treaty which was demanded of the King
+of Spain by the States-General, and by him accorded.
+
+This secret treaty consisted of a single clause.  That clause was made up
+of a brief preamble and of a promise.  The preamble recited textually
+article fourth of the public treaty relative to the India trade.  The
+promise was to this effect.
+
+For the period of the truce the Spanish commissioners pledged the faith
+of the king and of his successors that his Majesty would cause no
+impediment, whether by sea or land, to the States nor their subjects,
+in the traffic that thereafter might be made in the countries of all
+princes, potentates, and peoples who might permit the same, in whatever
+place it might be, even without the limits designated, and everywhere
+else, nor similarly to those carrying on such traffic with them, and that
+the king and his successors would faithfully carry into effect everything
+thus laid, down, so that the said traffic should be free and secure,
+consenting even, in order that the clause might be the more authentic,
+that it should be considered as inserted in the principal treaty, and as
+making part thereof.
+
+It will be perceived that the first article of all, and the last or
+secret article, contained the whole marrow of the treaty.  It may be well
+understood, therefore, with what wry faces the Spanish plenipotentiaries
+ultimately signed the document.
+
+After two years and a quarter of dreary negotiation, the republic had
+carried all its points, without swerving a hair's breadth from the
+principles laid down in the beginning.  The only concession made was that
+the treaty was for a truce of twelve years, and not for peace.  But as
+after all, in those days, an interval of twelve years might be almost
+considered an eternity of peace, and as calling a peace perpetual can
+never make it so, the difference was rather one of phraseology than of
+fact.
+
+On the other hand, the States had extorted from their former sovereign a
+recognition of their independence.
+
+They had secured the India trade.
+
+They had not conceded Catholic worship.
+
+Mankind were amazed at this result--an event hitherto unknown in
+history.  When before had a sovereign acknowledged the independence of
+his rebellious subjects, and signed a treaty with them as with equals?
+When before had Spain, expressly or by implication, admitted that the
+East and West Indies were not her private property, and that navigators
+to those regions, from other countries than her own, were not to be
+chastised as trespassers and freebooters?
+
+Yet the liberty of the Netherlands was acknowledged in terms which
+convinced the world that it was thenceforth an established fact.  And
+India was as plainly expressed by the omission of the word, as if it had
+been engrossed in large capitals in Article IV.
+
+The King's Government might seek solace in syntax.  They might triumph in
+Cardinal Bentivoglio's subtleties, and persuade themselves that to treat
+with the republic as a free nation was not to hold it for a free nation
+then and for ever.  But the whole world knew that the republic really was
+free, and that it had treated, face to face, with its former sovereign,
+exactly as the Kings of France or Great Britain, or the Grand Turk, might
+treat with him.  The new commonwealth had taken its place among the
+nations of the earth.  Other princes and potentates made not the
+slightest difficulty in recognising it for an independent power and
+entering into treaties and alliances with it as with any other realm.
+
+To the republic the substantial blessing of liberty: to his Catholic
+Majesty the grammatical quirk.  When the twelve years should expire,
+Spain might reconquer the United Provinces if she could; relying upon the
+great truth that an adverb was not a preposition.  And France or Great
+Britain might attempt the same thing if either felt strong enough for the
+purpose.  Did as plausible a pretext as that ever fail to a state
+ambitious of absorbing its neighbours?
+
+Jeannin was right enough in urging that this famous clause of recognition
+ought to satisfy both parties.  If the United Provinces, he said,
+happened not to have the best muskets and cannons on their side when it
+should once more come to blows, small help would they derive from verbal
+bulwarks and advantages in the text of treaties.
+
+Richardot consoled himself with his quibbles; for quibbles were his daily
+bread. "Thank God our truce is made," said he, "and we have only lost the
+sovereignty for twelve years, if after that we have the means or the will
+to resume the war--whatever Don Pedro de Toledo may say."
+
+Barneveld, on his part, was devoutly and soberly pleased with the result.
+"To-day we have concluded our negotiations for the truce," he wrote to
+Aerssens.  "We must pray to the Lord God, and we must do our highest duty
+that our work may redound to his honour and glory, and to the nation's
+welfare.  It is certain that men will make their criticisms upon it
+according to their humours.  But those who love their country, and all
+honest people who know the condition of the land, will say that it is
+well done."
+
+Thus modestly, religiously, and sincerely spoke a statesman, who felt
+that he had accomplished a great work, and that he had indeed brought the
+commonwealth through the tempest at last.
+
+The republic had secured the India trade.  On this point the negotiators
+had taken refuge in that most useful figure of speech for hard-pressed
+diplomatists and law-makers--the ellipsis.  They had left out the word
+India, and his Catholic Majesty might persuade himself that by such
+omission a hemisphere had actually been taken away from the Dutch
+merchants and navigators.  But the whole world saw that Article IV.
+really contained both the East and West Indies.  It hardly needed the
+secret clause to make assurance doubly sure.
+
+President Richardot was facetiously wont to observe that this point in
+the treaty was so obscure that he did not understand it himself.  But he
+knew better.  He understood it very well.  The world understood it very
+well.  The United Provinces had throughout the negotiations ridiculde the
+idea of being excluded from any part of the old world or, the new by
+reason of the Borgian grant.  All the commissioners knew that the war
+would be renewed if any attempt were to be seriously made to put up those
+famous railings around the ocean, of which the Dutch diplomatists spoke
+in such bitter scorn.  The Spanish plenipotentiaries, therefore, had
+insisted that the word itself should be left out, and that the republic
+should be forbidden access to territories subject to the crown of Spain.
+So the Hollanders were thenceforth to deal directly with the kings of
+Sumatra and the Moluccas, and the republics of Banda, and all the rich
+commonwealths and principalities of nutmegs; cloves, and indigo, unless,
+as grew every day more improbable, the Spaniards and Portuguese could
+exclude them from that traffic by main force.   And the Orange flag of
+the republic was to float with equal facility over all America, from the
+Isle of Manhattan to the shores of Brazil and the Straits of Magellan,
+provided Philip had not ships and soldiers to vindicate with the sword
+that sovereignty which Spanish swords and Spanish genius had once
+acquired.
+
+As for the Catholic worship, the future was to prove that liberty for the
+old religion and for all forms of religion was a blessing more surely to
+flow from the enlightened public sentiment of a free people emerging out
+of the most tremendous war for liberty ever waged, than from the
+stipulations of a treaty with a foreign power.
+
+It was characteristic enough of the parties engaged in the great
+political drama that the republic now requested from France and Great
+Britain a written recognition of its independence, and that both France
+and England refused.
+
+It was strange that the new commonwealth, in the very moment of extorting
+her freedom from the ancient tyranny, should be so unconscious of her
+strength as to think free papers from neutral powers a boon.  As if the
+sign-manual of James and Henry were a better guarantee than the trophies
+of the Nassaus, of Heemskerk, of Matelieff, and of Olden-Barneveld!
+
+It was not strange that the two sovereigns should decline the
+proposition; for we well know the secret aspirations of each, and it
+was natural that they should be unwilling to sign a formal quit-claim,
+however improbable it might be that those dreams should ever become
+a reality.
+
+Both powers, however, united in a guarantee of the truce.
+
+This was signed on the 17th June, and stipulated that, without their
+knowledge and consent, the States should make no treaty during the period
+of truce with the King of Spain or the archdukes.  On the other hand, in
+case of an infraction of the truce by the enemy, the two kings agreed to
+lend assistance to the States in the manner provided--by the treaties
+concluded with the republic previously to the negotiation of the truce.
+
+The treaty had been at once ratified by the States-General, assembled for
+the purpose with an extraordinary number of deputies at Bergen-op-Zoom.
+It was also ratified without delay by the archdukes.  The delivery of the
+confirmation by his Catholic Majesty had been promised within three
+months after the signatures of the plenipotentiaries.
+
+It would however have been altogether inconsistent with the dignity and
+the traditions of the Spanish court to fulfil this stipulation.  It was
+not to be expected that "I the King" could be written either by the
+monarch himself, or by his alter ego the Duke of Lerma, in so short a
+time as a quarter of a year.
+
+Several weeks accordingly went by after the expiration of the stated
+period.  The ratification did not come, and the Netherlanders began to
+be once more indignant.  Before the storm had risen very high, however,
+the despatches arrived.  The king's signature was ante-dated 7th April,
+being thus brought within the term of three months, and was a thorough
+confirmation of what had been done by his plenipotentiaries.
+
+His Majesty, however, expressed a hope that during the truce the States
+would treat their Catholic subjects with kindness.
+
+Certainly no exception could be taken to so reasonable an intimation as
+this.  President Jeannin, too, just before his departure, handed in to
+the States-General an eloquent appeal on behalf of the Catholics of the
+Netherlands; a paper which was not immediately made public.
+
+"Consider the great number of Catholics," he said, "in your territory,
+both in the cities and the country.  Remember that they have worked with
+you; spent their property, have been exposed to the same dangers, and
+have always kept their fidelity to the commonwealth inviolate as long as
+the war endured, never complaining that they did not enjoy liberty of
+religious worship, believing that you had thus, ordained because the
+public safety required such guaranty.  But they always promised
+themselves, should the end of the war be happy, and should you be placed
+in the enjoyment of entire freedom, that they too would have some part in
+this good fortune, even as they had been sharers in the inconveniences,
+the expenses, and the perils of the war.
+
+"But those cannot be said to share in any enjoyment from whom has been
+taken the power of serving God according to the religion in which they
+were brought up.  On the contrary, no slavery is more intolerable nor
+more exasperates the mind than such restraint.  You know this well, my
+lords States; you know too that it was the principal, the most puissant
+cause that made you fly to arms and scorn all dangers, in order to effect
+your deliverance from this servitude.  You know that it has excited
+similar movements in various parts of Christendom, and even in the
+kingdom of France, with such fortunate success everywhere as to make it
+appear that God had so willed it, in order to prove that religion ought
+to be taught and inspired by the movements which come from the Holy
+Ghost, and not by the force of man.  Thus kings and princes should be
+induced by the evils and ruin which they and their subjects have suffered
+from this cause, as by a sentiment of their own interest, to take more
+care than has hitherto been taken to practise in good earnest those
+remedies which were wont to be used at a time when the church was in
+its greatest piety, in order to correct the abuses and errors which the
+corruption of mankind had tried to introduce as being the true and sole
+means of uniting all Christians in one and the same creed."
+
+Surely the world had made progress in these forty years of war.  Was it
+not something to gain for humanity, for intellectual advancement, for
+liberty of thought, for the true interests of religion, that a Roman
+Catholic, an ex-leaguer, a trusted representative of the immediate
+successor of Charles IX. and Henry III., could stand up on the blood-
+stained soil of the Netherlands and plead for liberty of conscience
+for all mankind?
+
+"Those cannot be said to share in, any enjoyment from whom has been taken
+the power of serving God according to the religion in which they have
+been brought up.  No slavery is more intolerable nor more exasperating to
+the mind than such restraint."
+
+Most true, O excellent president!  No axiom in mathematics is more
+certain than this simple statement.  To prove its truth William the
+Silent had lived and died.  To prove it a falsehood, emperors, and kings,
+and priests, had issued bans, and curses, and damnable decrees.  To root
+it out they had butchered, drowned, shot, strangled, poisoned, tortured,
+roasted alive, buried alive, starved, and driven mad, thousands and tens
+of thousands of their fellow creatures.  And behold there had been almost
+a century of this work, and yet the great truth was not rooted out after
+all; and the devil-worshippers, who had sought at the outset of the great
+war to establish the Holy Inquisition in the Netherlands upon the ruins
+of religious and political liberty, were overthrown at last and driven
+back into the pit.  It was progress; it was worth all the blood and
+treasure which had been spilled, that, instead of the Holy Inquisition,
+there was now holy liberty of thought.
+
+That there should have been a party, that there should have been an
+individual here and there, after the great victory was won, to oppose the
+doctrine which the Catholic president now so nobly advocated, would be
+enough to cause every believer in progress to hide his face in the dust,
+did we not know that the march of events was destined to trample such
+opposition out of existence, and had not history proved to us that the
+great lesson of the war was not to be rendered nought by the efforts of a
+few fanatics.  Religious liberty was the ripened and consummate fruit,
+and it could not but be gathered.
+
+"Consider too," continued the president, "how much injury your refusal,
+if you give it, will cause to those of your religion in the places where
+they are the weakest, and where they are every day imploring with tears
+and lamentations the grace of those Catholic sovereigns to whom they are
+subject, to enable them to enjoy the same religious liberty which our
+king is now demanding in favour of the Catholics among you.  Do not cause
+it to come again into the minds of those sovereigns and their peoples,
+whom an inconsiderate zeal has often driven into violence and ferocity
+against protestants, that a war to compel the weakest to follow the
+religion of the strongest is just and lawful."
+
+Had not something been gained for the world when this language was held
+by a Catholic on the very spot where less than a half century before the
+whole population of the Netherlands, men, women, and children, had been
+condemned to death by a foreign tyrant, for the simple reason that it was
+just, legal, and a Christian duty to punish the weak for refusing to
+follow the religion of the strong?
+
+"As for the perils which some affect to fear," said Jeannin, further, "if
+this liberty of worship is accorded, experience teaches us every day that
+diversity of religion is not the cause of the ruin of states, and that a
+government does not cease to be good, nor its subjects to live in peace
+and friend ship with one another, rendering due obedience to the laws and
+to their, rulers as well as if they had all been of the same religion,
+without having another thought, save for the preservation of the dignity
+and grandeur of the state in which God had caused them to be born.  The
+danger is not in the permission, but in the prohibition of religious
+liberty."
+
+All this seems commonplace enough to us on the western side of the
+Atlantic, in the middle of the nineteenth century, but it would have been
+rank blasphemy in New England in the middle of the seventeenth, many
+years after Jeannin spoke.  It was a horrible sound, too, in the ears of
+some of his audience.
+
+To the pretence so often urged by the Catholic persecutors, and now set
+up by their Calvinistic imitators; that those who still clung to the old
+religion were at liberty to depart from the land, the president replied
+with dignified scorn.
+
+"With what justice," he asked, "can you drive into, exile people who have
+committed no offence, and who have helped to conquer the very country
+from which you would now banish them?  If you do drive them away, you
+will make solitudes in your commonwealth, which will, be the cause of
+evils such as I prefer that you should reflect upon without my declaring
+them now.  Although these reasons," he continued, "would seem sufficient
+to induce you to accord the free and public exercise of the Catholic
+religion, the king, not hoping as much as that, because aware that you
+are not disposed to go so far, is content to request only this grace in
+behalf of the Catholics, that you will tolerate them, and suffer them to
+have some exercise of their religion within their own households, without
+interference or inquiry on that account, and without execution of the
+rigorous decrees heretofore enforced against them."
+
+Certainly if such wholesome, moderate, and modest counsels as these had
+been rejected, it would have been sound doctrine to proclaim that the
+world did not move.  And there were individuals enough, even an
+influential party, prepared to oppose them for both technical and
+practical reasons.  And the cause of intolerance derived much warmth
+and comfort at this juncture from that great luminary of theology and
+political philosophy, the King of Great Britain.  Direful and solemn were
+the warnings uttered by James to the republic against permitting the old
+religion, or any religion save his own religion, to obtain the slightest
+foothold within her borders.
+
+"Let the religion be taught and preached in its parity throughout your
+provinces without the least mixture," said Sir Ralph Winwood, in the name
+of his sovereign.
+
+"On this foundation the justice of your cause is built.  There is but one
+verity.  Those who are willing to tolerate any religion, whatever it may
+be, and try to make you believe that liberty for both is necessary in
+your commonwealth, are paving the way towards atheism."
+
+Such were the counsels of King James to the united States of the
+Netherlands against harbouring Catholics.  A few years later he was
+casting forth Calvinists from his own dominions as if they had been
+lepers; and they went forth on their weary pilgrimage to the howling
+wilderness of North America, those exiled Calvinists, to build a greater
+republic than had ever been dreamed of before on this planet; and they
+went forth, not to preach, but in their turn to denounce toleration and
+to hang heretics.  "He who would tolerate another religion that his own
+may be tolerated, would if need be, hang God's bible at the devil's
+girdle."  So spoke an early Massachusetts pilgrim, in the very spirit,
+almost the very words of the royal persecutor; who had driven him into
+outer darkness beyond the seas.  He had not learned the lesson of the
+mighty movement in which he was a pioneer, any more than Gomarus or
+Uytenbogaart had comprehended why the Dutch republic had risen.
+
+Yet the founders of the two commonwealths, the United States of the
+seventeenth and of the nineteenth centuries, although many of them
+fiercely intolerant, through a natural instinct of resistance, not only
+to the oppressor but to the creed of the oppressor, had been breaking out
+the way, not to atheism, as King James believed, but to the only garden
+in which Christianity can perennially flourish--religious liberty.
+
+Those most ardent and zealous path-finders may be forgiven, in view of
+the inestimable benefits conferred by them upon humanity, that they did
+not travel on their own road.  It should be sufficient for us, if we make
+due use of their great imperishable work ourselves; and if we never cease
+rendering thanks to the Omnipotent, that there is at least one great
+nation on the globe where the words toleration and dissenter have no
+meaning whatever.
+
+For the Dutch fanatics of the reformed church, at the moment of the
+truce, to attempt to reverse the course of events, and to shut off the
+mighty movement of the great revolt from its destined expanse, was as
+hopeless a dream as to drive back the Rhine, as it reached the ocean,
+into the narrow channel of the Rheinwald glacier whence it sprang.
+
+The republic became the refuge for the oppressed of all nations, where
+Jews and Gentiles, Catholics, Calvinists, and Anabaptistis, prayed after
+their own manner to the same God and Father.  It was too much, however,
+to hope that passions which had been so fiercely bubbling during fifty
+years would subside at once, and that the most intense religious hatreds
+that ever existed would exhale with the proclamation of truce.  The march
+of humanity is rarely rapid enough to keep pace with the leaders in its
+most sublime movements, and it often happens that its chieftains are
+dwarfed in the estimation of the contemporaneous vulgar, by the very
+distance at which they precede their unconscious followers.  But even if
+the progress of the human mind towards the truth is fated to be a spiral
+one, as if to remind us that mankind is of the earth, earthy--a worm in
+the dust while inhabiting this lower sphere--it is at least a consolation
+to reflect upon the gradual advancement of the intellect from age to age.
+
+The spirit of Torquemada, of Charles, of Philip, of Titelmann, is even
+now not extinct on this globe, but there are counter forces at work,
+which must ultimately blast it into insignificance.  At the moment of the
+great truce, that evil spirit was not exorcised from the human breast,
+but the number of its victims and the intensity of its influence had
+already miraculously diminished.
+
+The truce was made and announced all over the Netherlands by the ringing
+of bells, the happy discharge of innocent artillery, by illuminations, by
+Te Deums in all the churches.  Papist and Presbyterian fell on their
+knees in every grand cathedral or humblest village church, to thank God
+that what had seemed the eternal butchery was over.  The inhabitants of
+the united and of the obedient Netherlands rushed across the frontiers
+into a fraternal embrace; like the meeting of many waters when the flood-
+gates are lifted.  It was pity that the foreign sovereignty, established
+at Brussels, could not then and there have been for ever swept away, and
+self-government and beneficent union extended over all the seventeen
+Netherlands, Walloon and Flemish, Catholic and reformed.  But it hardly
+needs a word to show that the course of events had created a deeper chasm
+between the two sections than the gravest physical catastrophe could have
+produced.  The opposing cliffs which religious hatred had rent asunder,
+and between which it seemed destined to flow for ever, seemed very close,
+and yet eternally separated.
+
+The great war had established the republic; and apparently doomed the
+obedient Netherlands to perpetual servitude.
+
+There were many details of minor importance to be settled between the
+various governments involved in these great transactions; but this
+history draws to its predestined close, and it is necessary to glide
+rapidly over matters which rather belong to a later epoch than the one
+now under consideration.
+
+The treaty between the republic and the government of Great Britain,
+according to which each was to assist the other in case of war with four
+thousand troops and twenty ships of war, was confirmed in the treaty of
+truce.  The debt of the United Provinces to the Crown of England was
+definitely reckoned at 8,184,080 florins, and it was settled by the truce
+that 200,000 florins should be paid semi-annually, to begin with the year
+1611, until the whole debt should be discharged.
+
+The army establishment of the republic was fixed during the truce at
+thirty thousand infantry and three thousand horse.  This was a reduction
+from the war footing of fifteen thousand men.  Of the force retained,
+four thousand were a French legion maintained by the king, two thousand
+other French at the expense of the States, and distributed among other
+troops, two thousand Scotch, three thousand English, three thousand
+Germans.  The rest were native Netherlanders, among whom, however, were
+very few Hollanders and Zeelanders, from which races the navy, both
+public and mercantile, was almost wholly supplied.
+
+The revenue of the United Provinces was estimated at between seven and
+eight millions of florins.
+
+It is superfluous to call attention again to the wonderful smallness of
+the means, the minuteness of the physical enginry, as compared with more
+modern manifestations, especially in our own land and epoch, by which so
+stupendous a result had been reached.  In the midst of an age in which
+regal and sacerdotal despotism had seemed as omnipotent and irreversible
+as the elemental laws of the universe, the republic had been reproduced.
+A commonwealth of sand-banks, lagoons, and meadows, less than fourteen
+thousand square miles in extent, had done battle, for nearly half a
+century, with the greatest of existing powers, a realm whose territory
+was nearly a third of the globe, and which claimed universal monarchy.
+And this had been done with an army averaging forty-six thousand men,
+half of them foreigners hired by the job, and by a sea-faring population,
+volunteering into ships of every class and denomination, from a fly-boat
+to a galleot of war.
+
+And when the republic had won its independence, after this almost eternal
+warfare, it owed four or five millions of dollars, and had sometimes an
+annual revenue of nearly that amount.
+
+It was estimated by Barneveld, at the conclusion of the truce, that the
+interest on the public debt of Spain was about thrice the amount of the
+yearly income of the republic, and it was characteristic of the financial
+ideas of the period, that fears were entertained lest a total repudiation
+of that burthen by the Spanish Government would enable it to resume the
+war against the provinces with redoubled energy.
+
+The annual salary of Prince Maurice, who was to see his chief occupation
+gone by the cessation of the war, was fixed by the States at 120,000
+florins.  It was agreed, that in case of his marriage he should receive
+a further yearly sum of 25,000 florins, and this addition was soon
+afterwards voted to him outright, it being obvious that the prince would
+remain all his days a bachelor.
+
+Count Frederic Henry likewise received a military salary of 25,000
+florins, while the emoluments of Lewis William were placed at 36,000
+florins a year.
+
+It must be admitted that the republic was grateful.  70,000 dollars a
+year, in the seventeenth century, not only for life, but to be inherited
+afterwards by his younger brother, Frederic Henry, was surely a
+munificent sum to be accorded from the puny exchequer of the States-
+General to the chief magistrate of the nation.
+
+The mighty transatlantic republic, with its population of thirty or forty
+millions, and its revenue of five hundred millions of dollars, pays
+25,000 dollars annually for its president during his four years of
+office, and this in the second half of the nineteenth century, when a
+dollar is worth scarcely one-fifth of its value two hundred and fifty
+years ago.
+
+Surely here is improvement, both in the capacity to produce and in the
+power to save.
+
+In the year 1609, died John, the last sovereign of Cleves and Juliers,
+and Jacob Arminius, Doctor of Divinity at Leyden.  It would be difficult
+to imagine two more entirely dissimilar individuals of the human family
+than this lunatic duke and that theological professor.  And yet, perhaps,
+the two names, more concisely than those of any other mortals, might
+serve as an index to the ghastly chronicle over which a coming generation
+was to shudder.  The death of the duke was at first thought likely to
+break off the negotiations for truce.  The States-General at once
+declared that they would permit no movements on the part of the Spanish
+party to seize the inheritance in behalf of the Catholic claimants.
+Prince Maurice, nothing loth to make use of so well-timed an event in
+order to cut for ever the tangled skein at the Hague, was for marching
+forthwith into the duchies.
+
+But the archdukes gave such unequivocal assurances of abstaining from
+interference, and the desire for peace was so strong both in the obedient
+and in the United Provinces, that the question of the duchies was
+postponed.  It was to serve as both torch and fuel for one of the longest
+and most hideous tragedies that had ever disgraced humanity.  A thirty
+years' war of demons was, after a brief interval, to succeed the forty
+years' struggle between slaves and masters, which had just ended in the
+recognition of Dutch independence.
+
+The gentle Arminius was in his grave, but a bloody harvest was fast
+ripening from the seeds which he had sown.  That evil story must find its
+place in the melancholy chapter where the fortunes of the Dutch republic
+are blended with the grim chronicle of the thirty years' war.  Until the
+time arrives for retracing the course of those united transactions to
+their final termination in the peace of Westphalia, it is premature to
+characterize an epoch which, at the moment with which we are now
+occupied, had not fairly begun.
+
+The Gomarites accused the Arminians of being more lax than Papists, and
+of filling the soul of man with vilest arrogance and confidence in good
+works; while the Arminians complained that the God of the Gomarites was
+an unjust God, himself the origin of sin.
+
+The disputes on these themes had been perpetual in the provinces ever
+since the early days of the Reformation.  Of late, however, the acrimony
+of theological conflict had been growing day by day more intense.  It was
+the eternal struggle of religious dogma to get possession of the State,
+and to make use of political forces in order to put fetters on the human
+soul; to condemn it to slavery where most it requires freedom.
+
+The conflict between Gomarus and Arminius proceeded with such ferocity
+in Leyden, that, since the days of the memorable siege, to which the
+university owed its origin, men's minds had never been roused to such
+feverish anxiety: The theological cannonades, which thundered daily from
+the college buildings and caused all Holland to quake, seemed more
+appalling to the burghers than the enginry of Valdez and Boisot had ever
+seemed to their fathers.
+
+The Gomarite doctrine gained most favour with the clergy, the Arminian
+creed with the municipal magistracies.  The magistrates claimed that
+decisions concerning religious matters belonged to the supreme authority.
+The Gomarites contended that sacred matters should be referred to synods
+of the clergy.  Here was the germ of a conflict which might one day shake
+the republic to its foundations.
+
+Barneveld, the great leader of the municipal, party, who loved political
+power quite as well as he loved his country; was naturally a chieftain of
+the Arminians; for church, matters were no more separated from political
+matters in the commonwealth at that moment than they were in the cabinets
+of Henry, James, or Philip.
+
+It was inevitable therefore that the war party should pour upon his head
+more than seven vials of theological wrath.  The religious doctrines
+which he espoused were, odious not only because they were deemed vile in
+themselves but because he believed in them.
+
+Arminianism was regarded as a new and horrible epidemic, daily gaining
+ground, and threatening to destroy the whole population.  Men deliberated
+concerning the best means to cut off communication with the infected
+regions, and to extirpate the plague even by desperate and heroic
+remedies, as men in later days take measures against the cholera or the
+rinderpest.
+
+Theological hatred was surely not extinct in the Netherlands.  It was a
+consolation, however, that its influence was rendered less noxious by the
+vastly increased strength of principles long dormant in the atmosphere.
+Anna van der Hoven, buried alive in Brussels, simply because her
+Calvinistic creed was a crime in the eyes of the monks who murdered her,
+was the last victim to purely religious persecution.  If there were one
+day to be still a tragedy or two in the Netherlands it was inevitable
+that theological hatred would be obliged to combine with political party
+spirit in its most condensed form before any deadly effect could be
+produced.
+
+Thus the year 1609 is a memorable one in the world's history.  It forms a
+great landmark in human progress.  It witnessed the recognition of a
+republic, powerful in itself, and whose example was destined to be most
+influential upon the career of two mighty commonwealths of the future.
+The British empire, just expanding for wider flight than it had hitherto
+essayed, and about to pass through a series of vast revolutions,
+gathering strength of wing as it emerged from cloud after cloud; and the
+American republic, whose frail and obscure beginnings at that very
+instant of time scarcely attracted a passing attention from the
+contemporaneous world--both these political organisms, to which so much
+of mankind's future liberties had been entrusted, were deeply indebted to
+the earlier self-governing commonwealth.
+
+The Dutch republic was the first free nation to put a girdle of
+empire around the earth.  It had courage, enterprise, intelligence,
+perseverance, faith in itself, the instinct of self-government and self-
+help, hatred of tyranny, the disposition to domineer, aggressiveness,
+greediness, inquisitiveness, insolence, the love of science, of liberty,
+and of money--all this in unlimited extent.  It had one great defect, it
+had no country.  Upon that meagre standing ground its hand had moved the
+world with an impulse to be felt through all the ages, but there was not
+soil enough in those fourteen thousand, square miles to form the
+metropolis of the magnificent empire which the genius of liberty had
+created beyond the seas.
+
+That the political institutions bequeathed by the United States of the
+seventeenth century have been vastly improved, both in theory and
+practice, by the United States of the nineteenth, no American is likely
+to gainsay.  That the elder Republic showed us also what to avoid, and
+was a living example of the perils besetting a Confederacy which dared
+not become a Union, is a lesson which we might take closely to heart.
+
+But the year 1609 was not only memorable as marking an epoch in Dutch
+history.  It was the beginning of a great and universal pause.  The world
+had need of rest.  Disintegration had been going on too rapidly, and it
+was absolutely necessary that there should be a new birth, if
+civilization were not to vanish.
+
+A twenty years' truce between the Turkish and Holy Roman empires was
+nearly simultaneous with the twelve years' truce between Spain and the
+United Provinces.  The Emperor Rudolph having refused to ratify the
+treaty which his brother Matthias had made, was in consequence partially
+discrowned.  The same archduke who, thirty years before, had slipped away
+from Vienna in his nightgown; with his face blackened, to outwit and
+outgeneral William the Silent at Brussels, was now--more successful in
+his manoeuvres against his imperial brother.  Standing at the head of his
+army in battle array, in the open fields before the walls of Prague, he
+received--from the unfortunate Rudolph the crown and regalia of Hungary,
+and was by solemn treaty declared sovereign of that ancient and
+chivalrous kingdom.
+
+His triumphal entrance into Vienna succeeded, where, surrounded by great
+nobles and burghers, with his brother Maximilian at his side, with
+immense pomp and with flowers strewn before his feet, he ratified that
+truce with Ahmed which Rudolph had rejected.  Three months later he was
+crowned at Pressburg, having first accepted the conditions proposed by
+the estates of Hungary.  Foremost among these was the provision that the
+exercise of the reformed religion should be free in all the cities and
+villages beneath his sceptre, and that every man in the kingdom was to
+worship God according to his conscience.
+
+In the following March, at the very moment accordingly when the
+conclusive negotiations were fast ripening at Antwerp, Matthias granted
+religious peace for Austria likewise.  Great was the indignation of his
+nephew Leopold, the nuncius, and the Spanish ambassador in consequence,
+by each and all of whom the revolutionary mischief-maker, with his
+brother's crown on his head, was threatened with excommunication.
+
+As for Ferdinand of Styria, his wrath may well be imagined.  He refused
+religious peace in his dominions with scorn ineffable.  Not Gomarus in
+Leyden could have shrunk from Arminianism with more intense horror than
+that with which the archduke at Gratz recoiled from any form of
+Protestantism.  He wrote to his brother-in-law the King of Spain and to
+other potentates--as if the very soul of Philip II. were alive within
+him--that he would rather have a country without inhabitants than with a
+single protestant on its soil.  He strongly urged upon his Catholic
+Majesty--as if such urging were necessary at the Spanish court--the
+necessity of extirpating heresy, root and branch.
+
+Here was one man at least who knew what he meant, and on whom the dread
+lessons of fifty years of bloodshed had been lost.  Magnificent was the
+contempt which this pupil of the Jesuits felt for any little progress
+made by the world since the days of Torquemada.  In Ferdinand's view Alva
+was a Christian hero, scarcely second to Godfrey of Bouillon, Philip II.
+a sainted martyr, while the Dutch republic had never been born.
+
+And Ferdinand was one day to sit on the throne of the holy Roman Empire.
+Might not a shudder come over the souls of men as coming events vaguely
+shaped themselves to prophetic eyes?
+
+Meantime there was religious peace in Hungary, in Austria, in Bohemia, in
+France, in Great Britain, in the Netherlands.  The hangman's hands were
+for a period at rest, so far as theology had need of them.  Butchery in
+the name of Christ was suspended throughout Christendom.  The Cross and
+the Crescent, Santiago and the Orange banner, were for a season in
+repose.
+
+There was a vast lull between two mighty storms.  The forty years' war
+was in the past, the thirty years' war in the not far distant future.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LIII.
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+Forth-three years had passed since the memorable April morning in which
+the great nobles of the, Netherlands presented their "Request" to the
+Regent Margaret at Brussels.
+
+They had requested that the holy Spanish Inquisition might not be
+established on their soil to the suppression of all their political and
+religious institutions.
+
+The war which those high-born "beggars" had then kindled, little knowing
+what they were doing, had now come to a close, and the successor of
+Philip II., instead of planting the Inquisition in the provinces, had
+recognised them as an independent, sovereign, protestant republic.
+
+In the ratification which he had just signed of the treaty of truce the
+most Catholic king had in his turn made a Request.  He had asked the
+States-General to deal kindly with their Catholic subjects.
+
+That request was not answered with the age and faggot; with the avenging
+sword of mercenary legions.  On the contrary, it was destined to be
+granted.  The world had gained something in forty-three years.  It had at
+least begun to learn that the hangman is not the most appropriate teacher
+of religion.
+
+During the period of apparent chaos with which this history of the great
+revolt has been occupied, there had in truth been a great reorganization,
+a perfected new birth.  The republic had once more appeared in the world.
+
+Its main characteristics have been indicated in the course of the
+narrative, for it was a polity which gradually unfolded itself out of the
+decay and change of previous organisms.
+
+It was, as it were, in their own despite and unwittingly that the United
+Provinces became a republic at all.
+
+In vain, after originally declaring their independence of the ancient
+tyrant, had they attempted to annex themselves to France and to England.
+The sovereignty had been spurned.  The magnificent prize which France for
+centuries since has so persistently coveted, and the attainment of which
+has been a cardinal point of her perpetual policy--the Low Countries and
+the banks of the Rhine--was deliberately laid at her feet, and as
+deliberately refused.
+
+It was the secret hope of the present monarch to repair the loss which
+the kingdom had suffered through the imbecility of his two immediate
+predecessors.  But a great nation cannot with impunity permit itself to
+be despotically governed for thirty years by lunatics.  It was not for
+the Bearnese, with all his valour, his wit, and his duplicity, to obtain
+the prize which Charles IX. and Henry III. had thrown away.  Yet to make
+himself sovereign of the Netherlands was his guiding but most secret
+thought during all the wearisome and tortuous negotiations which preceded
+the truce; nor did he abandon the great hope with the signature of the
+treaty of 1609.
+
+Maurice of Nassau too was a formidable rival to Henry.  The stadholder-
+prince was no republican.  He was a good patriot, a noble soldier, an
+honest man.  But his father had been offered the sovereignty of Holland
+and Zeeland, and the pistol of Balthasar Gerard had alone, in all human
+probability, prevented the great prince from becoming constitutional
+monarch of all the Netherlands, Batavian and Belgic.
+
+Maurice himself asserted that not only had he been offered a million of
+dollars, and large estates besides in Germany, if he would leave the
+provinces to their fate, but that the archdukes had offered, would he
+join his fortunes with theirs, to place him in a higher position over all
+the Netherlands than he had ever enjoyed in the United Provinces, and
+that they had even unequivocally offered him the sovereignty over the
+whole land.
+
+Maurice was a man of truth, and we have no right to dispute the accuracy
+of the extraordinary statement.  He must however have reflected upon the
+offer once made by the Prince of Darkness from the mountain top, and have
+asked himself by what machinery the archdukes proposed to place him in
+possession of such a kingdom.
+
+There had, however, been serious question among leading Dutch
+statesmen of making him constitutional, hereditary monarch of the United
+Netherlands.  As late as 1602 a secret conference was held at the house
+of Olden-Barneveld, in which the Advocate had himself urged the claims of
+the prince to the sovereignty, and reminded his guests that the signed
+and sealed documents--with the concurrence of the Amsterdam municipality
+alone lacking--by which William the Silent had been invited to assume the
+crown were still in the possession of his son.
+
+Nothing came of these deliberations.  It was agreed that to stir in the
+matter at that moment would be premature, and that the pursuit by Maurice
+of the monarchy in the circumstances then existing would not only over-
+burthen him with expense, but make him a more conspicuous mark than ever
+for the assassin.  It is certain that the prince manifested no undue
+anxiety at any period in regard to those transactions.
+
+Subsequently, as Olden-Barneveld's personal power increased, and as the
+negotiations for peace became more and more likely to prove successful,
+the Advocate lost all relish for placing his great rival on a throne.
+The whole project, with the documents and secret schemes therewith
+connected, became mere alms for oblivion.  Barneveld himself, although of
+comparatively humble birth and station, was likely with time to exercise
+more real power in the State than either Henry or Maurice; and thus while
+there were three individuals who in different ways aspired to supreme
+power, the republic, notwithstanding, asserted and established itself.
+
+Freedom of government and freedom, of religion were, on the whole,
+assisted by this triple antagonism.  The prince, so soon as war was
+over, hated the Advocate and his daily increasing power more and more.
+He allied himself more closely than ever with the Gomarites and the
+clerical party in general, and did his best to inflame the persecuting
+spirit, already existing in the provinces, against the Catholics and the
+later sects of Protestants.
+
+Jeannin warned him that "by thus howling with the priests" he would be
+suspected of more desperately ambitious designs than he perhaps really
+cherished.
+
+On the other hand, Barneveld was accused of a willingness to wink at the
+introduction, privately and quietly, of the Roman Catholic worship.  That
+this was the deadliest of sins, there was no doubt whatever in the minds
+of his revilers.  When it was added that he was suspected of the Arminian
+leprosy, and that he could tolerate the thought that a virtuous man or
+woman, not predestined from all time for salvation, could possibly find
+the way to heaven, language becomes powerless to stigmatize his
+depravity.  Whatever the punishment impending over his head in this world
+or the next, it is certain that the cause of human freedom was not
+destined on the whole to lose ground through the life-work of Barneveld.
+
+A champion of liberties rather than of liberty, he defended his
+fatherland with heart and soul against the stranger; yet the government
+of that fatherland was, in his judgments to be transferred from the hand
+of the foreigner, not to the self-governing people, but to the provincial
+corporations.  For the People he had no respect, and perhaps little
+affection.  He often spoke of popular rights with contempt.  Of popular
+sovereignty he had no conception.  His patriotism, like his ambition, was
+provincial.  Yet his perceptions as to eternal necessity in all healthy
+governments taught him that comprehensible relations between the state
+and the population were needful to the very existence of a free
+commonwealth.  The United Provinces, he maintained, were not a republic,
+but a league of seven provinces very loosely hung together, a mere
+provisional organization for which it was not then possible to substitute
+anything better.  He expressed this opinion with deep regret, just as the
+war of independence was closing, and added his conviction that, without
+some well-ordered government, no republic could stand.
+
+Yet, as time wore on, the Advocate was destined to acquiesce more and
+more in this defective constitution.  A settled theory there was none,
+and it would have been difficult legally and historically to establish
+the central sovereignty of the States-General as matter of right.
+
+Thus Barneveld, who was anything but a democrat, became, almost
+unwittingly, the champion of the least venerable or imposing of all
+forms of aristocracy--an oligarchy of traders who imagined themselves
+patricians.  Corporate rights, not popular liberty, seemed, in his view,
+the precious gains made by such a prodigious expenditure of time, money,
+and blood.  Although such acquisitions were practically a vast addition
+to the stock of human freedom then existing in the world, yet torrents of
+blood and millions of treasure were to be wasted in the coming centuries
+before mankind was to convince itself that a republic is only to be made
+powerful and perpetual by placing itself upon the basis of popular right
+rather than on that of municipal privilege.
+
+The singular docility of the Dutch people, combined with the simplicity,
+honesty, and practical sagacity of the earlier burgher patricians, made
+the defects of the system tolerable for a longer period than might have
+been expected; nor was it until theological dissensions had gathered to
+such intensity as to set the whole commonwealth aflame that the grave
+defects in the political structure could be fairly estimated.
+
+It would be anticipating a dark chapter in the history of the United
+Provinces were the reader's attention now to be called to those fearful
+convulsions.  The greatest reserve is therefore necessary at present in
+alluding to the subject.
+
+It was not to be expected that an imperious, energetic but somewhat
+limited nature like that of Barneveld should at that epoch thoroughly
+comprehend the meaning of religious freedom.  William the Silent alone
+seems to have risen to that height.  A conscientious Calvinist himself,
+the father of his country would have been glad to see Protestant and
+Papist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Anabaptist living together in harmony
+and political equality.  This was not to be.  The soul of the immortal
+prince could not inspire the hearts of his contemporaries.  That
+Barneveld was disposed to a breadth of religious sympathy unusual in
+those days, seems certain.  It was inevitable, too, that the mild
+doctrines of Arminius should be more in harmony with such a character
+than were the fierce dogmas of Calvin.  But the struggle, either to force
+Arminianism upon the Church which considered itself the established one
+in the Netherlands, or to expel the Calvinists from it, had not yet
+begun; although the seeds of religious persecution of Protestants by
+Protestants had already been sown broadcast.
+
+The day was not far distant when the very Calvinists, to whom, more than
+to any other class of men, the political liberties of Holland, England,
+and America are due, were to be hunted out of churches into farm-houses,
+suburban hovels, and canal-boats by the arm of provincial sovereignty and
+in the name of state-rights, as pitilessly as the early reformers had
+been driven out of cathedrals in the name of emperor and pope; and when
+even those refuges for conscientious worship were to be denied by the
+dominant sect.  And the day was to come, too, when the Calvinists,
+regaining ascendency in their turn, were to hunt the heterodox as they
+had themselves been hunted; and this, at the very moment when their
+fellow Calvinists of England were driven by the Church of that kingdom
+into the American wilderness.
+
+Toleration--that intolerable term of insult to all who love liberty--had
+not yet been discovered.  It had scarcely occurred to Arminian or
+Presbyterian that civil authority and ecclesiastical doctrine could be
+divorced from each other.  As the individual sovereignty of the seven
+states established itself more and more securely, the right of provincial
+power to dictate religious dogmas, and to superintend the popular
+conscience, was exercised with a placid arrogance which papal
+infallibility could scarcely exceed.  The alternation was only between
+the sects, each in its turn becoming orthodox, and therefore persecuting.
+The lessened intensity of persecution however, which priesthood and
+authority were now allowed to exercise, marked the gains secured.
+
+Yet while we censure--as we have a right to do from the point of view
+which we have gained after centuries--the crimes committed by bigotry
+against liberty, we should be false, to our faith in human progress did
+we not acknowledge our debt of gratitude to the hot gospellers of Holland
+and England.
+
+The doctrine of predestination, the consciousness of being chosen
+soldiers of Christ, inspired those puritans, who founded the
+commonwealths of England, of Holland, and of America, with a contempt
+of toil, danger, and death which enabled them to accomplish things
+almost supernatural.
+
+No uncouthness of phraseology, no unlovely austerity of deportment,
+could, except to vulgar minds, make that sublime enthusiasm ridiculous,
+which on either side the ocean ever confronted tyranny with dauntless
+front, and welcomed death on battle-field, scaffold, or rack with perfect
+composure.
+
+The early puritan at least believed.  The very intensity of his belief
+made him--all unconsciously to himself, and narrowed as was his view of
+his position--the great instrument by which the widest human liberty was
+to be gained for all mankind.
+
+The elected favourite of the King of kings feared the power of no earthly
+king.  Accepting in rapture the decrees of a supernatural tyranny, he
+rose on mighty wings above the reach of human wrath.  Prostrating himself
+before a God of vengeance, of jealousy, and of injustice, be naturally
+imitated the attributes which he believed to be divine.  It was
+inevitable, therefore, that Barneveld, and those who thought with him,
+when they should attempt to force the children of Belial into the company
+of the elect and to drive the faithful out of their own churches, should
+be detested as bitterly as papists had ever been.
+
+Had Barneveld's intellect been broad enough to imagine in a great
+republic the separation of Church and State, he would deserve a tenderer
+sympathy, but he would have been far in advance of his age.  It is not
+cheerful to see so powerful an intellect and so patriotic a character
+daring to entrust the relations between man and his Maker to the decree
+of a trading corporation.  But alas! the world was to wait for centuries
+until it should learn that the State can best defend religion by letting
+it alone, and that the political arm is apt to wither with palsy when it
+attempts to control the human conscience.
+
+It is not entirely the commonwealth of the United Netherlands that is of
+importance in the epoch which I have endeavoured to illustrate.  History
+can have neither value nor charm for those who are not impressed with a
+conviction of its continuity.
+
+More than ever during the period which we call modern history has this
+idea of the continuousness of our race, and especially of the inhabitants
+of Europe and America, become almost oppressive to the imagination.
+There is a sense of immortality even upon earth when we see the
+succession of heritages in the domains of science, of intellectual and
+material wealth by which mankind, generation after generation, is
+enriching itself.
+
+If this progress be a dream, if mankind be describing a limited circle
+instead of advancing towards the infinite; then no study can be more
+contemptible than the study of history.
+
+Few strides more gigantic have been taken in the march of humanity than
+those by which a parcel of outlying provinces in the north of Europe
+exchanged slavery to a foreign despotism and to the Holy Inquisition
+for the position of a self-governing commonwealth, in the, front rank of
+contemporary powers, and in many respects the foremost of the world.  It
+is impossible to calculate the amount of benefit tendered to civilization
+by the example of the Dutch republic.  It has been a model which has been
+imitated, in many respects, by great nations.  It has even been valuable
+in its very defects; indicating to the patient observer many errors most
+important to avoid.
+
+Therefore, had the little republic sunk for ever in the sea so soon as
+the treaty of peace had been signed at Antwerp, its career would have
+been prolific of good for all succeeding time.
+
+Exactly at the moment when a splendid but decaying despotism, founded
+upon wrong--upon oppression of the human body and the immortal soul, upon
+slavery, in short, of the worst kind--was awaking from its insane dream
+of universal empire to a consciousness of its own decay, the new republic
+was recognised among the nations.
+
+It would hardly be incorrect to describe the Holland of the beginning
+of the seventeenth century as the exact reverse of Spain.  In, the
+commonwealth labour was most honourable; in the kingdom it was vile.
+In the north to be idle was accounted and punished as a crime.  In the
+southern peninsula, to be contaminated with mechanical, mercantile,
+commercial, manufacturing pursuits, was to be accursed.  Labour was for
+slaves, and at last the mere spectacle of labour became so offensive that
+even the slaves were expelled from the land.  To work was as degrading in
+the south as to beg or to steal was esteemed unworthy of humanity in the
+north.  To think a man's thought upon high matters of religion and
+government, and through a thousand errors to pursue the truth; with the
+aid of the Most High and with the best use of human reason, was a
+privilege secured by the commonwealth, at the expense of two generations
+of continuous bloodshed.  To lie fettered, soul and body, at the feet of
+authority wielded by a priesthood in its last stage of corruption, and
+monarchy almost reduced to imbecility, was the lot of the chivalrous,
+genial; but much oppressed Spaniard.
+
+The pictures painted of the republic by shrewd and caustic observers, not
+inclined by nature or craft to portray freedom in too engaging colours,
+seem, when contrasted with those revealed of Spain, almost like
+enthusiastic fantasies of an ideal commonwealth.
+
+During the last twenty years of the great war the material prosperity of
+the Netherlands had wonderfully increased.  They had, become the first
+commercial nation in the world.  They had acquired the supremacy of the
+seas.  The population of Amsterdam had in twenty years increased from
+seventy thousand to a hundred and thirty thousand, and was destined to be
+again more than doubled in the coming decade.  The population of Antwerp
+had sunk almost as rapidly as that of its rival had increased; having
+lessened by fifty thousand during the same period.  The commercial
+capital of the obedient provinces, having already lost much of its famous
+traffic by the great changes in the commercial current of the world, was
+unable to compete with the cities of the United Provinces in the vast
+trade which the geographical discoveries of the preceding century had
+opened to civilization.  Freedom of thought and action were denied, and
+without such liberty it was impossible for oceanic commerce to thrive.
+Moreover, the possession by the Hollanders of the Scheld forts below
+Antwerp, and of Flushing at the river's mouth, suffocated the ancient
+city, and would of itself have been sufficient to paralyze all its
+efforts.
+
+In Antwerp the exchange, where once thousands of the great merchants of
+the earth held their daily financial parliament, now echoed to the
+solitary footfall of the passing stranger.  Ships lay rotting at the
+quays; brambles grow in the commercial streets.  In Amsterdam the city
+had been enlarged by two-thirds, and those who swarmed thither to seek
+their fortunes could not wait for the streets to be laid out and houses
+to be built, but established themselves in the environs, building
+themselves hovels and temporary residences, although certain to find
+their encampments swept away with the steady expanse of the city.  As
+much land as could be covered by a man's foot was worth a ducat in gold.
+
+In every branch of human industry these republicans took the lead.  On
+that scrap of solid ground, rescued by human energy from the ocean, were
+the most fertile pastures in the world.  On those pastures grazed the
+most famous cattle in the world.  An ox often weighed more than two
+thousand pounds.   The cows produced two and three calves at a time, the
+sheep four and five lambs.  In a single village four thousand kine were
+counted.  Butter and cheese were exported to the annual value of a
+million, salted provisions to an incredible extent.  The farmers were
+industrious, thriving, and independent.  It is an amusing illustration of
+the agricultural thrift and republican simplicity of this people that on
+one occasion a farmer proposed to Prince Maurice that he should marry his
+daughter, promising with her a dowry of a hundred thousand florins.
+
+The mechanical ingenuity of the Netherlanders, already celebrated by
+Julius Caesar and by Tacitus, had lost nothing of its ancient fame.  The
+contemporary world confessed that in many fabrics the Hollanders were at
+the head of mankind.  Dutch linen, manufactured of the flax grown on
+their own fields or imported from the obedient provinces, was esteemed a
+fitting present for kings to make and to receive.  The name of the
+country had passed into the literature of England as synonymous with the
+delicate fabric itself.  The Venetians confessed themselves equalled, if
+not outdone, by the crystal workers and sugar refiners of the northern
+republic.  The tapestries of Arras--the name of which Walloon city had
+become a household word of luxury in all modern languages--were now
+transplanted to the soil of freedom, more congenial to the advancement of
+art.  Brocades of the precious metals; splendid satins and velvets;
+serges and homely fustians; laces of thread and silk; the finer and
+coarser manufactures of clay and porcelain; iron, steel, and all useful
+fabrics for the building and outfitting of ships; substantial broadcloths
+manufactured of wool imported from Scotland--all this was but a portion
+of the industrial production of the provinces.
+
+They supplied the deficiency of coal, not then an article readily
+obtained by commerce, with other remains of antediluvian forests long
+since buried in the sea, and now recovered from its depths and made
+useful and portable by untiring industry.  Peat was not only the fuel
+for the fireside, but for the extensive fabrics of the country, and its
+advantages so much excited the admiration of the Venetian envoys that
+they sent home samples of it, in the hope that the lagunes of Venice
+might prove as prolific of this indispensable article as the polders of
+Holland.
+
+But the foundation of the national wealth, the source of the apparently
+fabulous power by which the republic had at last overthrown her gigantic
+antagonist, was the ocean.  The republic was sea-born and sea-sustained.
+
+She had nearly one hundred thousand sailors, and three thousand ships.
+The sailors were the boldest, the best disciplined, and the most
+experienced in the-world, whether for peaceable seafaring or ocean
+warfare.  The ships were capable of furnishing from out of their number
+in time of need the most numerous and the best appointed navy then known
+to mankind.
+
+The republic had the carrying trade for all nations.  Feeling its very
+existence dependent upon commerce, it had strode centuries in advance of
+the contemporary world in the liberation of trade.  But two or three per
+cent. ad valorem was levied upon imports; foreign goods however being
+subject, as well as internal products, to heavy imposts in the way of
+both direct and indirect taxation.
+
+Every article of necessity or luxury known was to be purchased in
+profusion and at reasonable prices in the warehouses of Holland.
+
+A swarm of river vessels and fly-boats were coming daily through the
+rivers of Germany, France and the Netherlands, laden with the
+agricultural products and the choice manufactures of central and western
+Europe.  Wine and oil, and delicate fabrics in thread and wool, came from
+France, but no silks, velvets, nor satins; for the great Sully had
+succeeded in persuading his master that the white mulberry would not grow
+in his kingdom, and that silk manufactures were an impossible dream for
+France.  Nearly a thousand ships were constantly employed in the Baltic
+trade.   The forests of Holland were almost as extensive as those which
+grew on Norwegian hills, but they were submerged.  The foundation of a
+single mansion required a grove, and wood was extensively used in the
+superstructure.  The houses, built of a framework of substantial timber,
+and filled in with brick or rubble, were raised almost as rapidly as
+tents, during the prodigious expansion of industry towards the end of the
+war.  From the realms of the Osterlings, or shores of the Baltic, came
+daily fleets laden with wheat and other grains so that even in time of
+famine the granaries of the republic were overflowing, and ready to
+dispense the material of life to the outer world.
+
+Eight hundred vessels of lesser size but compact build were perpetually
+fishing for herrings on the northern coasts.  These hardy mariners, the
+militia of the sea, who had learned in their life of hardship and daring
+the art of destroying Spanish and Portuguese armadas, and confronting the
+dangers of either pole, passed a long season on the deep.  Commercial
+voyagers as well as fishermen, they salted their fish as soon as taken
+from the sea, and transported them to the various ports of Europe, thus
+reducing their herrings into specie before their return, and proving that
+a fishery in such hands was worth more than the mines of Mexico and Peru.
+
+It is customary to speak of the natural resources of a country as
+furnishing a guarantee of material prosperity.  But here was a republic
+almost without natural resources, which had yet supplied by human
+intelligence and thrift what a niggard nature had denied.  Spain was
+overflowing with unlimited treasure, and had possessed half the world in
+fee; and Spain was bankrupt, decaying, sinking into universal pauperism.
+Holland, with freedom of thought, of commerce, of speech, of action,
+placed itself, by intellectual power alone, in the front rank of
+civilization.
+
+From Cathay, from the tropical coasts of Africa, and from farthest Ind,
+came every drug, spice, or plant, every valuable jewel, every costly
+fabric, that human ingenuity had discovered or created.  The Spaniards,
+maintaining a frail tenure upon a portion of those prolific regions,
+gathered their spice harvests at the point of the sword, and were
+frequently unable to prevent their northern rivals from ravaging such
+fields as they had not yet been able to appropriate.
+
+Certainly this conduct of the Hollanders was barbarism and supreme
+selfishness, if judged by the sounder political economy of our time.
+Yet it should never be forgotten that the contest between Spain and
+Holland in those distant regions, as everywhere else, was war to the
+knife between superstition and freedom, between the spirits of progress
+and of dogma.  Hard blows and foul blows were struck in such a fight, and
+humanity, although gaining at last immense results, had much to suffer
+and much to learn ere the day was won.
+
+But Spain was nearly beaten out of those eastern regions, and the very
+fact that the naval supremacy of the republic placed her ancient tyrant
+at her mercy was the main reason for Spain to conclude the treaty of
+truce.  Lest she should lose the India trade entirely, Spain consented to
+the treaty article by which, without mentioning the word, she conceded
+the thing.  It was almost pathetic to witness, as we have witnessed, this
+despotism in its dotage, mumbling so long over the formal concession to
+her conqueror of a portion of that India trade which would have been
+entirely wrested from herself had the war continued.  And of this Spain
+was at heart entirely convinced.  Thus the Portuguese, once the lords and
+masters, as they had been the European discoverers, of those prolific
+regions and of the ocean highways which led to them, now came with
+docility to the republic which they had once affected to despise,
+and purchased the cloves and the allspice, the nutmegs and the cinnamon,
+of which they had held the monopoly; or waited with patience until the
+untiring Hollanders should bring the precious wares to the peninsula
+ports.
+
+A Dutch Indianian would make her voyage to the antipodes and her return
+in less time than was spent by a Portuguese or a Spaniard in the outward
+voyage.  To accomplish such an enterprise in two years was accounted a
+wonder of rapidity, and when it is remembered that inland navigation
+through France by canal and river from the North Sea to the Mediterranean
+was considered both speedier and safer, because the sea voyage between
+the same points might last four or five months, it must be admitted that
+two years occupied in passing from one end of the earth to the other and
+back again might well seem a miracle.
+
+The republic was among the wealthiest and the most powerful of organized
+States.  Her population might be estimated at three millions and a half,
+about equal to that of England at the same period.  But she was richer
+than England.  Nowhere in the world was so large a production in
+proportion to the numbers of a people.  Nowhere were so few unproductive
+consumers.  Every one was at work.  Vagabonds, idlers, and do-nothings,
+such as must be in every community, were caught up by the authorities and
+made to earn their bread.  The devil's pillow, idleness, was smoothed for
+no portion of the population.
+
+There were no beggars, few paupers, no insolently luxurious and
+ostentatiously idle class.  The modesty, thrift, and simple elegance of
+the housekeeping, even among the wealthy, was noted by travellers with
+surprise.  It will be remembered with how much amused wonder, followed by
+something like contempt, the, magnificent household of Spinola, during
+his embassy at the Hague, was surveyed by the honest burghers of Holland.
+The authorities showed their wisdom in permitting the absurd exhibition,
+as an example of what should be shunned, in spite of grave remonstrances
+from many of the citizens.  Drunken Helotism is not the only form of
+erring humanity capable of reading lessons to a republic.
+
+There had been monasteries, convents, ecclesiastical establishments of
+all kinds in the country, before the great war between Holland and the
+Inquisition.  These had, as a matter of course, been confiscated as the
+strife went on.  The buildings, farms, and funds, once the property of
+the Church, had not, however, been seized upon, as in other Protestant
+lands, by rapacious monarchs, and distributed among great nobles
+according to royal caprice.  Monarchs might give the revenue of a
+suppressed convent to a cook, as reward for a successful pudding; the
+surface of Britain and the continent might be covered with abbeys and
+monasteries now converted into lordly palaces--passing thus from the dead
+hand of the Church into the idle and unproductive palm of the noble; but
+the ancient ecclesiastical establishments of the free Netherlands were
+changed into eleemosynary institutions, admirably organized and
+administered with wisdom and economy, where orphans of the poor, widows
+of those slain in the battles for freedom by land and sea, and the aged
+and the infirm, who had deserved well of the republic in the days of
+their strength, were educated or cherished at the expense of the public,
+thus endowed from the spoils of the Church.
+
+In Spain, monasteries upon monasteries were rising day by day, as if
+there were not yet receptacles enough for monks and priests, while
+thousands upon thousands of Spaniards were pressing into the ranks of
+the priesthood, and almost forcing themselves into monasteries, that
+they might be privileged to beg, because ashamed to work.  In the
+United Netherlands the confiscated convents, with their revenues,
+were appropriated for the good of those who were too young or too old to
+labour, and too poor to maintain themselves without work.  Need men look
+further than to this simple fact to learn why Spain was decaying while
+the republic was rising?
+
+The ordinary budget of the United Provinces was about equal to that of
+England, varying not much from four millions of florins, or four hundred
+thousand pounds.  But the extraordinary revenue was comparatively without
+limits, and there had been years, during the war, when the citizens had
+taxed themselves as highly as fifty per cent. on each individual income,
+and doubled the receipts of the exchequer.  The budget was proposed once
+a year, by the council of state, and voted by the States-General, who
+assigned the quota of each province; that of Holland being always one-
+half of the whole, that of Zeeland sixteen per cent., and that of the
+other five of course in lesser proportions.  The revenue was collected
+in the separate provinces, one-third of the whole being retained for
+provincial expenses, and the balance paid into the general treasury.
+There was a public debt, the annual interest of which amounted to 200,000
+florins.  During the war, money had been borrowed at as high a rate as
+thirty-six per cent., but at the conclusion of hostilities the States
+could borrow at six per cent., and the whole debt was funded on that
+basis.  Taxation was enormously heavy, but patriotism caused it to be
+borne with cheerfulness, and productive industry made it comparatively
+light.  Rents were charged twenty-five per cent.  A hundred per cent. was
+levied upon beer, wine, meat, salt, spirits.  Other articles of necessity
+and luxury were almost as severely taxed.  It is not easy to enumerate
+the tax-list, scarcely anything foreign or domestic being exempted, while
+the grave error was often committed of taxing the same article, in
+different forms, four, five, and six times.
+
+The people virtually taxed themselves, although the superstition
+concerning the State, as something distinct from and superior to the
+people, was to linger long and work infinite mischief among those seven
+republics which were never destined to be welded theoretically and
+legally into a union.  The sacredness of corporations had succeeded,
+in a measure, to the divinity which hedges kings.  Nevertheless, those
+corporations were so numerous as to be effectively open to a far larger
+proportion of the population than, in those days, had ever dreamed before
+of participating in the Government.  The magistracies were in general
+unpaid and little coveted, being regarded as a burthen and a
+responsibility rather than an object of ambition.  The jurisconsults,
+called pensionaries, who assisted the municipal authorities, received,
+however, a modest salary, never exceeding 1500 florins a year.
+
+These numerous bodies, provincial and municipal, elected themselves
+themselves by supplying their own vacancies.  The magistrates were
+appointed by the stadholder, on a double or triple nomination from the
+municipal board.  This was not impartial suffrage nor manhood suffrage.
+The germ of a hateful burgher-oligarchy was in the system, but, as
+compared with Spain, where municipal magistracies were sold by the crown
+at public auction; or with France, where every office in church, law,
+magistrature, or court was an object of merchandise disposed of in open
+market, the system was purity itself, and marked a great advance in the
+science of government.
+
+It should never be forgotten, moreover, that while the presidents
+and judges of the highest courts of judicature in other civilized lands
+were at the mercy of an irresponsible sovereign, and held office--even
+although it had been paid for in solid specie--at his pleasure, the
+supreme justices of the high courts of appeal at the Hague were nominated
+by a senate, and confirmed by a stadholder, and that they exercised their
+functions for life, or so long as they conducted themselves virtuously in
+their high office--'quamdiu se bene gesserint.'
+
+If one of the great objects of a civilized community is to secure to all
+men their own--'ut sua tenerent'--surely it must be admitted that the
+republic was in advance of all contemporary States in the laying down of
+this vital principle, the independence of judges.
+
+As to the army and navy of the United Provinces, enough has been said,
+in earlier chapters of these volumes, to indicate the improvements
+introduced by Prince Maurice, and now carried to the highest point of
+perfection ever attained in that period.  There is no doubt whatever,
+that for discipline, experience, equipment, effectiveness of movement,
+and general organization, the army of the republic was the model army of
+Europe.  It amounted to but thirty thousand infantry and two thousand
+five hundred cavalry, but this number was a large one for a standing army
+at the beginning of the seventeenth century.  It was composed of a
+variety of materials, Hollanders, Walloons, Flemings, Scotch, English,
+Irish, Germans, but all welded together into a machine of perfect
+regularity.  The private foot-soldier received twelve florins for a so-
+called month of forty-two days, the drummer and corporal eighteen, the
+lieutenant fifty-two, and the captain one hundred and fifty florins.
+Prompt payment was made every week.  Obedience was implicit; mutiny, such
+as was of periodical recurrence in the archduke's army, entirely unknown.
+The slightest theft was punished with the gallows, and there was
+therefore no thieving.
+
+The most accurate and critical observers confessed, almost against their
+will, that no army in Europe could compare with the troops of the States.
+As to the famous regiments of Sicily, and the ancient legions of Naples
+and Milan, a distinguished Venetian envoy, who had seen all the camps and
+courts of Christendom, and was certainly not disposed to overrate the
+Hollanders at the expense of the Italians, if any rivalry between them
+had been possible, declared that every private soldier in the republic
+was fit to be a captain in any Italian army; while, on the other hand,
+there was scarcely an Italian captain who would be accepted as a private
+in any company of the States.  So low had the once famous soldiery of
+Alva, Don John, and Alexander Farnese descended.
+
+The cavalry of the republic was even more perfectly organized than was
+the infantry.  "I want words to describe its perfection," said Contarini.
+The pay was very high, and very prompt.  A captain received four hundred
+florins a month (of forty-two days), a lieutenant one hundred and eighty
+florins, and other officers and privates in proportion.  These rates
+would be very high in our own day.  When allowance is made for the
+difference in the value of money at the respective epochs, the salaries
+are prodigious; but the thrifty republic found its account in paying well
+and paying regularly the champions on whom so much depended, and by whom
+such splendid services had been rendered.
+
+While the soldiers in the pay of Queen Elizabeth were crawling to her
+palace gates to die of starvation before her eyes; while the veterans of
+Spain and of Italy had organized themselves into a permanent military,
+mutinous republic, on the soil of the so-called obedient Netherland,
+because they were left by their masters without clothing or food; the
+cavalry and infantry of the Dutch commonwealth, thanks to the organizing
+spirit and the wholesome thrift of the burgher authorities, were
+contented, obedient, well fed, well clothed, and well paid; devoted to
+their Government, and ever ready to die in its defence.
+
+Nor was it only on the regular army that reliance was placed.  On the
+contrary, every able-bodied man in the country was liable to be called
+upon to serve, at any moment, in the militia.  All were trained to arms,
+and provided with arms, and there had been years during this perpetual
+war in which one man out of three of the whole male population was ready
+to be mustered at any moment into the field.
+
+Even more could be said in praise of the navy than has been stated of the
+armies of the republic; for the contemporary accounts of foreigners, and
+of foreigners who were apt to be satirical, rather than enthusiastic,
+when describing the institutions, leading personages, and customs of
+other countries, seemed ever to speak of the United Provinces in terms of
+eulogy.  In commerce, as in war, the naval supremacy of the republic was
+indisputable.  It was easy for the States to place two thousand vessels
+of war in commission, if necessary, of tonnage varying from four hundred
+to twelve hundred tons, to man them with the hardiest and boldest sailors
+in the world, and to despatch them with promptness to any quarter of the
+globe.
+
+It was recognised as nearly impossible to compel a war-vessel of the
+republic to surrender.  Hardly an instance was on her naval record of
+submission, even to far superior force, while it was filled with the
+tragic but heroic histories of commanders who had blown their ships,
+with every man on board, into the air, rather than strike their flag.
+Such was the character, and such the capacity of the sea-born republic.
+
+That republic had serious and radical defects, but the design remained to
+be imitated and improved upon, centuries afterwards.  The history of the
+rise and progress of the Dutch republic is a leading chapter in the
+history of human liberty.
+
+The great misfortune of the commonwealth of the United Provinces, next to
+the slenderness of its geographical proportions, was the fact that it was
+without a centre and without a head, and therefore not a nation capable
+of unlimited vitality.  There were seven states.  Each claimed to be
+sovereign.  The pretension on the part of several of them was ridiculous.
+Overyssel, for example, contributed two and three-quarters per cent. of
+the general budget.  It was a swamp of twelve hundred square miles in
+extent, with some heath-spots interspered, and it numbered perhaps a
+hundred thousand inhabitants.  The doughty Count of Embden alone could
+have swallowed up such sovereignty, have annexed all the buckwheat
+patches and cranberry marshes of Overyssel to his own meagre territories,
+and nobody the wiser.
+
+Zeeland, as we have seen, was disposed at a critical moment to set up
+its independent sovereignty.  Zeeland, far more important than Overyssel,
+had a revenue of perhaps five hundred thousand dollars,--rather a slender
+budget for an independent republic, wedged in as it was by the most
+powerful empires of the earth, and half drowned by the ocean, from which
+it had scarcely emerged.
+
+There was therefore no popular representation, and on the other hand no
+executive head.  As sovereignty must be exercised in some way, however,
+in all living commonwealths, and as a low degree of vitality was
+certainly not the defect of those bustling provinces, the supreme
+functions had now fallen into the hands of Holland.
+
+While William the Silent lived, the management of war, foreign affairs,
+and finance, for the revolted provinces, was in his control.  He was
+aided by two council boards, but the circumstances of history and the
+character of the man had invested him with an inevitable dictatorship.
+
+After his death, at least after Leicester's time, the powers of the
+state-council, the head of which, Prince Maurice, was almost always
+absent at the wars, fell into comparative disuse.  The great functions
+of the confederacy passed into the possession of the States-General.
+That body now came to sit permanently at the Hague.  The number of its
+members, deputies from the seven provinces-envoys from those seven
+immortal and soulless sovereigns--was not large.  The extraordinary
+assembly held at Bergen-op-Zoom for confirmation of the truce was
+estimated by, Bentivoglio at eight hundred.  Bentivoglio, who was on the
+spot, being then nuncius at Brussels, ought to have been able to count
+them, yet it is very certain that the number was grossly exaggerated.
+
+At any rate the usual assembly at the Hague rarely amounted to one
+hundred members.  The presidency was changed once a week, the envoy of
+each province taking his turn as chairman.
+
+Olden-Barneveld, as member for Holland, was always present in the diet.
+As Advocate-General of the leading province, and keeper of its great
+seal, more especially as possessor of the governing intellect of the
+whole commonwealth, be led the administration of Holland, and as the
+estates of Holland contributed more than half of the whole budget of
+the confederacy, it was a natural consequence of the actual supremacy of
+that province, and of the vast legal hand political experience of the
+Advocate, that Holland should, govern the confederacy, and that Barneveld
+should govern Holland.
+
+The States-General remained virtually supreme, receiving envoys from all
+the great powers, sending abroad their diplomatic representatives, to
+whom the title and rank of ambassador was freely accorded, and dealing
+in a decorous and dignified way with all European affairs.  The ability
+of the republican statesmen was as fully recognised all over the earth,
+as was the genius of their generals and great naval commanders.
+
+The People did not exist; but this was merely because, in theory, the
+People had not been invented.  It was exactly because there was a People
+--an energetic and intelligent People--that the republic was possible.
+
+No scheme had yet been devised for laying down in primary assemblies
+a fundamental national law, for distributing the various functions
+of governmental power among selected servants, for appointing
+representatives according to population or property, and for holding
+all trustees responsible at reasonable intervals to the nation itself.
+
+Thus government was involved, fold within fold, in successive and
+concentric municipal layers.  The States-General were the outer husk,
+of which the separate town-council was the kernel or bulb.  Yet the
+number of these executive and legislative boards was so large, and the
+whole population comparatively so slender, as to cause the original
+inconveniences from so incomplete a system to be rather theoretic than
+practical.  In point of fact, almost as large a variety of individuals
+served the State as would perhaps have been the case under a more
+philosophically arranged democracy.  The difficulty was rather in
+obtaining a candidate for the post than in distributing the posts
+among candidates.
+
+Men were occupied with their own affairs.  In proportion to their
+numbers, they were more productive of wealth than any other nation then
+existing.  An excellent reason why the people were so, well governed, so
+productive, and so enterprising, was the simple fact that they were an
+educated people.  There was hardly a Netherlander--man, woman, or child--
+that could not read and write.  The school was the common property of the
+people, paid for among the municipal expenses.  In the cities, as well as
+in the rural districts, there were not only common schools but classical
+schools.  In the burgher families it was rare to find boys who had not
+been taught Latin, or girls unacquainted with French.  Capacity to write
+and speak several modern languages was very common, and there were many
+individuals in every city, neither professors nor pedants, who had made
+remarkable progress in science and classical literature.  The position,
+too, of women in the commonwealth proved a high degree of civilization.
+They are described as virtuous, well-educated, energetic, sovereigns
+in their households, and accustomed to direct all the business at home.
+"It would be ridiculous," said Donato, "to see a man occupying himself
+with domestic house-keeping.  The women do it all, and command
+absolutely."  The Hollanders, so rebellious against Church and
+King, accepted with meekness the despotism of woman.
+
+The great movement of emancipation from political and ecclesiastical
+tyranny had brought with it a general advancement of the human intellect.
+The foundation of the Leyden university in memory of the heroism
+displayed by the burghers during the siege was as noble a monument
+as had ever been raised by a free people jealous of its fame.  And the
+scientific lustre of the university well sustained the nobility of its
+origin.  The proudest nation on earth might be more proud of a seat of
+learning, founded thus amidst carnage and tears, whence so much of
+profound learning and brilliant literature had already been diffused.
+The classical labours of Joseph Scaliger, Heinsius father and son the
+elder Dousa, almost as famous with his pen in Latin poetry as his sword
+had made him in the vernacular chronicle; of Dousa the son, whom Grotius
+called "the crown and flower of all good learning, too soon snatched
+away by envious death, than whom no man more skilled in poetry, more
+consummate in acquaintance with ancient science and literature, had ever
+lived;" of Hugo Grotius himself, who at the age of fifteen had taken his
+doctor's degree at Leyden who as a member of Olden-Barneveld's important
+legation to France and England very soon afterwards had excited the
+astonishment of Henry IV. and Elizabeth, who had already distinguished
+himself by editions of classic poets, and by original poems and dramas in
+Latin, and was already, although but twenty-six years of age; laying the
+foundation of that magnificent reputation as a jurist, a philosopher, a
+historian, and a statesman, which was to be one of the enduring glories
+of humanity, all these were the precious possessions of the high school
+of Leyden.
+
+The still more modern university of Franeker, founded amid the din
+of perpetual warfare in Friesland, could at least boast the name of
+Arminius, whose theological writings and whose expansive views were
+destined to exert such influence over his contemporaries and posterity.
+
+The great history of Hoofd, in which the splendid pictures and the
+impassioned drama of the great war of independence were to be preserved
+for his countrymen through all time, was not yet written.  It was soon
+afterwards, however, to form not only a chief source of accurate
+information as to the great events themselves, but a model of style
+never since surpassed by any prose writer in either branch of the
+German tongue.
+
+Had Hoofd written for a wider audience, it would be difficult to name a
+contemporary author of any nation whose work would have been more
+profoundly studied or more generally admired.
+
+But the great war had not waited to be chronicled by the classic and
+impassioned Hoofd.  Already there were thorough and exhaustive narrators
+of what was instinctively felt to be one of the most pregnant episodes of
+human history.  Bor of Utrecht, a miracle of industry, of learning, of
+unwearied perseverance, was already engaged in the production of those
+vast folios in which nearly all the great transactions of the forty
+years' war were conscientiously portrayed, with a comprehensiveness of
+material and an impartiality of statement, such as might seem almost
+impossible for a contemporary writer.  Immersed in attentive study and
+profound contemplation, he seemed to lift his tranquil head from time to
+time over the wild ocean of those troublous times, and to survey with
+accuracy without being swayed or appalled by the tempest.  There was
+something almost sublime in his steady, unimpassioned gaze.
+
+Emanuel van Meteren, too, a plain Protestant merchant of Antwerp and
+Amsterdam, wrote an admirable history of the war and of his own times,
+full of precious details, especially rich in statistics--a branch of
+science which he almost invented--which still, remains as one of the
+leading authorities, not only for scholars, but for the general reader.
+
+Reyd and Burgundius, the one the Calvinist private secretary of Lewis
+William, the other a warm Catholic partisan, both made invaluable
+contemporaneous contributions to the history of the war.
+
+The trophies already secured by the Netherlanders in every department of
+the fine arts, as well as the splendour which was to enrich the coming
+epoch, are too familiar to the world to need more than a passing
+allusion.
+
+But it was especially in physical science that the republic was taking a
+leading part in the great intellectual march of the nations.
+
+The very necessities of its geographical position had forced it to pre-
+eminence in hydraulics and hydrostatics.  It had learned to transform
+water into dry land with a perfection attained by no nation before or
+since.  The wonders of its submarine horticulture were the despair of all
+gardeners in the world.
+
+And as in this gentlest of arts, so also in the dread science of war, the
+republic had been the instructor of mankind.
+
+The youthful Maurice and his cousin Lewis William had so restored
+and improved the decayed intelligence of antique strategy, that the
+greybeards of Europe became docile pupils in their school.  The
+mathematical teacher of Prince Maurice amazed the contemporary world with
+his combinations and mechanical inventions; the flying chariots of Simon
+Stevinua seeming products of magical art.
+
+Yet the character of the Dutch intellect was averse to sorcery.  The
+small but mighty nation, which had emancipated itself from the tyranny of
+Philip and of the Holy Inquisition, was foremost to shake off the fetters
+of superstition.  Out of Holland came the first voice to rebuke one of
+the hideous delusions of the age.  While grave magistrates and sages of
+other lands were exorcising the devil by murdering his supposed victims,
+John Wier, a physician of Grave, boldly denounced the demon which had
+taken possession, not of the wizards, but of the judges.
+
+The age was lunatic and sick, and it was fitting that the race which had
+done so much for the physical and intellectual emancipation of the world,
+should have been the first to apply a remedy for this monstrous madness.
+Englishmen and their descendants were drowning and hanging witches in New
+England, long after John Wier had rebuked and denounced the belief in
+witchcraft.
+
+It was a Zeelander, too; who placed the instrument in the hand of Galileo
+by which that daring genius traced the movements of the universe, and
+who, by another wondrous invention, enabled future discoverers to study
+the infinite life which lies all around us, hidden not by its remoteness
+but it's minuteness.  Zacharias Jansens of Middelburg, in 1590, invented
+both the telescope and the microscope.
+
+The wonder-man of Alkmaar, Cornelius Drebbel, who performed such
+astounding feats for the amusement of Rudolph of Germany and James of
+Britain, is also supposed to have invented the thermometer and the
+barometer.  But this claim has been disputed.  The inventions of Jansens
+are proved.
+
+Willebrod Snellius, mathematical professor of Leyden, introduced the true
+method of measuring the degrees of longitude and latitude, and Huygens,
+who had seen his manuscripts, asserted that Snellius had invented, before
+Descartes, the doctrine of refraction.
+
+But it was especially to that noble band of heroes and martyrs, the great
+navigators and geographical discoverers of the republic, that science is
+above all indebted.
+
+Nothing is more sublime in human story than the endurance and audacity
+with which those pioneers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+confronted the nameless horrors of either pole, in the interests of
+commerce, and for the direct purpose of enlarging the bounds of the human
+intellect.
+
+The achievements, the sufferings, and the triumphs of Barendz and Cordes,
+Heemskerk, Van der Hagen, and many others, have been slightly indicated
+in these pages.  The contributions to botany, mineralogy, geometry,
+geography, and zoology, of Linschoten, Plancius, Wagenaar, and Houtmann,
+and so many other explorers of pole and tropic, can hardly be overrated.
+
+The Netherlanders had wrung their original fatherland out of the grasp of
+the ocean.  They had confronted for centuries the wrath of that ancient
+tyrant, ever ready to seize the prey of which he had been defrauded.
+
+They had waged fiercer and more perpetual battle with a tyranny more
+cruel than the tempest, with an ancient superstition more hungry than the
+sea.  It was inevitable that a race, thus invigorated by the ocean,
+cradled to freedom by their conflicts with its power, and hardened almost
+to invincibility by their struggle against human despotism, should be
+foremost among the nations in the development of political, religious,
+and commercial freedom.
+
+The writer now takes an affectionate farewell of those who have followed
+him with an indulgent sympathy as he has attempted to trace the origin
+and the eventful course of the Dutch commonwealth.  If by his labours
+a generous love has been fostered for that blessing, without which
+everything that this earth can afford is worthless--freedom of thought,
+of speech, and of life--his highest wish has been fulfilled.
+
+
+
+ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS:
+
+About equal to that of England at the same period
+An unjust God, himself the origin of sin
+Butchery in the name of Christ was suspended
+Calling a peace perpetual can never make it so
+Chieftains are dwarfed in the estimation of followers
+Each in its turn becoming orthodox, and therefore persecuting
+Exorcising the devil by murdering his supposed victims
+Foremost to shake off the fetters of superstition
+God of vengeance, of jealousy, and of injustice
+Gomarites accused the Arminians of being more lax than Papists
+Hangman is not the most appropriate teacher of religion
+He often spoke of popular rights with contempt
+John Wier, a physician of Grave
+Necessity of extirpating heresy, root and branch
+Nowhere were so few unproductive consumers
+Paving the way towards atheism (by toleration)
+Privileged to beg, because ashamed to work
+Religious persecution of Protestants by Protestants
+So unconscious of her strength
+State can best defend religion by letting it alone
+Taxed themselves as highly as fifty per cent
+The People had not been invented
+The slightest theft was punished with the gallows
+Tolerate another religion that his own may be tolerated
+Toleration--that intolerable term of insult
+War to compel the weakest to follow the religion of the strongest
+
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1609 ***
+
+********** This file should be named 4883.txt or 4883.zip ***********
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