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diff --git a/4872-h/4872-h.htm b/4872-h/4872-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..adce71c --- /dev/null +++ b/4872-h/4872-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,20799 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + History of the United Netherlands, Volume III. by John Lothrop Motley + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United Netherlands, 1590-1599, +Vol. III. Complete, by John Lothrop Motley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History of the United Netherlands, 1590-1599, Vol. III. Complete + +Author: John Lothrop Motley + +Release Date: October 15, 2006 [EBook #4872] +Last Updated: November 3, 2012 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK UNITED NETHERLANDS, III. *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <h1> + HISTORY OF THE UNITED NETHERLANDS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + From the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Year's Truce—1609 + </h2> + <h3> + Volume III. + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By John Lothrop Motley + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <table summary="" border="3" cellpadding="4"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <a + href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4860/4860-h/4860-h.htm"><b>Volume + II. </b></a> + </td> + <td> + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <table summary="" border="3" cellpadding="4"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <a + href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7552/7552-h/7552-h.htm"><b>IMAGES + and QUOTES</b> </a> + </td> + <td> + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> 1590 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> 1590-1592 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER XXVI. </a> 1592 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> 1592-1594 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER XXIX. </a> + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER XXX. </a> 1594 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XXXI. </a> 1595 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XXXII. </a> 1595-1596 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XXXIII. </a> 1597-1598 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XXXIV. </a> 1598 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XXXV. </a> + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XXXVI. </a> 1598-1599 + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XXXVII. </a> + <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Effect of the Assassination of Henry III.—Concentration of forces + for the invasion of France—The Netherlands determine on striking a + blow for freedom—Organization of a Dutch army—Stratagem to + surprise the castle of Breda—Intrepidity and success of the + enterprise. +</pre> + <p> + The dagger of Jacques Clement had done much, and was likely to do more, to + change the face of Europe. Another proof was afforded that assassination + had become a regular and recognised factor in the political problems of + the sixteenth century. Another illustration was exhibited of the + importance of the individual—even although that individual was in + himself utterly despicable—to the working out of great historical + results. It seemed that the murder of Henry III.—that forlorn + caricature of kingship and of manhood—was likely to prove eminently + beneficial to the cause of the Netherland commonwealth. Five years + earlier, the murder of William the Silent had seemed to threaten its very + existence. + </p> + <p> + For Philip the Prudent, now that France was deprived of a head, conceived + that the time had arrived when he might himself assume the sovereignty of + that kingdom. While a thing of straw, under the name of Charles X. and + shape of a Cardinal Bourbon, was set up to do battle with that living + sovereign and soldier, the heretic Bearnese, the Duke of Parma was + privately ordered to bend all his energies towards the conquest of the + realm in dispute, under pretence of assisting the Holy League. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, early in the year 1590, Alexander concentrated a considerable + force on the French frontier in Artois and Hainault, apparently + threatening Bergen-op-Zoom and other cities in South Holland, but in + reality preparing to invade France. The Duke of Mayenne, who had assumed + the title of lieutenant-general of that kingdom, had already visited him + at Brussels in order to arrange the plan of the campaign. + </p> + <p> + While these measures were in preparation, an opportunity was likely to be + afforded to the Netherlanders of striking a blow or two for liberty and + independence; now that all the force that possibly could be spared was to + be withdrawn by their oppressors and to be used for the subjugation of + their neighbours. The question was whether there would be a statesman and + a soldier ready to make use of this golden opportunity. + </p> + <p> + There was a statesman ripe and able who, since the death of the Taciturn, + had been growing steadily in the estimation of his countrymen and who + already was paramount in the councils of the States-General. There was a + soldier, still very young, who was possessed of the strongest hereditary + claims to the confidence and affection of the United Provinces and who had + been passing a studious youth in making himself worthy of his father and + his country. Fortunately, too, the statesman and the soldier were working + most harmoniously together. John of Olden-Barneveld, with his great + experience and vast and steady intellect, stood side by side with young + Maurice of Nassau at this important crisis in the history of the new + commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + At length the twig was becoming the tree—'tandem fit surculus arbor'—according + to the device assumed by the son of William the Silent after his father's + death. + </p> + <p> + The Netherlands had sore need of a practical soldier to contend with the + scientific and professional tyrants against whom they had so long been + struggling, and Maurice, although so young, was pre-eminently a practical + man. He was no enthusiast; he was no poet. He was at that period certainly + no politician. Not often at the age of twenty has a man devoted himself + for years to pure mathematics for the purpose of saving his country. Yet + this was Maurice's scheme. Four years long and more, when most other + youths in his position and at that epoch would have been alternating + between frivolous pleasures and brilliant exploits in the field, the young + prince had spent laborious days and nights with the learned Simon Stevinus + of Bruges. The scientific work which they composed in common, the credit + of which the master assigned to the pupil, might have been more justly + attributed perhaps to the professor than to the prince, but it is certain + that Maurice was an apt scholar. + </p> + <p> + In that country, ever held in existence by main human force against the + elements, the arts of engineering, hydrostatics and kindred branches were + of necessity much cultivated. It was reserved for the young mathematician + to make them as potent against a human foe. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, there were symptoms that the military discipline, learning and + practical skill, which had almost made Spain the mistress of the world, + were sinking into decay. Farnese, although still in the prime of life, was + broken in health, and there seemed no one fit to take the place of himself + and his lieutenants when they should be removed from the scene where they + had played their parts so consummately. The army of the Netherlands was + still to be created. Thus far the contest had been mainly carried on by + domestic militia and foreign volunteers or hirelings. The train-bands of + the cities were aided in their struggles against Spanish pikemen and + artillerists, Italian and Albanian cavalry by the German riders, whom + every little potentate was anxious to sell to either combatant according + to the highest bid, and by English mercenaries, whom the love of adventure + or the hope of plunder sent forth under such well-seasoned captains as + Williams and Morgan, Vere and the Norrises, Baskerville and Willoughby. + </p> + <p> + But a Dutch army there was none and Maurice had determined that at last a + national force should be created. In this enterprise he was aided and + guided by his cousin Lewis William, Stadtholder of Friesland—the + quaint, rugged little hero, young in years but almost a veteran in the + wars of freedom, who was as genial and intellectual in council as he was + reckless and impulsive in the field. + </p> + <p> + Lewis William had felt that the old military art was dying out and that—there + was nothing to take its place. He was a diligent student of antiquity. He + had revived in the swamps of Friesland the old manoeuvres, the quickness + of wheeling, the strengthening, without breaking ranks or columns, by + which the ancient Romans had performed so much excellent work in their + day, and which seemed to have passed entirely into oblivion. Old colonels + and rittmasters, who had never heard of Leo the Thracian nor the + Macedonian phalanx, smiled and shrugged their shoulders, as they listened + to the questions of the young count, or gazed with profound astonishment + at the eccentric evolutions to which he was accustoming his troops. From + the heights of superior wisdom they looked down with pity upon these + innovations on the good old battle order. They were accustomed to great + solid squares of troops wheeling in one way, steadily, deliberately, all + together, by one impulse and as one man. It was true that in narrow + fields, and when the enemy was pressing, such stately evolutions often + became impossible or ensured defeat; but when the little Stadtholder + drilled his soldiers in small bodies of various shapes, teaching them to + turn, advance; retreat; wheel in a variety of ways, sometimes in + considerable masses, sometimes man by man, sending the foremost suddenly + to the rear, or bringing the hindmost ranks to the front, and began to + attempt all this in narrow fields as well as in wide ones, and when the + enemy was in sight, men stood aghast at his want of reverence, or laughed + at him as a pedant. But there came a day when they did not laugh, neither + friends nor enemies. Meantime the two cousins, who directed all the + military operations in the provinces, understood each other thoroughly and + proceeded to perfect their new system, to be adopted at a later period by + all civilized nations. + </p> + <p> + The regular army of the Netherlands was small in number at that moment—not + more than twenty thousand foot with two thousand horse—but it was + well disciplined, well equipped, and, what was of great importance, + regularly paid. Old campaigners complained that in the halcyon days of + paper enrolments, a captain could earn more out of his company than a + colonel now received for his whole regiment. The days when a thousand men + were paid for, with a couple of hundred in the field, were passing away + for the United Provinces and existed only for Italians and Spaniards. + While, therefore, mutiny on an organised and extensive scale seemed almost + the normal condition of the unpaid legions of Philip, the little army of + Maurice was becoming the model for Europe to imitate. + </p> + <p> + The United Provinces were as yet very far from being masters of their own + territory. Many of their most important cities still held for the king. In + Brabant, such towns as Breda with its many dependencies and + Gertruydenberg; on the Waal, the strong and wealthy Nymegen which Martin + Schenk had perished in attempting to surprise; on the Yssel, the thriving + city of Zutphen, whose fort had been surrendered by the traitor York, and + the stately Deventer, which had been placed in Philip's possession by the + treachery of Sir William Stanley; on the borders of Drenthe, the almost + impregnable Koevorden, key to the whole Zwollian country; and in the very + heart of ancient Netherland, Groningen, capital of the province of the + same name, which the treason of Renneberg had sold to the Spanish tyrant; + all these flourishing cities and indispensable strongholds were garrisoned + by foreign troops, making the idea of Dutch independence a delusion. + </p> + <p> + While Alexander of Parma, sorely against his will and in obedience to + what, he deemed the insane suggestions of his master, was turning his back + on the Netherlands in order to relieve Paris, now hard pressed by the + Bearnese, an opportunity offered itself of making at least a beginning in + the great enterprise of recovering these most valuable possessions. + </p> + <p> + The fair and pleasant city of Breda lies on the Merk, a slender stream, + navigable for small vessels, which finds its way to the sea through the + great canal of the Dintel. It had been the property of the Princes of + Orange, Barons of Breda, and had passed with the other possessions of the + family to the house of Chalons-Nassau. Henry of Nassau had, half a century + before, adorned and strengthened it by a splendid palace-fortress which, + surrounded by a deep and double moat, thoroughly commanded the town. A + garrison of five companies of Italian infantry and one of cavalry lay in + this castle, which was under the command of Edward Lanzavecchia, governor + both of Breda and of the neighbouring Gertruydenberg. + </p> + <p> + Breda was an important strategical position. It was moreover the feudal + superior of a large number of adjacent villages as well as of the cities + Osterhout, Steenberg and Rosendaal. It was obviously not more desirable + for Maurice of Nassau to recover his patrimonial city than it was for the + States-General to drive the Spaniards from so important a position! + </p> + <p> + In the month of February, 1590, Maurice, being then at the castle of Voorn + in Zeeland, received a secret visit from a boatman, Adrian van der Berg by + name, who lived at the village of Leur, eight or ten miles from Breda, and + who had long been in the habit of supplying the castle with turf. In the + absence of woods and coal mines, the habitual fuel of the country was + furnished by those vast relics of the antediluvian forests which abounded + in the still partially submerged soil. The skipper represented that his + vessel had passed so often into and out of the castle as to be hardly + liable to search by the guard on its entrance. He suggested a stratagem by + which it might be possible to surprise the stronghold. + </p> + <p> + The prince approved of the scheme and immediately consulted with + Barneveld. That statesman at once proposed, as a suitable man to carry out + the daring venture, Captain Charles de Heraugiere, a nobleman of Cambray, + who had been long in the service of the States, had distinguished himself + at Sluys and on other occasions, but who had been implicated in + Leicester's nefarious plot to gain possession of the city of Leyden a few + years before. The Advocate expressed confidence that he would be grateful + for so signal an opportunity of retrieving a somewhat damaged reputation. + Heraugiere, who was with his company in Voorn at the moment, eagerly + signified his desire to attempt the enterprise as soon as the matter was + communicated to him; avowing the deepest devotion to the house of William + the Silent and perfect willingness to sacrifice his life, if necessary, in + its cause and that of the country. Philip Nassau, cousin of Prince Maurice + and brother of Lewis William, governor of Gorcum, Dorcum, and Lowenstein + Castle and colonel of a regiment of cavalry, was also taken into the + secret, as well as Count Hohenlo, President Van der Myle and a few others; + but a mystery was carefully spread and maintained over the undertaking. + </p> + <p> + Heraugiere selected sixty-eight men, on whose personal daring and patience + he knew that he could rely, from the regiments of Philip Nassau and of + Famars, governor of the neighbouring city of Heusden, and from his own + company. Besides himself, the officers to command the party were captains + Logier and Fervet, and lieutenant Matthew Held. The names of such devoted + soldiers deserve to be commemorated and are still freshly remembered by + their countrymen. + </p> + <p> + On the 25th of February, Maurice and his staff went to Willemstad on the + Isle of Klundert, it having been given out on his departure from the Hague + that his destination was Dort. On the same night at about eleven o'clock, + by the feeble light of a waning moon, Heraugiere and his band came to the + Swertsenburg ferry, as agreed upon, to meet the boatman. They found + neither him nor his vessel, and they wandered about half the night, very + cold, very indignant, much perplexed. At last, on their way back, they + came upon the skipper at the village of Terheyde, who made the + extraordinary excuse that he had overslept himself and that he feared the + plot had been discovered. It being too late to make any attempt that + night, a meeting was arranged for the following evening. No suspicion of + treachery occurred to any of the party, although it became obvious that + the skipper had grown faint-hearted. He did not come on the next night to + the appointed place but he sent two nephews, boatmen like himself, whom he + described as dare-devils. + </p> + <p> + On Monday night, the 26th of February, the seventy went on board the + vessel, which was apparently filled with blocks of turf, and packed + themselves closely in the hold. They moved slowly during a little time on + their perilous voyage; for the winter wind, thick with fog and sleet, blew + directly down the river, bringing along with it huge blocks of ice and + scooping the water out of the dangerous shallows, so as to render the + vessel at any moment liable to be stranded. At last the navigation became + impossible and they came to a standstill. From Monday night till Thursday + morning those seventy Hollanders lay packed like herrings in the hold of + their little vessel, suffering from hunger, thirst, and deadly cold; yet + not one of them attempted to escape or murmured a wish to abandon the + enterprise. Even when the third morning dawned there was no better + prospect of proceeding; for the remorseless east wind still blew a gale + against them, and the shoals which beset their path had become more + dangerous than ever. It was, however, absolutely necessary to recruit + exhausted nature, unless the adventurers were to drop powerless on the + threshold when they should at last arrive at their destination. In all + secrecy they went ashore at a lonely castle called Nordam, where they + remained to refresh themselves until about eleven at night, when one of + the boatmen came to them with the intelligence that the wind had changed + and was now blowing freshly in from the sea. Yet the voyage of a few + leagues, on which they were embarked, lasted nearly two whole days longer. + On Saturday afternoon they passed through the last sluice, and at about + three o'clock the last boom was shut behind them. There was no retreat + possible for them now. The seventy were to take the strong castle and city + of Breda or to lay down their lives, every man of them. No quarter and + short shrift—such was their certain destiny, should that + half-crippled, half-frozen little band not succeed in their task before + another sunrise. + </p> + <p> + They were now in the outer harbour and not far from the Watergate which + led into the inner castle-haven. Presently an officer of the guard put off + in a skiff and came on board the vessel. He held a little conversation + with the two boatmen, observed that the castle was—much in want of + full, took a survey of the turf with which the ship was apparently laden, + and then lounged into the little cabin. Here he was only separated by a + sliding trap-door from the interior of the vessel. Those inside could hear + and see his every movement. Had there been a single cough or sneeze from + within, the true character of the cargo, then making its way into the + castle, would have been discovered and every man would within ten minutes + have been butchered. But the officer, unsuspecting, soon took his + departure, saying that he would send some men to warp the vessel into the + castle dock. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, as the adventurers were making their way slowly towards the + Watergate, they struck upon a hidden obstruction in the river and the + deeply laden vessel sprang a leak. In a few minutes those inside were + sitting up to their knees in water—a circumstance which scarcely + improved their already sufficiently dismal condition. The boatmen + vigorously plied the pumps to save the vessel from sinking outright; a + party of Italian soldiers soon arrived on the shore, and in the course of + a couple of hours they had laboriously dragged the concealed Hollanders + into the inner harbour and made their vessel fast, close to the + guard-house of the castle. + </p> + <p> + And now a crowd of all sorts came on board. The winter nights had been + long and fearfully cold, and there was almost a dearth of fuel both in + town and fortress. A gang of labourers set to work discharging the turf + from the vessel with such rapidity that the departing daylight began to + shine in upon the prisoners much sooner than they wished. Moreover, the + thorough wetting, to which after all their other inconveniences they had + just been exposed in their narrow escape from foundering, had set the + whole party sneezing and coughing. Never was a catarrh so sudden, so + universal, or so ill-timed. Lieutenant Held, unable to control the + violence of his cough, drew his dagger and eagerly implored his next + neighbour to stab him to the heart, lest his infirmity should lead to the + discovery of the whole party. But the calm and wary skipper who stood on + the deck instantly commanded his companion to work at the pump with as + much clatter as possible, assuring the persons present that the hold was + nearly full of water. By this means the noise of the coughing was + effectually drowned. Most thoroughly did the bold boatman deserve the + title of dare-devil, bestowed by his more fainthearted uncle. Calmly + looking death in the face, he stood there quite at his ease, exchanging + jokes with his old acquaintances, chaffering with the eager purchasers of + peat shouting most noisy and superfluous orders to the one man who + composed his crew, doing his utmost, in short, to get rid of his customers + and to keep enough of the turf on board to conceal the conspirators. + </p> + <p> + At last, when the case seemed almost desperate, he loudly declared that + sufficient had been unladen for that evening and that it was too dark and + he too tired for further work. So, giving a handful of stivers among the + workmen, he bade them go ashore at once and have some beer and come next + morning for the rest of the cargo. Fortunately, they accepted his + hospitable proposition and took their departure. Only the servant of the + captain of the guard lingered behind, complaining that the turf was not as + good as usual and that his master would never be satisfied with it. + </p> + <p> + "Ah!" returned the cool skipper, "the best part of the cargo is + underneath. This is expressly reserved for the captain. He is sure to get + enough of it to-morrow." + </p> + <p> + Thus admonished, the servant departed and the boatman was left to himself. + His companion had gone on shore with secret orders to make the best of his + way to Prince Maurice, to inform him of the arrival of the ship within the + fortress, and of the important fact which they had just learned, that + Governor Lanzavecchia, who had heard rumours of some projected enterprise + and who suspected that the object aimed at was Gertruydenberg, had + suddenly taken his departure for that city, leaving as his lieutenant his + nephew Paolo, a raw lad quite incompetent to provide for the safety of + Breda. + </p> + <p> + A little before midnight, Captain Heraugiere made a brief address to his + comrades in the vessel, telling them that the hour for carrying out their + undertaking had at length arrived. Retreat was impossible, defeat was + certain death, only in complete victory lay their own safety and a great + advantage for the commonwealth. It was an honor to them to be selected for + such an enterprise. To show cowardice now would be an eternal shame for + them, and he would be the man to strike dead with his own hand any traitor + or poltroon. But if, as he doubted not, every one was prepared to do his + duty, their success was assured, and he was himself ready to take the lead + in confronting every danger. + </p> + <p> + He then divided the little band into two companies, one under himself to + attack the main guard-house, the other under Fervet to seize the arsenal + of the fortress. + </p> + <p> + Noiselessly they stole out of the ship where they had so long been + confined, and stood at last on the ground within the precincts of the + castle. Heraugiere marched straight to the guard-house. + </p> + <p> + "Who goes there?" cried a sentinel, hearing some movement in the darkness. + </p> + <p> + "A friend," replied the captain, seizing him, by the throat, and + commanding him, if he valued his life, to keep silence except when + addressed and then to speak in a whisper. + </p> + <p> + "How many are there in the garrison?" muttered Heraugiere. + </p> + <p> + "Three hundred and fifty," whispered the sentinel. + </p> + <p> + "How many?" eagerly demanded the nearest followers, not hearing the reply. + </p> + <p> + "He says there are but fifty of them," said Heraugiere, prudently + suppressing the three hundred, in order to encourage his comrades. + </p> + <p> + Quietly as they had made their approach, there was nevertheless a stir in + the guard-house. The captain of the watch sprang into the courtyard. + </p> + <p> + "Who goes there?" he demanded in his turn. + </p> + <p> + "A friend," again replied Heraugiere, striking him dead with a single blow + as he spoke. + </p> + <p> + Others emerged with torches. Heraugiere was slightly wounded, but + succeeded, after a brief struggle, in killing a second assailant. His + followers set upon the watch who retreated into the guard-house. + Heraugiere commanded his men to fire through the doors and windows, and in + a few minutes every one of the enemy lay dead. + </p> + <p> + It was not a moment for making prisoners or speaking of quarter. Meantime + Fervet and his band had not been idle. The magazine-house of the castle + was seized, its defenders slain. Young Lanzavecchia made a sally from the + palace, was wounded and driven back together with a few of his adherents. + </p> + <p> + The rest of the garrison fled helter-skelter into the town. Never had the + musketeers of Italy—for they all belonged to Spinola's famous + Sicilian Legion—behaved so badly. They did not even take the + precaution to destroy the bridge between the castle and the town as they + fled panic-stricken before seventy Hollanders. Instead of encouraging the + burghers to their support they spread dismay, as they ran, through every + street. + </p> + <p> + Young Lanzavecchia, penned into a corner of the castle; began to parley; + hoping for a rally before a surrender should be necessary. In the midst of + the negotiation and a couple of hours before dawn, Hohenlo; duly apprised + by the boatman, arrived with the vanguard of Maurice's troops before the + field-gate of the fort. A vain attempt was made to force this portal open, + but the winter's ice had fixed it fast. Hohenlo was obliged to batter down + the palisade near the water-gate and enter by the same road through which + the fatal turf-boat had passed. + </p> + <p> + Soon after he had marched into the town at the head of a strong + detachment, Prince Maurice himself arrived in great haste, attended by + Philip Nassau, the Admiral Justinus Nassau, Count Solms, Peter van der + Does, and Sir Francis Vere, and followed by another body of picked troops; + the musicians playing merrily that national air, then as now so dear to + Netherlanders— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Wilhelmus van Nassouwen + Ben ick van Duytaem bloed." +</pre> + <p> + The fight was over. Some forty of the garrison had been killed, but not a + man of the attacking party. The burgomaster sent a trumpet to the prince + asking permission to come to the castle to arrange a capitulation; and + before sunrise, the city and fortress of Breda had surrendered to the + authority of the States-General and of his Excellency. + </p> + <p> + The terms were moderate. The plundering was commuted for the payment of + two months' wages to every soldier engaged in the affair. Burghers who + might prefer to leave the city were allowed to do so with protection to + life, and property. Those who were willing to remain loyal citizens were + not to be molested, in their consciences or their households, in regard to + religion. The public exercise of Catholic rites was however suspended + until the States-General should make some universal provision on this + subject. + </p> + <p> + Subsequently, it must be allowed, the bargain of commutation proved a bad + one for the burghers. Seventy men had in reality done the whole work, but + so many soldiers, belonging to the detachments who marched in after the + fortress had been taken, came forward to claim their months' wages as to + bring the whole amount required above one hundred thousand florins. The + Spaniards accordingly reproached Prince Maurice with having fined his own + patrimonial city more heavily than Alexander Farnese had mulcted Antwerp, + which had been made to pay but four hundred thousand florins, a far less + sum in proportion to the wealth and importance of the place. + </p> + <p> + Already the Prince of Parma, in the taking of Breda, saw verified his + predictions of the disasters about to fall on the Spanish interests in the + Netherlands, by reason of Philip's obstinate determination to concentrate + all his energies on the invasion of France. Alexander had been unable, in + the midst of preparations for his French campaign, to arrest this sudden + capture, but his Italian blood was on fire at the ignominy which had come + upon the soldiership of his countrymen. Five companies of foot and one of + horse-picked troops of Spain and Italy—had surrendered a wealthy, + populous town and a well-fortified castle to a mud-scow, and had fled + shrieking in dismay from the onset of seventy frost-bitten Hollanders. + </p> + <p> + It was too late to save the town, but he could punish, as it deserved, the + pusillanimity of the garrison. + </p> + <p> + Three captains—one of them rejoicing in the martial name of Cesar + Guerra—were publicly beheaded in Brussels. A fourth, Ventimiglia, + was degraded but allowed to escape with life, on account of his near + relationship to the Duke of Terranova, while Governor Lanzavecchia was + obliged to resign the command of Gertruydenberg. The great commander knew + better than to encourage the yielding up of cities and fortresses by a + mistaken lenity to their unlucky defenders. + </p> + <p> + Prince Maurice sent off letters the same night announcing his success to + the States-General. Hohenlo wrote pithily to Olden-Barneveld—"The + castle and town of Breda are ours, without a single man dead on our side. + The garrison made no resistance but ran distracted out of the town." + </p> + <p> + The church bells rang and bonfires blazed and cannon thundered in every + city in the United Provinces to commemorate this auspicious event. + Olden-Barneveld, too, whose part in arranging the scheme was known to have + been so valuable, received from the States-General a magnificent gilded + vase with sculptured representations of the various scenes in the drama, + and it is probable that not more unmingled satisfaction had been caused by + any one event of the war than by this surprise of Breda. + </p> + <p> + The capture of a single town, not of first-rate importance either, would + hardly seem too merit so minute a description as has been given in the + preceding pages. But the event, with all its details, has been preserved + with singular vividness in Netherland story. As an example of daring, + patience, and complete success, it has served to encourage the bold + spirits of every generation and will always inspire emulation in patriotic + hearts of every age and clime, while, as the first of a series of + audacious enterprises by which Dutch victories were to take the place of a + long procession of Spanish triumphs on the blood-stained soil of the + provinces, it merits, from its chronological position, a more than + ordinary attention. + </p> + <p> + In the course of the summer Prince Maurice, carrying out into practice the + lessons which he had so steadily been pondering, reduced the towns and + strong places of Heyl, Flemert, Elshout, Crevecoeur, Hayden, Steenberg, + Rosendaal, and Osterhout. But his time, during the remainder of the year + 1590, was occupied with preparations for a campaign on an extended scale + and with certain foreign negotiations to which it will soon be necessary + to direct the reader's attention. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Struggle of the United Provinces against Philip of Spain—Progress + of the Republic—Influence of Geographical position on the fate of + the Netherlands—Contrast offered by America—Miserable state of the + so—called "obedient" provinces—Prosperity of the Commonwealth—Its + internal government—Tendency to provincialism—Quibbles of the + English Members of the Council, Wilkes and Bodley—Exclusion of + Olden-Barneveld from the State Council—Proposals of Philip for + mediation with the United Provinces—The Provinces resolutely + decline all proffers of intervention. +</pre> + <p> + The United Provinces had now been engaged in unbroken civil war for a + quarter of a century. It is, however, inaccurate to designate this great + struggle with tyranny as a civil war. It was a war for independence, + maintained by almost the whole population of the United Provinces against + a foreigner, a despot, alien to their blood, ignorant of their language, a + hater of their race, a scorner of their religion, a trampler upon their + liberties, their laws, and institutions—a man who had publicly + declared that he would rather the whole nation were exterminated than + permitted to escape from subjection to the Church of Rome. Liberty of + speech, liberty of the press, liberty of thought on political, religious, + and social questions existed within those Dutch pastures and Frisian + swamps to a far greater degree than in any other part of the world at that + day; than in very many regions of Christendom in our own time. Personal + slavery was unknown. In a large portion of their territory it had never + existed. The free Frisians, nearest blood-relations of, in this respect, + the less favoured Anglo-Saxons, had never bowed the knee to the feudal + system, nor worn nor caused to be worn the collar of the serf. In the + battles for human liberty no nation has stood with cleaner hands before + the great tribunal, nor offered more spotless examples of patriotism to be + emulated in all succeeding ages, than the Netherlanders in their gigantic + struggle with Philip of Spain. It was not a class struggling for their own + privileges, but trampling on their fellow-men in a lower scale of + humanity. Kings and aristocrats sneered at the vulgar republic where Hans + Miller, Hans Baker, and Hans Brewer enjoyed political rights end prated of + a sovereignty other than that of long-descended races and of anointed + heads. Yet the pikemen of Spain and the splendid cavalry and musketeers of + Italy and Burgundy, who were now beginning to show their backs both behind + entrenchments and in the open field to their republican foes, could not + deny the valour with which the battles of liberty were fought; while + Elizabeth of England, maintainer, if such ever were, of hereditary + sovereignty and hater of popular freedom, acknowledged that for wisdom in + council, dignity and adroitness in diplomatic debate, there were none to + surpass the plain burgher statesmen of the new republic. + </p> + <p> + And at least these Netherlanders were consistent with themselves. They had + come to disbelieve in the mystery of kingcraft, in the divine speciality + of a few transitory mortals to direct the world's events and to dictate + laws to their fellow-creatures. What they achieved was for the common good + of all. They chose to live in an atmosphere of blood and fire for + generation after generation rather than flinch from their struggle with + despotism, for they knew that, cruel as the sea, it would swallow them all + at last in one common destruction if they faltered or paused. They fought + for the liberty of all. And it is for this reason that the history of this + great conflict deserved to be deeply pondered by those who have the + instinct of human freedom. Had the Hollanders basely sunk before the power + of Spain, the proud history of England, France, and Germany would have + been written in far different terms. The blood and tears which the + Netherlanders caused to flow in their own stormy days have turned to + blessings for remotest climes and ages. A pusillanimous peace, always + possible at any period of their war, would have been hailed with rapture + by contemporary statesmen, whose names have vanished from the world's + memory; but would have sown with curses and misery the soil of Europe for + succeeding ages. The territory of the Netherlands is narrow and meagre. It + is but a slender kingdom now among the powers of the earth. The political + grandeur of nations is determined by physical causes almost as much as by + moral ones. Had the cataclysm which separated the fortunate British + islands from the mainland happened to occur, instead, at a neighbouring + point of the earth's crust; had the Belgian, Dutch, German and Danish + Netherland floated off as one island into the sea, while that famous + channel between two great rival nations remained dry land, there would + have been a different history of the world. + </p> + <p> + But in the 16th century the history of one country was not an isolated + chapter of personages and events. The history of the Netherlands is + history of liberty. It was now combined with the English, now with French, + with German struggles for political and religious freedom, but it is + impossible to separate it from the one great complex which makes up the + last half of the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth + centuries. + </p> + <p> + At that day the Netherland republic was already becoming a power of + importance in the political family of Christendom. If, in spite of her + geographical disadvantages, she achieved so much, how much vaster might + her power have grown, how much stronger through her example might popular + institutions throughout the world have become, and how much more pacific + the relations of European tribes, had nature been less niggard in her + gifts to the young commonwealth. On the sea she was strong, for the ocean + is the best of frontiers; but on land her natural boundaries faded vaguely + away, without strong physical demarcations and with no sharply defined + limits of tongue, history or race. Accident or human caprice seemed to + have divided German Highland from German Netherland; Belgic Gaul from the + rest of the Gallic realm. And even from the slender body, which an + arbitrary destiny had set off for centuries into a separate organism, + tyranny and religious bigotry had just hewn another portion away. But the + commonwealth was already too highly vitalized to permit peaceful + dismemberment. Only the low organisms can live in all their parts after + violent separations. The trunk remained, bleeding but alive and vigorous, + while the amputated portion lay for centuries in fossilized impotence. + </p> + <p> + Never more plainly than in the history of this commonwealth was the + geographical law manifested by which the fate of nations is so deeply + influenced. Courage, enterprise amounting almost to audacity, and a + determined will confronted for a long lapse of time the inexorable, and + permitted a great empire to germinate out of a few sand-banks held in + defiance of the ocean, and protected from human encroachments on the + interior only by the artificial barrier of custom-house and fort. + </p> + <p> + Thus foredoomed at birth, it must increase our admiration of human energy + and of the sustaining influence of municipal liberty that the republic, + even if transitory, should yet have girdled the earth with its possessions + and held for a considerable period so vast a portion of the world in fee. + </p> + <p> + What a lesson to our transatlantic commonwealth, whom bountiful nature had + blessed at her birth beyond all the nations of history and seemed to speed + upon an unlimited career of freedom and peaceful prosperity, should she be + capable at the first alarm on her track to throw away her inestimable + advantages! If all history is not a mockery and a fable, she may be sure + that the nation which deliberately carves itself in pieces and, + substitutes artificial boundaries for the natural and historic ones, + condemns itself either to extinction or to the lower life of political + insignificance and petty warfare, with the certain loss of liberty and + national independence at last. Better a terrible struggle, better the + sacrifice of prosperity and happiness for years, than the eternal setting + of that great popular hope, the United American Republic. + </p> + <p> + I speak in this digression only of the relations of physical nature to + liberty and nationality, making no allusion to the equally stringent moral + laws which no people can violate and yet remain in health and vigour. + </p> + <p> + Despite a quarter of a century of what is commonly termed civil war, the + United Netherlands were prosperous and full of life. It was in the + provinces which had seceded from the union of Utrecht that there was + silence as of the grave, destitution, slavery, abject submission to a + foreign foe. The leaders in the movement which had brought about the + scission of 1579—commonly called the 'Reconciliation'—enjoyed + military and civil posts under a foreign tyrant, but were poorly rewarded + for subserviency in fighting against their own brethren by contumely on + the part of their masters. As for the mass of the people it would be + difficult to find a desolation more complete than that recorded of the + "obedient" provinces. Even as six years before, wolves littered their + whelps in deserted farmhouses, cane-brake and thicket usurped the place of + cornfield and, orchard, robbers swarmed on the highways once thronged by a + most thriving population, nobles begged their bread in the streets of + cities whose merchants once entertained emperors and whose wealth and + traffic were the wonder of the world, while the Spanish viceroy formally + permitted the land in the agricultural districts to be occupied and farmed + by the first comer for his own benefit, until the vanished proprietors of + the soil should make their re-appearance. + </p> + <p> + "Administered without justice or policy," said a Netherlander who was + intensely loyal to the king and a most uncompromising Catholic, "eaten up + and abandoned for that purpose to the arbitrary will of foreigners who + suck the substance and marrow of the land without benefit to the king, + gnaw the obedient cities to the bones, and plunder the open defenceless + country at their pleasure, it may be imagined how much satisfaction these + provinces take in their condition. Commerce and trade have ceased in a + country which traffic alone has peopled, for without it no human + habitation could be more miserable and poor than our land."—[Discours + du Seigneur de Champagny sur les affaires des Pays Bas, 21 Dec. 1589. + Bibl. de Bourgogne, MS. No. 12,962.] + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more gloomy than the evils thus described by the + Netherland statesman and soldier, except the remedy which he suggested. + The obedient provinces, thus scourged and blasted for their obedience, + were not advised to improve their condition by joining hands with their + sister States, who had just constituted themselves by their noble + resistance to royal and ecclesiastical tyranny into a free and powerful + commonwealth. On the contrary, two great sources of regeneration and + prosperity were indicated, but very different ones from those in which the + republic had sought and found her strength. In the first place, it was + suggested as indispensable that the obedient provinces should have more + Jesuits and more Friars. The mendicant orders should be summoned to + renewed exertions, and the king should be requested to send seminary + priests to every village in numbers proportionate to the population, who + should go about from house to house, counting the children, and seeing + that they learned their catechism if their parents did not teach them, + and, even in case they did, examining whether it was done thoroughly and + without deception. + </p> + <p> + In the second place it was laid down as important that the bishops should + confirm no one who had not been sufficiently catechized. "And if the + mendicant orders," said Champagny, "are not numerous enough for these + catechizations, the Jesuits might charge themselves therewith, not more + and not less than the said mendicants, some of each being deputed to each + parish. To this end it would be well if his Majesty should obtain from the + Pope a command to the Jesuits to this effect, since otherwise they might + not be willing to comply. It should also be ordered that all Jesuits, + natives of these provinces, should return hither, instead of wandering + about in other regions as if their help were not so necessary here."—[Ibid.] + </p> + <p> + It was also recommended that the mendicant friars should turn their + particular attention to Antwerp, and that one of them should preach in + French, another in German, another in English, every day at the opening of + the Exchange. + </p> + <p> + With these appliances it was thought that Antwerp would revive out of its + ruins and, despite the blockade of its river, renew its ancient commercial + glories. Founded on the substantial rocks of mendicancy and jesuitism, it + might again triumph over its rapidly rising rival, the heretic Amsterdam, + which had no better basis for its grandeur than religious and political + liberty, and uncontrolled access to the ocean. + </p> + <p> + Such were the aspirations of a distinguished and loyal Netherlander for + the regeneration of his country. Such were his opinions as to the true + sources of the wealth and greatness of nations. Can we wonder that the + country fell to decay, or that this experienced, statesman and brave + soldier should himself, after not many years, seek to hide his dishonoured + head under the cowl of a monk? + </p> + <p> + The coast of the obedient provinces was thoroughly blockaded. The United + Provinces commanded the sea, their cruisers, large and small, keeping + diligent watch off every port and estuary of the Flemish coast, so that + not a herringboat could enter without their permission. Antwerp, when it + fell into the hands of the Spaniard, sank for ever from its proud + position. The city which Venetians but lately had confessed with a sigh to + be superior in commercial grandeur to their own magnificent capital, had + ceased to be a seaport. Shut in from the ocean by Flushing—firmly + held by an English garrison as one of the cautionary towns for the Queen's + loan—her world-wide commerce withered before men's eyes. Her + population was dwindling to not much more than half its former numbers, + while Ghent, Bruges, and other cities were diminished by two-thirds. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the commerce and manufactures of the United Republic + had enormously augmented. Its bitterest enemies bore witness to the + sagacity and success by which its political affairs were administered, and + to its vast superiority in this respect over the obedient provinces. "The + rebels are not ignorant of our condition," said Champagny, "they are + themselves governed with consummate wisdom, and they mock at those who + submit themselves to the Duke of Parma. They are the more confirmed in + their rebellion, when they see how many are thronging from us to them, + complaining of such bad government, and that all take refuge in flight who + can from the misery and famine which it has caused throughout these + provinces!" The industrial population had flowed from the southern + provinces into the north, in obedience to an irresistible law. The workers + in iron, paper, silk, linen, lace, the makers of brocade, tapestry, and + satin, as well as of all the coarser fabrics, had fled from the land of + oppression to the land of liberty. Never in the history of civilisation + had there been a more rapid development of human industry than in Holland + during these years of bloodiest warfare. The towns were filled to + overflowing. Amsterdam multiplied in wealth and population as fast as + Antwerp shrank. Almost as much might be said of Middelburg, Enkhuyzen, + Horn, and many other cities. It is the epoch to which the greatest + expansion of municipal architecture is traced. Warehouses, palaces, docks, + arsenals, fortifications, dykes, splendid streets and suburbs, were + constructed on every side, and still there was not room for the constantly + increasing population, large numbers of which habitually dwelt in the + shipping. For even of that narrow span of earth called the province of + Holland, one-third was then interior water, divided into five considerable + lakes, those of Harlem, Schermer, Beemster, Waert, and Purmer. The sea was + kept out by a magnificent system of dykes under the daily superintendence + of a board of officers, called dyke-graves, while the rain-water, which + might otherwise have drowned the soil thus painfully reclaimed, was pumped + up by windmills and drained off through sluices opening and closing with + the movement of the tides. + </p> + <p> + The province of Zeeland was one vast "polder." It was encircled by an + outer dyke of forty Dutch equal to one hundred and fifty English, miles in + extent, and traversed by many interior barriers. The average cost of + dyke-building was sixty florins the rod of twelve feet, or 84,000 florins + the Dutch mile. The total cost of the Zeeland dykes was estimated at + 3,360,000 florins, besides the annual repairs. + </p> + <p> + But it was on the sea that the Netherlanders were really at home, and they + always felt it in their power—as their last resource against foreign + tyranny—to bury their land for ever in the ocean, and to seek a new + country at the ends of the earth. It has always been difficult to doom to + political or personal slavery a nation accustomed to maritime pursuits. + Familiarity with the boundless expanse of ocean, and the habit of + victoriously contending with the elements in their stormy strength, would + seem to inspire a consciousness in mankind of human dignity and worth. + With the exception of Spain, the chief seafaring nations of the world were + already protestant. The counter-league, which was to do battle so + strenuously with the Holy Confederacy, was essentially a maritime league. + "All the maritime heretics of the world, since heresy is best suited to + navigators, will be banded together," said Champagny, "and then woe to the + Spanish Indies, which England and Holland are already threatening." + </p> + <p> + The Netherlanders had been noted from earliest times for a free-spoken and + independent personal demeanour. At this epoch they were taking the lead of + the whole world in marine adventure. At least three thousand vessels of + between one hundred and four hundred tons, besides innumerable doggers, + busses, cromstevens, and similar craft used on the rivers and in + fisheries, were to be found in the United Provinces, and one thousand, it + was estimated, were annually built. + </p> + <p> + They traded to the Baltic regions for honey, wax, tallow, lumber, iron, + turpentine, hemp. They brought from farthest Indies and from America all + the fabrics of ancient civilisation, all the newly discovered products of + a virgin soil, and dispensed them among the less industrious nations of + the earth. Enterprise, led on and accompanied by science, was already + planning the boldest flights into the unknown yet made by mankind, and it + will soon be necessary to direct attention to those famous arctic voyages, + made by Hollanders in pursuit of the north-west passage to Cathay, in + which as much heroism, audacity, and scientific intelligence were + displayed as in later times have made so many men belonging to both + branches of the Anglo-Saxon race illustrious. A people, engaged in + perennial conflict with a martial and sacerdotal despotism the most + powerful in the world, could yet spare enough from its superfluous + energies to confront the dangers of the polar oceans, and to bring back + treasures of science to enrich the world. + </p> + <p> + Such was the spirit of freedom. Inspired by its blessed influence this + vigorous and inventive little commonwealth triumphed over all human, all + physical obstacles in its path. It organised armies on new principles to + drive the most famous legions of history from its soil. It built navies to + help rescue, at critical moments, the cause of England, of Protestantism, + of civil liberty, and even of French nationality. More than all, by its + trade with its arch-enemy, the republic constantly multiplied its + resources for destroying his power and aggrandizing its own. + </p> + <p> + The war navy of the United Provinces was a regular force of one hundred + ships—large at a period when a vessel of thirteen hundred tons was a + monster—together with an indefinite number of smaller craft, which + could be put into the public service on short notice? In those days of + close quarters and light artillery a merchant ship was converted into a + cruiser by a very simple, process. The navy was a self-supporting one, for + it was paid by the produce of convoy fees and licenses to trade. It must + be confessed that a portion of these revenues savoured much of black-mail + to be levied on friend and foe; for the distinctions between, freebooter, + privateer, pirate, and legitimate sea-robber were not very closely drawn + in those early days of seafaring. + </p> + <p> + Prince Maurice of Nassau was lord high admiral, but he was obliged to + listen to the counsels of various provincial boards of admiralty, which + often impeded his action and interfered with his schemes. + </p> + <p> + It cannot be denied that the inherent vice of the Netherland polity was + already a tendency to decentralisation and provincialism. The civil + institutions of the country, in their main characteristics, have been + frequently sketched in these pages. At this period they had entered almost + completely into the forms which were destined to endure until the + commonwealth fell in the great crash of the French Revolution. Their + beneficial effects were more visible now—sustained and bound + together as the nation was by the sense of a common danger, and by the + consciousness of its daily developing strength—than at a later day + when prosperity and luxury had blunted the fine instincts of patriotism. + </p> + <p> + The supreme power, after the deposition of Philip, and the refusal by + France and by England to accept the sovereignty of the provinces, was + definitely lodged in the States-General. But the States-General did not + technically represent the people. Its members were not elected by the + people. It was a body composed of, delegates from each provincial + assembly, of which there were now five: Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, + Utrecht, and Gelderland. Each provincial assembly consisted again of + delegates, not from the inhabitants of the provinces, but from the + magistracies of the cities. Those, magistracies, again, were not elected + by the citizens. They elected themselves by renewing their own vacancies, + and were, in short, immortal corporations. Thus, in final analysis, the + supreme power was distributed and localised among the mayors and aldermen + of a large number of cities, all independent alike of the people below and + of any central power above. + </p> + <p> + It is true that the nobles, as, a class, had a voice in the provincial + and, in the general assembly, both for themselves and as technical + representatives of the smaller towns and of the rural population. But, as + a matter of fact, the influence of this caste had of late years very + rapidly diminished, through its decrease in numbers, and the far more + rapid increase in wealth and power of the commercial and manufacturing + classes. Individual nobles were constantly employed in the military, + civil, and diplomatic service of the republic, but their body had ceased + to be a power. It had been the policy of William the Silent to increase + the number of cities entitled to send deputies to the States; for it was + among the cities that his resistance to the tyranny of Spain, and his + efforts to obtain complete independence for his country, had been mainly + supported. Many of the great nobles, as has been seen in these pages, + denounced the liberator and took sides with the tyrant. Lamoral Egmont had + walked to the scaffold to which Philip had condemned him, chanting a + prayer for Philip's welfare. Egmont's eldest son was now foremost in the + Spanish army, doing battle against his own country in behalf of the tyrant + who had taken his father's life. Aremberg and Ligny, Arachot, Chimay, + Croy, Caprea, Montigny, and most of the great patrician families of the + Netherlands fought on the royal side. + </p> + <p> + The revolution which had saved the country from perdition and created the + great Netherland republic was a burgher revolution, and burgher statesmen + now controlled the State. The burgher class of Europe is not the one that + has been foremost in the revolutionary movements of history, or that has + distinguished itself—especially in more modern times—by a + passionate love of liberty. It is always easy to sneer at Hans Miller and + Hans Baker, and at the country where such plebeians are powerful. Yet the + burghers played a prominent part in the great drama which forms my theme, + and there has rarely been seen a more solid or powerful type of their + class than the burgher statesman, John of Olden-Barneveld, who, since the + death of William the Silent and the departure of Lord Leicester, had + mainly guided the destinies of Holland. Certainly no soldier nor statesman + who ever measured intellects with that potent personage was apt to treat + his genius otherwise than with profound respect. + </p> + <p> + But it is difficult to form a logical theory of government except on the + fiction of divine right as a basis, unless the fact of popular + sovereignty, as expressed by a majority, be frankly accepted in spite of + philosophical objections. + </p> + <p> + In the Netherlands there was no king, and strictly speaking no people. But + this latter and fatal defect was not visible in the period of danger and + of contest. The native magistrates of that age were singularly pure, + upright, and patriotic. Of this there is no question whatever. And the + people acquiesced cheerfully in their authority, not claiming a larger + representation than such as they virtually possessed in the multiple power + exercised over them, by men moving daily among them, often of modest + fortunes and of simple lives. Two generations later, and in the wilderness + of Massachusetts, the early American colonists voluntarily placed in the + hands of their magistrates, few in number, unlimited control of all the + functions of government, and there was hardly an instance known of an + impure exercise of authority. Yet out of that simple kernel grew the least + limited and most powerful democracy ever known. + </p> + <p> + In the later days of Netherland history a different result became visible, + and with it came the ruin of the State. The governing class, of burgher + origin, gradually separated itself from the rest of the citizens, withdrew + from commercial pursuits, lived on hereditary fortunes in the exercise of + functions which were likewise virtually hereditary, and so became an + oligarchy. This result, together with the physical causes already + indicated, made the downfall of the commonwealth probable whenever it + should be attacked by an overwhelming force from without. + </p> + <p> + The States-General, however, at this epoch—although they had in a + manner usurped the sovereignty, which in the absence of a feudal lord + really belonged to the whole people, and had silently repossessed + themselves of those executive functions which they had themselves + conferred upon the state council—were at any rate without + self-seeking ambition. The Hollanders, as a race, were not office seekers, + but were singularly docile to constituted authority, while their regents—as + the municipal magistrates were commonly called—were not very far + removed above the mass by birth or habitual occupation. The republic was a + social and political fact, against which there was no violent antagonism + either of laws or manners, and the people, although not technically + existing, in reality was all in all. In Netherland story the People is + ever the true hero. It was an almost unnoticed but significant revolution—that + by which the state council was now virtually deprived of its authority. + During Leicester's rule it had been a most important college of + administration. Since his resignation it had been entrusted by the + States-General with high executive functions, especially in war matters. + It was an assembly of learned counsellors appointed from the various + provinces for wisdom and experience, usually about eighteen in number, and + sworn in all things to be faithful to the whole republic. The allegiance + of all was rendered to the nation. Each individual member was required to + "forswear his native province in order to be true to the generality." They + deliberated in common for the general good, and were not hampered by + instructions from the provincial diets, nor compelled to refer to those + diets for decision when important questions were at issue. It was an + independent executive committee for the whole republic. + </p> + <p> + But Leicester had made it unpopular. His intrigues, in the name of + democracy, to obtain possession of sovereign power, to inflame the lower + classes against the municipal magistracies, and to excite the clergy to + claim a political influence to which they were not entitled and which was + most mischievous in its effects, had exposed the state council, with which + he had been in the habit of consulting, to suspicion. + </p> + <p> + The Queen of England, by virtue of her treaty had the right to appoint two + of her subjects to be members of the council. The governor of her + auxiliary forces was also entitled to a seat there. Since the malpractices + of Leicester and the danger to which the country had been, subjected in + consequence had been discovered, it was impossible that there should be + very kindly feeling toward England in the public mind, however necessary a + sincere alliance between the two countries was known to be for the welfare + of both. + </p> + <p> + The bickering of the two English councillors, Wilkes and Bodley, and of + the governor of the English contingent with the Hollanders, was incessant. + The Englishmen went so far as to claim the right of veto upon all measures + passed by the council, but the States-General indignantly replied that the + matters deliberated and decided upon by that board were their own affairs, + not the state affairs of England. The two members and the military officer + who together represented her Majesty were entitled to participate in the + deliberations and to vote with their brother members. For them to claim + the right, however, at will to annul the proceedings was an intolerable + assumption, and could not be listened to for a moment. Certainly it would + have been strange had two Dutchmen undertaken to veto every measure passed + by the Queen's council at Richmond or Windsor, and it was difficult to say + on what article of the contract this extraordinary privilege was claimed + by Englishmen at the Hague. + </p> + <p> + Another cause of quarrel was the inability of the Englishmen to understand + the language in which the debates of the state council were held. + </p> + <p> + According to a custom not entirely unexampled in parliamentary history the + members of assembly and council made use of their native tongue in + discussing the state affairs of their native land. It was however + considered a grievance by the two English members that the Dutchmen should + speak Dutch, and it was demanded in the Queen's name that they should + employ some other language which a foreigner could more easily understand. + </p> + <p> + The Hollanders however refused this request, not believing that in a + reversed case her Majesty's Council or Houses of Parliament would be + likely or competent to carry on their discussions habitually in Italian or + Latin for the benefit of a couple of strangers who might not be familiar + with English. The more natural remedy would have been for the foreigners + to take lessons in the tongue of the country, or to seek for an + interpreter among their colleagues; especially as the States, when all the + Netherlands were but provinces, had steadily refused to adopt any language + but their mother tongue, even at the demand of their sovereign prince. + </p> + <p> + At this moment, Sir Thomas Bodley was mainly entrusted with her Majesty's + affairs at the Hague, but his overbearing demeanour, intemperate language, + and passionate style of correspondence with the States and with the royal + government, did much injury to both countries. The illustrious Walsingham—whose + death in the spring of this year England had so much reason to deplore—had + bitterly lamented, just before his death, having recommended so unquiet a + spirit for so important a place. Ortel, envoy of the States to London, + expressed his hopes that affairs would now be handled more to the + satisfaction of the States; as Bodley would be obliged, since the death of + Sir Francis, to address his letters to the Lord High Treasurer, with whom + it would be impossible for him to obtain so much influence as he had + enjoyed with the late Secretary of State. + </p> + <p> + Moreover it was exactly at this season that the Advocate of Holland, + Olden-Barneveld, was excluded from the state council. Already the + important province of Holland was dissatisfied with its influence in that + body. Bearing one-half of the whole burthen of the war it was not content + with one-quarter of the council vote, and very soon it became the custom + for the States-General to conduct all the most important affairs of the + republic. The state council complained that even in war matters it was not + consulted, and that most important enterprises were undertaken by Prince + Maurice without its knowledge, and on advice of the Advocate alone. + Doubtless this was true, and thus, most unfortunately, the commonwealth + was degraded to a confederacy instead of becoming an incorporate federal + State. The members of the States-General—as it has been seen were + responsible only to their constituents, the separate provinces. They + avowed allegiance, each to his own province, none to the central + government. Moreover they were not representatives, but envoys, appointed + by petty provinces, bound by written orders, and obliged to consult at + every step with their sovereigns at home. The Netherland polity was thus + stamped almost at its birth with a narrow provincialism: Delay and + hesitation thus necessarily engendered were overcome in the days of danger + by patriotic fervour. The instinct of union for the sake of the national + existence was sufficiently strong, and the robust, practical common sense + of the people sufficiently enlightened to prevent this weakness from + degenerating into impotence so long as the war pressure remained to mould + them into a whole. But a day was to come for bitterly rueing this + paralysis of the imperial instincts of the people, this indefinite + decentralisation of the national strength. + </p> + <p> + For the present, the legislative and executive body was the + States-General. But the States-General were in reality the States + provincial, and the States provincial were the city municipalities, among + which the magistracies of Holland were preponderant. + </p> + <p> + Ere long it became impossible for an individual to resist the decrees of + the civic authorities. In 1591, the States-General passed a resolution by + which these arrogant corporations virtually procured their exemption from + any process at the suit of a private person to be placed on record. So far + could the principle of sovereignty be pulverized. City council boards had + become supreme. + </p> + <p> + It was naturally impossible during the long continuance of this great + struggle, that neutral nations should not be injuriously affected by it in + a variety of ways. And as a matter of course neutral nations were disposed + to counsel peace. Peace, peace; peace was the sigh of the bystanders whose + commerce was impeded, whose international relations. were complicated, and + whose own security was endangered in the course of the bloody conflict. It + was however not very much the fashion of that day for governments to + obtrude advice upon each other; or to read to each other moral lectures. + It was assumed that when the expense and sacrifice of war had been + incurred, it was for cause, and the discovery had not yet been made that + those not immediately interested in the fray were better acquainted with + its merits than, the combatants themselves, and were moreover endued with, + superhuman wisdom to see with perfect clearness that future issue which to + the parties themselves was concealed. + </p> + <p> + Cheap apothegms upon the blessings of peace and upon the expediency of + curbing the angry passions, uttered by the belligerents of yesterday to + the belligerents of to-day, did not then pass current for profound wisdom. + </p> + <p> + Still the emperor Rudolph, abstaining for a time from his star-gazing, had + again thought proper to make a feeble attempt at intervention in those + sublunary matters which were supposed to be within his sphere. + </p> + <p> + It was perfectly well known that Philip was incapable of abating one jot + of his pretensions, and that to propose mediation to the United Provinces + was simply to request them, for the convenience of other powers, to return + to the slavery out of which, by the persistent efforts of a quarter of a + century, they had struggled. Nevertheless it was formally proposed to + re-open those lukewarm fountains of diplomatic commonplace in which + healing had been sought during the peace negotiations of Cologne in the + year 1579. But the States-General resolutely kept them sealed. They simply + answered his imperial Majesty by a communication of certain intercepted + correspondence between—the King of Spain and his ambassador at + Vienna, San Clemente, through which it was satisfactorily established that + any negotiation would prove as gigantic a comedy on the part of Spain as + had been the memorable conferences at Ostend, by which the invasion of + England had been masked. + </p> + <p> + There never was a possibility of mediation or of compromise except by + complete submission on the part of the Netherlanders to Crown and Church. + Both in this, as well as in previous and subsequent attempts at + negotiations, the secret instructions of Philip forbade any real + concessions on his side. He was always ready to negotiate, he was + especially anxious to obtain a suspension of arms from the rebels during + negotiation; but his agents were instructed to use great dexterity and + dissimulation in order that the proposal for such armistice, as well as + for negotiation at all, should appear to proceed, not from himself as was + the fact, but from the emperor as a neutral potentate. The king uniformly + proposed three points; firstly, that the rebels should reconvert + themselves to the Catholic religion; secondly, that they should return to + their obedience to himself; thirdly, that they should pay the expenses of + the war. Number three was, however, usually inserted in order that, by + conceding it subsequently, after much contestation, he might appear + conciliatory. It was a vehicle of magnanimity towards men grown insolent + with temporary success. Numbers one and two were immutable. + </p> + <p> + Especially upon number one was concession impossible. "The Catholic + religion is the first thing," said Philip, "and although the rebels do not + cease to insist that liberty of conscience should be granted them, in + order that they may preserve that which they have had during these past + years, this is never to be thought of in any event." The king always made + free use of the terrible weapon which the Protestant princes of Germany + had placed in his hands. For indeed if it were right that one man, because + possessed of hereditary power over millions of his fellow creatures, + should compel them all to accept the dogmas of Luther or of Calvin because + agreeable to himself, it was difficult to say why another man, in a + similarly elevated position, might not compel his subjects to accept the + creed of Trent, or the doctrines of Mahomet or Confucius. The + Netherlanders were fighting—even more than they knew-for liberty of + conscience, for equality of all religions; not for Moses, nor for + Melancthon; for Henry, Philip, or Pius; while Philip justly urged that no + prince in Christendom permitted license. "Let them well understand," said + his Majesty, "that since others who live in error, hold the opinion that + vassals are to conform to the religion of their master, it is insufferable + that it should be proposed to me that my vassals should have a different + religion from mine—and that too being the true religion, proved by + so many testimonies and miracles, while all others are deception. This + must be arranged with the authority of the commissioners of the emperor, + since it is well understood by them that the vassal is never to differ + from the opinion of his master." Certainly it was worth an eighty years' + war to drive such blasphemous madness as this out of human heads, whether + crowned or shaven. + </p> + <p> + There was likewise a diet held during the summer of this year, of the + circles of the empire nearest to the Netherlands—Westphalia, Cleves, + Juliers, and Saxony—from which commissioners were deputed both to + Brussels and to the Hague, to complain of the misfortunes suffered by + neutral and neighbouring nations in consequence of the civil war. + </p> + <p> + They took nothing by their mission to the Duke of Parma. At the Hague the + deputies were heard on the 22nd August, 1590. They complained to the + States-General of "brandschatting" on the border, of the holding of forts + beyond the lines, and of other invasions of neutral territory, of the + cruising of the war-vessels of the States off the shores and on the + rivers, and of their interference with lawful traders. Threats were made + of forcible intervention and reprisals. + </p> + <p> + The united States replied on the 13th September. Expressing deep regret + that neutral nations should suffer, they pronounced it to be impossible + but that some sparks from the great fire, now desolating their land, + should fly over into their neighbours' ground. The States were fighting + the battle of liberty against slavery, in which the future generations of + Germany, as well as of the Netherlands were interested. They were + combating that horrible institution, the Holy Inquisition. They were doing + their best to strike down the universal monarchy of Spain, which they + described as a bloodthirsty, insatiable, insolent, absolute dominion of + Saracenic, Moorish Christians. They warred with a system which placed + inquisitors on the seats of judges, which made it unlawful to read the + Scriptures, which violated all oaths, suppressed all civic freedom, + trampled, on all laws and customs, raised inordinate taxes by arbitrary + decree, and subjected high and low to indiscriminate murder. Spain had + sworn the destruction of the provinces and their subjugation to her + absolute dominion, in order to carry out her scheme of universal empire. + </p> + <p> + These were the deeds and designs against which the States were waging that + war, concerning some inconvenient results of which their neighbours, now + happily neutral, were complaining. But the cause of the States was the + cause of humanity itself. This Saracenic, Moorish, universal monarchy had + been seen by Germany to murder, despoil, and trample upon the Netherlands. + It had murdered millions of innocent Indians and Granadians. It had kept + Naples and Milan in abject slavery. It had seized Portugal. It had + deliberately planned and attempted an accursed invasion of England and + Ireland. It had overrun and plundered many cities of the empire. It had + spread a web of secret intrigue about Scotland. At last it was sending + great armies to conquer France and snatch its crown. Poor France now saw + the plans of this Spanish tyranny and bewailed her misery. The subjects of + her lawful king were ordered to rise against him, on account of religion + and conscience. Such holy pretexts were used by these Saracenic Christians + in order to gain possession of that kingdom. + </p> + <p> + For all these reasons, men should not reproach the inhabitants of the + Netherlands, because seeing the aims of this accursed tyranny, they had + set themselves to resist it. It was contrary to reason to consider them as + disturbers of the general peace, or to hold them guilty of violating their + oaths or their duty to the laws of the holy empire. The States-General + were sure that they had been hitherto faithful and loyal, and they were + resolved to continue in that path. + </p> + <p> + As members of the holy empire, in part—as of old they were + considered to be—they had rather the right to expect, instead of + reproaches, assistance against the enormous power and inhuman oppression + of their enemies. They had demanded it heretofore by their ambassadors, + and they still continued to claim it. They urged that, according to the + laws of the empire, all foreign soldiers, Spaniards, Saracens, and the + like should be driven out of the limits of the empire. Through these means + the German Highland and the German Netherland might be restored once more + to their old friendship and unity, and might deal with each other again in + amity and commerce. + </p> + <p> + If, however, such requests could not be granted they at least begged his + electoral highness and the other dukes, lords, and states to put on the + deeds of Netherlanders in this laborious and heavy war the best + interpretation, in order that they might, with the better courage and + resolution, bear those inevitable burthens which were becoming daily + heavier in this task of resistance and self-protection; in order that the + provinces might not be utterly conquered, and serve, with their natural + resources and advantageous situation, as 'sedes et media belli' for the + destruction of neighbouring States and the building up of the contemplated + universal, absolute monarchy. + </p> + <p> + The United Provinces had been compelled by overpowering necessity to take + up arms. That which had resulted was and remained in 'terminis + defensionis.' Their object was to protect what belonged to them, to + recover that which by force or fraud had been taken from them. + </p> + <p> + In regard to excesses committed by their troops against neutral + inhabitants on the border, they expressed a strong regret, together with a + disposition to make all proper retribution and to cause all crimes to be + punished. + </p> + <p> + They alluded to the enormous sins of this nature practised by the enemy + against neutral soil. They recalled to mind that the Spaniards paid their + troops ill or not at all, and that they allowed them to plunder the + innocent and the neutral, while the United States had paid their troops + better wages, and more punctually, than had ever been done by the greatest + potentates of Europe. It was true that the States kept many cruisers off + the coasts and upon the rivers, but these were to protect their own + citizens and friendly traders against pirates and against the common foe. + Germany derived as much benefit from this system as did the Provinces + themselves. + </p> + <p> + Thus did the States-General, respectfully but resolutely, decline all + proffers of intervention, which, as they were well aware, could only enure + to the benefit of the enemy. Thus did they avoid being entrapped into + negotiations which could only prove the most lamentable of comedies. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + A pusillanimous peace, always possible at any period + At length the twig was becoming the tree + Being the true religion, proved by so many testimonies + Certainly it was worth an eighty years' war + Chief seafaring nations of the world were already protestant + Conceding it subsequently, after much contestation + Fled from the land of oppression to the land of liberty + German Highland and the German Netherland + Little army of Maurice was becoming the model for Europe + Luxury had blunted the fine instincts of patriotism + Maritime heretics + Portion of these revenues savoured much of black-mail + The divine speciality of a few transitory mortals + The history of the Netherlands is history of liberty + The nation which deliberately carves itself in pieces + They had come to disbelieve in the mystery of kingcraft + Worn nor caused to be worn the collar of the serf +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. 1590 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Philip's scheme of aggrandizement—Projected invasion of France— + Internal condition of France—Character of Henry of Navarre— + Preparation for action—Battle of Ivry—Victory of the French king + over the League—Reluctance of the King to attack the French + capital—Siege of Paris—The pope indisposed towards the League— + Extraordinary demonstration of ecclesiastics—Influence of the + priests—Extremities of the siege—Attempted negotiation—State of + Philip's army—Difficult position of Farnese—March of the allies to + the relief of Paris—Lagny taken and the city relieved—Desertion of + the king's army—Siege of Corbeil—Death of Pope Sixtus V.— + Re-capture of Lagny and Corbeil—Return of Parma to the Netherlands + —Result of the expedition. +</pre> + <p> + The scene of the narrative shifts to France. The history of the United + Netherlands at this epoch is a world-history. Were it not so, it would + have far less of moral and instruction for all time than it is really + capable of affording. The battle of liberty against despotism was now + fought in the hop-fields of Brabant or the polders of Friesland, now in + the narrow seas which encircle England, and now on the sunny plains of + Dauphiny, among the craggy inlets of Brittany, or along the high roads and + rivers which lead to the gates of Paris. But everywhere a noiseless, + secret, but ubiquitous negotiation was speeding with never an instant's + pause to accomplish the work which lansquenettes and riders, pikemen and + carabineers were contending for on a hundred battle-fields and amid a din + of arms which for a quarter of a century had been the regular hum of human + industry. For nearly a generation of mankind, Germans and Hollanders, + Englishmen, Frenchmen, Scotchmen, Irishmen, Spaniards and Italians seemed + to be born into the world mainly to fight for or against a system of + universal monarchy, conceived for his own benefit by a quiet old man who + passed his days at a writing desk in a remote corner of Europe. It must be + confessed that Philip II. gave the world work enough. Whether—had + the peoples governed themselves—their energies might not have been + exerted in a different direction, and on the whole have produced more of + good to the human race than came of all this blood and awoke, may be + questioned. + </p> + <p> + But the divine right of kings, associating itself with the power supreme + of the Church, was struggling to maintain that old mastery of mankind + which awakening reason was inclined to dispute. Countries and nations + being regarded as private property to be inherited or bequeathed by a few + favoured individuals—provided always that those individuals were + obedient to the chief-priest—it had now become right and proper for + the Spanish monarch to annex Scotland, England, and France to the very + considerable possessions which were already his own. Scotland he claimed + by virtue of the expressed wish of Mary to the exclusion of her heretic + son. + </p> + <p> + France, which had been unjustly usurped by another family in times past to + his detriment, and which only a mere human invention—a "pleasantry" + as Alva had happily termed it, called the "Salic law"—prevented from + passing quietly to his daughter, as heiress to her mother, daughter of + Henry II., he was now fully bent upon making his own without further loss + of time. England, in consequence of the mishap of the year eighty-eight, + he was inclined to defer appropriating until the possession of the French + coasts, together with those of the Netherlands, should enable him to risk + the adventure with assured chances of success. + </p> + <p> + The Netherlands were fast slipping beyond his control, to be sure, as he + engaged in these endless schemes; and ill-disposed people of the day said + that the king was like Aesop's dog, lapping the river dry in order to get + at the skins floating on the surface. The Duke of Parma was driven to his + wits' ends for expedients, and beside himself with vexation, when + commanded to withdraw his ill-paid and mutinous army from the Provinces + for the purpose of invading France. Most importunate were the appeals and + potent the arguments by which he attempted to turn Philip from his + purpose. It was in vain. Spain was the great, aggressive, overshadowing + power at that day, before whose plots and whose violence the nations + alternately trembled, and it was France that now stood in danger of being + conquered or dismembered by the common enemy of all. That unhappy kingdom, + torn by intestine conflict, naturally invited the ambition and the + greediness of foreign powers. Civil war had been its condition, with brief + intervals, for a whole generation of mankind. During the last few years, + the sword had been never sheathed, while "the holy Confederacy" and the + Bearnese struggled together for the mastery. Religion was the mantle under + which the chiefs on both sides concealed their real designs as they led on + their followers year after year to the desperate conflict. And their + followers, the masses, were doubtless in earnest. A great principle—the + relation of man to his Maker and his condition in a future world as laid + down by rival priesthoods—has in almost every stage of history had + power to influence the multitude to fury and to deluge the world in blood. + And so long as the superstitious element of human nature enables + individuals or combinations of them to dictate to their fellow-creatures + those relations, or to dogmatize concerning those conditions—to take + possession of their consciences in short, and to interpose their mummeries + between man and his Creator—it is, probable that such scenes as + caused the nations to shudder, throughout so large a portion of the + sixteenth and seventeenth centuries will continue to repeat themselves at + intervals in various parts of the earth. Nothing can be more sublime than + the self-sacrifice, nothing more demoniac than the crimes, which human + creatures have seemed always ready to exhibit under the name of religion. + </p> + <p> + It was and had been really civil war in France. In the Netherlands it had + become essentially a struggle for independence against a foreign monarch; + although the germ out of which both conflicts had grown to their enormous + proportions was an effort of the multitude to check the growth of papacy. + In France, accordingly, civil war, attended by that gaunt sisterhood, + murder, pestilence, and famine, had swept from the soil almost everything + that makes life valuable. It had not brought in its train that + extraordinary material prosperity and intellectual development at which + men wondered in the Netherlands, and to which allusion has just been made. + But a fortunate conjunction of circumstances had now placed Henry of + Navarre in a position of vantage. He represented the principle of + nationality, of French unity. It was impossible to deny that he was in the + regular line of succession, now that luckless Henry of Valois slept with + his fathers, and the principle of nationality might perhaps prove as vital + a force as attachment to the Roman Church. Moreover, the adroit and + unscrupulous Bearnese knew well how to shift the mantle of religion from + one shoulder to the other, to serve his purposes or the humours of those + whom he addressed. + </p> + <p> + "The King of Spain would exclude me from the kingdom and heritage of my + father because of my religion," he said to the Duke of Saxony; "but in + that religion I am determined to persist so long as I shall live." The + hand was the hand of Henry, but it was the voice of Duplessis Mornay. + </p> + <p> + "Were there thirty crowns to win," said he, at about the same time to the + States of France, "I would not change my religion on compulsion, the + dagger at my throat. Instruct me, instruct me, I am not obstinate." There + spoke the wily freethinker, determined not to be juggled out of what he + considered his property by fanatics or priests of either church. Had Henry + been a real devotee, the fate of Christendom might have been different. + The world has long known how much misery it is in the power of crowned + bigots to inflict. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the Holy League, the sacred Confederacy, was catholic + or nothing. Already it was more papist than the pope, and loudly denounced + Sixtus V. as a Huguenot because he was thought to entertain a weak + admiration both for Henry the heretic and for the Jezebel of England. + </p> + <p> + But the holy confederacy was bent on destroying the national government of + France, and dismembering the national domain. To do this the pretext of + trampling out heresy and indefinitely extending the power of Rome, was + most influential with the multitude, and entitled the leaders to enjoy + immense power for the time being, while maturing their schemes for + acquiring permanent possession of large fragments of the national + territory. Mayenne, Nemours, Aumale, Mercoeur longed to convert temporary + governments into independent principalities. The Duke of Lorraine looked + with longing eyes on Verdun, Sedan, and, the other fair cities within the + territories contiguous—to his own domains. The reckless house of + Savoy; with whom freebooting and landrobbery seemed geographical, and + hereditary necessities, was busy on the southern borders, while it seemed + easy enough for Philip, II., in right of his daughter, to secure at least + the duchy of Brittany before entering on the sovereignty of the whole + kingdom. + </p> + <p> + To the eyes of the world at large: France might well seem in a condition + of hopeless disintegration; the restoration of its unity and former + position among the nations, under the government of a single chief, a weak + and wicked dream. Furious and incessant were the anathemas hurled on the + head of the Bearnese for his persistence in drowning the land in blood in + the hope of recovering a national capital which never could be his, and of + wresting from the control of the confederacy that power. which, whether + usurped or rightful, was considered, at least by the peaceably inclined, + to have become a solid fact. + </p> + <p> + The poor puppet locked in the tower of Fontenay, and entitled Charles X.; + deceived and scared no one. Such money as there was might be coined, in + its name, but Madam League reigned supreme in Paris. The confederates, + inspired by the eloquence of a cardinal legate, and supplied with funds by + the faithful, were ready to dare a thousand deaths rather than submit to + the rule of a tyrant and heretic. + </p> + <p> + What was an authority derived from the laws of the land and the history of + the race compared with the dogmas of Rome and the trained veterans of + Spain? It remained to be seen whether nationality or bigotry would + triumph. But in the early days of 1590 the prospects of nationality were + not encouraging. + </p> + <p> + Francois de Luxembourg, due de Pincey, was in Rome at that moment, deputed + by such catholic nobles of France as were friendly to Henry of Navarre. + Sixtus might perhaps be influenced as to the degree of respect to be + accorded to the envoy's representations by the events of the campaign + about to open. Meantime the legate Gaetano, young, rich, eloquent, + unscrupulous, distinguished alike for the splendour of his house and the + brilliancy of his intellect, had arrived in Paris. + </p> + <p> + Followed by a great train of adherents he had gone down to the House of + Parliament, and was about to seat himself under the dais reserved for the + king, when Brisson, first President of Parliament, plucked him back by the + arm, and caused him to take a seat immediately below his own. + </p> + <p> + Deeply was the bold president to expiate this defence of king and law + against the Holy League. For the moment however the legate contented + himself with a long harangue, setting forth the power of Rome, while + Brisson replied by an oration magnifying the grandeur of France. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards the cardinal addressed himself to the counteraction of + Henry's projects of conversion. For, well did the subtle priest understand + that in purging himself of heresy, the Bearnese was about to cut the + ground from beneath his enemies' feet. In a letter to the archbishops and + bishops of France, he argued the matter at length. Especially he denied + the necessity or the legality of an assembly of all the prelates of + France, such as Henry desired to afford him the requisite "instruction" as + to the respective merits of the Roman and the reformed Church. Certainly, + he urged, the Prince of Bearne could hardly require instruction as to the + tenets of either, seeing that at different times he had faithfully + professed both. + </p> + <p> + But while benches of bishops and doctors of the Sorbonne were burnishing + all the arms in ecclesiastical and legal arsenals for the approaching + fray, the sound of louder if not more potent artillery began to be heard + in the vicinity of Paris. The candid Henry, while seeking ghostly + instruction with eagerness from his papistical patrons, was equally + persevering in applying for the assistance of heretic musketeers and + riders from his protestant friends in England, Holland, Germany, and + Switzerland. + </p> + <p> + Queen Elizabeth and the States-General vied with each other in generosity + to the great champion of protestantism, who was combating the holy league + so valiantly, and rarely has a great historical figure presented itself to + the world so bizarre of aspect, and under such shifting perplexity of + light and shade, as did the Bearnese in the early spring of 1590. + </p> + <p> + The hope of a considerable portion of the catholic nobility of his realm, + although himself an excommunicated heretic; the mainstay of Calvinism + while secretly bending all his energies to effect his reconciliation with + the pope; the idol of the austere and grimly puritanical, while himself a + model of profligacy; the leader of the earnest and the true, although + false as water himself in every relation in which human beings can stand + to each other; a standardbearer of both great branches of the Christian + Church in an age when religion was the atmosphere of men's daily lives, + yet finding his sincerest admirer, and one of his most faithful allies, in + the Grand Turk, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [A portion of the magnificently protective letter of Sultan Amurath, + in which he complimented Henry on his religious stedfastness, might + almost have made the king's cheek tingle.] +</pre> + <p> + the representative of national liberty and human rights against regal and + sacerdotal absolutism, while himself a remorseless despot by nature and + education, and a believer in no rights of the people save in their + privilege to be ruled by himself; it seems strange at first view that + Henry of Navarre should have been for centuries so heroic and popular an + image. But he was a soldier, a wit, a consummate politician; above all, he + was a man, at a period when to be a king was often to be something much + less or much worse. + </p> + <p> + To those accustomed to weigh and analyse popular forces it might well seem + that he was now playing an utterly hopeless game. His capital garrisoned + by the Pope and the King of Spain, with its grandees and its populace + scoffing at his pretence of authority and loathing his name; with an + exchequer consisting of what he could beg or borrow from Queen Elizabeth—most + parsimonious of sovereigns reigning over the half of a small island—and + from the States-General governing a half-born, half-drowned little + republic, engaged in a quarter of a century's warfare with the greatest + monarch in the world; with a wardrobe consisting of a dozen shirts and + five pocket-handkerchiefs, most of them ragged, and with a commissariat + made up of what could be brought in the saddle-bags of his Huguenot + cavaliers who came to the charge with him to-day, and to-morrow were + dispersed again to their mountain fastnesses; it did not seem likely on + any reasonable theory of dynamics that the power of the Bearnese was + capable of outweighing Pope and Spain, and the meaner but massive populace + of France, and the Sorbonne, and the great chiefs of the confederacy, + wealthy, long descended, allied to all the sovereigns of Christendom, + potent in territorial possessions and skilful in wielding political + influences. + </p> + <p> + "The Bearnese is poor but a gentleman of good family," said the cheerful + Henry, and it remained to-be seen whether nationality, unity, legitimate + authority, history, and law would be able to neutralise the powerful + combination of opposing elements. + </p> + <p> + The king had been besieging Dreux and had made good progress in reducing + the outposts of the city. As it was known that he was expecting + considerable reinforcements of English ships, Netherlanders, and Germans, + the chiefs of the league issued orders from Paris for an attack before he + should thus be strengthened. + </p> + <p> + For Parma, unwillingly obeying the stringent commands of his master, had + sent from Flanders eighteen hundred picked cavalry under Count Philip + Egmont to join the army of Mayenne. This force comprised five hundred + Belgian heavy dragoons under the chief nobles of the land, together with a + selection, in even proportions, of Walloon, German, Spanish, and Italian + troopers. + </p> + <p> + Mayenne accordingly crossed the Seine at Mantes with an army of ten + thousand foot, and, including Egmont's contingent, about four thousand + horse. A force under Marshal d'Aumont, which lay in Ivry at the passage of + the Eure, fell back on his approach and joined the remainder of the king's + army. The siege of Dreux was abandoned; and Henry withdrew to the + neighbourhood of Nonancourt. It was obvious that the duke meant to offer + battle, and it was rare that the king under any circumstances could be + induced to decline a combat. + </p> + <p> + On the night of the 12th-13th March, Henry occupied Saint Andre, a village + situated on an elevated and extensive plain four leagues from Nonancourt, + in the direction of Ivry, fringed on three sides by villages and by a + wood, and commanding a view of all the approaches from the country between + the Seine and Eure. It would have been better had Mayenne been beforehand + with him, as the sequel proved; but the duke was not famed for the + rapidity of his movements. During the greater part of the night, Henry was + employed in distributing his orders for that conflict which was inevitable + on the following day. His army was drawn up according to a plan prepared + by himself, and submitted to the most experienced of his generals for + their approval. He then personally visited every portion of the + encampment, speaking words of encouragement to his soldiers, and + perfecting his arrangements for the coming conflict. Attended by Marshals + d'Aumont and Biron he remained on horseback during a portion of the night, + having ordered his officers to their tents and reconnoitred as well as he + could the position of the enemy. Towards morning he retired to his + headquarters at Fourainville, where he threw himself half-dressed on his + truckle bed, and although the night was bitterly cold, with no covering + but his cloak. He was startled from his slumber before the dawn by a + movement of lights in the enemy's camp, and he sprang to his feet + supposing that the duke was stealing a march upon him despite all his + precautions. The alarm proved to be a false one, but Henry lost no time in + ordering his battle. His cavalry he divided in seven troops or squadrons. + The first, forming the left wing, was a body of three hundred under + Marshal d'Aumont, supported by two regiments of French infantry. Next, + separated by a short interval, was another troop of three hundred under + the Duke of Montpensier, supported by two other regiments of foot, one + Swiss and one German. In front of Montpensier was Baron Biron the younger, + at the head of still another body of three hundred. Two troops of + cuirassiers, each four hundred strong, were on Biron's left, the one + commanded by the Grand Prior of France, Charles d'Angouleme, the other by + Monsieur de Givry. Between the Prior and Givry were six pieces of heavy + artillery, while the battalia, formed of eight hundred horse in six + squadrons, was commanded by the king in person, and covered on both sides + by English and Swiss infantry, amounting to some four thousand in all. The + right wing was under the charge of old Marshal Biron, and comprised three + troops of horse, numbering one hundred and fifty each, two companies of + German riders, and four regiments of French infantry. These numbers, which + are probably given with as much accuracy as can be obtained, show a force + of about three thousand horse and twelve thousand foot. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Mayenne, seeing too late the advantage of position which he + might have easily secured the day before, led his army forth with the + early light, and arranged it in an order not very different from that + adopted by the king, and within cannon-shot of his lines. The right wing + under Marshal de la Chatre consisted of three regiments of French and one + of Germans, supporting three regiments of Spanish lancers, two cornets of + German riders under the Bastard of Brunswick, and four hundred + cuirassiers. The battalia, which was composed of six hundred splendid + cavalry, all noblemen of France, guarding the white banner of the Holy + League, and supported by a column of three thousand Swiss and two thousand + French infantry, was commanded by Mayenne in person, assisted by his + half-brother, the Duke of Nemours. In front of the infantry was a battery + of six cannon and three culverines. The left wing was commanded by Marshal + de Rene, with six regiments of French and Lorrainers, two thousand + Germans, six hundred French cuirassiers, and the mounted troopers of Count + Egmont. It is probable that Mayenne's whole force, therefore, amounted to + nearly four thousand cavalry and at least thirteen thousand foot. + </p> + <p> + Very different was the respective appearance of the two armies, so far, + especially, as regarded the horsemen on both sides. Gay in their gilded + armour and waving plumes, with silken scarves across their shoulders, and + the fluttering favours of fair ladies on their arms or in their helmets, + the brilliant champions of the Holy Catholic Confederacy clustered around + the chieftains of the great house of Guise, impatient for the conflict. It + was like a muster for a brilliant and chivalrous tournament. The Walloon + and Flemish nobles, outrivalling even the self-confidence of their + companions in arms, taunted them with their slowness. The impetuous + Egmont, burning to eclipse the fame of his ill-fated father at Gravelines + and St. Quintin in the same holy cause, urged on the battle with unseemly + haste, loudly proclaiming that if the French were faint-hearted he would + himself give a good account of the Navarrese prince without any assistance + from them. + </p> + <p> + A cannon-shot away, the grim puritan nobles who had come forth from their + mountain fastnesses to do battle for king and law and for the rights of + conscience against the Holy League—men seasoned in a hundred + battle-fields, clad all in iron, with no dainty ornaments nor holiday + luxury of warfare—knelt on the ground, smiting their mailed breasts + with iron hands, invoking blessings on themselves and curses and confusion + on their enemies in the coming conflict, and chanting a stern psalm of + homage to the God of battles and of wrath. And Henry of France and + Navarre, descendant of Lewis the Holy and of Hugh the Great, beloved chief + of the Calvinist cavaliers, knelt among his heretic brethren, and prayed + and chanted with them. But not the staunchest Huguenot of them all, not + Duplessis, nor D'Aubigne, nor De la Noue with the iron arm, was more + devoted on that day to crown and country than were such papist supporters + of the rightful heir as had sworn to conquer the insolent foreigner on the + soil of France or die. + </p> + <p> + When this brief prelude was over, Henry made an address to his soldiers, + but its language has not been preserved. It is known, however, that he + wore that day his famous snow-white plume, and that he ordered his + soldiers, should his banner go down in the conflict, to follow wherever + and as long as that plume should be seen waving on any part of the field. + He had taken a position by which his troops had the sun and wind in their + backs, so that the smoke rolled toward the enemy and the light shone in + their eyes. The combat began with the play of artillery, which soon became + so warm that Egmont, whose cavalry—suffering and galled—soon + became impatient, ordered a charge. It was a most brilliant one. The heavy + troopers of Flanders and Hainault, following their spirited chieftain, + dashed upon old Marshal Biron, routing his cavalry, charging clean up to + the Huguenot guns and sabring the cannoneers. The shock was square, solid, + irresistible, and was followed up by the German riders under Eric of + Brunswick, who charged upon the battalia of the royal army, where the king + commanded in person. + </p> + <p> + There was a panic. The whole royal cavalry wavered, the supporting + infantry recoiled, the day seemed lost before the battle was well begun. + Yells of "Victory! Victory! up with the Holy League, down with the heretic + Bearnese," resounded through the Catholic squadrons. The king and Marshal + Biron, who were near each other, were furious with rage, but already + doubtful of the result. They exerted themselves to rally the troops under + their immediate command, and to reform the shattered ranks. + </p> + <p> + The German riders and French lancers under Brunswick and Bassompierre had, + however, not done their work as thoroughly as Egmont had done. The ground + was so miry and soft that in the brief space which separated the hostile + lines they had not power to urge their horses to full speed. Throwing away + their useless lances, they came on at a feeble canter, sword in hand, and + were unable to make a very vigorous impression on the more heavily armed + troopers opposed to them. Meeting with a firm resistance to their career, + they wheeled, faltered a little and fell a short distance back. Many of + the riders being of the reformed religion, refused moreover to fire upon + the Huguenots, and discharged their carbines in the air. + </p> + <p> + The king, whose glance on the battle-field was like inspiration, saw the + blot and charged upon them in person with his whole battalia of cavalry. + The veteran Biron followed hard upon the snow-white plume. The scene was + changed, victory succeeded to impending defeat, and the enemy was routed. + The riders and cuirassiers, broken into a struggling heap of confusion, + strewed the ground with their dead bodies, or carried dismay into the + ranks of the infantry as they strove to escape. Brunswick went down in the + melee, mortally wounded as it was believed. Egmont renewing the charge at + the head of his victorious Belgian troopers, fell dead with a musket-ball + through his heart. The shattered German and Walloon cavalry, now pricked + forward by the lances of their companions, under the passionate commands + of Mayenne and Aumale, now fading back before the furious charges of the + Huguenots, were completely overthrown and cut to pieces. + </p> + <p> + Seven times did Henry of Navarre in person lead his troopers to the + charge; but suddenly, in the midst of the din of battle and the cheers of + victory, a message of despair went from lip to lip throughout the royal + lines. The king had disappeared. He was killed, and the hopes of + Protestantism and of France were fallen for ever with him. The white + standard of his battalia had been seen floating wildly and purposelessly + over the field; for his bannerman, Pot de Rhodes, a young noble of + Dauphiny, wounded mortally in the head, with blood streaming over his face + and blinding his sight, was utterly unable to control his horse, who + gallopped hither and thither at his own caprice, misleading many troopers + who followed in his erratic career. A cavalier, armed in proof, and + wearing the famous snow-white plume, after a hand-to-hand struggle with a + veteran of Count Bossu's regiment, was seen to fall dead by the side of + the bannerman: The Fleming, not used to boast, loudly asserted that he had + slain the Bearnese, and the news spread rapidly over the battle-field. The + defeated Confederates gained new courage, the victorious Royalists were + beginning to waver, when suddenly, between the hostile lines, in the very + midst of the battle, the king gallopped forward, bareheaded, covered with + blood and dust, but entirely unhurt. A wild shout of "Vive le Roi!" rang + through the air. Cheerful as ever, he addressed a few encouraging words to + his soldiers, with a smiling face, and again led a charge. It was all that + was necessary to complete the victory. The enemy broke and ran away on + every side in wildest confusion, followed by the royalist cavalry, who + sabred them as they fled. The panic gained the foot-soldiers, who should + have supported the cavalry, but had not been at all engaged in the action. + The French infantry threw away their arms as they rushed from the field + and sought refuge in the woods. The Walloons were so expeditious in the + race, that they never stopped till they gained their own frontier. The day + was hopelessly lost, and although Mayenne had conducted himself well in + the early part of the day, it was certain that he was excelled by none in + the celerity of his flight when the rout had fairly begun. Pausing to draw + breath as he gained the wood, he was seen to deal blows with his own sword + among the mob of fugitives, not that he might rally them to their flag and + drive them back to another encounter, but because they encumbered his own + retreat. + </p> + <p> + The Walloon carbineers, the German riders, and the French lancers, + disputing as to the relative blame to be attached to each corps, began + shooting and sabring each other, almost before they were out of the + enemy's sight. Many were thus killed. The lansquenets were all put to the + sword. The Swiss infantry were allowed to depart for their own country on + pledging themselves not again to bear arms against Henry IV. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that eight hundred of the leaguers were either killed on + the battle-field or drowned in the swollen river in their retreat. About + one-fourth of that number fell in the army of the king. It is certain that + of the contingent from the obedient Netherlands, two hundred and seventy, + including their distinguished general, lost their lives. The Bastard of + Brunswick, crawling from beneath a heap of slain, escaped with life. + Mayenne lost all his standards and all the baggage of his army, while the + army itself was for a time hopelessly dissolved. + </p> + <p> + Few cavalry actions have attained a wider celebrity in history than the + fight of Ivry. Yet there have been many hard-fought battles, where the + struggle was fiercer and closer, where the issue was for a longer time + doubtful, where far more lives on either side were lost, where the final + victory was immediately productive of very much greater results, and + which, nevertheless, have sunk into hopeless oblivion. The personal + details which remain concerning the part enacted by the adventurous king + at this most critical period of his career, the romantic interest which + must always gather about that ready-witted, ready-sworded Gascon, at the + moment when, to contemporaries, the result of all his struggles seemed so + hopeless or at best so doubtful; above all, the numerous royal and + princely names which embellished the roll-call of that famous passage of + arms, and which were supposed, in those days at least, to add such lustre + to a battle-field, as humbler names, however illustrious by valour or + virtue, could never bestow, have made this combat for ever famous. + </p> + <p> + Yet it is certain that the most healthy moral, in military affairs, to be + derived from the event, is that the importance of a victory depends less + upon itself than on the use to be made of it. Mayenne fled to Mantes, the + Duke of Nemours to Chartres, other leaders of the League in various + directions, Mayenne told every body he met that the Bearnese was killed, + and that although his own army was defeated, he should soon have another + one on foot. The same intelligence was communicated to the Duke of Parma, + and by him to Philip. Mendoza and the other Spanish agents went about + Paris spreading the news of Henry's death, but the fact seemed woefully to + lack confirmation, while the proofs of the utter overthrow and shameful + defeat of the Leaguers were visible on every side. The Parisians—many + of whom the year before had in vain hired windows in the principal + streets, in order to witness the promised entrance of the Bearnese, bound + hand and foot, and with a gag in his mouth, to swell the triumph of Madam + League—were incredulous as to the death now reported to them of this + very lively heretic, by those who had fled so ignominiously from his + troopers. + </p> + <p> + De la None and the other Huguenot chieftains, earnestly urged upon Henry + the importance of advancing upon Paris without an instant's delay, and it + seems at least extremely probable that, had he done so, the capital would + have fallen at once into his hands. It is the concurrent testimony of + contemporaries that the panic, the destitution, the confusion would have + made resistance impossible had a determined onslaught been made. And Henry + had a couple of thousand horsemen flushed with victory, and a dozen + thousand foot who had been compelled to look upon a triumph in which they + had no opportunity of sharing: Success and emulation would have easily + triumphed over dissension and despair. + </p> + <p> + But the king, yielding to the councils of Biron and other Catholics, + declined attacking the capital, and preferred waiting the slow, and in his + circumstances eminently hazardous, operations of a regular siege. Was it + the fear of giving a signal triumph to the cause of Protestantism that + caused the Huguenot leader—so soon to become a renegade—to + pause in his career? Was it anxiety lest his victorious entrance into + Paris might undo the diplomacy of his catholic envoys at Rome? or was it + simply the mutinous condition of his army, especially of the Swiss + mercenaries, who refused to advance a step unless their arrears of pay + were at once furnished them out of the utterly empty exchequer of the + king? Whatever may have been the cause of the delay, it is certain that + the golden fruit of victory was not plucked, and that although the + confederate army had rapidly dissolved, in consequence of their defeat, + the king's own forces manifested as little cohesion. + </p> + <p> + And now began that slow and painful siege, the details of which are as + terrible, but as universally known, as those of any chapters in the + blood-stained history of the century. Henry seized upon the towns guarding + the rivers Seine and Marne, twin nurses of Paris. By controlling the + course of those streams as well as that of the Yonne and Oise—especially + by taking firm possession of Lagny on the Marne, whence a bridge led from + the Isle of France to the Brie country—great thoroughfare of wine + and corn—and of Corbeil at the junction of the little river Essonne + with the Seine-it was easy in that age to stop the vital circulation of + the imperial city. + </p> + <p> + By midsummer, Paris, unquestionably the first city of Europe at that day, + was in extremities, and there are few events in history in which our + admiration is more excited by the power of mankind to endure almost + preternatural misery, or our indignation more deeply aroused by the + cruelty with which the sublimest principles of human nature may be made to + serve the purposes of selfish ambition and grovelling superstition, than + this famous leaguer. + </p> + <p> + Rarely have men at any epoch defended their fatherland against foreign + oppression with more heroism than that which was manifested by the + Parisians of 1590 in resisting religious toleration, and in obeying a + foreign and priestly despotism. Men, women, and children cheerfully laid + down their lives by thousands in order that the papal legate and the king + of Spain might trample upon that legitimate sovereign of France who was + one day to become the idol of Paris and of the whole kingdom. + </p> + <p> + A census taken at the beginning of the siege had showed a populace of two + hundred thousand souls, with a sufficiency of provisions, it was thought, + to last one month. But before the terrible summer was over—so + completely had the city been invested—the bushel of wheat was worth + three hundred and sixty crowns, rye and oats being but little cheaper. + Indeed, grain might as well have cost three thousand crowns the bushel, + for the prices recorded placed it beyond the reach of all but the + extremely wealthy. The flesh of horses, asses, dogs, cats, rats had become + rare luxuries. There was nothing cheap, said a citizen bitterly, but + sermons. And the priests and monks of every order went daily about the + streets, preaching fortitude in that great resistance to heresy, by which + Paris was earning for itself a crown of glory, and promising the most + direct passage to paradise for the souls of the wretched victims who fell + daily, starved to death, upon the pavements. And the monks and priests did + their work nobly, aiding the general resolution by the example of their + own courage. Better fed than their fellow citizens, they did military work + in trench, guard-house and rampart, as the population became rapidly + unfit, from physical exhaustion, for the defence of the city. + </p> + <p> + The young Duke of Nemours, governor of the place, manifested as much + resolution and conduct in bringing his countrymen to perdition as if the + work in which he was engaged had been the highest and holiest that ever + tasked human energies. He was sustained in his task by that proud + princess, his own and Mayenne's mother, by Madame Montpensier, by the + resident triumvirate of Spain, Mendoza, Commander Moreo, and John Baptist + Tasais, by the cardinal legate Gaetano, and, more than all, by the sixteen + chiefs of the wards, those municipal tyrants of the unhappy populace. + </p> + <p> + Pope Sixtus himself was by no means eager for the success of the League. + After the battle of Ivry, he had most seriously inclined his ear to the + representations of Henry's envoy, and showed much willingness to admit the + victorious heretic once more into the bosom of the Church. Sixtus was not + desirous of contributing to the advancement of Philip's power. He feared + his designs on Italy, being himself most anxious at that time to annex + Naples to the holy see. He had amassed a large treasure, but he liked best + to spend it in splendid architecture, in noble fountains, in magnificent + collections of art, science, and literature, and, above all, in building + up fortunes for the children of his sister the washerwoman, and in allying + them all to the most princely houses of Italy, while never allowing them + even to mention the name of their father, so base was his degree; but he + cared not to disburse from his hoarded dollars to supply the necessities + of the League. + </p> + <p> + But Gaetano, although he could wring but fifty thousand crowns from his + Holiness after the fatal fight of Ivry, to further the good cause, was + lavish in expenditures from his own purse and from other sources, and this + too at a time when thirty-three per cent. interest was paid to the usurers + of Antwerp for one month's loan of ready money. He was indefatigable, too, + and most successful in his exhortations and ghostly consolations to the + people. Those proud priests and great nobles were playing a reckless game, + and the hopes of mankind beyond the grave were the counters on their + table. For themselves there were rich prizes for the winning. Should they + succeed in dismembering the fair land where they were enacting their + fantastic parts, there were temporal principalities, great provinces, + petty sovereignties, to be carved out of the heritage which the Bearnese + claimed for his own. Obviously then, their consciences could never permit + this shameless heretic, by a simulated conversion at the critical moment, + to block their game and restore the national unity and laws. And even + should it be necessary to give the whole kingdom, instead of the mere + duchy of Brittany, to Philip of Spain, still there were mighty guerdons to + be bestowed on his supporters before the foreign monarch could seat + himself on the throne of Henry's ancestors. + </p> + <p> + As to the people who were fighting, starving, dying by thousands in this + great cause, there were eternal rewards in another world profusely + promised for their heroism instead of the more substantial bread and beef, + for lack of which they were laying down their lives. + </p> + <p> + It was estimated that before July twelve thousand human beings in Paris + had died, for want of food, within three months. But as there were no + signs of the promised relief by the army of Parma and Mayenne, and as the + starving people at times appeared faint-hearted, their courage was + strengthened one day by a stirring exhibition. + </p> + <p> + An astonishing procession marched through the streets of the city, led by + the Bishop of Senlis and the Prior of Chartreux, each holding a halberd in + one hand and a crucifix in the other, and graced by the presence of the + cardinal-legate, and of many prelates from Italy. A lame monk, adroitly + manipulating the staff of a drum major, went hopping and limping before + them, much to the amazement of the crowd. Then came a long file of + monks-Capuchins, Bernardists, Minimes, Franciscans, Jacobins, Carmelites, + and other orders—each with his cowl thrown back, his long robes + trussed up, a helmet on his head, a cuirass on his breast, and a halberd + in his hand. The elder ones marched first, grinding their teeth, rolling + their eyes, and making other ferocious demonstrations. Then came the + younger friars, similarly attired, all armed with arquebusses, which they + occasionally and accidentally discharged to the disadvantage of the + spectators, several of whom were killed or wounded on the spot. Among + others a servant of Cardinal Gaetano was thus slain, and the even caused + much commotion, until the cardinal proclaimed that a man thus killed in so + holy a cause had gone straight to heaven and had taken his place among the + just. It was impossible, thus argued the people in their simplicity, that + so wise and virtuous a man as the cardinal should not know what was best. + </p> + <p> + The procession marched to the church of our Lady of Loretto, where they + solemnly promised to the blessed Virgin a lamp and ship of gold—should + she be willing to use her influence in behalf of the suffering city—to + be placed on her shrine as soon as the siege should be raised. + </p> + <p> + But these demonstrations, however cheering to the souls, had comparatively + little effect upon the bodies of the sufferers. It was impossible to walk + through the streets of Paris without stumbling over the dead bodies of the + citizens. Trustworthy eye-witnesses of those dreadful days have placed the + number of the dead during the summer at thirty thousand. A tumultuous + assemblage of the starving and the forlorn rushed at last to the municipal + palace, demanding peace or bread. The rebels were soon dispersed however + by a charge, headed by the Chevalier d'Aumale, and assisted by the chiefs + of the wards, and so soon as the riot was quelled, its ringleader, a + leading advocate, Renaud by name, was hanged. + </p> + <p> + Still, but for the energy of the priests, it is doubtful whether the city + could have been held by the Confederacy. The Duke of Nemours confessed + that there were occasions when they never would have been able to sustain + a determined onslaught, and they were daily expecting to see the Prince of + Bearne battering triumphantly at their gates. + </p> + <p> + But the eloquence of the preachers, especially of the one-eyed father + Boucher, sustained the fainting spirits of the people, and consoled the + sufferers in their dying agonies by glimpses of paradise. Sublime was that + devotion, superhuman that craft; but it is only by weapons from the + armoury of the Unseen that human creatures can long confront such horrors + in a wicked cause. Superstition, in those days at least, was a political + force absolutely without limitation, and most adroitly did the agents of + Spain and Rome handle its tremendous enginery against unhappy France. For + the hideous details of the most dreadful sieges recorded in ancient or + modern times were now reproduced in Paris. Not a revolutionary + circumstance, at which the world had shuddered in the accounts of the + siege of Jerusalem, was spared. Men devoured such dead vermin as could be + found lying in the streets. They crowded greedily around stalls in the + public squares where the skin, bones, and offal of such dogs, cats and + unclean beasts as still remained for the consumption of the wealthier + classes were sold to the populace. Over the doorways of these flesh + markets might be read "Haec runt munera pro iis qui vitam pro Philippo + profuderunt." Men stood in archways and narrow passages lying in wait for + whatever stray dogs still remained at large, noosed them, strangled them, + and like savage beasts of prey tore them to pieces and devoured them + alive. And it sometimes happened, too, that the equally hungry dog proved + the more successful in the foul encounter, and fed upon the man. A lady + visiting the Duchess of Nemours—called for the high pretensions of + her sons by her two marriages the queen-mother—complained bitterly + that mothers in Paris had been compelled to kill their own children + outright to save them from starving to death in lingering agony. "And if + you are brought to that extremity," replied the duchess, "as for the sake + of our holy religion to be forced to kill your own children, do you think + that so great a matter after all? What are your children made of more than + other people's children? What are we all but dirt and dust?" Such was the + consolation administered by the mother of the man who governed Paris, and + defended its gates against its lawful sovereign at the command of a + foreigner; while the priests in their turn persuaded the populace that it + was far more righteous to kill their own children, if they had no food to + give them, than to obtain food by recognising a heretic king. + </p> + <p> + It was related too, and believed, that in some instances mothers had + salted the bodies of their dead children and fed upon them, day by day, + until the hideous repast would no longer support their own life. They + died, and the secret was revealed by servants who had partaken of the + food. The Spanish ambassador, Mendoza, advised recourse to an article of + diet which had been used in some of the oriental sieges. The counsel at + first was rejected as coming from the agent of Spain, who wished at all + hazards to save the capital of France from falling out of the hands of his + master into those of the heretic. But dire necessity prevailed, and the + bones of the dead were taken in considerable quantities from the + cemeteries, ground into flour, baked into bread, and consumed. It was + called Madame Montpensier's cake, because the duchess earnestly proclaimed + its merits to the poor Parisians. "She was never known to taste it + herself, however," bitterly observed one who lived in Paris through that + horrible summer. She was right to abstain, for all who ate of it died, and + the Montpensier flour fell into disuse. + </p> + <p> + Lansquenets and other soldiers, mad with hunger and rage, when they could + no longer find dogs to feed on, chased children through the streets, and + were known in several instances to kill and devour them on the spot. To + those expressing horror at the perpetration of such a crime, a leading + personage, member of the Council of Nine, maintained that there was less + danger to one's soul in satisfying one's hunger with a dead child, in case + of necessity, than in recognizing the heretic Bearnese, and he added that + all the best theologians and doctors of Paris were of his opinion. + </p> + <p> + As the summer wore on to its close, through all these horrors, and as + there were still no signs of Mayenne and Parma leading their armies to the + relief of the city, it became necessary to deceive the people by a show of + negotiation with the beleaguering army. Accordingly, the Spanish + ambassador, the legate, and the other chiefs of the Holy League appointed + a deputation, consisting of the Cardinal Gondy, the Archbishop of Lyons, + and the Abbe d'Elbene, to Henry. It soon became evident to the king, + however, that these commissioners were but trifling with him in order to + amuse the populace. His attitude was dignified and determined throughout + the interview. The place appointed was St. Anthony's Abbey, before the + gates of Paris. Henry wore a cloak and the order of the Holy Ghost, and + was surrounded by his council, the princes of the blood, and by more than + four hundred of the chief gentlemen of his army. After passing the + barricade, the deputies were received by old Marshal Biron, and conducted + by him to the king's chamber of state. When they had made their + salutations, the king led the way to an inner cabinet, but his progress + was much impeded by the crowding of the nobles about him. Wishing to + excuse this apparent rudeness, he said to the envoys: "Gentlemen, these + men thrust me on as fast to the battle against the foreigner as they now + do to my cabinet. Therefore bear with them." Then turning to the crowd, he + said: "Room, gentlemen, for the love of me," upon which they all retired. + </p> + <p> + The deputies then stated that they had been sent by the authorities of + Paris to consult as to the means of obtaining a general peace in France. + They expressed the hope that the king's disposition was favourable to this + end, and that he would likewise permit them to confer with the Duke of + Mayenne. This manner of addressing him excited his choler. He told + Cardinal Gondy, who was spokesman of the deputation, that he had long + since answered such propositions. He alone could deal with his subjects. + He was like the woman before Solomon; he would have all the child or none + of it. Rather than dismember his kingdom he would lose the whole. He asked + them what they considered him to be. They answered that they knew his + rights, but that the Parisians had different opinions. If Paris would only + acknowledge him to be king there could be no more question of war. He + asked them if they desired the King of Spain or the Duke of Mayenne for + their king, and bade them look well to themselves. The King of Spain could + not help them, for he had too much business on hand; while Mayenne had + neither means nor courage, having been within three leagues of them for + three weeks doing nothing. Neither king nor duke should have that which + belonged to him, of that they might be assured. He told them he loved + Paris as his capital, as his eldest daughter. If the Parisians wished to + see the end of their miseries it was to him they should appeal, not to the + Spaniard nor to the Duke of Mayenne. By the grace of God and the swords of + his brave gentlemen he would prevent the King of Spain from making a + colony of France as he had done of Brazil. He told the commissioners that + they ought to die of shame that they, born Frenchmen, should have so + forgotten their love of country and of liberty as thus to bow the head to + the Spaniard, and—while famine was carrying off thousands of their + countrymen before their eyes—to be so cowardly as not to utter one + word for the public welfare from fear of offending Cardinal. Gaetano, + Mendoza, and Moreo. He said that he longed for a combat to decide the + issue, and that he had charged Count de Brissac to tell Mayenne that he + would give a finger of his right hand for a battle, and two for a general + peace. He knew and pitied the sufferings of Paris, but the horrors now + raging there were to please the King of Spain. That monarch had told the + Duke of Parma to trouble himself but little about the Netherlands so long + as he could preserve for him his city of Paris. But it was to lean on a + broken reed to expect support from this old, decrepit king, whose object + was to dismember the flourishing kingdom of France, and to divide it among + as many tyrants as he had sent viceroys to the Indies. The crown was his + own birthright. Were it elective he should receive the suffrages of the + great mass of the electors. He hoped soon to drive those red-crossed + foreigners out of his kingdom. Should he fail, they would end by expelling + the Duke of Mayenne and all the rest who had called them in, and Paris + would become the theatre of the bloodiest tragedy ever yet enacted. The + king then ordered Sir Roger Williams to see that a collation was prepared + for the deputies, and the veteran Welshman took occasion to indulge in + much blunt conversation with the guests. He informed them that he, Mr. + Sackville, and many other strangers were serving the king from the hatred + they bore the Spaniards and Mother League, and that his royal mistress had + always 8000 Englishmen ready to maintain the cause. + </p> + <p> + While the conferences were going on, the officers and soldiers of the + besieging army thronged to the gate, and had much talk with the townsmen. + Among others, time-honoured La None with the iron arm stood near the gate + and harangued the Parisians. "We are here," said he, "five thousand + gentlemen; we desire your good, not your ruin. We will make you rich: let + us participate in your labour and industry. Undo not yourselves to serve + the ambition of a few men." The townspeople hearing the old warrior + discoursing thus earnestly, asked who he was. When informed that it was La + Noue they cheered him vociferously, and applauded his speech with the + greatest vehemence. Yet La Noue was the foremost Huguenot that the sun + shone upon, and the Parisians were starving themselves to death out of + hatred to heresy. After the collation the commissioners were permitted to + go from the camp in order to consult Mayenne. + </p> + <p> + Such then was the condition of Paris during that memorable summer of + tortures. What now were its hopes of deliverance out of this Gehenna? The + trust of Frenchmen was in Philip of Spain, whose legions, under command of + the great Italian chieftain, were daily longed for to save them from + rendering obedience to their lawful prince. + </p> + <p> + For even the king of straw—the imprisoned cardinal—was now + dead, and there was not even the effigy of any other sovereign than Henry + of Bourbon to claim authority in France. Mayenne, in the course of long + interviews with the Duke of Parma at Conde and Brussels, had expressed his + desire to see Philip king of France, and had promised his best efforts to + bring about such a result. In that case he stipulated for the second place + in the kingdom for himself, together with a good rich province in + perpetual sovereignty, and a large sum of money in hand. Should this + course not run smoothly, he would be willing to take the crown himself, in + which event he would cheerfully cede to Philip the sovereignty of Brittany + and Burgundy, besides a selection of cities to be arranged for at a later + day. Although he spoke of himself with modesty, said Alexander, it was + very plain that he meant to arrive at the crown himself: Well had the + Bearnese alluded to the judgment of Solomon. Were not children, thus ready + to dismember their mother, as foul and unnatural as the mother who would + divide her child? + </p> + <p> + And what was this dependence on a foreign tyrant really worth? As we look + back upon those dark days with the light of what was then the almost + immediate future turned full and glaring upon them, we find it difficult + to exaggerate the folly of the chief actors in those scenes of crime. Did + not the penniless adventurer, whose keen eyesight and wise recklessness + were passing for hallucination and foolhardiness in the eyes of his + contemporaries, understand the game he was playing better than did that + profound thinker, that mysterious but infallible politician, who sat in + the Escorial and made the world tremble at every hint of his lips, every + stroke of his pen? + </p> + <p> + The Netherlands—that most advanced portion of Philip's domain, + without the possession of which his conquest of England and his + incorporation of France were but childish visions, even if they were not + monstrous chimeras at best—were to be in a manner left to + themselves, while their consummate governor and general was to go forth + and conquer France at the head of a force with which he had been in vain + attempting to hold those provinces to their obedience. At that very moment + the rising young chieftain of the Netherlands was most successfully + inaugurating his career of military success. His armies well drilled, well + disciplined, well paid, full of heart and of hope, were threatening their + ancient enemy in every quarter, while the veteran legions of Spain and + Italy, heroes of a hundred Flemish and Frisian battle-fields, were + disorganised, starving, and mutinous. The famous ancient legion, the terzo + viejo, had been disbanded for its obstinate and confirmed unruliness. The + legion of Manrique, sixteen hundred strong, was in open mutiny at + Courtray. Farnese had sent the Prince of Ascoli to negotiate with them, + but his attempts were all in vain. Two years' arrearages—to be paid, + not in cloth at four times what the contractors had paid for it, but in + solid gold—were their not unreasonable demands after years of as + hard fighting and severe suffering as the world has often seen. But + Philip, instead of ducats or cloth, had only sent orders to go forth and + conquer a new kingdom for him. Verdugo, too, from Friesland was howling + for money, garrotting and hanging his mutinous veterans every day, and + sending complaints and most dismal forebodings as often as a courier could + make his way through the enemy's lines to Farnese's headquarters. And + Farnese, on his part, was garrotting and hanging the veterans. + </p> + <p> + Alexander did not of course inform his master that he was a mischievous + lunatic, who upon any healthy principle of human government ought long ago + to have been shut up from all communion with his species. It was very + plain, however, from his letters, that such was his innermost, thought, + had it been safe, loyal, or courteous to express it in plain language. + </p> + <p> + He was himself stung almost to madness moreover by the presence of + Commander Moreo, who hated him, who was perpetually coming over from + France to visit him, who was a spy upon all his actions, and who was + regularly distilling his calumnies into the ears of Secretary Idiaquez and + of Philip himself. The king was informed that Farnese was working for his + own ends, and was disgusted with his sovereign; that there never had been + a petty prince of Italy that did not wish to become a greater one, or that + was not jealous of Philip's power, and that there was not a villain in all + Christendom but wished for Philip's death. Moreo followed the prince about + to Antwerp, to Brussels, to Spa, whither he had gone to drink the waters + for his failing health, pestered him, lectured him, pried upon him, + counselled him, enraged him. Alexander told him at last that he cared not + if the whole world came to an end so long as Flanders remained, which + alone had been entrusted to him, and that if he was expected to conquer + France it would be as well to give him the means of performing that + exploit. So Moreo told the king that Alexander was wasting time and + wasting money, that he was the cause of Egmont's overthrow, and that he + would be the cause of the loss of Paris and of the downfall of the whole + French scheme; for that he was determined to do nothing to assist Mayenne, + or that did not conduce to his private advantage. + </p> + <p> + Yet Farnese had been not long before informed in sufficiently plain + language, and by personages of great influence, that in case he wished to + convert his vice-royalty of the Netherlands into a permanent sovereignty, + he might rely on the assistance of Henry of Navarre, and perhaps of Queen + Elizabeth. The scheme would not have been impracticable, but the duke + never listened to it for a moment. + </p> + <p> + If he were slow in advancing to the relief of starving, agonising Paris, + there were sufficient reasons for his delay. Most decidedly and bitterly, + but loyally, did he denounce the madness of his master's course in all his + communications to that master's private ear. + </p> + <p> + He told him that the situation in which he found himself was horrible. He + had no money for his troops, he had not even garrison bread to put in + their mouths. He had not a single stiver to advance them on account. From + Friesland, from the Rhine country, from every quarter, cries of distress + were rising to heaven, and the lamentations were just. He was in absolute + penury. He could not negotiate a bill on the royal account, but had + borrowed on his own private security a few thousand crowns which he had + given to his soldiers. He was pledging his jewels and furniture like a + bankrupt, but all was now in vain to stop the mutiny at Courtray. If that + went on it would be of most pernicious example, for the whole army was + disorganised, malcontent, and of portentous aspect. "These things," said + he, "ought not to surprise people of common understanding, for without + money, without credit, without provisions, and in an exhausted country, it + is impossible to satisfy the claims, or even to support the life of the + army." When he sent the Flemish cavalry to Mayenne in March, it was under + the impression that with it that prince would have maintained his + reputation and checked the progress of the Bearnese until greater + reinforcements could be forwarded. He was now glad that no larger number + had been sent, for all would have been sacrificed on the fatal field of + Ivry. + </p> + <p> + The country around him was desperate, believed itself abandoned, and was + expecting fresh horrors everyday. He had been obliged to remove portions + of the garrisons at Deventer and Zutphen purely to save them from starving + and desperation. Every day he was informed by his garrisons that they + could feed no longer on fine words or hopes, for in them they found no + sustenance. + </p> + <p> + But Philip told him that he must proceed forthwith to France, where he was + to raise the siege of Paris, and occupy Calais and Boulogne in order to + prevent the English from sending succour to the Bearnese, and in order to + facilitate his own designs on England. Every effort was to be made before + the Bearnese climbed into the seat. The Duke of Parma was to talk no more + of difficulties, but to conquer them; a noble phrase on the battle field, + but comparatively easy of utterance at the writing-desk! + </p> + <p> + At last, Philip having made some remittances, miserably inadequate for the + necessities of the case, but sufficient to repress in part the mutinous + demonstrations throughout the army, Farnese addressed himself with a heavy + heart to the work required of him. He confessed the deepest apprehensions + of the result both in the Netherlands and in France. He intimated a + profound distrust of the French, who had, ever been Philip's enemies, and + dwelt on the danger of leaving the provinces, unable to protect + themselves, badly garrisoned, and starving. "It grieves me to the soul, it + cuts me to the heart," he said, "to see that your Majesty commands things + which are impossible, for it is our Lord alone that can work miracles. + Your Majesty supposes that with the little money you have sent me, I can + satisfy all the soldiers serving in these provinces, settle with the + Spanish and the German mutineers—because, if they are to be used in + the expedition, they must at least be quieted—give money to Mayenne + and the Parisians, pay retaining wages (wartgeld) to the German Riders for + the protection of these provinces, and make sure of the maritime places + where the same mutinous language is held as at Courtray. The poverty, the + discontent, and the desperation of this unhappy country," he added, "have, + been so often described to your Majesty that I have nothing to add. I am + hanging and garrotting my veterans everywhere, only because they have + rebelled for want of pay without committing any excess. Yet under these + circumstances I am to march into France with twenty thousand troops—the + least number to effect anything withal. I am confused and perplexed + because the whole world is exclaiming against me, and protesting that + through my desertion the country entrusted to my care will come to utter + perdition. On the other hand, the French cry out upon me that I am the + cause that Paris is going to destruction, and with it the Catholic cause + in France. Every one is pursuing his private ends. It is impossible to + collect a force strong enough for the necessary work. Paris has reached + its extreme unction, and neither Mayenne nor any one of the confederates + has given this invalid the slightest morsel to support her till your + Majesty's forces should arrive." + </p> + <p> + He reminded his sovereign that the country around Paris was eaten bare of + food and forage, and yet that it was quite out of the question for him to + undertake the transportation of supplies for his army all the way—supplies + from the starving Netherlands to starving France. Since the king was so + peremptory, he had nothing for it but to obey, but he vehemently + disclaimed all responsibility for the expedition, and, in case of his + death, he called on his Majesty to vindicate his honour, which his enemies + were sure to assail. + </p> + <p> + The messages from Mayenne becoming daily more pressing, Farnese hastened + as much as possible those preparations which at best were so woefully + inadequate, and avowed his determination not to fight the Bearnese if it + were possible to avoid an action. He feared, however, that with totally + insufficient forces he should be obliged to accept the chances of an + engagement. + </p> + <p> + With twelve thousand foot and three thousand horse Farnese left the + Netherlands in the beginning of August, and arrived on the 3rd of that + month at Valenciennes. His little army, notwithstanding his bitter + complaints, was of imposing appearance. The archers and halberdiers of his + bodyguard were magnificent in taffety and feathers and surcoats of + cramoisy velvet. Four hundred nobles served in the cavalry. Arenberg and + Barlaymont and Chimay, and other grandees of the Netherlands, in company + with Ascoli and the sons of Terranova and Pastrana, and many more great + lords of Italy and Spain were in immediate attendance on the illustrious + captain. The son of Philip's Secretary of State, Idiaquez, and the nephew + of the cardinal-legate, Gaetano, were among the marshals of the camp. + </p> + <p> + Alexander's own natural authority and consummate powers of organisation + had for the time triumphed over the disintegrating tendencies which, it + had been seen, were everywhere so rapidly destroying the foremost military + establishment of the world. Nearly half his forces, both cavalry and + infantry, were Netherlanders; for—as if there were not graves enough + in their own little territory—those Flemings, Walloons, and + Hollanders were destined to leave their bones on both sides of every + well-stricken field of that age between liberty and despotism. And thus + thousands of them had now gone forth under the banner of Spain to assist + their own tyrant in carrying out his designs upon the capital of France, + and to struggle to the death with thousands of their own countrymen who + were following the fortunes of the Bearnese. Truly in that age it was + religion that drew the boundary line between nations. + </p> + <p> + The army was divided into three portions. The vanguard was under the + charge of the Netherland General, Marquis of Renty. The battalia was + commanded by Farnese in person, and the rearguard was entrusted to that + veteran Netherlander, La Motte, now called the Count of Everbeck. Twenty + pieces of artillery followed the last division. At Valenciennes Farnese + remained eight days, and from this place Count Charles Mansfeld took his + departure in a great rage—resigning his post as chief of artillery + because La Motte had received the appointment of general-marshal of the + camp—and returned to his father, old Peter Ernest Mansfeld, who was + lieutenant-governor of the Netherlands in Parma's absence. + </p> + <p> + Leaving Valenciennes on the 11th, the army proceeded by way of Quesney, + Guise, Soissons, Fritemilon to Meaux. At this place, which is ten leagues + from Paris, Farnese made his junction, on the 22nd of August, with + Mayenne, who was at the head of six thousand infantry—one half of + them Germans under Cobalto, and the other half French—and of two + thousand horse. + </p> + <p> + On arriving at Meaux, Alexander proceeded straightway to the cathedral, + and there, in presence of all, he solemnly swore that he had not come to + France in order to conquer that kingdom or any portion of it, in the + interests of his master, but only to render succour to the Catholic cause + and to free the friends and confederates of his Majesty from violence and + heretic oppression. Time was to show the value of that oath. + </p> + <p> + Here the deputation from Paris—the Archbishop of Lyons and his + colleagues, whose interview with Henry has just been narrated—were + received by the two dukes. They departed, taking with them promises of + immediate relief for the starving city. The allies remained five days at + Meaux, and leaving that place on the 27th, arrived in the neighbourhood of + Chelles, on the last day but one of the summer. They had a united force of + five thousand cavalry and eighteen thousand foot. + </p> + <p> + The summer of horrors was over, and thus with the first days of autumn + there had come a ray of hope for the proud city which was lying at its + last gasp. When the allies, came in sight of the monastery of Chellea they + found themselves in the immediate neighbourhood of the Bearnese. + </p> + <p> + The two great captains of the age had at last met face to face. They were + not only the two first commanders of their time, but there was not a man + in Europe at that day to be at all compared with either of them. The + youth, concerning whose earliest campaign an account will be given in the + following chapter, had hardly yet struck his first blow. Whether that blow + was to reveal the novice or the master was soon to be seen. Meantime in + 1590 it would have been considered a foolish adulation to mention the name + of Maurice of Nassau in the same breath with that of Navarre or of + Farnese. + </p> + <p> + The scientific duel which was now to take place was likely to task the + genius and to bring into full display the peculiar powers and defects of + the two chieftains of Europe. Each might be considered to be still in the + prime of life, but Alexander, who was turned of forty-five, was already + broken in health, while the vigorous Henry was eight years younger, and of + an iron constitution. Both had passed then lives in the field, but the + king, from nature, education, and the force of circumstances, preferred + pitched battles to scientific combinations, while the duke, having studied + and practised his art in the great Spanish and Italian schools of warfare, + was rather a profound strategist than a professional fighter, although + capable of great promptness and intense personal energy when his judgment + dictated a battle. Both were born with that invaluable gift which no human + being can acquire, authority, and both were adored and willingly obeyed by + their soldiers, so long as those soldiers were paid and fed. + </p> + <p> + The prize now to be contended for was a high one. Alexander's complete + success would tear from Henry's grasp the first city of Christendom, now + sinking exhausted into his hands, and would place France in the power of + the Holy League and at the feet of Philip. Another Ivry would shatter the + confederacy, and carry the king in triumph to his capital and his + ancestral throne. On the approach of the combined armies under Parma and + Mayenne, the king had found himself most reluctantly compelled to suspend + the siege of Paris. His army, which consisted of sixteen thousand foot and + five thousand horse, was not sufficiently numerous to confront at the same + time the relieving force and to continue the operations before the city. + So long, however, as he held the towns and bridges on the great rivers, + and especially those keys to the Seine and Marne, Corbeil and Lagny, he + still controlled the life-blood of the capital, which indeed had almost + ceased to flow. + </p> + <p> + On the 31st August he advanced towards the enemy. Sir Edward Stafford, + Queen Elizabeth's ambassador, arrived at St. Denis in the night of the + 30th August. At a very early hour next morning he heard a shout under his + window, and looking down beheld King Henry at the head of his troops, + cheerfully calling out to his English friend as he passed his door. + "Welcoming us after his familiar manner," said Stafford, "he desired us, + in respect of the battle every hour expected, to come as his friends to + see and help him, and not to treat of anything which afore, we meant, + seeing the present state to require it, and the enemy so near that we + might well have been interrupted in half-an-hour's talk, and necessity + constrained the king to be in every corner, where for the most part we + follow him." + </p> + <p> + That day Henry took up his headquarters at the monastery of Chelles, a + fortified place within six leagues of Paris, on the right bank of the + Marne. His army was drawn up in a wide valley somewhat encumbered with + wood and water, extending through a series of beautiful pastures towards + two hills of moderate elevation. Lagny, on the left bank of the river, was + within less than a league of him on his right hand. On the other side of + the hills, hardly out of cannon-shot, was the camp of the allies. Henry, + whose natural disposition in this respect needed no prompting, was most + eager for a decisive engagement. The circumstances imperatively required + it of him. His infantry consisted of Frenchmen, Netherlanders, English, + Germans, Scotch; but of his cavalry four thousand were French nobles, + serving at their own expense, who came to a battle as to a banquet, but + who were capable of riding off almost as rapidly, should the feast be + denied them. They were volunteers, bringing with them rations for but a + few days, and it could hardly be expected that they would remain as + patiently as did Parma's veterans, who, now that their mutiny had been + appeased by payment of a portion of their arrearages, had become docile + again. All the great chieftains who surrounded Henry, whether Catholic or + Protestant—Montpensier, Nevers, Soissons, Conti, the Birons, + Lavradin, d'Aumont, Tremouille, Turenne, Chatillon, La Noue—were + urgent for the conflict, concerning the expediency of which there could + indeed be no doubt, while the king was in raptures at the opportunity of + dealing a decisive blow at the confederacy of foreigners and rebels who + had so long defied his authority and deprived him of his rights. + </p> + <p> + Stafford came up with the king, according to his cordial invitation, on + the same day, and saw the army all drawn up in battle array. While Henry + was "eating a morsel in an old house," Turenne joined him with six or + seven hundred horsemen and between four and five thousand infantry. "They + were the likeliest footmen," said Stafford, "the best countenanced, the + best furnished that ever I saw in my life; the best part of them old + soldiers that had served under the king for the Religion all this while." + </p> + <p> + The envoy was especially enthusiastic, however, in regard to the French + cavalry. "There are near six thousand horse," said he, "whereof gentlemen + above four thousand, about twelve hundred other French, and eight hundred + reiters. I never saw, nor I think never any man saw, in prance such a + company of gentlemen together so well horsed and so well armed." + </p> + <p> + Henry sent a herald to the camp of the allies, formally challenging them + to a general engagement, and expressing a hope that all differences might + now be settled by the ordeal of battle, rather than that the sufferings of + the innocent people should be longer protracted. + </p> + <p> + Farnese, on arriving at Meaux, had resolved to seek the enemy and take the + hazards of a stricken field. He had misgivings as to the possible result, + but he expressly announced this intention in his letters to Philip, and + Mayenne confirmed him in his determination. Nevertheless, finding the + enemy so eager and having reflected more maturely, he saw no reason for + accepting the chivalrous cartel. As commanderin-chief—for Mayenne + willingly conceded the supremacy which it would have been absurd in him to + dispute—he accordingly replied that it was his custom to refuse a + combat when a refusal seemed advantageous to himself, and to offer battle + whenever it suited his purposes to fight. When that moment should arrive + the king would find him in the field. And, having sent this courteous, but + unsatisfactory answer to the impatient Bearnese, he gave orders to fortify + his camp, which was already sufficiently strong. Seven days long the two + armies lay face to face—Henry and his chivalry chafing in vain for + the longed-for engagement—and nothing occurred between those forty + or fifty thousand mortal enemies, encamped within a mile or two of each + other, save trifling skirmishes leading to no result. + </p> + <p> + At last Farnese gave orders for an advance. Renty, commander of the + vanguard, consisting of nearly all the cavalry, was instructed to move + slowly forward over the two hills, and descending on the opposite side, to + deploy his forces in two great wings to the right and left. He was + secretly directed in this movement to magnify as much as possible the + apparent dimensions of his force. Slowly the columns moved over the hills. + Squadron after squadron, nearly all of them lancers, with their pennons + flaunting gaily in the summer wind, displayed themselves deliberately and + ostentatiously in the face of the Royalists. The splendid light-horse of + Basti, the ponderous troopers of the Flemish bands of ordnance under + Chimay and Berlaymont, and the famous Albanian and Italian cavalry, were + mingled with the veteran Leaguers of France who had fought under the + Balafre, and who now followed the fortunes of his brother Mayenne. It was + an imposing demonstration. + </p> + <p> + Henry could hardly believe his eyes as the much-coveted opportunity, of + which he had been so many days disappointed, at last presented itself, and + he waited with more than his usual caution until the plan of attack should + be developed by his great antagonist. Parma, on his side, pressed the hand + of Mayenne as he watched the movement, saying quietly, "We have already + fought our battle and gained the victory." He then issued orders for the + whole battalia—which, since the junction, had been under command of + Mayenne, Farnese reserving for himself the superintendence of the entire + army—to countermarch rapidly towards the Marne and take up a + position opposite Lagny. La Motte, with the rearguard, was directed + immediately to follow. The battalia had thus become the van, the rearguard + the battalia, while the whole cavalry corps by this movement had been + transformed from the vanguard into the rear. Renty was instructed to + protect his manoeuvres, to restrain the skirmishing as much as possible, + and to keep the commander-in-chief constantly informed of every + occurrence. In the night he was to entrench and fortify himself rapidly + and thoroughly, without changing his position. + </p> + <p> + Under cover of this feigned attack, Farnese arrived at the river side on + the 15th September, seized an open village directly opposite Lagny, which + was connected with it by a stone bridge, and planted a battery of nine + pieces of heavy artillery directly opposite the town. Lagny was fortified + in the old-fashioned manner, with not very thick walls, and without a + terreplain. Its position, however, and its command of the bridge, seemed + to render an assault impossible, and De la Fin, who lay there with a + garrison of twelve hundred French, had no fear for the security of the + place. But Farnese, with the precision and celerity which characterized + his movements on special occasions, had thrown pontoon bridges across the + river three miles above, and sent a considerable force of Spanish and + Walloon infantry to the other side. These troops were ordered to hold + themselves ready for an assault, so soon as the batteries opposite should + effect a practicable breach. The next day Henry, reconnoitering the scene, + saw, with intense indignation, that he had been completely out-generalled. + Lagny, the key to the Marne, by holding which he had closed the door on + nearly all the food supplies for Paris, was about to be wrested from him. + What should he do? Should he throw himself across the river and rescue the + place before it fell? This was not to be thought of even by the audacious + Bearnese. In the attempt to cross the river, under the enemy's fire, he + was likely to lose a large portion of his army. Should he fling himself + upon Renty's division which had so ostentatiously offered battle the day + before? This at least might be attempted, although not so advantageously + as would have been the case on the previous afternoon. To undertake this + was the result of a rapid council of generals. It was too late. Renty held + the hills so firmly entrenched and fortified that it was an idle hope to + carry them by assault. He might hurl column after column against those + heights, and pass the day in seeing his men mowed to the earth without + result. + </p> + <p> + His soldiers, magnificent in the open field, could not be relied upon to + carry so strong a position by sudden storm; and there was no time to be + lost. He felt the enemy a little. There was some small skirmishing, and + while it was going on, Farnese opened a tremendous fire across the river + upon Lagny. The weak walls soon crumbled; a breach was effected, the + signal for assault was given, and the troops posted on the other side, + after a brief but sanguinary straggle, overcame all, resistance, and were + masters of the town. The whole garrison, twelve hundred strong, was + butchered, and the city thoroughly sacked; for Farnese had been brought up + in the old-fashioned school of Alva; and Julian Romero and Com-. wander + Requesens. + </p> + <p> + Thus Lagny was seized before the eyes of Henry, who was forced to look + helplessly on his great antagonist's triumph. He had come forth in full + panoply and abounding confidence to offer battle. He was foiled of his + combat; and he had lost the prize. Never was blow more successfully + parried, a counter-stroke more ingeniously planted. The bridges of + Charenton and St. Maur now fell into Farnese's hands without a contest. In + an incredibly short space of time provisions and munitions were poured + into the starving city; two thousand boat-loads arriving in a single day. + Paris was relieved. Alexander had made his demonstration, and solved the + problem. He had left the Netherlands against his judgment, but he had at + least accomplished his French work as none but he could have done it. The + king was now in worse plight than ever. His army fell to pieces. His + cavaliers, cheated of their battle; and having neither food nor forage, + rode off by hundreds every day. "Our state is such," said Stafford; on the + 16th September, "and so far unexpected and wonderful, that I am almost + ashamed to write, because methinks everybody should think I dream. Myself + seeing of it methinketh that I dream. For, my lord, to see an army such a + one I think as I shall never see again—especially for horsemen and + gentlemen to take a mind to disband upon the taking of such a paltry thing + as Lagny, a town no better indeed than Rochester, it is a thing so strange + to me that seeing of it I can scarce believe it. They make their excuses + of their want, which I know indeed is great—for there were few left + with one penny in their purses—but yet that extremity could not be + such but that they might have tarried ten days or fifteen at the most that + the king desired of them. . . . From six thousand horse that we were and + above, we are come to two thousand and I do not see an end of our + leave-takers, for those be hourly. + </p> + <p> + "The most I can see we can make account of to tarry are the Viscount + Turenne's troops, and Monsieur de Chatillon's, and our Switzers, and + Lanaquenettes, which make very near five thousand. The first that went + away, though he sent word to the king an hour before he would tarry, was + the Count Soissons, by whose parting on a sudden and without leave-taking + we judge a discontentment." + </p> + <p> + The king's army seemed fading into air. Making virtue of necessity he + withdrew to St. Denis, and decided to disband his forces, reserving to + himself only a flying camp with which to harass the enemy as often as + opportunity should offer. + </p> + <p> + It must be confessed that the Bearnese had been thoroughly out-generalled. + "It was not God's will," said Stafford, who had been in constant + attendance upon Henry through the whole business; "we deserved it not; for + the king might as easily have had Paris as drunk, four or five times. And + at the last, if he had not committed those faults that children would not + have done, only with the desire to fight and give the battle (which the + other never meant), he had had it in the Duke of Parma's eight as he took + Lagny in ours." He had been foiled of the battle on which he had set his + heart, and, in which he felt confident of overthrowing the great captain + of the age, and trampling the League under his feet. His capital just + ready to sink exhausted into his hands had been wrested from his grasp, + and was alive with new hope and new defiance. The League was triumphant, + his own army scattering to the four winds. Even a man of high courage and + sagacity might have been in despair. Yet never were the magnificent + hopefulness, the wise audacity of Henry more signally manifested than now + when he seemed most blundering and most forlorn. His hardy nature ever met + disaster with so cheerful a smile as almost to perplex disaster herself. + </p> + <p> + Unwilling to relinquish his grip without a last effort, he resolved on a + midnight assault upon Paris. Hoping that the joy at being relieved, the + unwonted feasting which had succeeded the long fasting, and the + consciousness of security from the presence of the combined armies of the + victorious League, would throw garrison and citizens off their guard, he + came into the neighbourhood of the Faubourgs St. Jacques, St. Germain, St. + Marcel, and St. Michel on the night of 9th September. A desperate effort + was made to escalade the walls between St. Jacques and St. Germain. It was + foiled, not by the soldiers nor the citizens, but by the sleepless + Jesuits, who, as often before during this memorable siege, had kept guard + on the ramparts, and who now gave the alarm. The first assailants were + hurled from their ladders, the city was roused, and the Duke of Nemours + was soon on the spot, ordering burning pitch hoops, atones, and other + missiles to be thrown down upon the invaders. The escalade was baffled; + yet once more that night, just before dawn, the king in person renewed the + attack on the Faubourg St. Germain. The faithful Stafford stood by his + side in the trenches, and was witness to his cool determination, his + indomitable hope. La None too was there, and was wounded in the leg—an + accident the results of which were soon to cause much weeping through + Christendom. Had one of those garlands of blazing tar which all night had + been fluttering from the walls of Paris alighted by chance on the king's + head there might have been another history of France. The ladders, too, + proved several feet too short, and there were too few, of them. Had they + been more numerous and longer, the tale might have been a different one. + As it was, the king was forced to retire with the approaching daylight. + </p> + <p> + The characteristics of the great commander of the Huguenots and of the + Leaguers' chieftain respectively were well illustrated in several + incidents of this memorable campaign. Farnese had been informed by scouts + and spies of this intended assault by Henry on the walls of Paris. With + his habitual caution he discredited the story. Had he believed it, he + might have followed the king in overwhelming force and taken him captive. + The penalty of Henry's unparalleled boldness was thus remitted by + Alexander's exuberant discretion. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards Farnese laid siege to Corbeil. This little place—owing + to the extraordinary skill and determination of its commandant, Rigaut, an + old Huguenot officer, who had fought with La Noue in Flanders—resisted + for nearly four weeks. It was assaulted at last, Rigaut killed, the + garrison of one thousand French soldiers put to the sword, and the town + sacked. With the fall of Corbeil both the Seine and Marne were re-opened. + </p> + <p> + Alexander then made a visit to Paris, where he was received with great + enthusiasm. The legate, whose efforts and whose money had so much + contributed to the successful defence of the capital had returned to Italy + to participate in the election of a new pope. For the "Huguenot pope," + Sixtus V., had died at the end of August, having never bestowed on the + League any of his vast accumulated treasures to help it in its utmost + need. It was not surprising that Philip was indignant, and had resorted to + menace of various kinds against the holy father, when he found him swaying + so perceptibly in the direction of the hated Bearnese. Of course when he + died his complaint was believed to be Spanish poison. In those days, none + but the very obscure were thought capable of dying natural deaths, and + Philip was esteemed too consummate an artist to allow so formidable an + adversary as Sixtus to pass away in God's time only. Certainly his death + was hailed as matter of great rejoicing by the Spanish party in Rome, and + as much ignominy bestowed upon his memory as if he had been a heretic; + while in Paris his decease was celebrated with bonfires and other marks of + popular hilarity. + </p> + <p> + To circumvent the great Huguenot's reconciliation with the Roman Church + was of course an indispensable portion of Philip's plan; for none could be + so dull as not to perceive that the resistance of Paris to its heretic + sovereign would cease to be very effective, so soon as the sovereign had + ceased to be heretic. It was most important therefore that the successor + of Sixtus should be the tool of Spain. The leading confederates were well + aware of Henry's intentions to renounce the reformed faith, and to return + to the communion of Rome whenever he could formally accomplish that + measure. The crafty Bearnese knew full well that the road to Paris lay + through the gates of Rome. Yet it is proof either of the privacy with + which great public matters were then transacted, or of the extraordinary + powers of deceit with which Henry was gifted, that the leaders of + protestantism were still hoodwinked in regard to his attitude. + Notwithstanding the embassy of Luxembourg, and the many other indications + of the king's intentions, Queen Elizabeth continued to regard him as the + great champion of the reformed faith. She had just sent him an emerald, + which she had herself worn, accompanied by the expression of her wish that + the king in wearing it might never strike a blow without demolishing an + enemy, and that in his farther progress he might put all his enemies to + rout and confusion. "You will remind the king, too," she added, "that the + emerald has this virtue, never to break so long as faith remains entire + and firm." + </p> + <p> + And the shrewd Stafford, who was in daily attendance upon him, informed + his sovereign that there were no symptoms of wavering on Henry's part. + "The Catholics here," said he, "cry hard upon the king to be a Catholic or + else that he is lost, and they would persuade him that for all their + calling in the Spaniards, both Paris and all other towns will yield to + him, if he will but assure them that he will become a Catholic. For my + part, I think they would laugh at him when he had done so, and so I find + he believeth the same, if he had mind to it, which I find no disposition + in him unto it." The not very distant future was to show what the + disposition of the bold Gascon really was in this great matter, and + whether he was likely to reap nothing but ridicule from his apostasy, + should it indeed become a fact. Meantime it was the opinion of the wisest + sovereign in Europe, and of one of the most adroit among her diplomatists, + that there was really nothing in the rumours as to the king's contemplated + conversion. + </p> + <p> + It was, of course, unfortunate for Henry that his staunch friend and + admirer Sixtus was no more. But English diplomacy could do but little in + Rome, and men were trembling with apprehension lest that arch-enemy of + Elizabeth, that devoted friend of Philip, the English Cardinal Allen, + should be elected to the papal throne. "Great ado is made in Rome," said + Stafford, "by the Spanish ambassador, by all corruptions and ways that may + be, to make a pope that must needs depend and be altogether at the King of + Spain's devotion. If the princes of Italy put not their hands unto it, no + doubt they will have their wills, and I fear greatly our villainous Allen, + for, in my judgment, I can comprehend no man more with reason to be tied + altogether to the King of Spain's will than he. I pray God send him either + to God or the Devil first. An evil-minded Englishman, tied to the King of + Spain by necessity, finding almost four millions of money, is a dangerous + beast for a pope in this time." + </p> + <p> + Cardinal Allen was doomed to disappointment. His candidacy was not + successful, and, after the brief reign—thirteen days long—of + Urban VII, Sfondrato wore the triple tiara with the title of Gregory XIV. + Before the year closed, that pontiff had issued a brief urging the + necessity of extirpating heresy in France, and of electing a Catholic + king, and asserting his determination to send to Paris—that bulwark + of the Catholic faith—not empty words alone but troops, to be paid + fifteen thousand crowns of gold each month, so long as the city should + need assistance. It was therefore probable that the great leader of the + Huguenots, now that he had been defeated by Farnese, and that his capital + was still loyal to the League, would obtain less favour—however + conscientiously he might instruct himself—from Gregory XIV. than he + had begun to find in the eyes of Sixtus after the triumph of Ivry. + </p> + <p> + Parma refreshed his army by a fortnight's repose, and early in November + determined on his return to the Netherlands. The Leaguers were aghast at + his decision, and earnestly besought him to remain. But the duke had given + them back their capital, and although this had been accomplished without + much bloodshed in their army or his own, sickness was now making sad + ravages among his troops, and there was small supply of food or forage for + such large forces as had now been accumulated, in the neighbourhood of + Paris. Moreover, dissensions were breaking out between the Spaniards, + Italians, and Netherlanders of the relieving army with their French + allies. The soldiers and peasants hated the foreigners who came there as + victors, even although to assist the Leaguers in overthrowing the laws, + government, and nationality of France. The stragglers and wounded on + Farnese's march were killed by the country people in considerable numbers, + and it was a pure impossibility for him longer to delay his return to the + provinces which so much against his will he had deserted. + </p> + <p> + He marched back by way of Champagne rather than by that of Picardy, in + order to deceive the king. Scarcely had he arrived in Champagne when he + heard of the retaking of Lagny and Corbeil. So soon as his back was + turned, the League thus showed its impotence to retain the advantage which + his genius had won. Corbeil, which had cost him a month of hard work, was + recaptured in two days. Lagny fell almost as quickly. Earnestly did the + confederates implore him to return to their rescue, but he declined almost + contemptuously to retrace his steps. His march was conducted in the same + order and with the same precision which—had marked his advance. + Henry, with his flying camp, hung upon his track, harassing him now in + front, now in rear, now in flank. None of the skirmishes were of much + military importance. A single cavalry combat, however, in which old + Marshal Biron was nearly surrounded and was in imminent danger of death or + capture, until chivalrously rescued by the king in person at the head of a + squadron of lancers, will always possess romantic interest. In a + subsequent encounter, near Baroges on the Yesle, Henry had sent Biron + forward with a few companies of horse to engage some five hundred + carabineers of Farnese on their march towards the frontier, and had + himself followed close upon the track with his usual eagerness to witness + or participate in every battle. Suddenly Alphonse Corse, who rode at + Henry's aide, pointed out to him, not more than a hundred paces off, an + officer wearing a felt hat, a great ruff, and a little furred cassock, + mounted on a horse without armour or caparisons, galloping up and down and + brandishing his sword at the carabineers to compel them to fall back. + </p> + <p> + This was the Duke of Parma, and thus the two great champions of the + Huguenots and of the Leaguers—the two foremost captains of the age—had + met face to face. At that moment La Noue, riding up, informed the king + that he had seen the whole of the enemy's horse and foot in battle array, + and Henry, suspecting the retreat of Farnese to be a feint for the purpose + of luring him on with his small force to an attack, gave orders to retire + as soon as possible. + </p> + <p> + At Guise, on the frontier, the duke parted with Mayenne, leaving with him + an auxiliary force of four thousand foot and five hundred horse, which he + could ill spare. He then returned to Brussels, which city he reached on + the 4th December, filling every hotel and hospital with his sick soldiers, + and having left one-third of his numbers behind him. He had manifested his + own military skill in the adroit and successful manner in which he had + accomplished the relief of Paris, while the barrenness of the result from + the whole expedition vindicated the political sagacity with which he had + remonstrated against his sovereign's infatuation. + </p> + <p> + Paris, with the renewed pressure on its two great arteries at Lagny and + Corbeil, soon fell into as great danger as before; the obedient + Netherlands during the absence of Farnese had been sinking rapidly to + ruin, while; on the other hand, great progress and still greater + preparations in aggressive warfare had been made by the youthful general + and stadtholder of the Republic. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Alexander's exuberant discretion + Divine right of kings + Ever met disaster with so cheerful a smile + Future world as laid down by rival priesthoods + Invaluable gift which no human being can acquire, authority + King was often to be something much less or much worse + Magnificent hopefulness + Myself seeing of it methinketh that I dream + Nothing cheap, said a citizen bitterly, but sermons + Obscure were thought capable of dying natural deaths + Philip II. gave the world work enough + Righteous to kill their own children + Road to Paris lay through the gates of Rome + Shift the mantle of religion from one shoulder to the other + Thirty-three per cent. interest was paid (per month) + Under the name of religion (so many crimes) +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. 1590-1592 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Prince Maurice—State of the Republican army—Martial science of the + period—Reformation of the military system by Prince Maurice—His + military genius—Campaign in the Netherlands—The fort and town of + Zutphen taken by the States' forces—Attack upon Deventer—Its + capitulation—Advance on Groningen, Delfzyl, Opslag, Yementil, + Steenwyk, and other places—Farnese besieges Fort Knodsenburg— + Prince Maurice hastens to its relief—A skirmish ensues resulting in + the discomfiture of the Spanish and Italian troops—Surrender of + Hulat and Nymegen—Close of military, operations of the year. +</pre> + <p> + While the events revealed in the last chapter had been occupying the + energies of Farnese and the resources of his sovereign, there had been + ample room for Prince Maurice to mature his projects, and to make a + satisfactory beginning in the field. Although Alexander had returned to + the Netherlands before the end of the year 1590, and did not set forth on + his second French campaign until late in the following year, yet the + condition of his health, the exhaustion of his funds, and the dwindling of + his army, made it impossible for him to render any effectual opposition to + the projects of the youthful general. + </p> + <p> + For the first time Maurice was ready to put his theories and studies into + practice on an extensive scale. Compared with modern armaments, the + warlike machinery to be used for liberating the republic from its foreign + oppressors would seem almost diminutive. But the science and skill of a + commander are to be judged by the results he can work out with the + materials within reach. His progress is to be measured by a comparison + with the progress of his contemporaries—coheirs with him of what + Time had thus far bequeathed. + </p> + <p> + The regular army of the republic, as reconstructed, was but ten thousand + foot and two thousand horse, but it was capable of being largely expanded + by the trainbands of the cities, well disciplined and enured to hardship, + and by the levies of German reiters and other, foreign auxiliaries in such + numbers as could be paid for by the hard-pressed exchequer of the + provinces. + </p> + <p> + To the state-council, according to its original constitution, belonged the + levying and disbanding of troops, the conferring of military offices, and + the supervision of military operations by sea and land. It was its duty to + see that all officers made oath of allegiance to the United Provinces. + </p> + <p> + The course of Leicester's administration, and especially the fatal treason + of Stanley and of York, made it seem important for the true lovers of + their country to wrest from the state-council, where the English had two + seats, all political and military power. And this, as has been seen, was + practically but illegally accomplished. The silent revolution by which at + this epoch all the main attributes of government passed into the hands of + the States-General-acting as a league of sovereignties—has already + been indicated. The period during which the council exercised functions + conferred on it by the States-General themselves was brief and evanescent. + The jealousy of the separate provinces soon prevented the state-council—a + supreme executive body entrusted with the general defence of the + commonwealth—from causing troops to pass into or out of one province + or another without a patent from his Excellency the Prince, not as chief + of the whole army, but as governor and captain-general of Holland, or + Gelderland, or Utrecht, as the case might be. + </p> + <p> + The highest military office in the Netherlands was that of captain-general + or supreme commander. This quality was from earliest times united to that + of stadholder, who stood, as his title implied, in the place of the + reigning sovereign, whether count, duke, king, or emperor. After the + foundation of the Republic this dynastic form, like many others, remained, + and thus Prince Maurice was at first only captain-general of Holland and + Zeeland, and subsequently of Gelderland, Utrecht, and Overyssel, after he + had been appointed stadholder of those three provinces in 1590 on the + death of Count Nieuwenaar. However much in reality he was general-in-chief + of the army, he never in all his life held the appointment of + captain-general of the Union. + </p> + <p> + To obtain a captain's commission in the army, it was necessary to have + served four years, while three years' service was the necessary + preliminary to the post of lieutenant or ensign. Three candidates were + presented by the province for each office, from whom the stadholder + appointed one.—The commissions, except those of the highest + commanders, were made out in the name of the States-General, by advice and + consent of the council of state. The oath of allegiance, exacted from + soldiers as well as officers; mentioned the name of the particular + province to which they belonged, as well as that of the States-Generals. + It thus appears that, especially after Maurice's first and successful + campaigns; the supreme authority over the army really belonged to the + States-General, and that the powers of the state-council in this regard + fell, in the course of four years, more and more into the back-ground, and + at last disappeared almost entirely. During the active period of the war, + however; the effect of this revolution was in fact rather a greater + concentration of military power than its dispersion, for the + States-General meant simply the province of Holland. Holland was the + republic. + </p> + <p> + The organisation of the infantry was very simple. The tactical unit was + the company. A temporary combination of several companies—made a + regiment, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant-colonel, but for such + regiments there was no regular organisation. Sometimes six or seven + companies were thus combined, sometimes three times that number, but the + strength of a force, however large, was always estimated by the number of + companies, not of regiments. + </p> + <p> + The normal strength of an infantry company, at the beginning of Maurice's + career, may be stated at one hundred and thirteen, commanded by one + captain, one lieutenant, one ensign, and by the usual non-commissioned + officers. Each company was composed of musketeers, harquebusseers, + pikemen, halberdeers, and buckler-men. Long after, portable firearms had + come into use, the greater portion of foot soldiers continued to be armed + with pikes, until the introduction of the fixed bayonet enabled the + musketeer to do likewise the duty of pikeman. Maurice was among the first + to appreciate the advantage of portable firearms, and he accordingly + increased the proportion of soldiers armed with the musket in his + companies. In a company of a hundred and thirteen, including officers, he + had sixty-four armed with firelocks to thirty carrying pikes and halberds. + As before his time the proportion between the arms had been nearly even; + he thus more than doubled the number of firearms. + </p> + <p> + Of these weapons there were two sorts, the musket and the harquebus. The + musket was a long, heavy, unmanageable instrument. When fired it + was-placed upon an iron gaffle or fork, which: the soldier carried with + him, and stuck before him into the ground. The bullets of the musket were + twelve to the pound. + </p> + <p> + The harquebus—or hak-bus, hook-gun, so called because of the hook in + the front part of the barrel to give steadiness in firing—was much + lighter, was discharged from the hand; and carried bullets of twenty-four + to the pound. Both weapons had matchlocks. + </p> + <p> + The pike was eighteen feet long at least, and pikemen as well as + halberdsmen carried rapiers. + </p> + <p> + There were three buckler-men to each company, introduced by Maurice for + the personal protection of the leader of the company. The prince was often + attended by one himself, and, on at least one memorable occasion, was + indebted to this shield for the preservation of his life. + </p> + <p> + The cavalry was divided into lancers and carabineers. The unit was the + squadron, varying in number from sixty to one hundred and fifty, until the + year 1591, when the regular complement of the squadron was fixed at one + hundred and twenty. + </p> + <p> + As the use of cavalry on the battle-field at that day, or at least in the + Netherlands, was not in rapidity of motion, nor in severity of shock—the + attack usually taking place on a trot—Maurice gradually displaced + the lance in favour of the carbine. His troopers thus became rather + mounted infantry than regular cavalry. + </p> + <p> + The carbine was at least three feet long, with wheel-locks, and carried + bullets of thirty to the pound. + </p> + <p> + The artillery was a peculiar Organisation. It was a guild of citizens, + rather than a strictly military force like the cavalry and infantry. The + arm had but just begun to develop itself, and it was cultivated as a + special trade by the guild of the holy Barbara existing in all the + principal cities. Thus a municipal artillery gradually organised itself, + under the direction of the gun-masters (bus-meesters), who in secret + laboured at the perfection of their art, and who taught it to their + apprentices and journeymen; as the principles of other crafts were + conveyed by master to pupil. This system furnished a powerful element of + defence at a period when every city had in great measure to provide for + its own safety. + </p> + <p> + In the earlier campaigns of Maurice three kinds of artillery were used; + the whole cannon (kartow) of forty-eight pounds; the half-cannon, or + twenty-four pounder, and the field-piece carrying a ball of twelve pounds. + The two first were called battering pieces or siege-guns. All the guns + were of bronze. + </p> + <p> + The length of the whole cannon was about twelve feet; its weight one + hundred and fifty times that of the ball, or about seven thousand pounds. + It was reckoned that the whole kartow could fire from eighty to one + hundred shots in an hour. Wet hair cloths were used to cool the piece + after every ten or twelve discharges. The usual charge was twenty pounds + of powder. + </p> + <p> + The whole gun was drawn by thirty-one horses, the half-cannon by + twenty-three. + </p> + <p> + The field-piece required eleven horses, but a regular field-artillery, as + an integral part of the army, did not exist, and was introduced in much + later times. In the greatest pitched battle ever fought by Maurice, that + of Nieuport, he had but six field-pieces. + </p> + <p> + The prince also employed mortars in his sieges, from which were thrown + grenades, hot shot, and stones; but no greater distance was reached than + six hundred yards. Bomb-shells were not often used although they had been + known for a century. + </p> + <p> + Before the days of Maurice a special education for engineers had never + been contemplated. Persons who had privately acquired a knowledge of + fortification and similar branches of the science were employed, upon + occasion, but regular corps of engineers there were none. The prince + established a course of instruction in this profession at the University + of Leyden, according to a system drawn up by the celebrated Stevinus. + </p> + <p> + Doubtless the most important innovation of the prince, and the one which + required the most energy to enforce, was the use of the spade. His + soldiers were jeered at by the enemy as mere boors and day labourers who + were dishonouring themselves and their profession by the use of that + implement instead of the sword. Such a novelty was a shock to all the + military ideas of the age, and it was only the determination and vigour of + the prince and of his cousin Lewis William that ultimately triumphed over + the universal prejudice. + </p> + <p> + The pay of the common soldier varied from ten to twenty florins the month, + but every miner had eighteen florins, and, when actually working in the + mines, thirty florins monthly. Soldiers used in digging trenches received, + over and above their regular pay, a daily wage of from ten to fifteen + styvers, or nearly a shilling sterling. + </p> + <p> + Another most wholesome improvement made by the prince was in the payment + of his troops. The system prevailing in every European country at that + day, by which Governments were defrauded and soldiers starved, was most + infamous. The soldiers were paid through the captain, who received the + wages of a full company, when perhaps not one-third of the names on the + master-roll were living human beings. Accordingly two-thirds of all the + money stuck to the officer's fingers, and it was not thought a disgrace to + cheat the Government by dressing and equipping for the day a set of + ragamuffins, caught up in the streets for the purpose, and made to pass + muster as regular soldiers. + </p> + <p> + These parse-volants, or scarecrows, were passed freely about from one + company to another, and the indecency of the fraud was never thought a + disgrace to the colours of the company. + </p> + <p> + Thus, in the Armada year, the queen had demanded that a portion of her + auxiliary force in the Netherlands should be sent to England. The States + agreed that three thousand of these English troops, together with a few + cavalry companies, should go, but stipulated that two thousand should + remain in the provinces. The queen accepted the proposal, but when the two + thousand had been counted out, it appeared that there was scarcely a man + left for the voyage to England. Yet every one of the English captains had + claimed full pay for his company from her Majesty's exchequer. + </p> + <p> + Against this tide of peculation and corruption the strenuous Maurice set + himself with heart and soul, and there is no doubt that to his reformation + in this vital matter much of his military success was owing. It was + impossible that roguery and venality should ever furnish a solid + foundation for the martial science. + </p> + <p> + To the student of military history the campaigns and sieges of Maurice, + and especially the earlier: ones, are of great importance. There is no + doubt whatever, that the youth who now, after deep study and careful + preparation, was measuring himself against the first captains of the age, + was founding the great modern school of military science. It was in this + Netherland academy, and under the tuition of its consummate professor, + that the commanders of the seventeenth century not only acquired the + rudiments, but perfected themselves in the higher walks of their art. + Therefore the siege operations, in which all that had been invented by + modern genius, or rescued from the oblivion which had gathered over + ancient lore during the more vulgar and commonplace practice of the + mercenary commanders of the day was brought into successful application, + must always engage the special attention of the military student. + </p> + <p> + To the general reader, more interested in marking the progress of + civilisation and the advance of the people in the path of development and + true liberty, the spectacle of the young stadholder's triumphs has an + interest of another kind. At the moment when a thorough practical soldier + was most needed by the struggling little commonwealth, to enable it to + preserve liberties partially secured by its unparalleled sacrifices of + blood and treasure during a quarter of a century, and to expel the foreign + invader from the soil which he had so long profaned, it was destined that + a soldier should appear. + </p> + <p> + Spade in hand, with his head full of Roman castrametation and geometrical + problems, a prince, scarce emerged from boyhood, presents himself on that + stage where grizzled Mansfelds, drunken Hohenlos, and truculent Verdugos + have been so long enacting, that artless military drama which consists of + hard knocks and wholesale massacres. The novice is received with universal + hilarity. But although the machinery of war varies so steadily from age to + age that a commonplace commander of to-day, rich in the spoils of + preceding time, might vanquish the Alexanders, and Caesars, and Frederics, + with their antiquated enginery, yet the moral stuff out of which great + captains, great armies, great victories are created, is the simple + material it was in the days of Sesostris or Cyrus. The moral and + physiological elements remain essentially the same as when man first began + to walk up and down the earth and destroy his fellow-creatures. + </p> + <p> + To make an army a thorough mowing-machine, it then seemed necessary that + it should be disciplined into complete mechanical obedience. To secure + this, prompt payment of wages and inexorable punishment of delinquencies + were indispensable. Long arrearages were now converting Farnese's veterans + into systematic marauders; for unpaid soldiers in every age and country + have usually degenerated into highwaymen, and it is an impossibility for a + sovereign, with the strictest intentions, to persist in starving his + soldiers and in killing them for feeding themselves. In Maurice's little + army, on the contrary, there were no back-wages and no thieving. At the + siege of Delfzyl Maurice hung two of his soldiers for stealing, the one a + hat and the other a poniard, from the townsfolk, after the place had + capitulated. At the siege of Hulst he ordered another to be shot, before + the whole camp, for robbing a woman. + </p> + <p> + This seems sufficiently harsh, but war is not a pastime nor a very humane + occupation. The result was, that robbery disappeared, and it is better for + all that enlisted men should be soldiers rather than thieves. To secure + the ends which alone can justify war—and if the Netherlanders + engaged in defending national existence and human freedom against foreign + tyranny were not justifiable then a just war has never been waged—a + disciplined army is vastly more humane in its operations than a band of + brigands. Swift and condign punishments by the law-martial, for even + trifling offences, is the best means of discipline yet devised. + </p> + <p> + To bring to utmost perfection the machinery already in existence, to + encourage invention, to ponder the past with a practical application to + the present, to court fatigue, to scorn pleasure, to concentrate the + energies on the work in hand, to cultivate quickness of eye and calmness + of nerve in the midst of danger, to accelerate movements, to economise + blood even at the expense of time, to strive after ubiquity and + omniscience in the details of person and place, these were the + characteristics of Maurice, and they have been the prominent traits of all + commanders who have stamped themselves upon their age. Although his method + of war-making differed as far as possible from that quality in common, of + the Bearnese, yet the two had one personal insensibility to fear. But in + the case of Henry, to confront danger for its own sake was in itself a + pleasure, while the calmer spirit of Maurice did not so much seek the joys + of the combat as refuse to desist from scientific combinations in the + interests of his personal safety. Very frequently, in the course of his + early campaigns, the prince was formally and urgently requested by the + States-General not to expose his life so recklessly, and before he had + passed his twenty-fifth year he had received wounds which, but for + fortunate circumstances, would have proved mortal, because he was + unwilling to leave special operations on which much was depending to other + eyes than his own. The details of his campaigns are, of necessity, the + less interesting to a general reader from their very completeness. + Desultory or semi-civilised warfare, where the play of the human passions + is distinctly visible, where individual man, whether in buff jerkin or + Milan coat of proof, meets his fellow man in close mortal combat, where + men starve by thousands or are massacred by town-fulls, where hamlets or + villages blaze throughout whole districts or are sunk beneath the ocean—scenes + of rage, hatred, vengeance, self-sacrifice, patriotism, where all the + virtues and vices of which humanity is capable stride to and fro in their + most violent colours and most colossal shape where man in a moment rises + almost to divinity, or sinks beneath the beasts of the field—such + tragical records of which the sanguinary story of mankind is full—and + no portion of them more so than the Netherland chronicles appeal more + vividly to the imagination than the neatest solution of mathematical + problems. Yet, if it be the legitimate end of military science to + accomplish its largest purposes at the least expense of human suffering; + if it be progress in civilisation to acquire by scientific combination + what might be otherwise attempted, and perhaps vainly attempted, by + infinite carnage, then is the professor with his diagrams, standing + unmoved amid danger, a more truly heroic image than Coeur-de-Lion with his + battle-axe or Alva with his truncheon. + </p> + <p> + The system—then a new one—which Maurice introduced to sustain + that little commonwealth from sinking of which he had become at the age of + seventeen the predestined chief, was the best under the circumstances that + could have been devised. Patriotism the most passionate, the most sublime, + had created the republic. To maintain its existence against perpetual + menace required the exertion of perpetual skill. + </p> + <p> + Passionless as algebra, the genius of Maurice was ready for the task. + Strategic points of immense value, important cities and fortresses, vital + river-courses and communications—which foreign tyranny had acquired + during the tragic past with a patient iniquity almost without a parallel, + and which patriotism had for years vainly struggled to recover—were + the earliest trophies and prizes of his art. But the details of his + victories may be briefly indicated, for they have none of the + picturesqueness of crime. The sieges of Naarden, Harlem, Leyden, were + tragedies of maddening interest, but the recovery of Zutphen, Deventer, + Nymegen, Groningen, and many other places—all important though they + were—was accomplished with the calmness of a consummate player, who + throws down on the table the best half dozen invincible cards which it + thus becomes superfluous to play. + </p> + <p> + There were several courses open to the prince before taking the field. It + was desirable to obtain control of the line of the Waal, by which that + heart of the republic—Holland—would be made entirely secure. + To this end, Gertruydenberg—lately surrendered to the enemy by the + perfidy of the Englishman Wingfield, to whom it had been entrusted—Bois + le Duc, and Nymegen were to be wrested from Spain. + </p> + <p> + It was also important to hold the Yssel, the course of which river led + directly through the United Netherlands, quite to the Zuyder Zee, cutting + off Friesland, Groningen, and Gelderland from their sister provinces of + Holland and Zeeland. And here again the keys to this river had been lost + by English treason. The fort of Zutphen and the city of Deventer had been + transferred to the Spaniard by Roland York and Sir William Stanley, in + whose honour the republic had so blindly confided, and those cities it was + now necessary to reduce by regular siege before the communications between + the eastern and western portions of the little commonwealth could ever be + established. + </p> + <p> + Still farther in the ancient Frisian depths, the memorable treason of that + native Netherlander, the high-born Renneberg, had opened the way for the + Spaniard's foot into the city of Groningen. Thus this whole important + province—with its capital—long subject to the foreign + oppressor, was garrisoned with his troops. + </p> + <p> + Verdugo, a veteran officer of Portuguese birth, who had risen from the + position of hostler to that of colonel and royal stadholder, commanded in + Friesland. He had in vain demanded reinforcements and supplies from + Farnese, who most reluctantly was obliged to refuse them in order that he + might obey his master's commands to neglect everything for the sake of the + campaign in France. + </p> + <p> + And Verdugo, stripped of all adequate forces to protect his important + province, was equally destitute of means for feeding the troops that were + left to him. "I hope to God that I may do my duty to the king and your + Highness," he cried, "but I find myself sold up and pledged to such an + extent that I am poorer than when I was a soldier at four crowns a month. + And everybody in the town is as desperate as myself." + </p> + <p> + Maurice, after making a feint of attacking Gertruydenberg and Bois le Duc, + so that Farnese felt compelled, with considerable difficulty, to + strengthen the garrison of those places, came unexpectedly to Arnhem with + a force of nine thousand foot and sixteen hundred horse. He had previously + and with great secrecy sent some companies of infantry under Sir Francis + Vere to Doesburg. + </p> + <p> + On the 23rd May (1591) five peasants and six peasant women made their + appearance at dawn of day before the chief guard-house of the great fort + in the Badmeadow (Vel-uwe), opposite Zutphen, on the west side of the + Yssel. It was not an unusual occurrence. These boors and their wives had + brought baskets of eggs, butter, and cheese, for the garrison, and they + now set themselves quietly down on the ground before the gate, waiting for + the soldiers of the garrison to come out and traffic with them for their + supplies. Very soon several of the guard made their appearance, and began + to chaffer with the peasants, when suddenly one of the women plucked a + pistol from under her petticoats and shot dead the soldier who was + cheapening her eggs. The rest of the party, transformed in an instant from + boors to soldiers, then sprang upon the rest of the guard, overpowered and + bound them, and took possession of the gate. A considerable force, which + had been placed in ambush by Prince Maurice near the spot, now rushed + forward, and in a few minutes the great fort of Zutphen was mastered by + the States' forces without loss of a man. It was a neat and perfectly + successful stratagem. + </p> + <p> + Next day Maurice began the regular investment of the city. On the 26th, + Count Lewis William arrived with some Frisian companies. On the 27th, + Maurice threw a bridge of boats from the Badmeadow side, across the river + to the Weert before the city. On the 28th he had got batteries, mounting + thirty-two guns, into position, commanding the place at three points. On + the 30th the town capitulated. Thus within exactly one week from the + firing of the pistol shot by the supposed butterwoman, this fort and town, + which had so long resisted the efforts of the States, and were such + important possessions of the Spaniards, fell into the hands of Maurice. + The terms of surrender were easy. The city being more important than its + garrison, the soldiers were permitted to depart with bag and baggage. The + citizens were allowed three days to decide whether to stay under loyal + obedience to the States-General, or to take their departure. Those who + chose to remain were to enjoy all the privileges of citizens of the United + Provinces. + </p> + <p> + But very few substantial citizens were left, for such had been the + tyranny, the misery, and the misrule during the long occupation by a + foreign soldiery of what was once a thriving Dutch town, that scarcely + anybody but paupers and vagabonds were left. One thousand houses were + ruined and desolate. It is superfluous to add that the day of its + restoration to the authority of the Union was the beginning of its renewed + prosperity. + </p> + <p> + Maurice, having placed a national garrison in the place, marched the same + evening straight upon Deventer, seven miles farther down the river, + without pausing to sleep upon his victory. His artillery and munitions + were sent rapidly down the Yssel. + </p> + <p> + Within five days he had thoroughly invested the city, and brought + twenty-eight guns to bear upon the weakest part of its defences. + </p> + <p> + It was a large, populous, well-built town, once a wealthy member of the + Hanseatic League, full of fine buildings, both public and private, the + capital of the rich and fertile province of Overyssel, and protected by a + strong wall and moat—as well-fortified a place as could be found in + the Netherlands. The garrison consisted of fourteen hundred Spaniards and + Walloons, under the command of Count Herman van den Berg, first cousin of + Prince Maurice. + </p> + <p> + No sooner had the States army come before the city than a Spanish captain + observed—"We shall now have a droll siege—cousins on the + outside, cousins on the inside. There will be a sham fight or two, and + then the cousins will make it up, and arrange matters to suit themselves." + </p> + <p> + Such hints had deeply wounded Van den Berg, who was a fervent Catholic, + and as loyal a servant to Philip II. as he could have been, had that + monarch deserved, by the laws of nature and by his personal services and + virtues, to govern all the swamps of Friesland. He slept on the gibe, + having ordered all the colonels and captains of the garrison to attend at + solemn mass in the great church the next morning. He there declared to + them all publicly that he felt outraged at the suspicions concerning his + fidelity, and after mass he took the sacrament, solemnly swearing never to + give up the city or even to speak of it until he had made such resistance + that he must be carried from the breach. So long as he could stand or sit + he would defend the city entrusted to his care. + </p> + <p> + The whole council who had come from Zutphen to Maurice's camp were allowed + to deliberate concerning the siege. The enemy had been seen hovering about + the neighbourhood in considerable numbers, but had not ventured an attempt + to throw reinforcements into the place. Many of the counsellors argued + against the siege. It was urged that the resistance would be determined + and protracted, and that the Duke of Parma was sure to take the field in + person to relieve so important a city, before its reduction could be + effected. + </p> + <p> + But Maurice had thrown a bridge across the Yssel above, and another below + the town, had carefully and rapidly taken measures in the success of which + he felt confident, and now declared that it would be cowardly and shameful + to abandon an enterprise so well begun. + </p> + <p> + The city had been formally summoned to surrender, and a calm but most + decided refusal had been returned. + </p> + <p> + On the 9th June the batteries began playing, and after four thousand six + hundred shots a good breach had been effected in the defences along the + Kaye—an earthen work lying between two strong walls of masonry. + </p> + <p> + The breach being deemed practicable, a storm was ordered. To reach the + Kaye it was necessary to cross a piece of water called the Haven, over + which a pontoon bridge was hastily thrown. There was now a dispute among + the English, Scotch, and Netherlanders for precedence in the assault. It + was ultimately given to the English, in order that the bravery of that + nation might now on the same spot wipe out the disgrace inflicted upon its + name by the treason of Sir William Stanley. The English did their duty + well and rushed forward merrily, but the bridge proved too short. Some + sprang over and pushed boldly for the breach. Some fell into the moat and + were drowned. Others, sustained by the Netherlanders under Solms, + Meetkerke, and Brederode, effected their passage by swimming, leaping, or + wading, so that a resolute attack was made. Herman van den Berg met them + in the breach at the head of seven companies. The defenders were most + ferocious in their resistance. They were also very drunk. The count had + placed many casks of Rhenish and of strong beer within reach, and ordered + his soldiers to drink their fill as they fought. He was himself as + vigorous in his potations as he was chivalrous with sword and buckler. Two + pages and two lieutenants fell at his side, but still he fought at the + head of his men with a desperation worthy of his vow, until he fell + wounded in the eye and was carried from the place. Notwithstanding this + disaster to the commander of the town, the assailants were repulsed, + losing two hundred-and twenty-five in killed and wounded—Colonel + Meetkerke and his brother, two most valuable Dutch officers, among them. + </p> + <p> + During the whole of the assault, a vigorous cannonade had been kept up + upon other parts of the town, and houses and church-towers were toppling + down in all directions. Meanwhile the inhabitants—for it was Sunday—instead + of going to service were driven towards the breach by the serjeant-major, + a truculent Spaniard, next in command to Van den Berg, who ran about the + place with a great stick, summoning the Dutch burghers to assist the + Spanish garrison on the wall. It was thought afterwards that this warrior + would have been better occupied among the soldiers, at the side of his + commander. + </p> + <p> + A chivalrous incident in the open field occurred during the assault. A + gigantic Albanian cavalry officer came prancing out of Deventer into the + spaces between the trenches, defying any officer in the States' army to + break a lance with him. Prince Maurice forbade any acceptance of the + challenge, but Lewis van der Cathulle, son of the famous Ryhove of Ghent, + unable to endure the taunts and bravado of this champion, at last obtained + permission to encounter him in single combat. They met accordingly with + much ceremony, tilted against each other, and shivered their lances in + good style, but without much effect. The Albanian then drew a pistol. + Cathulle had no weapon save a cutlass, but with this weapon he succeeded + in nearly cutting off the hand which held the pistol. He then took his + enemy prisoner, the vain-glorious challenger throwing his gold chain + around his conqueror's neck in token of his victory. Prince Maurice caused + his wound to be bound up and then liberated him, sending him into the city + with a message to the governor. + </p> + <p> + During the following night the bridge, over which the assailants had + nearly forced their way into the town, was vigorously attacked by the + garrison, but Count Lewis William, in person, with a chosen band defended + it stoutly till morning, beating back the Spaniards with heavy loss in a + sanguinary midnight contest. + </p> + <p> + Next morning there was a unanimous outcry on the part of the besieged for + a capitulation. It was obvious that, with the walls shot to ruins as they + had been, the place was no longer tenable against Maurice's superior + forces. A trumpet was sent to the prince before the dawn of day, and on + the 10th of June, accordingly, the place capitulated. + </p> + <p> + It was arranged that the garrison should retire with arms and baggage + whithersoever they chose. Van den Berg stipulated nothing in favour of the + citizens, whether through forgetfulness or spite does not distinctly + appear. But the burghers were received like brothers. No plunder was + permitted, no ransom demanded, and the city took its place among its + sisterhood of the United Provinces. + </p> + <p> + Van den Berg himself was received at the prince's head, quarters with much + cordiality. He was quite blind; but his wound seemed to be the effect of + exterior contusions, and he ultimately recovered the sight of one eye. + There was mach free conversation between himself and his cousins during + the brief interval in which he was their guest. + </p> + <p> + "I've often told Verdugo," said he, "that the States had no power to make + a regular siege, nor to come with proper artillery into the field, and he + agreed with me. But we were both wrong, for I now see the contrary." + </p> + <p> + To which Count Lewis William replied with a laugh: "My dear cousin, I've + observed that in all your actions you were in the habit of despising us + Beggars, and I have said that you would one day draw the shortest straw in + consequence. I'm glad to hear this avowal from your own lips." Herman + attempted no reply but let the subject drop, seeming to regret having said + so much. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards he was forwarded by Maurice in his own coach to Ulff, + where he was attended by the prince's body physician till he was + re-established in health. + </p> + <p> + Thus within ten days of his first appearance before its walls, the city of + Deventer, and with it a whole province, had fallen into the hands of + Maurice. It began to be understood that the young pedant knew something + about his profession, and that he had not been fagging so hard at the + science of war for nothing. + </p> + <p> + The city was in a sorry plight when the States took possession of it. As + at Zutphen, the substantial burghers had wandered away, and the foreign + soldiers bivouacking there so long had turned the stately old Hanseatic + city into a brick and mortar wilderness. Hundreds of houses had been + demolished by the garrison, that the iron might be sold and the woodwork + burned for fuel; for the enemy had conducted himself as if feeling in his + heart that the occupation could not be a permanent one, and as if desirous + to make the place as desolate as possible for the Beggars when they should + return. + </p> + <p> + The dead body of the traitor York, who had died and been buried in + Deventer, was taken from the tomb, after the capture of the city, and with + the vulgar ferocity so characteristic of the times, was hung, coffin and + all, on the gibbet for the delectation of the States' soldiery. + </p> + <p> + Maurice, having thus in less than three weeks recovered two most important + cities, paused not an instant in his career but moved at once on + Groningen. There was a strong pressure put upon him to attempt the capture + of Nymegen, but the understanding with the Frisian stadholders and his + troops had been that the enterprise upon Groningen should follow the + reduction of Deventer. + </p> + <p> + On the 26th June Maurice appeared before Groningen. Next day, as a + precautionary step, he moved to the right and attacked the strong city of + Delfzyl. This place capitulated to him on the 2nd July. The fort of Opslag + surrendered on the 7th July. He then moved to the west of Groningen, and + attacked the forts of Yementil and Lettebaest, which fell into his hands + on the 11th July. He then moved along the Nyenoort through the Seven Wolds + and Drenthe to Steenwyk, before which strongly fortified city he arrived + on the 15th July. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, he received intercepted letters from Verdugo to the Duke of + Parma, dated 19th June from Groningen. In these, the Spanish stadholder + informed Farnese that the enemy was hovering about his neighbourhood, and + that it would be necessary for the duke to take the field in person in + considerable force, or that Groningen would be lost, and with it the + Spanish forces in the province. He enclosed a memorial of the course + proper to be adopted by the duke for his relief. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the strictness by which Philip had tied his great + general's hands, Farnese felt the urgency of the situation. By the end of + June, accordingly, although full of his measures for marching to the + relief of the Leaguers in Normandy, he moved into Gelderland, coming by + way of Xanten, Rees, and neighbouring places. Here he paused for a moment + perplexed, doubting whether to take the aggressive in Gelderland or to + march straight to the relief of Groningen. He decided that it was better + for the moment to protect the line of the Waal. Shipping his army + accordingly into the Batavian Island or Good-meadow (Bet-uwe), which lies + between the two great horns of the Rhine, he laid siege to Fort + Knodsenburg, which Maurice had built the year before, on the right bank of + the Waal for the purpose of attacking Nymegen. Farnese, knowing that the + general of the States was occupied with his whole army far away to the + north, and separated from him by two great rivers, wide and deep, and by + the whole breadth of that dangerous district called the Foul-meadow + (Vel-uwe), and by the vast quagmire known as the Rouvenian morass, which + no artillery nor even any organised forces had ever traversed since the + beginning of the world, had felt no hesitation in throwing his army in + boats across the Waal. He had no doubt of reducing a not very powerful + fortress long before relief could be brought to it, and at the same time + of disturbing by his presence in Batavia the combinations of his young + antagonist in Friesland and Groningen. + </p> + <p> + So with six thousand foot and one thousand horse, Alexander came before + Knodsenburg. The news reached Maurice at Steenwyk on the 15th July. + Instantly changing his plans, the prince decided that Farnese must be + faced at once, and, if possible, driven from the ground, thinking it more + important to maintain, by concentration, that which had already been + gained, than to weaken and diffuse his forces in insufficient attempts to + acquire more. Before two days had passed, he was on the march southward, + having left Lewis William with a sufficient force to threaten Groningen. + Coming by way of Hasselt Zwol to Deventer, he crossed the Yssel on a + bridge of boats on the 18th of July, 1591 and proceeded to Arnhem. His + army, although excessively fatigued by forced marches in very hot weather, + over nearly impassable roads, was full of courage and cheerfulness, having + learned implicit confidence in their commander. On the 20th he was at + Arnhem. On the 22nd his bridge of boats was made, and he had thrown his + little army across the Rhine into Batavia, and entrenched himself with his + six thousand foot and fourteen hundred horse in the immediate + neighbourhood of Farnese—Foul-meadow and Good-meadow, dyke, bog, + wold, and quagmire, had been successfully traversed, and within one week + of his learning that the great viceroy of Philip had reached the Batavian + island, Maurice stood confronting that famous chieftain in battle-array. + </p> + <p> + On the 22nd July, Farnese, after firing two hundred and eighty-five shots + at Fort Knodsenburg, ordered an assault, expecting that so trifling a work + could hardly withstand a determined onslaught by his veterans. To his + surprise they were so warmly received that two hundred of the assailants + fell at the first onset, and the attack was most conclusively repulsed. + </p> + <p> + And now Maurice had appeared upon the scene, determined to relieve a place + so important for his ulterior designs. On the 24th July he sent out a + small but picked force of cavalry to reconnoitre the enemy. They were + attacked by a considerable body of Italian and Spanish horse from the camp + before Knodsenburg, including Alexander's own company of lancers under + Nicelli. The States troops fled before them in apparent dismay for a + little distance, hotly pursued by the royalists, until, making a sudden + halt, they turned to the attack, accompanied by five fresh companies of + cavalry and a thousand musketeers, who fell upon the foe from all + directions. It was an ambush, which had been neatly prepared by Maurice in + person, assisted by Sir Francis Vere. Sixty of the Spaniards and Italians + were killed and one hundred and fifty prisoners, including Captain + Nicelli, taken, while the rest of the party sought safety in ignominious + flight. This little skirmish, in which ten companies of the picked + veterans of Alexander Farnese had thus been utterly routed before his + eyes, did much to inspire the States troops with confidence in themselves + and their leader. + </p> + <p> + Parma was too experienced a campaigner, and had too quick an eye, not to + recognise the error which he had committed in placing the dangerous river + Waal, without a bridge; between himself and his supplies. He had not + dreamed that his antagonist would be capable of such celerity of movement + as he had thus displayed, and his first business now was to extricate + himself from a position which might soon become fatal. Without hesitation, + he did his best to amuse the enemy in front of the fort, and then passed + the night in planting batteries upon the banks of the river, under cover + of which he succeeded next day in transporting in ferry-boats his whole + force, artillery and: baggage, to the opposite shore, without loss, and + with his usual skill. + </p> + <p> + He remained but a short time in Nymegen, but he was hampered by the + express commands of the king. Moreover, his broken health imperatively + required that he should once more seek the healing influence of the waters + of Spa, before setting forth on his new French expedition. Meanwhile, + although he had for a time protected the Spanish possessions in the north + by his demonstration in Gelderland, it must be confessed that the + diversion thus given to the plans of Maurice was but a feeble one. + </p> + <p> + Having assured the inhabitants of Nymegen that he would watch over the + city like the apple of, his eye, he took his departure on the 4th of + August for Spa. He was accompanied on his journey by his son, Prince + Ranuccio, just arrived from Italy. + </p> + <p> + After the retreat of Farnese, Maurice mustered his forces at Arnhem, and + found himself at the head of seven thousand foot and fifteen hundred + horse. It was expected by all the world that, being thus on the very spot, + he would forthwith proceed to reduce the ancient, wealthy, imperial city + of Nynegen. The garrison and burghers accordingly made every preparation + to resist the attack, disconcerted as they were, however, by the departure + of Parma, and by the apparent incapacity of Verdugo to bring them + effectual relief. + </p> + <p> + But to the surprise of all men, the States forces suddenly disappeared + from the scene, having been, as it were, spirited away by night-time, + along those silent watery highways and crossways of canal, river, and + estuary—the military advantages of which to the Netherlands, Maurice + was the first thoroughly to demonstrate. Having previously made great + preparations of munitions and provisions in Zeeland, the young general, + who was thought hard at work in Gelderland, suddenly presented himself on + the 19th September, before the gates of Hulst, on the border of Zeeland + and Brabant. + </p> + <p> + It was a place of importance from its situation, its possession by the + enemy being a perpetual thorn in the side of the States, and a constant + obstacle to the plans of Maurice. His arrangements having been made with + the customary, neatness, celerity, and completeness, he received the + surrender of the city on the fifth day after his arrival. + </p> + <p> + Its commander, Castillo, could offer no resistance; and was subsequently, + it is said, beheaded by order of the Duke of Parma for his negligence. The + place is but a dozen miles from Antwerp, which city was at the very, + moment keeping great holiday and outdoing itself in magnificent festivals + in honour of young Ranuccio. The capture of Hulst before his eyes was a + demonstration quite unexpected by the prince, and great was the wrath of + old Mondragon, governor of Antwerp, thus bearded in his den. The veteran + made immediate preparations for chastising the audacious Beggars of + Zeeland and their pedantic young commander, but no sooner had the + Spaniards taken the field than the wily foe had disappeared as magically + as he had come. + </p> + <p> + The Flemish earth seemed to have bubbles as the water hath, and while + Mondragon was beating the air in vain on the margin of the Scheld, Maurice + was back again upon the Waal, horse, foot, and artillery, bag, baggage, + and munition, and had fairly set himself down in earnest to besiege + Nymegen, before the honest burghers and the garrison had finished drawing + long breaths at their recent escape. Between the 14th and 16th October he + had bridged the deep, wide, and rapid river, had transported eight + thousand five hundred infantry and, sixteen companies of cavalry to the + southern side, had entrenched his camp and made his approaches, and had + got sixty-eight pieces of artillery into three positions commanding the + weakest part of the defences of the city between the Falcon Tower and the + Hoender gate. The fort of Knodsenburg was also ready to throw hot shot + across the river into the town. Not a detail in all these preparations + escaped the vigilant eye of the Commander-in-Chief, and again and again + was he implored not so recklessly to expose a life already become precious + to his country. On the 20th October, Maurice sent to demand the surrender + of the city. The reply was facetious but decisive. + </p> + <p> + The prince was but a young suitor, it was said, and the city a spinster + not so lightly to be won. A longer courtship and more trouble would be + necessary. + </p> + <p> + Whereupon the suitor opened all his batteries without further delay, and + the spinster gave a fresh example of the inevitable fate of talking + castles and listening ladies. + </p> + <p> + Nymegen, despite her saucy answer on the 20th, surrendered on the 21st. + Relief was impossible. Neither Parma, now on his way to France, nor + Verdugo, shut up in Friesland, could come to the rescue of the place, and + the combinations of Maurice were an inexorable demonstration. + </p> + <p> + The terms of the surrender were similar to those accorded to Zutphen and + Deventer. In regard to the religious point it was expressly laid down by + Maurice that the demand for permission to exercise publicly the Roman + Catholic religion should be left to the decision of the States-General. + </p> + <p> + And thus another most important city had been added to the domains of the + republic. Another triumph was inscribed on the record of the young + commander. The exultation was very great throughout the United + Netherlands, and heartfelt was the homage rendered by all classes of his + countrymen to the son of William the Silent. + </p> + <p> + Queen Elizabeth wrote to congratulate him in warmest terms on his great + successes, and even the Spaniards began to recognise the merits of the new + chieftain. An intercepted letter from Verdugo, who had been foiled in his + efforts to arrest the career of Maurice, indicated great respect for his + prowess. "I have been informed," said the veteran, "that Count Maurice of + Nassau wishes to fight me. Had I the opportunity I assure you that I + should not fail him, for even if ill luck were my portion, I should at + least not escape the honour of being beaten by such a personage. I beg you + to tell him so with my affectionate compliments. Yours, FRANCIS VERDUGO." + </p> + <p> + These chivalrous sentiments towards Prince Maurice had not however + prevented Verdugo from doing his best to assassinate Count Lewis William. + Two Spaniards had been arrested in the States camp this summer, who came + in as deserters, but who confessed "with little, or mostly without + torture," that they had been sent by their governor and colonel with + instructions to seize a favourable opportunity to shoot Lewis William and + set fire to his camp. But such practices were so common on the part of the + Spanish commanders as to occasion no surprise whatever. + </p> + <p> + It will be remembered that two years before, the famous Martin Schenk had + come to a tragic end at Nymegen. He had been drowned, fished up, hanged, + drawn, and quartered; after which his scattered fragments, having been + exposed on all the principal towers of the city, had been put in pickle + and deposited in a chest. They were now collected and buried triumphantly + in the tomb of the Dukes of Gelderland. Thus the shade of the grim + freebooter was at last appeased. + </p> + <p> + The government of the city was conferred upon Count Lewis William, with + Gerard de Jonge as his lieutenant. A substantial garrison was placed in + the city, and, the season now far advanced Maurice brought the military + operations of the year, saving a slight preliminary demonstration against + Gertruydenberg, to a close. He had deserved and attained—considerable + renown. He had astonished the leisurely war-makers and phlegmatic veterans + of the time, both among friends and foes, by the unexampled rapidity of + his movements and the concentration of his attacks. He had carried great + waggon trains and whole parks of siege artillery—the heaviest then + known—over roads and swamps which had been deemed impassable even + for infantry. He had traversed the length and breadth of the republic in a + single campaign, taken two great cities in Overyssel, picked up cities and + fortresses in the province of Groningen, and threatened its capital, + menaced Steenwyk, relieved Knodsenburg though besieged in person by the + greatest commander of the age, beaten the most famous cavalry of Spain and + Italy under the eyes of their chieftain, swooped as it were through the + air upon Brabant, and carried off an important city almost in the sight of + Antwerp, and sped back again in the freezing weather of early autumn, with + his splendidly served and invincible artillery, to the imperial city of + Nymegen, which Farnese had sworn to guard like the apple of his eye, and + which, with consummate skill, was forced out of his grasp in five days. + </p> + <p> + "Some might attribute these things to blind fortune," says an honest + chronicler who had occupied important posts in the service of the prince + and of his cousin Lewis William, "but they who knew the prince's constant + study and laborious attention to detail, who were aware that he never + committed to another what he could do himself, who saw his sobriety, + vigilance, his perpetual study and holding of council with Count Lewis + William (himself possessed of all these good gifts, perhaps even in + greater degree), and who never found him seeking, like so many other + commanders, his own ease and comfort, would think differently." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + War in Brittany and Normandy—Death of La Noue—Religious and + political persecution in Paris—Murder of President Brisson, + Larcher, and Tardif—The sceptre of France offered to Philip—The + Duke of Mayenne punishes the murderers of the magistrates—Speech of + Henry's envoy to the States-General—Letter of Queen Elizabeth to + Henry—Siege of Rouen—Farnese leads an army to its relief—The king + is wounded in a skirmish—Siege of Rue by Farnese—Henry raises the + siege of Rouen—Siege of Caudebec—Critical position of Farnese and + his army—Victory of the Duke of Mercoeur in Brittany. +</pre> + <p> + Again the central point towards which the complicated events to be + described in this history gravitate is found on the soil of France. + Movements apparently desultory and disconnected—as they may have + seemed to the contemporaneous observer, necessarily occupied with the + local and daily details which make up individual human life—are + found to be necessary parts of a whole, when regarded with that breadth + and clearness of vision which is permitted to human beings only when they + can look backward upon that long sequence of events which make up the life + of nations and which we call the Past. It is only by the anatomical study + of what has ceased to exist that we can come thoroughly to comprehend the + framework and the vital conditions of that which lives. It is only by + patiently lifting the shroud from the Past that we can enable ourselves to + make even wide guesses at the meaning of the dim Present and the veiled + Future. It is only thus that the continuity of human history reveals + itself to us as the most important of scientific facts. + </p> + <p> + If ever commonwealth was apparently doomed to lose that national existence + which it had maintained for a brief period at the expense of infinite + sacrifice of blood and treasure, it was the republic of the United + Netherlands in the period immediately succeeding the death of William the + Silent. Domestic treason, secession of important provinces, + religious-hatred, foreign intrigue, and foreign invasion—in such a + sea of troubles was the republic destined generations long to struggle. + Who but the fanatical, the shallow-minded, or the corrupt could doubt the + inevitable issue of the conflict? Did not great sages and statesmen whose + teachings seemed so much wiser in their generation than the untaught + impulses of the great popular heart, condemn over and over again the + hopeless struggles and the atrocious bloodshed which were thought to + disgrace the age, and by which it was held impossible that the cause of + human liberty should ever be advanced? + </p> + <p> + To us who look back from the vantage summit which humanity has reached—thanks + to the toil and sacrifices of those who have preceded us—it may seem + doubtful whether premature peace in the Netherlands, France, and England + would have been an unmitigated blessing, however easily it might have been + purchased by the establishment all over Europe of that holy institution + called the Inquisition, and by the tranquil acceptance of the foreign + domination of Spain. + </p> + <p> + If, too; ever country seemed destined to the painful process of national + vivisection and final dismemberment, it was France: Its natural guardians + and masters, save one, were in secret negotiation with foreign powers to + obtain with their assistance a portion of the national territory under + acknowledgment of foreign supremacy. There was hardly an inch of French + soil that had not two possessors. In Burgundy Baron Biron was battling + against the Viscount Tavannes; in the Lyonese and Dauphiny Marshal des + Digiueres was fighting with the Dukes of Savoy and Nemours; in Provence, + Epernon was resisting Savoy; in Languedoc, Constable Montmorency contended + with the Duke of Joyeuse; in Brittany, the Prince of Dombes was struggling + with the Duke of Mercoeur. + </p> + <p> + But there was one adventurer who thought he could show a better legal + title to the throne of France than all the doctors of the Sorbonne could + furnish to Philip II. and his daughter, and who still trusted, through all + the disasters which pursued him, and despite the machinations of venal + warriors and mendicant princes, to his good right and his good sword, and + to something more potent than both, the cause of national unity. His + rebuke to the intriguing priests at the interview of St. Denis, and his + reference to the judgment of Solomon, formed the text to his whole career. + </p> + <p> + The brunt of the war now fell upon Brittany and Normandy. Three thousand + Spaniards under Don John de Aquila had landed in the port of Blavet which + they had fortified, as a stronghold on the coast. And thither, to defend + the integrity of that portion of France, which, in Spanish hands, was a + perpetual menace to her realm, her crown, even to her life, Queen + Elizabeth had sent some three thousand Englishmen, under commanders well + known to France and the Netherlands. There was black Norris again dealing + death among the Spaniards and renewing his perpetual squabbles with Sir + Roger Williams. There was that doughty Welshman himself, truculent and + caustic as ever—and as ready with sword or pen, foremost in every + mad adventure or every forlorn hope, criticising with sharpest tongue the + blunders and shortcomings of friend and foe, and devoting the last drop in + his veins with chivalrous devotion to his Queen. "The world cannot deny," + said he, "that any carcase living ventured himself freer and oftener for + his prince, state, and friends than I did mine. There is no more to be had + of a poor beast than his skin, and for want of other means I never + respected mine in the least respect towards my sovereign's service, or + country." And so passing his life in the saddle and under fire, yet + finding leisure to collect the materials for, and to complete the + execution of, one of the most valuable and attractive histories of the + age, the bold Welshman again and again appears, wearing the same humorous + but truculent aspect that belonged to him when he was wont to run up and + down in a great morion and feathers on Flemish battlefields, a mark for + the Spanish sharpshooters. + </p> + <p> + There, too, under the banner of the Bearnese, that other historian of + those sanguinary times, who had fought on almost every battle-field where + tyranny and liberty had sought to smite each other dead, on French or + Flemish soil, and who had prepared his famous political and military + discourses in a foul dungeon swarming with toads and rats and other + villainous reptiles to which the worse than infernal tyranny of Philip II. + had consigned him for seven years long as a prisoner of war—the + brave and good La Noue, with the iron arm, hero of a hundred combats, was + fighting his last fight. At the siege of Lamballe in Brittany, he had + taken off his calque and climbed a ladder to examine the breach effected + by the batteries. An arquebus shot from the town grazed his forehead, and, + without inflicting a severe wound, stunned him so much that he lost his + balance and fell head foremost towards the ground; his leg, which had been + wounded at the midnight assault upon Paris, where he stood at the side of + King Henry, caught in the ladder and held him suspended. His head was + severely bruised, and the contusions and shock to his war-worn frame were + so great that he died after lingering eighteen days. + </p> + <p> + His son de Teligny; who in his turn had just been exchanged and released + from the prison where he had lain since his capture before Antwerp, had + hastened with joy to join his father in the camp, but came to close his + eyes. The veteran caused the chapter in Job on the resurrection of the + body to be read to him on his death-bed, and died expressing his firm + faith in a hereafter. Thus passed away, at the age of sixty, on the 4th + August, 1591, one of the most heroic spirits of France. Prudence, courage, + experience, military knowledge both theoretic and practical, made him one + of the first captains of the age, and he was not more distinguished for + his valour than for the purity of his life, and the moderation, + temperance, and justice of his character. The Prince of Dombes, in despair + at his death, raised the siege of Lamballe. + </p> + <p> + There was yet another chronicler, fighting among the Spaniards, now in + Brittany, now in Normandy, and now in Flanders, and doing his work as + thoroughly with his sword as afterwards with his pen, Don Carlos Coloma, + captain of cavalry, afterwards financier, envoy, and historian. For it was + thus that those writers prepared themselves for their work. They were all + actors in the great epic, the episodes of which they have preserved. They + lived and fought, and wrought and suffered and wrote. Rude in tongue; + aflame with passion, twisted all awry by prejudice, violent in love and + hate, they have left us narratives which are at least full of colour and + thrilling with life. + </p> + <p> + Thus Netherlanders, Englishmen, and Frenchmen were again mingling their + blood and exhausting their energies on a hundred petty battle-fields of + Brittany and Normandy; but perhaps to few of those hard fighters was it + given to discern the great work which they were slowly and painfully + achieving. + </p> + <p> + In Paris the League still maintained its ascendancy. Henry, having again + withdrawn from his attempts to reduce the capital, had left the sixteen + tyrants who governed it more leisure to occupy themselves with internal + politics. A network of intrigue was spread through the whole atmosphere of + the place. The Sixteen, sustained by the power of Spain and Rome, and + fearing nothing so much as the return of peace, by which their system of + plunder would come to an end, proceeded with their persecution of all + heretics, real or supposed, who were rich enough to offer a reasonable + chance of spoil. The soul of all these intrigues was the new legate, Sego, + bishop of Piacenza. Letters from him to Alexander Farnese, intercepted by + Henry, showed a determination to ruin the Duke of Mayenne and Count Belin + governor of Paris, whom he designated as Colossus and Renard, to extirpate + the magistrates, and to put Spanish partizans in their places, and in + general to perfect the machinery by which the authority of Philip was to + be established in France. He was perpetually urging upon that monarch the + necessity of spending more money among his creatures in order to carry out + these projects. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly the attention of the Sixteen had been directed to President + Brisson, who had already made himself so dangerously conspicuous by his + resistance to the insolent assumption of the cardinal-legate. This eminent + juris-consult had succeeded Pomponne de Bellievre as first president of + the Parliament of Paris. He had been distinguished for talent, learning, + and eloquence as an advocate; and was the author of several important + legal works. His ambition to fill the place of first president had caused + him to remain in Paris after its revolt against Henry III. He was no + Leaguer; and, since his open defiance of the ultra-Catholic party, he had + been a marked man—doomed secretly by the confederates who ruled the + capital. He had fondly imagined that he could govern the Parisian populace + as easily as he had been in the habit of influencing the Parliament or + directing his clients. He expected to restore the city to its obedience to + the constituted authorities. He hoped to be himself the means of bringing + Henry IV. in triumph to the throne of his ancestors. He found, however, + that a revolution was more difficult to manage than a law case; and that + the confederates of the Holy League were less tractable than his clients + had usually been found. + </p> + <p> + On the night of the 14th November; 1591; he was seized on the bridge St. + Michel, while on his way to parliament, and was told that he was expected + at the Hotel de Ville. He was then brought to the prison of the little + Chatelet. + </p> + <p> + Hardly had he been made secure in the dimly-lighted dungeon, when Crome, a + leader among the Parisian populacey made his appearance, accompanied by + some of his confederates, and dressed in a complete suit of mail. He + ordered the magistrate to take off his hat and to kneel. He then read a + sentence condemning him to death. Profoundly astonished, Brisson demanded + to know of what crime he was accused; and under what authority. The answer + was a laugh; and an assurance that he had no time to lose. He then begged + that at least he might be imprisoned long enough to enable him to complete + a legal work on which he was engaged, and which, by his premature death, + would be lost to the commonwealth. This request produced no doubt more + merriment than his previous demands. His judges were inflexible; and + allowed him hardly time to confess himself. He was then hanged in his + dungeon. + </p> + <p> + Two other magistrates, Larcher and Tardif, were executed in the same way, + in the same place, and on the same night. The crime charged against them + was having spoken in a public assembly somewhat freely against the + Sixteen, and having aided in the circulation in Paris of a paper drawn up + by the Duke of Nevers, filled with bitterness against the Lorraine princes + and the League, and addressed to the late Pope Sixtus. + </p> + <p> + The three bodies were afterwards gibbeted on the Greve in front of the + Hotel de Ville, and exposed for two days to the insults and fury of the + populace. + </p> + <p> + This was the culminating point of the reign of terror in Paris. Never had + the sixteen tyrants; lords of the market halls, who governed the capital + by favour of and in the name of the populace, seemed more omnipotent. As + representatives or plenipotentiaries of Madam League they had laid the + crown at the feet of the King of Spain, hoping by still further drafts on + his exchequer and his credulity to prolong indefinitely their own ignoble + reign. The extreme democratic party, which had hitherto supported the + House of Lorraine and had seemed to idolize that family in the person of + the great Balafre, now believed themselves possessed of sufficient power + to control the Duke of Mayenne and all his adherents. They sent the Jesuit + Claude Mathieu with a special memorial to Philip II. That monarch was + implored to take, the sceptre of France, and to reign over them, inasmuch + as they most willingly threw themselves into his arms? They assured him + that all reasonable people, and especially the Holy League, wished him to + take the reins of Government, on condition of exterminating heresy + throughout the kingdom by force of arms, of publishing the Council of + Trent, and of establishing everywhere the Holy inquisition—an + institution formidable only to the wicked and desirable for the good. It + was suggested that Philip should not call himself any longer King of Spain + nor adopt the title of King of France, but that he should proclaim himself + the Great King, or make use of some similar designation, not indicating + any specialty but importing universal dominion. + </p> + <p> + Should Philip, however, be disinclined himself to accept the monarchy, it + was suggested that the young Duke of Guise, son of the first martyr of + France, would be the most appropriate personage to be honoured with the + hand of the legitimate Queen of France, the Infanta Clara Isabella. + </p> + <p> + But the Sixteen were reckoning without the Duke of Mayenne. That great + personage, although an indifferent warrior and an utterly unprincipled and + venal statesman, was by no means despicable as a fisherman in the troubled + waters of revolution. He knew how to manage intrigues with both sides for + his own benefit. Had he been a bachelor he might have obtained the Infanta + and shared her prospective throne. Being encumbered with a wife he had no + hope of becoming the son-in-law of Philip, and was determined that his + nephew Guise should not enjoy a piece of good fortune denied to himself. + The escape of the young duke from prison had been the signal for the + outbreak of jealousies between uncle and nephew, which Parma and other + agents had been instructed by their master to foster to the utmost. "They + must be maintained in such disposition in regard to me," he said, "that + the one being ignorant of my relations to the other, both may without + knowing it do my will." + </p> + <p> + But Mayenne, in this grovelling career of self-seeking, in this perpetual + loading of dice and marking of cards, which formed the main occupation of + so many kings and princes of the period, and which passed for + Machiavellian politics, was a fair match for the Spanish king and his + Italian viceroy. He sent President Jeannin on special mission to Philip, + asking for two armies, one to be under his command, the other under that + of Farnese, and assured him that he should be king himself, or appoint any + man he liked to the vacant throne. Thus he had secured one hundred + thousand crowns a month to carry on his own game withal. "The maintenance + of these two armies costs me 261,000 crowns a month," said Philip to his + envoy Ybarra. + </p> + <p> + And what was the result of all this expenditure of money, of all this + lying and counter-lying, of all this frantic effort on the part of the + most powerful monarch of the age to obtain property which did not belong + to him—the sovereignty of a great kingdom, stocked with a dozen + millions of human beings—of all this endless bloodshed of the people + in the interests of a high-born family or two, of all this infamous + brokerage charged by great nobles for their attempts to transfer kingdoms + like private farms from one owner to another? Time was to show. Meanwhile + men trembled at the name of Philip II., and grovelled before him as the + incarnation of sagacity, high policy, and king-craft. + </p> + <p> + But Mayenne, while taking the brokerage, was less anxious about the + transfer. He had fine instinct enough to suspect that the Bearnese, + outcast though he seemed, might after all not be playing so desperate a + game against the League as it was the fashion to suppose. He knew whether + or not Henry was likely to prove a more fanatical Huguenot in 1592 than he + bad shown himself twenty years before at the Bartholomew festival. And he + had wit enough to foresee that the "instruction" which the gay + free-thinker held so cautiously in his fingers might perhaps turn out the + trump card. A bold, valorous Frenchman with a flawless title, and washed + whiter than snow by the freshet of holy water, might prove a more + formidable claimant to the allegiance of Frenchmen than a foreign + potentate, even though backed by all the doctors of the Sorbonne. + </p> + <p> + The murder of President Brisson and his colleagues by the confederates of + the sixteen quarters, was in truth the beginning of the end. What seemed a + proof of supreme power was the precursor of a counter-revolution, destined + ere long to lead farther than men dreamed. The Sixteen believed themselves + omnipotent. Mayenne being in their power, it was for them to bestow the + crown at their will, or to hold it suspended in air as long as seemed best + to them. They felt no doubt that all the other great cities in the kingdom + would follow the example of Paris. + </p> + <p> + But the lieutenant-general of the realm felt it time for him to show that + his authority was not a shadow—that he was not a pasteboard + functionary like the deceased cardinal-king, Charles X. The letters + entrusted by the Sixteen to Claude Mathieu were intercepted by Henry, and, + very probably, an intimation of their contents was furnished to Mayenne. + At any rate, the duke, who lacked not courage nor promptness when his own + interests were concerned, who felt his authority slipping away from him, + now that it seemed the object of the Spaniards to bind the democratic + party to themselves by a complicity in crime, hastened at once to Paris, + determined to crush these intrigues and to punish the murderers of the + judges. The Spanish envoy Ybarra, proud, excitable, violent, who had been + privy to the assassinations, and was astonished that the deeds had excited + indignation and fury instead of the terror counted upon, remonstrated with + Mayenne, intimating that in times of civil commotion it was often + necessary to be blind and deaf. + </p> + <p> + In vain. The duke carried it with a high and firm hand. He arrested the + ringleaders, and hanged four of them in the basement of the Louvre within + twenty days after the commission of their crime. The energy was well-timed + and perfectly successful. The power of the Sixteen was struck to the earth + at a blow. The ignoble tyrants became in a moment as despicable as they + had been formidable and insolent. Crome, more fortunate than many of his + fellows, contrived to make his escape out of the kingdom. + </p> + <p> + Thus Mayenne had formally broken with the democratic party, so called-with + the market-halls oligarchy. In thus doing, his ultimate rupture with the + Spaniards was foreshadowed. The next combination for him to strive for + would be one to unite the moderate Catholics and the Bearnese. Ah! if + Henry would but "instruct" himself out of hand, what a game the duke might + play! + </p> + <p> + The burgess-party, the mild royalists, the disgusted portion of the + Leaguers, coalescing with those of the Huguenots whose fidelity might + prove stanch even against the religious apostasy contemplated by their + chief—this combination might prove an over-match for the + ultra-leaguers, the democrats, and the Spaniards. The king's name would be + a tower of strength for that "third party," which began to rear its head + very boldly and to call itself "Politica." Madam League might succumb to + this new rival in the fickle hearts of the French. + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of the year 1591; Buzanval had presented his credentials + to the States-General at the Hague as envoy of Henry IV. In the speech + which he made on this occasion he expressed the hope that the mission of + the Viscount Turenne, his Majesty's envoy to England and to the + Netherlands, had made known the royal sentiments towards the States and + the great satisfaction of the king with their energetic sympathy and + assistance. It was notorious, said Buzanval, that the King of Spain for + many years had been governed by no other motive than to bring all the rest + of Christendom under his dominion, while at the same time he forced upon + those already placed under his sceptre a violent tyranny, passing beyond + all the bounds that God, nature, and reason had set to lawful forms of + government. In regard to nations born under other laws than his, he had + used the pretext of religion for reducing them to servitude. The wars + stirred up by his family in Germany, and his recent invasion of England, + were proofs of this intention, still fresh in the memory of all men. Still + more flagrant were his machinations in the present troubles of France. Of + his dealings with his hereditary realms, the condition of the noble + provinces of the Netherlands, once so blooming under reasonable laws, + furnished, a sufficient illustration. You see, my masters, continued the + envoy, the subtle plans of the Spanish king and his counsellors to reach + with certainty the object of their ambition. They have reflected that + Spain, which is the outermost corner of Europe, cannot conveniently make + war upon other Christian realms. They have seen that a central position is + necessary to enable them to stretch their arms to every side. They have + remembered that princes who in earlier days were able to spread their + wings over all Christendom had their throne in France, like Charles the + Great and his descendants. Therefore the king is now earnestly bent on + seizing this occasion to make himself master of France. The death of the + late king (Henry III.) had no sooner occurred, than—as the blood + through great terror rushes from the extremities and overflows the heart—they + here also, fearing to lose their opportunity and astonished at the valour + of our present king, abandoned all their other enterprises in order to + pour themselves upon France. + </p> + <p> + Buzanval further reminded the States that Henry had received the most + encouraging promises from the protestant princes of Germany, and that so + great a personage as the Viscount Turenne, who had now gone thither to + reap the fruit of those promises, would not have been sent on such a + mission except that its result was certain. The Queen of England, too, had + promised his Majesty most liberal assistance. + </p> + <p> + It was not necessary to argue as to the close connection between the cause + of the Netherlands and that of France. The king had beaten down the mutiny + of his own subjects, and repulsed the invasion of the Dukes of Savoy and + of Lorraine. In consideration of the assistance promised by Germany and + England—for a powerful army would be at the command of Henry in the + spring—it might be said that the Netherlands might repose for a time + and recruit their exhausted energies, under the shadow of these mighty + preparations. + </p> + <p> + "I do not believe, however," said the minister, "that you will all answer + me thus. The faint-hearted and the inexperienced might flatter themselves + with such thoughts, and seek thus to cover their cowardice, but the + zealous and the courageous will see that it is time to set sail on the + ship, now that the wind is rising so freshly and favourably. + </p> + <p> + "For there are many occasions when an army might be ruined for want of + twenty thousand crowns. What a pity if a noble edifice, furnished to the + roof-tree, should fall to decay for want of a few tiles. No doubt your own + interests are deeply connected with our own. Men may say that our + proposals should be rejected on the principle that the shirt is nearer to + the skin than the coat, but it can be easily proved that our cause is one. + The mere rumour of this army will prevent the Duke of Parma from attacking + you. His forces will be drawn to France. He will be obliged to intercept + the crash of this thunderbolt. The assistance of this army is worth + millions to you, and has cost you nothing. To bring France into hostility + with Spain is the very policy that you have always pursued and always + should pursue in order to protect your freedom. You have always desired a + war between France and Spain, and here is a fierce and cruel one in which + you have hazarded nothing. It cannot come to an end without bringing + signal advantages to yourselves. + </p> + <p> + "You have always desired an alliance with a French sovereign, and here is + a firm friendship offered you by our king, a natural alliance. + </p> + <p> + "You know how unstable are most treaties that are founded on shifting + interests, and do not concern the freedom of bodies and souls. The first + are written with pen upon paper, and are generally as light as paper. They + have no roots in the heart. Those founded on mutual assistance on trying + occasions have the perpetual strength of nature. They bring always good + and enduring fruit in a rich soil like the heart of our king; that heart + which is as beautiful and as pure from all untruth as the lily upon his + shield. + </p> + <p> + "You will derive the first profits from the army thus raised. From the + moment of its mustering under a chief of such experience as Turenne, it + will absorb the whole attention of Spain, and will draw her thoughts from + the Netherlands to France." + </p> + <p> + All this and more in the same earnest manner did the envoy urge upon the + consideration of the States-General, concluding with a demand of 100,000 + florins as their contribution towards the French campaign. + </p> + <p> + His eloquence did not fall upon unwilling ears; for the States-General, + after taking time to deliberate, replied to the propositions by an + expression of the strongest sympathy with, and admiration for, the heroic + efforts of the King of France. Accordingly, notwithstanding their own + enormous expenses, past and present, and their strenuous exertions at that + very moment to form an army of foot and horse for the campaign, the + brilliant results of which have already been narrated, they agreed to + furnish the required loan of 100,000 florins to be repaid in a year, + besides six or seven good ships of war to co-operate with the fleets of + England and France upon the coasts of Normandy. And the States were even + better than their word. + </p> + <p> + Before the end of autumn of the year 1591, Henry had laid siege to Rouen, + then the second city of the kingdom. To leave much longer so important a + place—dominating, as it did, not only Normandy but a principal + portion of the maritime borders of France—under the control of the + League and of Spain was likely to be fatal to Henry's success. It was + perfectly sound in Queen Elizabeth to insist as she did, with more than + her usual imperiousness towards her excellent brother, that he should lose + no more time before reducing that city. It was obvious that Rouen in the + hands of her arch-enemy was a perpetual menace to the safety of her own + kingdom. It was therefore with correct judgment, as well as with that + high-flown gallantry so dear to the heart of Elizabeth, that her royal + champion and devoted slave assured her of his determination no longer to + defer obeying her commands in this respect. + </p> + <p> + The queen had repeatedly warned him of the necessity of defending the + maritime frontier of his kingdom, and she was not sparing of her + reproaches that the large sums which she expended in his cause had been + often ill bestowed. Her criticisms on what she considered his military + mistakes were not few, her threats to withdraw her subsidies frequent. + "Owning neither the East nor the West Indies," she said, "we are unable to + supply the constant demands upon us; and although we have the reputation + of being a good housewife, it does not follow that we can be a housewife + for all the world." She was persistently warning the king of an attack + upon Dieppe, and rebuking him for occupying himself with petty enterprises + to the neglect of vital points. She expressed her surprise that after the + departure of Parma, he had not driven the Spaniards out of Brittany, + without allowing them to fortify themselves in that country. "I am + astonished," she said to him, "that your eyes are so blinded as not to see + this danger. Remember, my dear brother," she frankly added, "that it is + not only France that I am aiding, nor are my own natural realms of little + consequence to me. Believe me, if I see that you have no more regard to + the ports and maritime places nearest to us, it will be necessary that my + prayers should serve you in place of any other assistance, because it does + not please me to send my people to the shambles where they may perish + before having rendered you any assistance. I am sure the Spaniards will + soon besiege Dieppe. Beware of it, and excuse my bluntness, for if in the + beginning you had taken the maritime forts, which are the very gates of + your kingdom, Paris would not have been so well furnished, and other + places nearer the heart of the kingdom would not have received so much + foreign assistance, without which the others would have soon been + vanquished. Pardon my simplicity as belonging to my own sex wishing to + give a lesson to one who knows better, but my experience in government + makes me a little obstinate in believing that I am not ignorant of that + which belongs to a king, and I persuade myself that in following my advice + you will not fail to conquer your assailants." + </p> + <p> + Before the end of the year Henry had obtained control of the Seine, both + above and below the city, holding Pont de l'Arche on the north—where + was the last bridge across the river; that of Rouen, built by the English + when they governed Normandy, being now in ruins—and Caudebec on the + south in an iron grasp. Several war-vessels sent by the Hollanders, + according to the agreement with Buzanval, cruised in the north of the + river below Caudebec, and rendered much service to the king in cutting off + supplies from the beleaguered place, while the investing army of Henry, + numbering twenty-five thousand foot—inclusive of the English + contingent, and three thousand Netherlanders—and ten thousand + cavalry, nearly all French, was fast reducing the place to extremities. + </p> + <p> + Parma, as usual, in obedience to his master's orders, but entirely against + his own judgment, had again left the rising young general of the + Netherlands to proceed from one triumph to another, while he transferred + beyond the borders of that land which it was his first business to + protect, the whole weight of his military genius and the better portion of + his well disciplined forces. + </p> + <p> + Most bitterly and indignantly did he express himself, both at the outset + and during the whole progress of the expedition, concerning the utter + disproportions between the king's means and aims. The want of money was + the cause of wholesale disease, desertion, mutiny, and death in his + slender army. + </p> + <p> + Such great schemes as his master's required, as he perpetually urged, + liberality of expenditure and measures of breadth. He protested that he + was not to blame for the ruin likely to come upon the whole enterprise. He + had besought, remonstrated, reasoned with the king in vain. He had seen + his beard first grow, he said, in the king's service, and he had grown + gray in that service, but rather than be kept longer in such a position, + without money, men, or means to accomplish the great purposes on which he + was sent, he protested that he would "abandon his office and retire into + the woods to feed on roots." Repeatedly did he implore his master for a + large and powerful army; for money and again money. The royal plans should + be enforced adequately or abandoned entirely. To spend money in small + sums, as heretofore, was only throwing it into the sea. + </p> + <p> + It was deep in the winter however before he could fairly come to the + rescue of the besieged city. Towards the end of January, 1592, he moved + out of Hainault, and once more made his junction at Guise with the Duke of + Mayenne. At a review of his forces on 16th January, 1592, Alexander found + himself at the head of thirteen thousand five hundred and sixteen infantry + and four thousand and sixty-one cavalry. The Duke of Mayenne's army, for + payment of which that personage received from Philip 100,000 dollars a + month, besides 10,000 dollars a month for his own pocket, ought to have + numbered ten thousand foot and three thousand horse, according to + contract, but was in reality much less. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Montemarciano, nephew of Gregory XIV., had brought two + thousand Swiss, furnished by the pontiff to the cause of the League, and + the Duke of Lorraine had sent his kinsmen, the Counts Chaligny and + Vaudemont, with a force of seven hundred lancers and cuirassiers. + </p> + <p> + The town of Fere was assigned in pledge to Farnese to hold as a + convenient: mustering-place and station in proximity to his own borders, + and, as usual, the chief command over the united armies was placed in his + hands. These arrangements concluded, the allies moved slowly forward much + in the same order as in the previous year. The young Duke of Guise, who + had just made his escape from the prison of Tours, where he had been held + in durance since the famous assassination of his father and uncle, and had + now come to join his uncle Mayenne, led the vanguard. Ranuccio, son of the + duke, rode also in the advance, while two experienced commanders, Vitry + and De la Chatre, as well as the famous Marquis del Vasto, formerly + general of cavalry in the Netherlands, who had been transferred to Italy + but was now serving in the League's army as a volunteer, were associated + with the young princes. Parma, Mayenne, and Montemarciano rode in the + battalia, the rear being under command of the Duke of Aumale and the Count + Chaligny. Wings of cavalry protected the long trains of wagons which were + arranged on each flank of the invading army. The march was very slow, a + Farnese's uniform practice to guard himself scrupulously against any + possibility of surprise and to entrench himself thoroughly at nightfall. + </p> + <p> + By the middle of February they reached the vicinity of Aumale in Picardy. + Meantime Henry, on the news of the advance of the relieving army, had + again the same problem to solve that had been presented to him before + Paris in the summer of 1590. Should he continue in the trenches, pressing + more and more closely the city already reduced to great straits? Should he + take the open field against the invaders and once more attempt to crush + the League and its most redoubtable commander in a general engagement? + Biron strenuously advised the continuance of the siege. Turenne, now, + through his recent marriage with the heiress, called Duc de Bouillon, + great head of the Huguenot party in France, counselled as warmly the open + attack. Henry, hesitating more than was customary with him, at last + decided on a middle course. The resolution did not seem a very wise one, + but the king, who had been so signally out-generalled in the preceding + campaign by the great Italian, was anxious to avoid his former errors, and + might perhaps fall into as great ones by attempting two inconsistent lines + of action. Leaving Biron in command of the infantry and a portion of the + horse to continue the siege, he took the field himself with the greater + part of the cavalry, intending to intercept and harass the enemy and to + prevent his manifest purpose of throwing reinforcements and supplies into + the invested city. + </p> + <p> + Proceeding to Neufchatel and Aumale, he soon found himself in the + neighbourhood of the Leaguers, and it was not long before skirmishing + began. At this time, on a memorable occasion, Henry, forgetting as usual, + in his eagerness for the joys of the combat that he was not a young + captain of cavalry with his spurs to win by dashing into every mad + adventure that might present itself, but a king fighting for his crown, + with the welfare of a whole people depending on his fortunes, thought + proper to place himself at the head of a handful of troopers to + reconnoitre in person the camp of the Leaguers. Starting with five hundred + horse, and ordering Lavardin and Givry to follow with a larger body, while + the Dukes of Nevers and Longueville were to move out, should it prove + necessary, in force, the king rode forth as merrily as to a hunting party, + drove in the scouts and pickets of the confederated armies, and, advancing + still farther in his investigations, soon found himself attacked by a + cavalry force of the enemy much superior to his own. A skirmish began, and + it was necessary for the little troop to beat a hasty retreat, fighting as + it ran. It was not long before Henry was recognised by the enemy, and the + chase became all the more lively; George Basti, the famous Albanian + trooper, commanding the force which pressed most closely upon the king. + The news spread to the camp of the League that the Bearnese was the leader + of the skirmishers. Mayenne believed it, and urged the instant advance of + the flying squadron and of the whole vanguard. Farnese refused. It was + impossible that the king should be there, he said, doing picket duty at + the head of a company. It was a clumsy ambush to bring on a general + engagement in the open field, and he was not to be drawn out of his + trenches into a trap by such a shallow device. A French captain, who by + command of Henry had purposely allowed himself to be taken, informed his + captors that the skirmishers were in reality supported by a heavy force of + infantry. This suggestion of the ready Bearnese confirmed the doubts of + Alexander. Meantime the skirmishing steeplechase went on before his eyes. + The king dashing down a hill received an arquebus shot in his side, but + still rode for his life. Lavardin and Givry came to the rescue, but a + panic seized their followers as the rumour flew that the king was mortally + wounded—was already dead—so that they hardly brought a + sufficient force to beat back the Leaguers. Givry's horse was soon killed + under him, and his own thigh crushed; Lavardin was himself dangerously + wounded. The king was more hard pressed than ever, men were falling on + every side of him, when four hundred French dragoons—as a kind of + musketeers who rode on hacks to the scene of action but did their work on + foot, were called at that day—now dismounted and threw themselves + between Henry and his pursuers. Nearly every man of them laid down his + life, but they saved the king's. Their vigorous hand to hand fighting kept + off the assailants until Nevers and Longueville received the king at the + gates of Aumale with a force before which the Leaguers were fain to + retreat as rapidly as they had come. + </p> + <p> + In this remarkable skirmish of Aumale the opposite qualities of Alexander + and of Henry were signally illustrated. The king, by his constitutional + temerity, by his almost puerile love of confronting danger for the + danger's sake, was on the verge of sacrificing himself with all the hopes + of his house and of the nobler portion of his people for an absolute + nothing; while the duke, out of his superabundant caution, peremptorily + refused to stretch out his hand and seize the person of his great enemy + when directly within his, grasp. Dead or alive, the Bearnese was + unquestionably on that day in the power of Farnese, and with him the whole + issue of the campaign and of the war. Never were the narrow limits that + separate valour on the one side and discretion on the other from + unpardonable lunacy more nearly effaced than on that occasion.' + </p> + <p> + When would such an opportunity occur again? + </p> + <p> + The king's wound proved not very dangerous, although for many days + troublesome, and it required, on account of his general state of health, a + thorough cure. Meantime the royalists fell back from Aumale and + Neufchatel, both of which places were at once occupied by the Leaguers: In + pursuance of his original plan, the Duke of Parma advanced with his + customary steadiness and deliberation towards Rouen. It was his intention + to assault the king's army in its entrenchments in combination with a + determined sortie to be made by the besieged garrison. His preparations + for the attack were ready on the 26th February, when he suddenly received + a communication from De Villars, who had thus far most ably and gallantly + conducted the defence of the place, informing him that it was no longer + necessary to make a general attack. On the day before he had made a sally + from the four gates of the city, had fallen upon the besiegers in great + force, had wounded Biron and killed six hundred of his soldiers, had + spiked several pieces of artillery and captured others which he had + successfully brought into the town, and had in short so damaged the + enemy's works and disconcerted him in all his plans, that he was confident + of holding the place longer than the king could afford to stay in front of + him. All he wished was a moderate reinforcement of men and munitions. + Farnese by no means sympathized with the confident tone of Villars nor + approved of his proposition. He had come to relieve Rouen and to raise the + siege, and he preferred to do his work thoroughly. Mayenne was however + most heartily in favour of taking the advice of Villars. He urged that it + was difficult for the Bearnese to keep an army long in the field, still + more so in the trenches. Let them provide for the immediate wants of the + city; then the usual process of decomposition would soon be witnessed in + the ill-paid, ill-fed, desultory forces of the heretic pretender. + </p> + <p> + Alexander deferred to the wishes of Mayenne, although against his better + judgment. Eight hundred infantry, were successfully sent into Rouen. The + army of the League then countermarched into Picardy near the confines of + Artois. + </p> + <p> + They were closely followed by Henry at the head of his cavalry, and lively + skirmishes were of frequent occurrence. In a military point of view none + of these affairs were of consequence, but there was one which partook at + once of the comic and the pathetic. For it chanced that in a cavalry + action of more than common vivacity the Count Chaligny found himself + engaged in a hand to hand conflict with a very dashing swordsman, who, + after dealing and receiving many severe blows, at last succeeded in + disarming the count and taking him prisoner. It was the fortune of war, + and, but a few days before, might have been the fate of the great Henry + himself. But Chaligny's mortification at his captivity became intense when + he discovered that the knight to whom he had surrendered was no other than + the king's jester. That he, a chieftain of the Holy League, the + long-descended scion of the illustrious house of Lorraine, brother of the + great Duke of Mercoeur, should become the captive of a Huguenot buffoon + seemed the most stinging jest yet perpetrated since fools had come in + fashion. The famous Chicot—who was as fond of a battle as of a gibe, + and who was almost as reckless a rider as his master—proved on this + occasion that the cap and bells could cover as much magnanimity as did the + most chivalrous crest. Although desperately wounded in the struggle which + had resulted in his triumph, he generously granted to the Count his + freedom without ransom. The proud Lorrainer returned to his Leaguers and + the poor fool died afterwards of his wounds. + </p> + <p> + The army of the allies moved through Picardy towards the confines of + Artois, and sat down leisurely to beleaguer Rue, a low-lying place on the + banks and near the mouth of the Somme, the only town in the province which + still held for the king. It was sufficiently fortified to withstand a good + deal of battering, and it certainly seemed mere trifling for the great + Duke of Parma to leave the Netherlands in such confusion, with young + Maurice of Nassau carrying everything before him, and to come all the way + into Normandy in order, with the united armies of Spain and the League, to + besiege the insignificant town of Rue. + </p> + <p> + And this was the opinion of Farnese, but he had chosen throughout the + campaign to show great deference to the judgment of Mayenne. Meantime the + month of March wore away, and what had been predicted came to pass. + Henry's forces dwindled away as usual. His cavaliers rode off to forage + for themselves, when their battles were denied them, and the king was now + at the head of not more than sixteen thousand foot and five thousand + horse. On the other hand the Leaguers' army had been melting quite as + rapidly. With the death of Pope Sfondrato, his nephew Montemarciano had + disappeared with his two thousand Swiss; while the French cavalry and + infantry, ill-fed and uncomfortable, were diminishing daily. Especially + the Walloons, Flemings, and other Netherlanders of Parma's army, took + advantage of their proximity to the borders and escaped in large numbers + to their own homes. It was but meagre and profitless campaigning on both + sides during those wretched months of winter and early spring, although + there was again an opportunity for Sir Roger Williams, at the head of two + hundred musketeers and one hundred and fifty pikemen, to make one of his + brilliant skirmishes under the eye of the Bearnese. Surprised and without + armour, he jumped, in doublet and hose, on horseback, and led his men + merrily against five squadrons of Spanish and Italian horse, and six + companies of Spanish infantry; singled out and unhorsed the leader of the + Spanish troopers, and nearly cut off the head, of the famous Albanian + chief George Basti with one swinging blow of his sword. Then, being + reinforced by some other English companies, he succeeded in driving the + whole body of Italians and Spaniards, with great loss, quite into their + entrenchments. "The king doth commend him very highly," said Umton, "and + doth more than wonder at the valour of our nation. I never heard him give + more honour to any service nor to any man than he doth to Sir Roger + Williams and the rest, whom he held as lost men, and for which he has + caused public thanks to be given to God." + </p> + <p> + At last Villars, who had so peremptorily rejected assistance at the end of + February, sent to say that if he were not relieved by the middle of April + he should be obliged to surrender the city. If the siege were not raised + by the twentieth of the month he informed Parma, to his profound + astonishment, that Rouen would be in Henry's hands. + </p> + <p> + In effecting this result the strict blockade maintained by the Dutch + squadron at the mouth of the river, and the resolute manner in which those + cruisers dashed at every vessel attempting to bring relief to Rouen, were + mainly instrumental. As usual with the stern Hollanders and Zeelanders + when engaged at sea with the Spaniards, it was war to the knife. Early in + April twelve large vessels, well armed and manned, attempted to break the + blockade. A combat ensued, at the end of which eight of the Spanish ships + were captured, two were sunk, and two were set on fire in token of + victory, every man on board of all being killed and thrown into the sea. + Queen Elizabeth herself gave the first news of this achievement to the + Dutch envoy in London. "And in truth," said he, "her Majesty expressed + herself, in communicating these tidings, with such affection and + extravagant joy to the glory and honour of our nation and + men-of-war's-men, that it wonderfully delighted me, and did me good into + my very heart to hear it from her." + </p> + <p> + Instantly Farnese set himself to the work which, had he followed his own + judgment, would already have been accomplished. Henry with his cavalry had + established himself at Dieppe and Arques, within a distance of five or six + leagues from the infantry engaged in the siege of Rouen. Alexander saw the + profit to be derived from the separation between the different portions of + the enemy's forces, and marched straight upon the enemy's entrenchments. + He knew the disadvantage of assailing a strongly fortified camp, but + believed that by a well-concerted, simultaneous assault by Villars from + within and the Leaguers from without, the king's forces would be compelled + to raise the siege or be cut up in their trenches. + </p> + <p> + But Henry did not wait for the attack. He had changed his plan, and, for + once in his life, substituted extreme caution for his constitutional + temerity. Neither awaiting the assault upon his entrenchments nor seeking + his enemy in the open field, he ordered the whole camp to be broken up, + and on the 20th of April raised the siege. + </p> + <p> + Farnese marched into Rouen, where the Leaguers were received with + tumultuous joy, and this city, most important for the purposes of the + League and for Philip's ulterior designs, was thus wrested from the grasp + just closing upon it. Henry's main army now concentrated itself in the + neighbourhood of Dieppe, but the cavalry under his immediate + superintendence continued to harass the Leaguers. It was now determined to + lay siege to Caudebec, on the right bank of the Seine, three leagues below + Rouen; the possession of this place by the enemy being a constant. danger + and difficulty to Rouen, whose supplies by the Seine were thus cut off. + </p> + <p> + Alexander, as usual, superintended the planting of the batteries against + the place. He had been suffering during the whole campaign with those + dropsical ailments which were making life a torture to him; yet his + indomitable spirit rose superior to his physical disorders, and he wrought + all day long on foot or on horseback, when he seemed only fit to be placed + on his bed as a rapid passage to his grave. On this occasion, in company + with the Italian engineer Properzio, he had been for some time examining + with critical nicety the preliminaries, for the siege, when it was + suddenly observed by those around him that he was growing pale. It then + appeared that he had received a musket-ball between the wrist and the + elbow, and had been bleeding profusely; but had not indicated by a word or + the movement of a muscle that he had been wounded, so intent was he upon + carrying out the immediate task to which he had set himself. It was + indispensable, however, that he should now take to his couch. The wound + was not trifling, and to one in his damaged and dropsical condition it was + dangerous. Fever set in, with symptoms of gangrene, and it became + necessary to entrust the command of the League to Mayenne. But it was + hardly concealed from Parma that the duke was playing a double game. + Prince Ranuccio, according to his father's express wish, was placed + provisionally at the head of the Flemish forces. This was conceded; + however, with much heart-burning, and with consequences easily to be + imagined. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Caudebec fell at once. Henry did nothing to relieve it, and the + place could offer but slight resistance to the force arrayed against it. + The bulk of the king's army was in the neighbourhood of Dieppe, where they + had been recently strengthened by twenty companies of Netherlanders and + Scotchmen brought by Count Philip Nassau. The League's headquarters were + in the village of Yvetot, capital of the realm of the whimsical little + potentate so long renowned under that name. + </p> + <p> + The king, in pursuance of the plan he had marked out for himself, + restrained his skirmishing more than was his wont. Nevertheless he lay + close to Yvetot. His cavalry, swelling and falling as usual like an Alpine + torrent, had now filled up its old channels again, for once more the + mountain chivalry had poured themselves around their king. With ten + thousand horsemen he was now pressing the Leaguers, from time to time, + very hard, and on one occasion the skirmishing became so close and so + lively that a general engagement seemed imminent. Young Ranuccio had a + horse shot under him, and his father—suffering as he was—had + himself dragged out of bed and brought on a litter into the field, where + he was set on horseback, trampling on wounds and disease, and, as it were, + on death itself, that he might by his own unsurpassed keenness of eye and + quickness of resource protect the army which had been entrusted to his + care. The action continued all day; young Bentivoglio, nephew of the + famous cardinal, historian and diplomatist, receiving a bad wound in the + leg, as he fought gallantly at the side of Ranuccio. Carlo Coloma also + distinguished himself in the engagement. Night separated the combatants + before either side had gained a manifest advantage, and on the morrow it + seemed for the interest of neither to resume the struggle. + </p> + <p> + The field where this campaign was to be fought was a narrow peninsula + enclosed between the sea and the rivers Seine and Dieppe. In this + peninsula, called the Land of Caux, it was Henry's intention to shut up + his enemy. Farnese had finished the work that he had been sent to do, and + was anxious, as Henry was aware, to return to the Netherlands. Rouen was + relieved, Caudebec had fallen. There was not food or forage enough in the + little peninsula to feed both the city and the whole army of the League. + Shut up in this narrow area, Alexander must starve or surrender. His only + egress was into Picardy and so home to Artois, through the base of the + isosceles triangle between the two rivers and on the borders of Picardy. + On this base Henry had posted his whole army. Should Farnese assail him, + thus provided with a strong position and superiority of force, defeat was + certain. Should he remain where he was, he must inevitably starve. He had + no communications with the outside. The Hollanders lay with their ships + below Caudebec, blockading the river's mouth and the coast. His only + chance of extrication lay across the Seine. But Alexander was neither a + bird nor a fish, and it was necessary, so Henry thought, to be either the + one or the other to cross that broad, deep, and rapid river, where there + were no bridges, and where the constant ebb and flow of the tide made + transportation almost impossible in face of a powerful army in rear and + flank. Farnese's situation seemed, desperate; while the shrewd Bearnese + sat smiling serenely, carefully watching at the mouth of the trap into + which he had at last inveigled his mighty adversary. Secure of his + triumph, he seemed to have changed his nature, and to have become as + sedate and wary as, by habit, he was impetuous and hot. + </p> + <p> + And in truth Farnese found himself in very narrow quarters. There was no + hay for his horses, no bread for his men. A penny loaf was sold for two + shillings. A jug of water was worth a crown. As for meat or wine, they + were hardly to be dreamed of. His men were becoming furious at their + position. They had enlisted to fight, not to starve, and they murmured + that it was better for an army to fall with weapons in its hands than to + drop to pieces hourly with the enemy looking on and enjoying their agony. + </p> + <p> + It was obvious to Farnese that there were but two ways out of his dilemma. + He might throw himself upon Henry—strongly entrenched as he was, and + with much superior forces to his own, upon ground deliberately chosen for + himself—defeat him utterly, and march over him back to the + Netherlands. This would be an agreeable result; but the undertaking seemed + difficult, to say the least. Or he might throw his army across the Seine + and make his escape through the isle of France and Southern Picardy back + to the so-called obedient provinces. But it seemed, hopeless without + bridges or pontoons to attempt the passage of the Seine. + </p> + <p> + There was; however, no time left, for hesitation. Secretly he took his + resolution and communicated it in strict confidence to Mayenne, to + Ranuccio, and to one or two other chiefs. He came to Caudebec, and there, + close to the margin of the river, he threw up a redoubt. On the opposite + bank, he constructed another. On both he planted artillery, placing a + force of eight hundred Netherlanders under Count Bossu in the one, and an + equal number of the same nation, Walloons chiefly, under Barlotte in the + other. He collected all the vessels, flatboats,—wherries,—and + rafts that could be found or put together at Rouen, and then under cover + of his forts he transported all the Flemish infantry, and the Spanish, + French, and Italian cavalry, during the night of 22nd May to the 22 May, + opposite bank of the Seine. Next morning he sent up all the artillery + together with the Flemish cavalry to Rouen, where, making what use he + could by temporary contrivances of the broken arches of the broken bridge, + in order to shorten the distance from shore to shore, he managed to convey + his whole army with all its trains across the river. + </p> + <p> + A force was left behind, up to the last moment, to engage in the customary + skirmishes, and to display themselves as largely as possible for the + purpose of imposing upon the enemy. The young Prince of Parma had command + of this rearguard. The device was perfectly successful. The news of the + movement was not brought to the ears of Henry until after it had been + accomplished. When the king reached the shore of the Seine, he saw to his + infinite chagrin and indignation that the last stragglers of the army, + including the garrison of the fort on the right bank, were just ferrying + themselves across under command of Ranuccio. + </p> + <p> + Furious with disappointment, he brought some pieces of artillery to bear + upon the triumphant fugitives. Not a shot told, and the Leaguers had the + satisfaction of making a bonfire in the king's face of the boats which had + brought them over. Then, taking up their line of march rapidly inland, + they placed themselves completely out of the reach of the Huguenot guns. + </p> + <p> + Henry had a bridge at Pont de l'Arche, and his first impulse was to pursue + with his cavalry, but it was obvious that his infantry could never march + by so circuitous a route fast enough to come up with the enemy, who had + already so prodigious a stride in advance. + </p> + <p> + There was no need to disguise it to himself. Henry saw himself for the + second time out-generalled by the consummate Farnese. The trap was broken, + the game had given him the slip. The manner in which the duke had thus + extricated himself from a profound dilemma; in which his fortunes seemed + hopelessly sunk, has usually been considered one of the most extraordinary + exploits of his life. + </p> + <p> + Precisely at this time, too, ill news reached Henry from Brittany and the + neighbouring country. The Princes Conti and Dombes had been obliged, on + the 13th May, 1592, to raise the siege of Craon, in consequence of the + advance of the Duke of Mercoeur, with a force of seven thousand men. + </p> + <p> + They numbered, including lanzknechts and the English contingent, about + half as many, and before they could effect their retreat, were attacked by + Mercoeur, and utterly routed. The English, who alone stood to their + colours, were nearly all cut to pieces. The rest made a disorderly + retreat, but were ultimately, with few exceptions, captured or slain. The + duke, following up his victory, seized Chateau Gontier and La Val, + important crossing places on the river Mayenne, and laid siege to Mayenne, + capital city of that region. The panic, spreading through Brittany and + Maine, threatened the king's cause there with complete overthrow, hampered + his operations in Normandy, and vastly encouraged the Leaguers. It became + necessary for Henry to renounce his designs upon Rouen, and the pursuit of + Parma, and to retire to Vernon, there to occupy himself with plans for the + relief of Brittany. In vain had the Earl of Essex, whose brother had + already been killed in the campaign, manifested such headlong gallantry in + that country as to call forth the sharpest rebukes from the admiring but + anxious Elizabeth. The handful of brave Englishmen who had been withdrawn + from the Netherlands, much to the dissatisfaction of the States-General, + in order to defend the coasts of Brittany, would have been better employed + under Maurice of Nassau. So soon as the heavy news reached the king, the + faithful Umton was sent for. "He imparted the same unto me," said the + envoy, "with extraordinary passion and discontent. He discoursed at large + of his miserable estate, of the factions of his servants, and of their + ill-dispositions, and then required my opinion touching his course for + Brittan, as also what further aid he might expect from her Majesty; + alleging that unless he were presently strengthened by England it was + impossible for him, longer to resist the greatness of the King of Spain, + who assailed his country by Brittany, Languedoc, the Low Countries by the + Duke of Saxony and the Duke of Lorraine, and so ended his speech + passionately." Thus adjured, Sir Henry spoke to the king firmly but + courteously, reminding him how, contrary to English advice, he had + followed other counsellors to the neglect of Brittany, and had broken his + promises to the queen. He concluded by urging him to advance into that + country in person, but did not pledge himself on behalf of her Majesty to + any further assistance. "To this," said Umton, "the king gave a willing + ear, and replied, with many thanks, and without disallowing of anything + that I alleged, yielding many excuses of his want of means, not of + disposition, to provide a remedy, not forgetting to acknowledge her + Majesty's care of him and his country, and especially of Brittany, + excusing much the bad disposition of his counsellors, and inclining much + to my motion to go in person thither, especially because he might thereby + give her Majesty better satisfaction; . . . . and protesting that he would + either immediately himself make war there in those parts or send an army + thither. I do not doubt," added the ambassador, "but with good handling + her Majesty may now obtain any reasonable matter for the conservation of + Brittany, as also for a place of retreat for the English, and I urge + continually the yielding of Brest into her Majesty's hands, whereunto I + find the king well inclined, if he might bring it to pass." + </p> + <p> + Alexander passed a few days in Paris, where he was welcomed with much + cordiality, recruiting his army for a brief period in the land of Brie, + and then—broken in health but entirely successful—he dragged + himself once more to Spa to drink the waters. He left an auxiliary force + with Mayenne, and promised—infinitely against his own wishes—to + obey his master's commands and return again before the winter to do the + League's work. + </p> + <p> + And thus Alexander had again solved a difficult problem. He had saved for + his master and for the League the second city of France and the whole + coast of Normandy. Rouen had been relieved in masterly manner even as + Paris had been succoured the year before. He had done this, although + opposed by the sleepless energy and the exuberant valour of the + quick-witted Navarre, and although encumbered by the assistance of the + ponderous Duke of Mayenne. His military reputation, through these two + famous reliefs and retreats, grew greater than ever. + </p> + <p> + No commander of the age was thought capable of doing what he had thus + done. Yet, after all, what had he accomplished? Did he not feel in his + heart of hearts that he was but a strong and most skilful swimmer + struggling for a little while against an ocean-tide which was steadily + sweeping him and his master and all their fortunes far out into the + infinite depths? + </p> + <p> + Something of this breathed ever in his most secret utterances. But, so + long as life was in him, his sword and his genius were at the disposal of + his sovereign, to carry out a series of schemes as futile as they were + nefarious. + </p> + <p> + For us, looking back upon the Past, which was then the Future, it is easy + to see how remorselessly the great current of events was washing away the + system and the personages seeking to resist its power and to oppose the + great moral principles by which human affairs in the long run are + invariably governed. Spain and Rome were endeavouring to obliterate the + landmarks of race, nationality, historical institutions, and the + tendencies of awakened popular conscience, throughout Christendom, and to + substitute for them a dead level of conformity to one regal and sacerdotal + despotism. + </p> + <p> + England, Holland, the Navarre party in France, and a considerable part of + Germany were contending for national unity and independence, for vested + and recorded rights. Much farther than they themselves or their chieftains + dreamed those millions of men were fighting for a system of temperate + human freedom; for that emancipation under just laws from arbitrary human + control, which is the right—however frequently trampled upon—of + all classes, conditions, and races of men; and for which it is the + instinct of the human race to continue to struggle under every + disadvantage, and often against all hope, throughout the ages, so long as + the very principle of humanity shall not be extinguished in those who have + been created after their Maker's image. + </p> + <p> + It may safely be doubted whether the great Queen, the Bearnese, Alexander + Farnese, or his master, with many of their respective adherents, differed + very essentially from each other in their notions of the right divine and + the right of the people. But history has shown us which of them best + understood the spirit of the age, and had the keenest instinct to keep + themselves in the advance by moving fastest in the direction whither it + was marshalling all men. There were many, earnest, hard-toiling men in + those days, men who believed in the work to which they devoted their + lives. Perhaps, too, the devil-worshippers did their master's work as + strenuously and heartily as any, and got fame and pelf for their pains. + Fortunately, a good portion of what they so laboriously wrought for has + vanished into air; while humanity has at least gained something from those + who deliberately or instinctively conformed themselves to her eternal + laws. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Anatomical study of what has ceased to exist + Artillery + Bomb-shells were not often used although known for a century + Court fatigue, to scorn pleasure + For us, looking back upon the Past, which was then the Future + Hardly an inch of French soil that had not two possessors + Holy institution called the Inquisition + Inevitable fate of talking castles and listening ladies + Life of nations and which we call the Past + Often necessary to be blind and deaf + Picturesqueness of crime + Royal plans should be enforced adequately or abandoned entirely + Toil and sacrifices of those who have preceded us + Use of the spade + Utter disproportions between the king's means and aims + Valour on the one side and discretion on the other + Walk up and down the earth and destroy his fellow-creatures + We have the reputation of being a good housewife + Weapons +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. 1592 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Return of Prince Maurice to the siege of Steenwyck—Capitulation of + the besieged—Effects of the introduction of mining operations— + Maurice besieges Coeworden—Verdugo attempts to relieve the city, + but fails—The city capitulates, and Prince Maurice retreats into + winter quarters. +</pre> + <p> + While Farnese had thus been strengthening the bulwarks of Philip's + universal monarchy in that portion of his proposed French dominions which + looked towards England, there had been opportunity for Prince Maurice to + make an assault upon the Frisian defences of this vast realm. It was + difficult to make half Europe into one great Spanish fortification, + guarding its every bastion and every point of the curtain, without far + more extensive armaments than the "Great King," as the Leaguers proposed + that Philip should entitle himself, had ever had at his disposal. It might + be a colossal scheme to stretch the rod of empire over so large a portion + of the earth, but the dwarfish attempts to carry the design into execution + hardly reveal the hand of genius. It is astonishing to contemplate the + meagre numbers and the slender funds with which this world-empire was to + be asserted and maintained. The armies arrayed at any important point + hardly exceeded a modern division or two; while the resources furnished + for a year would hardly pay in later days for a few weeks' campaign. + </p> + <p> + When Alexander, the first commander of his time, moved out of Flanders + into France with less than twenty thousand men, he left most vital + portions of his master's hereditary dominions so utterly unprotected that + it was possible to attack them with a handful of troops. The young + disciple of Simon Stevinus now resumed that practical demonstration of his + principles which had been in the previous year so well begun. + </p> + <p> + On the 28th May, 1592, Maurice, taking the field with six thousand foot + and two thousand horse, came once more before Steenwyck. It will be + remembered that he had been obliged to relinquish the siege of this place + in order to confront the Duke of Parma in July, 1591, at Nymegen. + </p> + <p> + The city—very important from its position, being the key to the + province of Drenthe as well as one of the safeguards of Friesland—had + been besieged in vain by Count Renneberg after his treasonable surrender + of Groningen, of which he was governor, to the Spaniards, but had been + subsequently surprised by Tassis. Since that time it had held for the + king. Its fortifications were strong, and of the best description known at + that day. Its regular garrison was sixteen companies of foot and some + cavalry under Antoine de Quocqueville, military governor. Besides these + troops were twelve hundred Walloon infantry, commanded by Lewis, youngest + Count van den Berg, a brave lad of eighteen years, with whom were the lord + of Waterdyck and other Netherland nobles. + </p> + <p> + To the military student the siege may possess importance as marking a + transitional epoch in the history of the beleaguering science. To the + general reader, as in most of the exploits of the young Poliorcetes, its + details have but slender interest. Perhaps it was here that the spade + first vindicated its dignity, and entitled itself to be classed as a + military weapon of value along with pike and arquebus. It was here that + the soldiers of Maurice, burrowing in the ground at ten stuyvers a day, + were jeered at by the enemy from the battlements as boors and ditchers, + who had forfeited their right to be considered soldiers—but jeered + at for the last time. + </p> + <p> + From 30th May to 9th June the prince was occupied in throwing up + earthworks on the low grounds in order to bring his guns into position. On + the 13th June he began to batter with forty-five pieces, but effected + little more than to demolish some of the breast-works. He threw hot shot + into the town very diligently, too, but did small damage. The cannonading + went on for nearly a week, but the practice was so very indifferent—notwithstanding + the protection of the blessed Barbara and the tuition of the busmasters—that + the besieged began to amuse themselves with these empty and monotonous + salvos of the honourable Artillery Guild. When all this blazing and + thundering had led to no better result than to convert a hundred thousand + good Flemish florins into noise and smoke, the thrifty Netherlanders on + both sides of the walls began to disparage the young general's reputation. + After all, they said, the Spaniards were right when they called artillery + mere 'espanta-vellacos' or scare-cowards. This burrowing and bellowing + must at last give place to the old-fashioned push of pike, and then it + would be seen who the soldiers were. Observations like these were freely + made under a flag of truce; for on the 19th June—notwithstanding + their contempt for the 'espanta-vellacos'—the besieged had sent out + a deputation to treat for an honourable surrender. Maurice entertained the + negotiators hospitably in his own tent, but the terms suggested to him + were inadmissible. Nothing came of the conference therefore but mutual + criticisms, friendly enough, although sufficiently caustic. + </p> + <p> + Maurice now ceased cannonading, and burrowed again for ten days without + interruption. Four mines, leading to different points of the defences, + were patiently constructed, and two large chambers at the terminations, + neatly finished off and filled respectively with five thousand and + twenty-five hundred pounds of powder, were at last established under two + of the principal bastions. + </p> + <p> + During all this digging there had been a couple of sorties in which the + besieged had inflicted great damage on their enemy, and got back into the + town with a few prisoners, having lost but six of their own men. Sir + Francis Vere had been severely wounded in the leg, so that he was obliged + to keep his bed during the rest of the siege. Verdugo, too, had made a + feeble attempt to reinforce the place with three hundred men, sixty or + seventy of whom had entered, while the rest had been killed or captured. + On such a small scale was Philip's world-empire contended for by his + stadholder in Friesland; yet it was certainly not the fault of the stout + old Portuguese. Verdugo would rather have sent thirty thousand men to save + the front door of his great province than three hundred. But every + available man—and few enough of them they were—had been sent + out of the Netherlands, to defend the world-empire in its outposts of + Normandy and Brittany. + </p> + <p> + This was Philip the Prudent's system for conquering the world, and men + looked upon him as the consummation of kingcraft. + </p> + <p> + On the 3rd July Maurice ordered his whole force to be in readiness for the + assault. The mines were then sprung. + </p> + <p> + The bastion of the east gate was blown to ruins. The mine under the + Gast-Huys bulwark, burst outwardly, and buried alive many Hollanders + standing ready for the assault. At this untoward accident Maurice + hesitated to give the signal for storming the breach, but the panic within + the town was so evident that Lewis William lost no time in seizing the + overthrown eastern bulwark, from the ruins of which he looked over the + whole city. The other broken bastion was likewise easily mastered, and the + besieged, seeing the storm about to burst upon them with irresistible + fury, sent a trumpet. Meantime Maurice, inspecting the effects of the + explosion and preparing for the assault, had been shot through the left + cheek. The wound was not dangerous, and the prince extracted the bullet + with his own hand, but the change of half an inch would have made it + fatal. He was not incapacitated—after his wound had been dressed, + amidst the remonstrances of his friends for his temerity-from listening to + the propositions of the city. They were refused, for the prince was sure + of having his town on his own terms. + </p> + <p> + Next day he permitted the garrison to depart; the officers and soldiers + promising not to serve the King of Spain on the Netherland side of the + Rhine for six months. They were to take their baggage, but to leave arms, + flags, munitions, and provisions. Both Maurice and Lewis William were for + insisting on sterner conditions, but the States' deputies and members of + the council who were present, as usual, in camp urged the building of the + golden bridge. After all, a fortified city, the second in importance after + Groningen of all those regions, was the real prize contended for. The + garrison was meagre and much reduced during the siege. The fortifications, + of masonry and earthwork combined, were nearly as strong as ever. Saint + Barbara had done them but little damage, but the town itself was in a + sorry plight. Churches and houses were nearly all shot to pieces, and the + inhabitants had long been dwelling in the cellars. Two hundred of the + garrison remained, severely wounded, in the town; three hundred and fifty + had been killed, among others the young cousin of the Nassaus, Count Lewis + van den Berg. The remainder of the royalists marched out, and were treated + with courtesy by Maurice, who gave them an escort, permitting the soldiers + to retain their side-arms, and furnishing horses to the governor. + </p> + <p> + In the besieging army five or six hundred had been killed and many + wounded, but not in numbers bearing the same proportion to the slain as in + modern battles. + </p> + <p> + The siege had lasted forty-four days. When it was over, and men came out + from the town to examine at leisure the prince's camp and his field of + operations, they were astounded at the amount of labor performed in so + short a time. The oldest campaigners confessed that they never before had + understood what a siege really was, and they began to conceive a higher + respect for the art of the engineer than they had ever done before. "Even + those who were wont to rail at science and labour," said one who was + present in the camp of Maurice, "declared that the siege would have been a + far more arduous undertaking had it not been for those two engineers, + Joost Matthes of Alost, and Jacob Kemp of Gorcum. It is high time to take + from soldiers the false notion that it is shameful to work with the spade; + an error which was long prevalent among the Netherlanders, and still + prevails among the French, to the great detriment of the king's affairs, + as may be seen in his sieges." + </p> + <p> + Certainly the result of Henry's recent campaign before Rouen had proved + sufficiently how much better it would have been for him had there been + some Dutch Joosts and Jacobs with their picks and shovels in his army at + that critical period. They might perhaps have baffled Parma as they had + done Verdugo. + </p> + <p> + Without letting the grass grow under his feet, Maurice now led his army + from Steenwyck to Zwol and arrived on the 26th July before Coeworden. + </p> + <p> + This place, very strong by art and still stronger by-nature, was the other + key to all north Netherland—Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe. + Should it fall into the hands of the republic it would be impossible for + the Spaniards to retain much longer the rich and important capital of all + that country, the city of Groningen. Coeworden lay between two vast + morasses, one of which—the Bourtange swamp—extended some + thirty miles to the bay of the Dollart; while the other spread nearly as + far in a westerly direction to the Zuyder Zee. Thus these two great + marshes were a frame—an almost impassable barrier—by which the + northern third of the whole territory of the republic was encircled and + defended. Throughout this great morass there was not a hand-breadth of + solid ground—not a resting-place for a human foot, save the road + which led through Coeworden. This passage lay upon a natural deposit of + hard, dry sand, interposed as if by a caprice of nature between the two + swamps; and was about half a mile in width. + </p> + <p> + The town itself was well fortified, and Verdugo had been recently + strengthening the position with additional earthworks. A thousand veterans + formed the garrison under command of another Van den Berg, the Count + Frederic. It was the fate of these sister's-children of the great founder + of the republic to serve the cause of foreign despotism with remarkable + tenacity against their own countrymen, and against their nearest blood + relations. On many conspicuous occasions they were almost as useful to + Spain and the Inquisition as the son and nearly all the other kinsmen of + William the Silent had rendered themselves to the cause of Holland and of + freedom. + </p> + <p> + Having thoroughly entrenched his camp before Coeworden and begun the + regular approaches, Maurice left his cousin Lewis William to superintend + the siege operations for the moment, and advanced towards Ootmarsum, a + frontier town which might give him trouble if in the hands of a relieving + force. The place fell at once, with the loss of but one life to the States + army, but that a very valuable one; General de Famars, one of the original + signers of the famous Compromise; and a most distinguished soldier of the + republic, having been killed before the gates. + </p> + <p> + On the 31st July, Maurice returned to his entrenchments. The enemy + professed unbounded confidence; Van den Berg not doubting that he should + be relieved by Verdugo, and Verdugo being sure that Van den Berg would + need no relief. The Portuguese veteran indeed was inclined to wonder at + Maurice's presumption in attacking so impregnable a fortress. "If + Coeworden does not hold," said he, "there is no place in the world that + can hold." + </p> + <p> + Count Peter Ernest, was still acting as governor-general for Alexander + Farnese, on returning from his second French campaign, had again betaken + himself, shattered and melancholy, to the waters of Spa, leaving the + responsibility for Netherland affairs upon the German octogenarian. To + him; and to the nonagenarian Mondragon at Antwerp, the veteran Verdugo now + called loudly for aides against the youthful pedant, whom all men had been + laughing at a twelvemonth or so before. The Macedonian phalanx, Simon + Stevinus and delving Dutch boors—unworthy of the name of soldiers—seemed + to be steadily digging the ground from under Philip's feet in his + hereditary domains. + </p> + <p> + What would become of the world-empire, where was the great king—not + of Spain alone, nor of France alone—but the great monarch of all + Christendom, to plant his throne securely, if his Frisian strongholds, his + most important northern outposts, were to fall before an almost beardless + youth at the head of a handful of republican militia? + </p> + <p> + Verdugo did his best, but the best was little. The Spanish and Italian + legions had been sent out of the Netherlands into France. Many had died + there, many were in hospital after their return, nearly all the rest were + mutinous for want of pay. + </p> + <p> + On the 16th August, Maurice formally summoned Coeworden to surrender. + After the trumpeter had blown thrice; Count Van den Berg, forbidding all + others, came alone upon the walls and demanded his message. "To claim this + city in the name of Prince Maurice of Nassau and of the States-General," + was the reply. + </p> + <p> + "Tell him first to beat down my walls as flat as the ditch," said Van den + Berg, "and then to bring five or six storms. Six months after that I will + think whether I will send a trumpet." + </p> + <p> + The prince proceeded steadily with his approaches, but he was infinitely + chagrined by the departure out of his camp of Sir Francis Vere with his + English contingent of three regiments, whom Queen Elizabeth had + peremptorily ordered to the relief of King Henry in Brittany. + </p> + <p> + Nothing amazes the modern mind so much as the exquisite paucity of forces + and of funds by which the world-empire was fought for and resisted in + France, Holland, Spain, and England. The scenes of war were rapidly + shifted—almost like the slides of a magic-lantern—from one + country to another; the same conspicuous personages, almost the same + individual armies, perpetually re-appearing in different places, as if a + wild phantasmagoria were capriciously repeating itself to bewilder the + imagination. Essex, and Vere, and Roger Williams, and Black Norris-Van der + Does, and Admiral Nassau, the Meetkerks and Count Philip-Farnese and + Mansfeld, George Basti, Arenberg, Berlaymont, La None and Teligny, Aquila + and Coloma—were seen alternately fighting, retreating, triumphant, + beleaguering, campaigning all along the great territory which extends from + the Bay of Biscay to the crags of Brittany, and across the narrow seas to + the bogs of Ireland, and thence through the plains of Picardy and Flanders + to the swamps of Groningen and the frontiers of the Rhine. + </p> + <p> + This was the arena in which the great struggle was ever going on, but the + champions were so few in number that their individual shapes become + familiar to us like the figures of an oft-repeated pageant. And now the + withdrawal of certain companies of infantry and squadrons of cavalry from + the Spanish armies into France, had left obedient Netherland too weak to + resist rebellious Netherland, while, on the other hand, the withdrawal of + some twenty or thirty companies of English auxiliaries—most + hard-fighting veterans it is true, but very few in number—was likely + to imperil the enterprise of Maurice in Friesland. + </p> + <p> + The removal of these companies from the Low Countries to strengthen the + Bearnese in the north of France, formed the subject of much bitter + diplomatic conference between the States and England; the order having + been communicated by the great queen herself in many a vehement epistle + and caustic speech, enforced by big, manly oaths. + </p> + <p> + Verdugo, although confident in the strength of the place, had represented + to Parma and to Mansfeld the immense importance of relieving Coeworden. + The city, he said, was more valuable than all the towns taken the year + before. All Friesland hung upon it, and it would be impossible to save + Groningen should Coeworden fall. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Count Philip Nassau arrived from the campaign in France with his + three regiments which he threw into garrison, and thus set free an equal + number of fresh troops, which were forthwith sent to the camp of Maurice. + The prince at the same time was made aware that Verdugo was about to + receive important succour, and he was advised by the deputies of the + States-General present at his headquarters to send out his German Reiters + to intercept them. Maurice refused. Should his cavalry be defeated, he + said, his whole army would be endangered. He determined to await within + his fortified camp the attack of the relieving force. + </p> + <p> + During the whole month of August he proceeded steadily with his sapping + and mining. By the middle of the month his lines had come through the + ditch, which he drained of water into the counterscarp. By the beginning + of September he had got beneath the principal fort, which, in the course + of three or four days, he expected to blow into the air. The rainy weather + had impeded his operations and the march of the relieving army. + Nevertheless that army was at last approaching. The regiments of + Mondragon, Charles Mansfeld, Gonzaga, Berlaymont, and Arenberg had been + despatched to reinforce Verdugo. On the 23rd August, having crossed the + Rhine at Rheinberg, they reached Olfen in the country of Benthem, ten + miles from Coeworden. Here they threw up rockets and made other signals + that relief was approaching the town. On the 3rd of September Verdugo, + with the whole force at his disposal, amounting to four thousand foot and + eighteen hundred horse, was at the village of Emblichen, within a league + of the besieged city. That night a peasant was captured with letters from + Verdugo to the Governor of Coeworden, giving information that he intended + to make an assault on the besiegers on the night of 6th-7th September. + </p> + <p> + Thus forewarned, Maurice took the best precautions and calmly within his + entrenchments awaited the onslaught. Punctual to his appointment, Verdugo + with his whole force, yelling "Victoria! Victoria!" made a shirt-attack, + or camiciata—the men wearing their shirts outside their armour to + distinguish each other in the darkness—upon that portion of the camp + which was under command of Hohenlo. They were met with determination and + repulsed, after fighting all night, with a loss of three hundred killed + and a proportionate number of wounded. The Netherlanders had but three + killed and six wounded. Among the latter, however, was Lewis William, who + received a musket-ball in the belly, but remained on the ground until the + enemy had retreated. It was then discovered that his wound was not mortal—the + intestines not having been injured—and he was soon about his work + again. Prince Maurice, too, as usual, incurred the remonstrances of the + deputies and others for the reckless manner in which he exposed himself + wherever the fire was hottest He resolutely refused, however, to permit + his cavalry to follow the retreating enemy. His object was Coeworden—a + prize more important than a new victory over the already defeated + Spaniards would prove—and this object he kept ever before his eyes. + </p> + <p> + This was Verdugo's first and last attempt to relieve the city. He had seen + enough of the young prince's tactics and had no further wish to break his + teeth against those scientific entrenchments. The Spaniards at last, + whether they wore their shirts inside or outside their doublets, could no + longer handle the Dutchmen at pleasure. That people of butter, as the iron + duke of Alva was fond of calling the Netherlanders, were grown harder with + the pressure of a twenty-five years' war. + </p> + <p> + Five days after the sanguinary 'camiciata' the besieged offered to + capitulate. The trumpet at which the proud Van den Berg had hinted for six + months later arrived on the 12th September. Maurice was glad to get his + town. His "little soldiers" did not insist, as the Spaniards and Italians + were used to do in the good old days, on unlimited murder, rape, and fire, + as the natural solace and reward of their labours in the trenches. + Civilization had made some progress, at least in the Netherlands. Maurice + granted good terms, such as he had been in the habit of conceding to all + captured towns. Van den Berg was courteously received by his cousins, as + he rode forth from the place at the head of what remained of his garrison, + five hundred in number, with colours flying, matches burning, bullet in + mouth, and with all their arms and baggage except artillery and + ammunition, and the heroic little Lewis, notwithstanding the wound in his + belly, got on horseback and greeted him with a cousinly welcome in the + camp. + </p> + <p> + The city was a most important acquisition, as already sufficiently set + forth, but Queen Elizabeth, much misinformed on this occasion, was + inclined to undervalue it. She wrote accordingly to the States, + reproaching them for using all that artillery and that royal force against + a mere castle and earthheap, instead of attempting some considerable + capital, or going in force to the relief of Brittany. The day was to come + when she would acknowledge the advantage of not leaving this earth-heap in + the hands of the Spaniard. Meantime, Prince Maurice—the season being + so far advanced—gave the world no further practical lessons in the + engineering science, and sent his troops into winter quarters. + </p> + <p> + These were the chief military phenomena in France and Flanders during + three years of the great struggle to establish Philip's universal + dominion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Negotiations between Queen Elizabeth and the States—Aspect of + affair between England and the Netherlands—Complaints of the + Hollanders on the piratical acts of the English—The Dutch Envoy and + the English Government—Caron's interview with Elizabeth—The Queen + promises redress of grievances. +</pre> + <p> + It is now necessary to cast a glance at certain negotiations on delicate + topics which had meantime been occurring between Queen Elizabeth and the + States. + </p> + <p> + England and the republic were bound together by ties so close that it was + impossible for either to injure the other without inflicting a + corresponding damage on itself. Nevertheless this very community of + interest, combined with a close national relationship—for in the + European family the Netherlanders and English were but cousins twice + removed—with similarity of pursuits, with commercial jealousy, with + an intense and ever growing rivalry for that supremacy on the ocean + towards which the monarchy and the republic were so earnestly struggling, + with a common passion for civil and religious freedom, and with that + inveterate habit of self-assertion—the healthful but not engaging + attribute of all vigorous nations—which strongly marked them both, + was rapidly producing an antipathy between the two countries which time + was likely rather to deepen than efface. And the national divergences were + as potent as the traits of resemblance in creating this antagonism. + </p> + <p> + The democratic element was expanding itself in the republic so rapidly as + to stifle for a time the oligarchical principle which might one day be + developed out of the same matrix; while, despite the hardy and adventurous + spirit which characterised the English nation throughout all its grades, + there was never a more intensely aristocratic influence in the world than + the governing and directing spirit of the England of that age. + </p> + <p> + It was impossible that the courtiers of Elizabeth and the + burgher-statesmen of Holland and Friesland should sympathize with each + other in sentiment or in manner. The republicans in their exuberant + consciousness of having at last got rid of kings and kingly paraphernalia + in their own, land—for since the rejection of the sovereignty + offered to France and England in 1585 this feeling had become so + predominant as to make it difficult to believe that those offers had been + in reality so recent—were insensibly adopting a frankness, perhaps a + roughness, of political and social demeanour which was far from palatable + to the euphuistic formalists of other, countries. + </p> + <p> + Especially the English statesmen, trained to approach their sovereign with + almost Oriental humility, and accustomed to exact for themselves a large + amount of deference, could ill brook the free and easy tone occasionally + adopted in diplomatic and official intercourse by these upstart + republicans. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [The Venetian ambassador Contarin relates that in the reign of James + I. the great nobles of England were served at table by lackeys on + they knees.] +</pre> + <p> + A queen, who to loose morals, imperious disposition, and violent temper + united as inordinate a personal vanity as was ever vouchsafed to woman, + and who up to the verge of decrepitude was addressed by her courtiers in + the language of love-torn swain to blooming shepherdess, could naturally + find but little to her taste in the hierarchy of Hans Brewer and Hans + Baker. Thus her Majesty and her courtiers, accustomed to the faded + gallantries with which the serious affairs of State were so grotesquely + intermingled, took it ill when they were bluntly informed, for instance, + that the State council of the Netherlands, negotiating on Netherland + affairs, could not permit a veto to the representatives of the queen, and + that this same body of Dutchmen discussing their own business insisted + upon talking Dutch and not Latin. + </p> + <p> + It was impossible to deny that the young Stadholder was a gentleman of a + good house, but how could the insolence of a common citizen like John of + Olden-Barneveld be digested? It was certain that behind those shaggy, + overhanging brows there was a powerful brain stored with legal and + historic lore, which supplied eloquence to an ever-ready tongue and pen. + Yet these facts, difficult to gainsay, did not make the demands so + frequently urged by the States-General upon the English Government for the + enforcement of Dutch rights and the redress of English wrongs the more + acceptable. + </p> + <p> + Bodley, Gilpin, and the rest were in a chronic state of exasperation with + the Hollanders, not only because of their perpetual complaints, but + because their complaints were perpetually just. + </p> + <p> + The States-General were dissatisfied, all the Netherlanders were + dissatisfied—and not entirely without reason—that the English, + with whom the republic was on terms not only of friendship but of + alliance, should burn their ships on the high seas, plunder their + merchants, and torture their sea-captains in order to extort information + as to the most precious portions of their cargoes. Sharp language against + such malpractices was considered but proof of democratic vulgarity. Yet it + would be hard to maintain that Martin Frobisher, Mansfield, Grenfell, and + the rest of the sea-kings, with all their dash and daring and patriotism, + were not as unscrupulous pirates as ever sailed blue water, or that they + were not apt to commit their depredations upon friend and foe alike. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand; by a liberality of commerce in extraordinary contrast + with the practice of modern times, the Netherlanders were in the habit of + trading directly with the arch-enemy of both Holland and England, even in + the midst of their conflict with him, and it was complained of that even + the munitions of war and the implements of navigation by which Spain had + been enabled to effect its foot-hold in Brittany, and thus to threaten the + English coast, were derived from this very traffic. + </p> + <p> + The Hollanders replied, that, according to their contract with England, + they were at liberty to send as many as forty or fifty vessels at a time + to Spain and Portugal, that they had never exceeded the stipulated number, + that England freely engaged in the same traffic herself with the common + enemy, that it was not reasonable to consider cordage or dried fish or + shooks and staves, butter, eggs, and corn as contraband of war, that if + they were illegitimate the English trade was vitiated to the same degree, + and that it would be utterly hopeless for the provinces to attempt to + carry on the war, except by enabling themselves, through the widest and + most unrestricted foreign commerce, even including the enemy's realms, to + provide their nation with the necessary wealth to sustain so gigantic a + conflict. + </p> + <p> + Here were ever flowing fountains of bitterest discussion and + recrimination. It must be admitted however that there was occasionally an + advantage in the despotic and summary manner in which the queen took + matters into her own hands. It was refreshing to see this great sovereign—who + was so well able to grapple with questions of State, and whose very + imperiousness of temper impelled her to trample on shallow sophistries and + specious technicalities—dealing directly with cases of piracy and + turning a deaf ear to the counsellors, who in that, as in every age, were + too prone to shove by international justice in order to fulfil municipal + forms. + </p> + <p> + It was, however, with much difficulty that the envoy of the republic was + able to obtain a direct hearing from her Majesty in order to press the + long list of complaints on account of the English piratical proceedings + upon her attention. He intimated that there seemed to be special reasons + why the great ones about her throne were disposed to deny him access to + the queen, knowing as they did in what intent he asked for interviews. + They described in strong language the royal wrath at the opposition + recently made by the States to detaching the English auxiliaries in the + Netherlands for the service of the French king in Normandy, hoping thereby + to deter him from venturing into her presence with a list of grievances on + the part of his government. "I did my best to indicate the danger incurred + by such transferring of troops at so critical a moment," said Noel de + Canon, "showing that it was directly in opposition to the contract made + with her Majesty. But I got no answer save very high words from the Lord + Treasurer, to the effect that the States-General were never willing to + agree to any of her Majesty's prepositions, and that this matter was as + necessary to the States' service as to that of the French king. In effect, + he said peremptorily that her Majesty willed it and would not recede from + her resolution." + </p> + <p> + The envoy then requested an interview with the queen before her departure + into the country. + </p> + <p> + Next day, at noon, Lord Burghley sent word that she was to leave between + five and six o'clock that evening, and that the minister would be welcome + meantime at any hour. + </p> + <p> + "But notwithstanding that I presented myself," said Caron, "at two o'clock + in the afternoon, I was unable to speak to her Majesty until a moment + before she was about to mount her horse. Her language was then very curt. + She persisted in demanding her troops, and strongly expressed her + dissatisfaction that we should have refused them on what she called so + good an occasion for using them. I was obliged to cut my replies very + short, as it was already between six and seven o'clock, and she was to + ride nine English miles to the place where she was to pass the night. I + was quite sensible, however; that the audience was arranged to be thus + brief, in order that I should not be able to stop long enough to give + trouble, and perhaps to find occasion to renew our complaints touching the + plunderings and robberies committed upon us at sea. This is what some of + the great personages here, without doubt, are afraid of, for they were + wonderfully well overhauled in my last audience. I shall attempt to speak + to her again before she goes very deep into the country." + </p> + <p> + It was not however before the end of the year, after Caron had made a + voyage to Holland and had returned, that he 14 Nov. was able to bring the + subject thoroughly before her Majesty. On the 14th November he had + preliminary interviews with the Lord High Admiral and the Lord Treasurer + at Hampton Court, where the queen was then residing. The plundering + business was warmly discussed between himself and the Admiral, and there + was much quibbling and special pleading in defence of the practices which + had created so much irritation and pecuniary loss in Holland. There was a + good deal of talk about want of evidence and conflict of evidence, which, + to a man who felt as sure of the facts and of the law as the Dutch envoy + did—unless it were according to public law for one friend and, ally + to plunder and burn the vessels of another friend and ally—was not + encouraging as to the probable issue of his interview with her Majesty. It + would be tedious to report the conversation as fully as it was laid by + Noel de Caron before the States-General; but at last the admiral expressed + a hope that the injured parties would be able to make good their case. At + any rate he assured the envoy that he would take care of Captain Mansfield + for the present, who was in prison with two other captains, so that + proceedings might be had against them if it was thought worth while. + </p> + <p> + Caron answered with Dutch bluntness. "I recommended him very earnestly to + do this," he said, "and told him roundly that this was by all means + necessary for the sake of his own honour. Otherwise no man could ever be + made to believe that his Excellency was not seeking to get his own profit + out of the affair. But he vehemently swore and protested that this was not + the case." + </p> + <p> + He then went to the Lord Treasurer's apartment, where a long and stormy + interview followed on the subject of the withdrawal of the English troops. + Caron warmly insisted that the measure had been full of danger, for the + States; that they had been ordered out of Prince Maurice's camp at a most + critical moment; that; had it not, been for the Stallholder's promptness + and military skill; very great disasters to the common cause must have + ensued; and that, after all, nothing had been done by the contingent in + any other field, for they had been for six months idle and sick, without + ever reaching Brittany at all. + </p> + <p> + "The Lord Treasurer, who, contrary to his custom," said the envoy, "had + been listening thus long to what I had to say, now observed that the + States had treated her Majesty very ill, that they had kept her running + after her own troops nearly half a year, and had offered no excuse for + their proceedings." + </p> + <p> + It would be superfluous to repeat the arguments by which Caron endeavoured + to set forth that the English troops, sent to the Netherlands according to + a special compact, for a special service, and for a special consideration + and equivalent, could not honestly be employed, contrary to the wishes of + the States-General, upon a totally different service and in another + country. The queen willed it, he was informed, and it was ill-treatment of + her Majesty on the part of the Hollanders to oppose her will. This + argument was unanswerable. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards, Caron was admitted to the presence of Elizabeth. He + delivered, at first, a letter from the States-General, touching the + withdrawal of the troops. The queen, instantly broke the seal and read the + letter to the end. Coming to the concluding passage, in which the States + observed that they had great and just cause highly to complain on that + subject, she paused, reading the sentences over twice or thrice, and then + remarked: + </p> + <p> + "Truly these are comical people. I have so often been complaining that + they refused to send my troops, and now the States complain that they are + obliged to let them go. Yet my intention is only to borrow them for a + little while, because I can give my brother of France no better succour + than by sending him these soldiers, and this I consider better than if I + should send him four thousand men. I say again, I am only borrowing them, + and surely the States ought never to make such complaints, when the + occasion was such a favourable one, and they had received already + sufficient aid from these troops, and had liberated their whole country. I + don't comprehend these grievances. They complain that I withdraw my + people, and meantime they are still holding them and have brought them + ashore again. They send me frivolous excuses that the skippers don't know + the road to my islands, which is, after all, as easy to find as the way to + Caen, for it is all one. I have also sent my own pilots; and I complain + bitterly that by making this difficulty they will cause the loss of all + Brittany. They run with their people far away from me, and meantime they + allow the enemy to become master of all the coasts lying opposite me. But + if it goes badly with me they will rue it deeply themselves." + </p> + <p> + There was considerable reason, even if there were but little justice, in + this strain of remarks. Her Majesty continued it for some little time + longer, and it is interesting to see the direct and personal manner in + which this great princess handled the weightiest affairs of state. The + transfer of a dozen companies of English infantry from Friesland to + Brittany was supposed to be big with the fate of France, England, and the + Dutch republic, and was the subject of long and angry controversy, not as + a contested point of principle, in regard to which numbers, of course, are + nothing, but as a matter of practical and pressing importance. + </p> + <p> + "Her Majesty made many more observations of this nature," said Caron, "but + without getting at all into a passion, and, in my opinion, her discourse + was sensible, and she spoke with more moderation than she is wont at other + times." + </p> + <p> + The envoy then presented the second letter from the States-General in + regard to the outrages inflicted on the Dutch merchantmen. The queen read + it at once, and expressed herself as very much displeased with her people. + She said that she had received similar information from Counsellor Bodley, + who had openly given her to understand that the enormous outrages which + her people were committing at sea upon the Netherlanders were a public + scandal. It had made her so angry, she said, that she knew not which way + to turn. She would take it in hand at once, for she would rather make oath + never more to permit a single ship of war to leave her ports than consent + to such thieveries and villanies. She told Caron that he would do well to + have his case in regard to these matters verified, and then to give it + into her own hands, since otherwise it would all be denied her and she + would find herself unable to get at the truth. + </p> + <p> + "I have all the proofs and documents of the merchants by me," replied the + envoy, "and, moreover, several of the sea-captains who have been robbed + and outraged have come over with me, as likewise some merchants who were + tortured by burning of the thumbs and other kinds of torments." + </p> + <p> + This disturbed the queen very much, and she expressed her wish that Caron + should not allow himself to be put off with, delays by the council, but + should insist upon all due criminal punishment, the infliction of which + she promised in the strongest terms to order; for she could never enjoy + peace of mind, she said; so long as such scoundrels were tolerated in her + kingdom. + </p> + <p> + The envoy had brought with him a summary of the cases, with the names of + all the merchants interested, and a list of all the marks on the sacks of + money which had been stolen. The queen looked over it very carefully, + declaring it to be her intention that there should be no delays interposed + in the conduct of this affair by forms of special pleading, but that + speedy cognizance should be taken of the whole, and that the property + should forthwith be restored. + </p> + <p> + She then sent for Sir Robert Cecil, whom she directed to go at once and + tell his father, the Lord Treasurer, that he was to assist Caron in this + affair exactly as if it were her own. It was her intention, she said, that + her people were in no wise to trouble the Hollanders in legitimate + mercantile pursuits. She added that it was not enough for her people to + say that they had only been seizing Spaniards' goods and money, but she + meant that they should prove it, too, or else they should swing for it. + </p> + <p> + Caron assured her Majesty that he had no other commission from his masters + than to ask for justice, and that he had no instructions to claim Spanish + property or enemy's goods. He had brought sufficient evidence with him, he + said, to give her Majesty entire satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + It is not necessary to pursue the subject any farther. The great nobles + still endeavoured to interpose delays, and urged the propriety of taking + the case before the common courts of law. Carom strong in the support of + the queen, insisted that it should be settled, as her Majesty had + commanded, by the council, and it was finally arranged that the judge of + admiralty should examine the evidence on both sides, and then communicate + the documents at once to the Lord Treasurer. Meantime the money was to be + deposited with certain aldermen of London, and the accused parties kept in + prison. The ultimate decision was then to be made by the council, "not by + form of process but by commission thereto ordained." In the course of the + many interviews which followed between the Dutch envoy and the privy + counsellors, the Lord Admiral stated that an English merchant residing in + the Netherlands had sent to offer him a present of two thousand pounds + sterling, in case the affair should be decided against the Hollanders. He + communicated the name of the individual to Caron, under seal of secrecy, + and reminded the Lord Treasurer that he too had seen the letter of the + Englishman. Lord Burghley observed that he remembered the fact that + certain letters had been communicated to him by the Lord Admiral, but that + he did not know from whence they came, nor anything about the person of + the writer. + </p> + <p> + The case of the plundered merchants was destined to drag almost as slowly + before the council as it might have done in the ordinary tribunals, and + Caron was "kept running," as he expressed it, "from the court to London, + and from London to the court," and it was long before justice was done to + the sufferers. Yet the energetic manner in which the queen took the case + into her own hands, and the intense indignation with which she denounced + the robberies and outrages which had been committed by her subjects upon + her friends and allies, were effective in restraining such wholesale + piracy in the future. + </p> + <p> + On the whole, however, if the internal machinery is examined by which the + masses of mankind were moved at epoch in various parts of Christendom, we + shall not find much reason to applaud the conformity of Governments to the + principles of justice, reason, or wisdom. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Accustomed to the faded gallantries + Conformity of Governments to the principles of justice + Considerable reason, even if there were but little justice + Disciple of Simon Stevinus + Self-assertion—the healthful but not engaging attribute +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. 1592-1594 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Influence of the rule and character of Philip II.—Heroism of the + sixteenth century—Contest for the French throne—Character and + policy of the Duke of Mayenne—Escape of the Duke of Guise from + Castle Tours—Propositions for the marriage of the Infanta—Plotting + of the Catholic party—Grounds of Philip's pretensions to the crown + of France—Motives of the Duke of Parma maligned by Commander Moreo + —He justifies himself to the king—View of the private relations + between Philip and the Duke of Mayenne and their sentiments towards + each other—Disposition of the French politicians and soldiers + towards Philip—Peculiar commercial pursuits of Philip—Confused + state of affairs in France—Treachery of Philip towards the Duke of + Parma—Recall of the duke to Spain—His sufferings and death. +</pre> + <p> + The People—which has been generally regarded as something naturally + below its rulers, and as born to be protected and governed, paternally or + otherwise, by an accidental selection from its own species, which by some + mysterious process has shot up much nearer to heaven than itself—is + often described as brutal, depraved, self-seeking, ignorant, passionate, + licentious, and greedy. + </p> + <p> + It is fitting, therefore, that its protectors should be distinguished, at + great epochs of the world's history, by an absence of such objectionable + qualities. + </p> + <p> + It must be confessed, however, that if the world had waited for heroes—during + the dreary period which followed the expulsion of something that was + called Henry III. of France from the gates of his capital, and especially + during the time that followed hard upon the decease of that embodiment of + royalty—its axis must have ceased to turn for a long succession of + years. The Bearnese was at least alive, and a man. He played his part with + consummate audacity and skill; but alas for an epoch or a country in which + such a shape—notwithstanding all its engaging and even commanding + qualities—looked upon as an incarnation of human greatness! + </p> + <p> + But the chief mover of all things—so far as one man can be prime + mover—was still the diligent scribe who lived in the Escorial. It + was he whose high mission it was to blow the bellows of civil war, and to + scatter curses over what had once been the smiling abodes of human + creatures, throughout the leading countries of Christendom. The throne of + France was vacant, nominally as well as actually, since—the year + 1589. During two-and-twenty years preceding that epoch he had scourged the + provinces, once constituting the richest and most enlightened portions of + his hereditary domains, upon the theory that without the Spanish + Inquisition no material prosperity was possible on earth, nor any entrance + permitted to the realms of bliss beyond the grave. Had every Netherlander + consented to burn his Bible, and to be burned himself should he be found + listening to its holy precepts if read to him in shop, cottage, + farm-house, or castle; and had he furthermore consented to renounce all + the liberal institutions which his ancestors had earned, in the struggle + of centuries, by the sweat of their brows and the blood of, their hearts; + his benignant proprietor and master, who lived at the ends of the earth, + would have consented at almost any moment to peace. His arms were ever + open. Let it not be supposed that this is the language of sarcasm or + epigram. Stripped of the decorous sophistication by which human beings are + so fond of concealing their naked thoughts from each other, this was the + one simple dogma always propounded by Philip. Grimace had done its worst, + however, and it was long since it had exercised any power in the + Netherlands. The king and the Dutchmen understood each other; and the + plain truths with which those republicans answered the imperial proffers + of mediation, so frequently renewed, were something new, and perhaps not + entirely unwholesome in diplomacy. + </p> + <p> + It is not an inviting task to abandon the comparatively healthy atmosphere + of the battle-field, the blood-stained swamp, the murderous trench—where + human beings, even if communing only by bullets and push of pike, were at + least dealing truthfully with each other—and to descend into those + subterranean regions where the effluvia of falsehood becomes almost too + foul for ordinary human organisation. + </p> + <p> + Heroes in those days, in any country, there were few. William the Silent + was dead. De la Noue was dead. Duplessis-Mornay was living, but his + influence over his royal master was rapidly diminishing. Cecil, Hatton, + Essex, Howard, Raleigh, James Croft, Valentine Dale, John Norris, Roger + Williams, the "Virgin Queen" herself—does one of these chief agents + in public affairs, or do all of them together, furnish a thousandth part + of that heroic whole which the England of the sixteenth century presents + to every imagination? Maurice of Nassau-excellent soldier and engineer as + he had already proved himself—had certainly not developed much of + the heroic element, although thus far he was walking straightforward like + a man, in the path of duty, with the pithy and substantial Lewis William + ever at his side. Olden-Barneveld—tough burgher-statesman, + hard-headed, indomitable man of granite—was doing more work, and + doing it more thoroughly, than any living politician, but he was certainly + not of the mythological brotherhood who inhabit the serene regions of + space beyond the moon. He was not the son of god or goddess, destined, + after removal from this sphere, to shine with planetary lustre, among + other constellations, upon the scenes of mortal action. Those of us who + are willing to rise-or to descend if the phrase seems wiser—to the + idea of a self-governing people must content ourselves, for this epoch, + with the fancy of a hero-people and a people-king. + </p> + <p> + A plain little republic, thrusting itself uninvited into the great + political family-party of heaven-anointed sovereigns and long-descended + nobles, seemed a somewhat repulsive phenomenon. It became odious and + dangerous when by the blows it could deal in battle, the logic it could + chop in council, it indicated a remote future for the world, in which + right divine and regal paraphernalia might cease to be as effective + stage-properties as they had always been considered. + </p> + <p> + Yet it will be difficult for us to find the heroic individualised very + perceptibly at this period, look where we may. Already there seemed ground + for questioning the comfortable fiction that the accidentally dominant + families and castes were by nature wiser, better, braver than that + much-contemned entity, the People. What if the fearful heresy should gain + ground that the People was at least as wise, honest, and brave as its + masters? What if it should become a recognised fact that the great + individuals and castes, whose wealth and station furnished them with ample + time and means for perfecting themselves in the science of government, + were rather devoting their leisure to the systematic filling of their own + pockets than to the hiving up of knowledge for the good of their fellow + creatures? What if the whole theory of hereditary superiority should + suddenly exhale? What if it were found out that we were all fellow-worms + together, and that those which had crawled highest were not necessarily + the least slimy? + </p> + <p> + Meantime it will be well for us, in order to understand what is called the + Past, to scrutinise somewhat closely that which was never meant to be + revealed. To know the springs which once controlled the world's movements, + one must ponder the secret thoughts, purposes, aspirations, and baffled + attempts of the few dozen individuals who once claimed that world in + fee-simple. Such researches are not in a cheerful field; for the sources + of history are rarely fountains of crystal, bubbling through meadows of + asphodel. Vast and noisome are the many sewers which have ever run beneath + decorous Christendom. + </p> + <p> + Some of the leading military events in France and Flanders, patent to all + the world, which grouped themselves about the contest for the French + throne, as the central point in the history of Philip's proposed + world-empire, have already been indicated. + </p> + <p> + It was a species of triangular contest—so far as the chief actors + were concerned—for that vacant throne. Philip, Mayenne, Henry of + Navarre, with all the adroitness which each possessed, were playing for + the splendid prize. + </p> + <p> + Of Philip it is not necessary to speak. The preceding volumes of this work + have been written in vain, if the reader has not obtained from + irrefragable testimony—the monarch's own especially—a + sufficient knowledge of that human fetish before which so much of + contemporary humanity grovelled. + </p> + <p> + The figure of Navarre is also one of the most familiar shapes in history. + </p> + <p> + As for the Duke of Mayenne, he had been, since the death of his brother + the Balafre, ostensible leader of the League, and was playing, not without + skill, a triple game. + </p> + <p> + Firstly, he hoped for the throne for himself. + </p> + <p> + Secondly, he was assisting the King of Spain to obtain that dignity. + </p> + <p> + Thirdly, he was manoeuvring in dull, dumb, but not ineffective manner, in + favour of Navarre. + </p> + <p> + So comprehensive and self-contradictory a scheme would seem to indicate an + elasticity of principle and a fertility of resource not often vouchsafed + to man. + </p> + <p> + Certainly one of the most pregnant lessons of history is furnished in the + development of these cabals, nor is it, in this regard, of great + importance whether the issue was to prove them futile or judicious. It is + sufficient for us now, that when those vanished days constituted the + Present—the vital atmosphere of Christendom—the world's + affairs were controlled by those plotters and their subordinates, and it + is therefore desirable for us to know what manner of men they were, and + how they played their parts. + </p> + <p> + Nor should it ever be forgotten that the leading motive with all was + supposed to be religion. It was to maintain the supremacy of the Roman + Church, or to vindicate, to a certain extent, liberty of conscience, + through the establishment of a heterodox organisation, that all these + human beings of various lineage and language throughout Christendom had + been cutting each other's throats for a quarter of a century. + </p> + <p> + Mayenne was not without courage in the field when he found himself there, + but it was observed of him that he spent more time at table than the + Bearnese in sleep, and that he was so fat as to require the assistance of + twelve men to put him in the saddle again whenever he fell from his horse. + Yet slow fighter as he was, he was a most nimble intriguer. As for his + private character, it was notoriously stained with every vice, nor was + there enough of natural intelligence or superior acquirement to atone for + his, crapulous; licentious, shameless life. His military efficiency at + important emergencies was impaired and his life endangered by vile + diseases. He was covetous and greedy beyond what was considered decent + even in that cynical age. He received subsidies and alms with both hands + from those who distrusted and despised him, but who could not eject him + from his advantageous position. + </p> + <p> + He wished to arrive at the throne of France. As son of Francis of Guise, + as brother of the great Balafre, he considered himself entitled to the + homage of the fishwomen and the butchers' halls. The constitution of the + country in that age making a People impossible, the subtle connection + between a high-born intriguer and the dregs of a populace, which can only + exist in societies of deep chasms and precipitous contrasts, was easily + established. + </p> + <p> + The duke's summary dealing with the sixteen tyrants of Paris in the matter + of the president's murder had, however, loosened his hold on what was + considered the democracy; but this was at the time when his schemes were + silently swinging towards the Protestant aristocracy; at the moment when + Politica was taking the place of Madam League in his secret affections. + Nevertheless, so long as there seemed a chance, he was disposed to work + the mines for his own benefit. His position as lieutenant-general gave him + an immense advantage for intriguing with both sides, and—in case his + aspirations for royalty were baffled—for obtaining the highest + possible price for himself in that auction in which Philip and the + Bearnese were likely to strain all their resources in outbidding each + other. + </p> + <p> + On one thing his heart was fixed. His brother's son should at least not + secure the golden prize if he could prevent it. The young Duke of Guise, + who had been immured in Castle Tours since the famous murder of his father + and uncle, had made his escape by a rather neat stratagem. Having been + allowed some liberty for amusing himself in the corridors in the + neighbourhood of his apartment, he had invented a game of hop, skip, and + jump up stairs and down, which he was wont to play with the soldiers of + the guard, as a solace to the tediousness of confinement. One day he + hopped and skipped up the staircase with a rapidity which excited the + admiration of the companions of his sport, slipped into his room, slammed + and bolted the doors, and when the guard, after in vain waiting a + considerable tine for him to return and resume the game, at last forced an + entrance, they found the bird flown out of window. Rope-ladders, + confederates, fast-galloping post-horses did the rest, and at last the + young duke joined his affectionate uncle in camp, much to that eminent + relative's discomfiture. Philip gave alternately conflicting instructions + to Farnese—sometimes that he should encourage the natural jealousy + between the pair; sometimes that he should cause them to work harmoniously + together for the common good—that common good being the attainment + by the King of Spain of the sovereignty of France. + </p> + <p> + But it was impossible, as already intimated, for Mayenne to work + harmoniously with his nephew. The Duke of Guise might marry with the + infanta and thus become King of France by the grace of God and Philip. To + such a consummation in the case of his uncle there stood, as we know, an + insuperable obstacle in the shape of the Duchess of Mayenne. Should it + come to this at last, it was certain that the Duke would make any and + every combination to frustrate such a scheme. Meantime he kept his own + counsel, worked amiably with Philip, Parma, and the young duke, and + received money in overflowing measure, and poured into his bosom from that + Spanish monarch whose veterans in the Netherlands were maddened by + starvation into mutiny. + </p> + <p> + Philip's plans were a series of alternatives. France he regarded as the + property of his family. Of that there could be no doubt at all. He meant + to put the crown upon his own head, unless the difficulties in the way + should prove absolutely insuperable. In that case he claimed France and + all its inhabitants as the property of his daughter. The Salic law was + simply a pleasantry, a bit of foolish pedantry, an absurdity. If Clara + Isabella, as daughter of Isabella of France, as grandchild of Henry II., + were not manifestly the owner of France—queen-proprietary, as the + Spanish doctors called it—then there was no such thing, so he + thought, as inheritance of castle, farm-house, or hovel—no such + thing as property anywhere in the world. If the heiress of the Valois + could not take that kingdom as her private estate, what security could + there ever be for any possessions public or private? + </p> + <p> + This was logical reasoning enough for kings and their counsellors. There + was much that might be said, however, in regard to special laws. There was + no doubt that great countries, with all their livestock—human or + otherwise—belonged to an individual, but it was not always so clear + who that individual was. This doubt gave much work and comfortable fees to + the lawyers. There was much learned lore concerning statutes of descent, + cutting off of entails, actions for ejectment, difficulties of enforcing + processes, and the like, to occupy the attention of diplomatists, + politicians and other sages. It would have caused general hilarity, + however, could it have been suggested that the live-stock had art or part + in the matter; that sheep, swine, or men could claim a choice of their + shepherds and butchers. + </p> + <p> + Philip—humbly satisfied, as he always expressed himself, so long as + the purity of the Roman dogmas and the supremacy of the Romish Church over + the whole earth were maintained—affected a comparative indifference + as to whether he should put the crown of St. Louis and of Hugh Capet upon + his own grey head or whether he should govern France through his daughter + and her husband. Happy the man who might exchange the symbols of mutual + affection with Philip's daughter. + </p> + <p> + The king had various plans in regard to the bestowal of the hand thus + richly endowed. First and foremost it was suggested—and the idea was + not held too monstrous to be even believed in by some conspicuous + individuals—that he proposed espousing his daughter himself. The + pope was to be relied on, in this case, to give a special dispensation. + Such a marriage, between parties too closely related to be usually united + in wedlock, might otherwise shock the prejudices of the orthodox. His late + niece and wife was dead, so that there was no inconvenience on that score, + should the interests of his dynasty, his family, and, above all, of the + Church, impel him, on mature reflection, to take for his fourth marriage + one step farther within the forbidden degrees than he had done in his + third. Here is the statement, which, if it have no other value, serves to + show the hideous designs of which the enemies of Philip sincerely believed + that monarch capable. + </p> + <p> + "But God is a just God," wrote Sir Edward Stafford, "and if with all + things past, that be true that the king ('videlicet' Henry IV.) yesterday + assured me to be true, and that both his ambassador from Venice writ to + him and Monsieur de Luxembourg from Rome, that the Count Olivarez had made + a great instance to the pope (Sixtus V.) a little afore his death, to + permit his master to marry his daughter, no doubt God will not leave it + long unpunished." + </p> + <p> + Such was the horrible tale which was circulated and believed in by Henry + the Great of France and by eminent nobles and ambassadors, and at least + thought possible by the English envoy. By such a family arrangement it was + obvious that the conflicting claims of father and daughter to the + proprietorship of France would be ingeniously adjusted, and the children + of so well assorted a marriage might reign in undisputed legitimacy over + France and Spain, and the rest of the world-monarchy. Should the king + decide on the whole against this matrimonial project, should Innocent or + Clement prove as intractable as Sixtus, then it would be necessary to + decide among various candidates for the Infanta's hand. + </p> + <p> + In Mayenne's Opinion the Duke of Guise was likely to be the man; but there + is little doubt that Philip, in case these more cherished schemes should + fail, had made up his mind—so far as he ever did make up his mind + upon anything—to select his nephew the Archduke Ernest, brother of + the Emperor Rudolph, for his son-in-law. But it was not necessary to make + an immediate choice. His quiver was full of archdukes, any one of whom + would be an eligible candidate, while not one of them would be likely to + reject the Infanta with France on her wedding-finger. Meantime there was a + lion in the path in the shape of Henry of Navarre. + </p> + <p> + Those who disbelieve in the influence of the individual on the fate of + mankind may ponder the possible results to history and humanity, had the + dagger of Jacques Clement entered the stomach of Henry IV. rather than of + Henry III. in the summer of 1589, or the perturbations in the world's + movements that might have puzzled philosophers had there been an + unsuspected mass of religious conviction revolving unseen in the mental + depths of the Bearnese. Conscience, as it has from time to time exhibited + itself on this planet of ours, is a powerful agent in controlling + political combinations; but the instances are unfortunately not rare, so + far as sublunary progress is concerned, in which the absence of this + dominant influence permits a prosperous rapidity to individual careers. + Eternal honour to the noble beings, true chieftains among men, who have + forfeited worldly power or sacrificed life itself at the dictate of + religious or moral conviction—even should the basis of such + conviction appear to some of us unsafe or unreal. Shame on the tongue + which would malign or ridicule the martyr or the honest convert to any + form of Christian faith! But who can discover aught that is inspiring to + the sons of men in conversions—whether of princes or of peasants—wrought, + not at risk of life and pelf, but for the sake of securing and increasing + the one and the other? + </p> + <p> + Certainly the Bearnese was the most candid of men. It was this very + candour, this freedom from bigotry, this want of conviction, and this + openness to conviction, that made him so dangerous and caused so much + anxiety to Philip. The Roman Church might or might not be strengthened by + the re-conversion of the legitimate heir of France, but it was certain + that the claims of Philip and the Infanta to the proprietorship of that + kingdom would be weakened by the process. While the Spanish king knew + himself to be inspired in all his actions by a single motive, the + maintenance of the supremacy of the Roman Church, he was perfectly aware + that the Prince of Bearne was not so single-hearted nor so conscientious + as himself. + </p> + <p> + The Prince of Bearne—heretic, son of heretics, great chieftain of + heretics—was supposed capable of becoming orthodox whenever the Pope + would accept his conversion. Against this possibility Philip struggled + with all his strength. + </p> + <p> + Since Pope Sixtus V., who had a weakness for Henry, there had been several + popes. Urban VII., his immediate successor, had reigned but thirteen days. + Gregory XIV. (Sfondrato) had died 15th October, 1591, ten months after his + election. Fachinetti, with the title of Innocent IX., had reigned two + months, from 29th October to 29th December, 1591. He died of "Spanish + poison," said Envoy Umton, as coolly as if speaking of gout, or typhus, or + any other recognised disorder. Clement VIII. (Aldobrandini) was elected + 30th January, 1592. He was no lover of Henry, and lived in mortal fear of + Philip, while it must be conceded that the Spanish ambassador at Rome was + much given to brow-beating his Holiness. Should he dare to grant that + absolution which was the secret object of the Bearnese, there was no + vengeance, hinted the envoy, that Philip would not wreak on the holy + father. He would cut off his supplies from Naples and Sicily, and starve + him and all-his subjects; he would frustrate all his family schemes, he + would renounce him, he would unpope him, he would do anything that man and + despot could do, should the great shepherd dare to re-admit this lost + sheep, and this very black sheep, into the fold of the faithful. + </p> + <p> + As for Henry himself, his game—for in his eyes it was nothing but a + game—lay every day plainer and plainer before him. He was + indispensable to the heretics. Neither England, nor Holland, nor + Protestant Germany, could renounce him, even should he renounce "the + religion." Nor could the French Huguenots exist without that protection + which, even although Catholic, he could still extend to them when he + should be accepted as king by the Catholics. + </p> + <p> + Hereditary monarch by French law and history, released from his heresy by + the authority that could bind and loose, purged as with hyssop and washed + whiter than snow, it should go hard with him if Philip, and Farnese, and + Mayenne, and all the pikemen and reiters they might muster, could keep him + very long from the throne of his ancestors. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could match the ingenuousness with which he demanded the + instruction whenever the fitting time for it should arrive; as if, instead + of having been a professor both of the Calvinist and Catholic persuasion, + and having relapsed from both, he had been some innocent Peruvian or + Hindoo, who was invited to listen to preachings and to examine dogmas for + the very first time in his life. + </p> + <p> + Yet Philip had good grounds for hoping a favourable result from his + political and military manoeuvre. He entertained little doubt that France + belonged to him or to his daughter; that the most powerful party in the + country was in favour of his claims, provided he would pay the voters + liberally enough for their support, and that if the worst came to the + worst it would always be in his power to dismember the kingdom, and to + reserve the lion's share for himself, while distributing some of the + provinces to the most prominent of his confederates. + </p> + <p> + The sixteen tyrants of Paris had already, as we have seen, urged the crown + upon him, provided he would establish in France the Inquisition, the + council of Trent, and other acceptable institutions, besides distributing + judiciously a good many lucrative offices among various classes of his + adherents. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Mayenne, in his own name and that of all the Catholics of + France, formally demanded of him to maintain two armies, forty thousand + men in all, to be respectively under command of the duke himself and of + Alexander Farnese, and regularly to pay for them. These propositions, as + has been seen, were carried into effect as nearly as possible, at enormous + expense to Philip's exchequer, and he naturally expected as good faith on + the part of Mayenne. + </p> + <p> + In the same paper in which the demand was made Philip was urged to declare + himself king of France. He was assured that the measure could be + accomplished "by freely bestowing marquisates, baronies, and peerages, in + order to content the avarice and ambition of many persons, without at the + same time dissipating the greatness from which all these members depended. + Pepin and Charlemagne," said the memorialists, "who were foreigners and + Saxons by nation, did as much in order to get possession of a kingdom to + which they had no other right except that which they acquired there by + their prudence and force, and after them Hugh Capet, much inferior to them + in force and authority, following their example, had the same good fortune + for himself and his posterity, and one which still endures. + </p> + <p> + "If the authority of the holy see could support the scheme at the same + time," continued Mayenne and friends, "it would be a great help. But it + being perilous to ask for that assistance before striking the blow, it + would be better to obtain it after the execution." + </p> + <p> + That these wholesome opinions were not entirely original on the part of + Mayenne, nor produced spontaneously, was plain from the secret + instructions given by Philip to his envoys, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, + John Baptist de Tassis, and the commander Moreo, whom he had sent soon + after the death of Henry III. to confer with Cardinal Gaetano in Paris. + </p> + <p> + They were told, of course, to do everything in their power to prevent the + election of the Prince of Bearne, "being as he was a heretic, obstinate + and confirmed, who had sucked heresy with his mother's milk." The legate + was warned that "if the Bearnese should make a show of converting himself, + it would be frigid and fabricated." + </p> + <p> + If they were asked whom Philip desired for king—a question which + certainly seemed probable under the circumstances—they were to reply + that his foremost wish was to establish the Catholic religion in the + kingdom, and that whatever was most conducive to that end would be most + agreeable to him. "As it is however desirable, in order to arrange + matters, that you should be informed of everything," said his Majesty, "it + is proper that you should know that I have two kinds of right to all that + there is over there. Firstly, because the crown of France has been usurped + from me, my ancestors having been unjustly excluded by foreign occupation + of it; and secondly, because I claim the same crown as first male of the + house of Valois." + </p> + <p> + Here certainly were comprehensive pretensions, and it was obvious that the + king's desire for the establishment of the Catholic religion must have + been very lively to enable him to invent or accept such astonishing + fictions. + </p> + <p> + But his own claims were but a portion of the case. His daughter and + possible spouse had rights of her own, hard, in his opinion, to be + gainsaid. "Over and above all this," said Philip, "my eldest daughter, the + Infanta, has two other rights; one to all the states which as + dower-property are joined by matrimony and through females to this crown, + which now come to her in direct line, and the other to the crown itself, + which belongs directly to the said Infanta, the matter of the Salic law + being a mere invention." + </p> + <p> + Thus it would appear that Philip was the legitimate representative, not + only of the ancient races of French monarchs—whether Merovingians, + Carlovingians, or otherwise was not stated but also of the usurping houses + themselves, by whose intrusion those earlier dynasties had been ejected, + being the eldest male heir of the extinct line of Valois, while his + daughter was, if possible, even more legitimately the sovereign and + proprietor of France than he was himself. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless in his magnanimous desire for the peace of the world and the + advancement of the interests of the Church, he was, if reduced to + extremities, willing to forego his own individual rights—when it + should appear that they could by no possibility be enforced—in + favour of his daughter and of the husband whom he should select for her. + </p> + <p> + "Thus it may be seen," said the self-denying man, "that I know how, for + the sake of the public repose, to strip myself of my private property." + </p> + <p> + Afterwards, when secretly instructing the Duke of Feria, about to proceed + to Paris for the sake of settling the sovereignty of the kingdom, he + reviewed the whole subject, setting forth substantially the same + intentions. That the Prince of Bearne could ever possibly succeed to the + throne of his ancestors was an idea to be treated only with sublime scorn + by all right-minded and sensible men. "The members of the House of + Bourbon," said he, "pretend that by right of blood the crown belongs to + them, and hence is derived the pretension made by the Prince of Bearne; + but if there were wanting other very sufficient causes to prevent this + claim—which however are not wanting—it is quite enough that he + is a relapsed heretic, declared to be such by the Apostolic See, and + pronounced incompetent, as well as the other members of his house, all of + them, to say the least, encouragers of heresy; so that not one of them can + ever be king of France, where there have been such religious princes in + time past, who have justly merited the name of Most Christian; and so + there is no possibility of permitting him or any of his house to aspire to + the throne, or to have the subject even treated of in the estates. It + should on the contrary be entirely excluded as prejudicial to the realm + and unworthy to be even mentioned among persons so Catholic as those about + to meet in that assembly." + </p> + <p> + The claims of the man whom his supporters already called Henry the Fourth + of France being thus disposed of, Philip then again alluded with his usual + minuteness to the various combinations which he had formed for the + tranquillity and good government of that kingdom and of the other + provinces of his world-empire. + </p> + <p> + It must moreover be never forgotten that what he said passed with his + contemporaries almost for oracular dispensations. What he did or ordered + to be done was like the achievements or behests of a superhuman being. + Time, as it rolls by, leaves the wrecks of many a stranded reputation to + bleach in the sunshine of after-ages. It is sometimes as profitable to + learn what was not done by the great ones of the earth, in spite of all + their efforts, as to ponder those actual deeds which are patent to + mankind. The Past was once the Present, and once the Future, bright with + rainbows or black with impending storm; for history is a continuous whole + of which we see only fragments. + </p> + <p> + He who at the epoch with which we are now occupied was deemed greatest and + wisest among the sons of earth, at whose threats men quailed, at whose + vast and intricate schemes men gasped in palefaced awe, has left behind + him the record of his interior being. Let us consider whether he was so + potent as his fellow mortals believed, or whether his greatness was merely + their littleness; whether it was carved out, of the inexhaustible but + artificial quarry of human degradation. Let us see whether the execution + was consonant with the inordinate plotting; whether the price in money and + blood—and certainly few human beings have squandered so much of + either as did Philip the Prudent in his long career—was high or low + for the work achieved. + </p> + <p> + Were after generations to learn, only after curious research, of a + pretender who once called himself, to the amusement of his contemporaries, + Henry the Fourth of France; or was the world-empire for which so many + armies were marshalled, so many ducats expended, so many falsehoods told, + to prove a bubble after all? Time was to show. Meantime wise men of the + day who, like the sages of every generation, read the future like a + printed scroll, were pitying the delusion and rebuking the wickedness of + Henry the Bearnese; persisting as he did in his cruel, sanguinary, + hopeless attempt to establish a vanished and impossible authority over a + land distracted by civil war. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be calmer or more reasonable than the language of the great + champion of the Inquisition. + </p> + <p> + "And as President Jeannin informs me," he said, "that the Catholics have + the intention of electing me king, that appearing to them the gentlest and + safest method to smooth all rivalries likely to arise among the princes + aspiring to the crown, I reply, as you will see by the copy herewith sent. + You will observe that after not refusing myself to that which may be the + will of our Lord, should there be no other mode of serving Him, above all + I desire that which concerns my daughter, since to her belongs the + kingdom. I desire nothing else nor anything for myself, nor for anybody + else, except as a means for her to arrive at her right." + </p> + <p> + He had taken particular pains to secure his daughter's right in Brittany, + while the Duchess of Mercoeur, by the secret orders of her husband, had + sent a certain ecclesiastic to Spain to make over the sovereignty of this + province to the Infanta. Philip directed that the utmost secrecy should be + observed in regard to this transaction with the duke and duchess, and + promised the duke, as his reward for these proposed services in + dismembering his country, the government of the province for himself and + his heirs. + </p> + <p> + For the king was quite determined—in case his efforts to obtain the + crown for himself or for his daughter were unsuccessful—to dismember + France, with the assistance of those eminent Frenchmen who were now so + industriously aiding him in his projects. + </p> + <p> + "And in the third place," said he, in his secret instructions to Feria, + "if for the sins of all, we don't manage to make any election, and if + therefore the kingdom (of France) has to come to separation and to be + divided into many hands; in this case we must propose to the Duke of + Mayenne to assist him in getting possession of Normandy for himself, and + as to the rest of the kingdom, I shall take for myself that which seems + good to me—all of us assisting each other." + </p> + <p> + But unfortunately it was difficult for any of these fellow-labourers to + assist each other very thoroughly, while they detested each other so + cordially and suspected each other with such good reason. + </p> + <p> + Moreo, Ybarra, Feria, Parma, all assured their master that Mayenne was + taking Spanish money as fast as he could get it, but with the sole purpose + of making himself king. As to any of the House of Lorraine obtaining the + hand of the Infanta and the throne with it, Feria assured Philip that + Mayenne "would sooner give the crown to the Grand Turk." + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless Philip thought it necessary to continue making use of the + duke. Both were indefatigable therefore in expressing feelings of + boundless confidence each in the other. + </p> + <p> + It has been seen too how entirely the king relied on the genius and + devotion of Alexander Farnese to carry out his great schemes; and + certainly never had monarch a more faithful, unscrupulous, and dexterous + servant. Remonstrating, advising, but still obeying—entirely without + conscience, unless it were conscience to carry out his master's commands, + even when most puerile or most diabolical—he was nevertheless the + object of Philip's constant suspicion, and felt himself placed under + perpetual though secret supervision. + </p> + <p> + Commander Moreo was unwearied in blackening the duke's character, and in + maligning his every motive and action, and greedily did the king incline + his ear to the calumnies steadily instilled by the chivalrous spy. + </p> + <p> + "He has caused all the evil we are suffering," said Moreo. "When he sent + Egmont to France 'twas without infantry, although Egmont begged hard for + it, as did likewise the Legate, Don Bernardino, and Tassis. Had he done + this there is no doubt at all that the Catholic cause in France would have + been safe, and your Majesty would now have the control over that kingdom + which you desire. This is the opinion of friends and foes. I went to the + Duke of Parma and made free to tell him that the whole world would blame + him for the damage done to Christianity, since your Majesty had exonerated + yourself by ordering him to go to the assistance of the French Catholics + with all the zeal possible. Upon this he was so disgusted that he has + never shown me a civil face since. I doubt whether he will send or go to + France at all, and although the Duke of Mayenne despatches couriers every + day with protestations and words that would soften rocks, I see no + indications of a movement." + </p> + <p> + Thus, while the duke was making great military preparations far invading + France without means; pawning his own property to get bread for his + starving veterans, and hanging those veterans whom starving had made. + mutinous, he was depicted, to the most suspicious and unforgiving mortal + that ever wore a crown, as a traitor and a rebel, and this while he was + renouncing his own judicious and well-considered policy in obedience to + the wild schemes of his master. + </p> + <p> + "I must make bold to remind your Majesty," again whispered the spy, "that + there never was an Italian prince who failed to pursue his own ends, and + that there are few in the world that are not wishing to become greater + than they are. This man here could strike a greater blow than all the rest + of them put together. Remember that there is not a villain anywhere that + does not desire the death of your Majesty. Believe me, and send to cut off + my head if it shall be found that I am speaking from passion, or from + other motive than pure zeal for your royal service." + </p> + <p> + The reader will remember into what a paroxysm of rage Alexander was thrown + on, a former occasion, when secretly invited to listen to propositions by + which the sovereignty over the Netherlands was to be secured to himself, + and how near he was to inflicting mortal punishment with his own hand on + the man who had ventured to broach that treasonable matter. + </p> + <p> + Such projects and propositions were ever floating, as it were, in the + atmosphere, and it was impossible for the most just men to escape + suspicion in the mind of a king who fed upon suspicion as his daily bread. + Yet nothing could be fouler or falser than the calumny which described + Alexander as unfaithful to Philip. Had he served his God as he served his + master perhaps his record before the highest tribunal would have been a + clearer one. + </p> + <p> + And in the same vein in which he wrote to the monarch in person did the + crafty Moreo write to the principal secretary of state, Idiaquez, whose + mind, as well as his master's, it was useful to poison, and who was in + daily communication with Philip. + </p> + <p> + "Let us make sure of Flanders," said he, "otherwise we shall all of us be + well cheated. I will tell you something of that which I have already told + his Majesty, only not all, referring you to Tassis, who, as a personal + witness to many things, will have it in his power to undeceive his + Majesty, I have seen very clearly that the duke is disgusted with his + Majesty, and one day he told me that he cared not if the whole world went + to destruction, only not Flanders." + </p> + <p> + "Another day he told me that there was a report abroad that his Majesty + was sending to arrest him, by means of the Duke of Pastrana, and looking + at me he said: 'See here, seignior commander, no threats, as if it were in + the power of mortal man to arrest me, much less of such fellows as + these.'" + </p> + <p> + "But this is but a small part of what I could say," continued the + detective knight-commander, "for I don't like to trust these ciphers. But + be certain that nobody in Flanders wishes well to these estates or to the + Catholic cause, and the associates of the Duke of Parma go about saying + that it does not suit the Italian potentates to have his Majesty as great + a monarch as he is trying to be." + </p> + <p> + This is but a sample of the dangerous stuff with which the royal mind was + steadily drugged, day after day, by those to whom Farnese was especially + enjoined to give his confidence. + </p> + <p> + Later on it will be seen how-much effect was thus produced both upon the + king and upon the duke. Moreo, Mendoza, and Tasais were placed about the + governor-general, nominally as his counsellors, in reality as + police-officers. + </p> + <p> + "You are to confer regularly with Mendoza, Tassis, and Moreo," said Philip + to Farnese. + </p> + <p> + "You are to assist, correspond, and harmonize in every way with the Duke + of Parma," wrote Philip to Mendoza, Tassis, and Moreo. And thus cordially + and harmoniously were the trio assisting and corresponding with the duke. + </p> + <p> + But Moreo was right in not wishing to trust the ciphers, and indeed he had + trusted them too much, for Farnese was very well aware of his intrigues, + and complained bitterly of them to the king and to Idiaquez. + </p> + <p> + Most eloquently and indignantly did he complain of the calumnies, ever + renewing themselves, of which he was the subject. "'Tis this good Moreo + who is the author of the last falsehoods," said he to the secretary; "and + this is but poor payment for my having neglected my family, my parents and + children for so many years in the king's service, and put my life ever on + the hazard, that these fellows should be allowed to revile me and make + game of me now, instead of assisting me." + </p> + <p> + He was at that time, after almost superhuman exertions, engaged in the + famous relief of Paris. He had gone there, he said, against his judgment + and remonstrating with his Majesty on the insufficiency of men and money + for such an enterprise. His army was half-mutinous and unprovided with + food, artillery, or munitions; and then he found himself slandered, + ridiculed, his life's life lied away. 'Twas poor payment for his services, + he exclaimed, if his Majesty should give ear to these calumniators, and + should give him no chance of confronting his accusers and clearing his + reputation. Moreo detested him, as he knew, and Prince Doria said that the + commander once spoke so ill of Farnese in Genoa that he was on the point + of beating him; while Moreo afterwards told the story as if he had been + maltreated because of defending Farnese against Doria's slanders. + </p> + <p> + And still more vehemently did he inveigh against Moreo in his direct + appeals to Philip. He had intended to pass over his calumnies, of which he + was well aware, because he did not care to trouble the dead—for + Moreo meantime had suddenly died, and the gossips, of course, said it was + of Farnese poison—but he had just discovered by documents that the + commander had been steadily and constantly pouring these his calumnies + into the monarch's ears. He denounced every charge as lies, and demanded + proof. Moreo had further been endeavouring to prejudice the Duke of + Mayenne against the King of Spain and himself, saying that he, Farnese, + had been commissioned to take Mayenne into custody, with plenty of similar + lies. + </p> + <p> + "But what I most feel," said Alexander, with honest wrath, "is to see that + your Majesty gives ear to them without making the demonstration which my + services merit, and has not sent to inform me of them, seeing that they + may involve my reputation and honour. People have made more account of + these calumnies than of my actions performed upon the theatre of the + world. I complain, after all my toils and dangers in your Majesty's + service, just when I stood with my soul in my mouth and death in my teeth, + forgetting children, house, and friends, to be treated thus, instead of + receiving rewards and honour, and being enabled to leave to my children, + what was better than all the riches the royal hand could bestow, an + unsullied and honourable name." + </p> + <p> + He protested that his reputation had so much suffered that he would prefer + to retire to some remote corner as a humble servant of the king, and leave + a post which had made him so odious to all. Above all, he entreated his + Majesty to look upon this whole affair "not only like a king but like a + gentleman." + </p> + <p> + Philip answered these complaints and reproaches benignantly, expressed + unbounded confidence in the duke, assured him that the calumnies of his + supposed enemies could produce no effect upon the royal mind, and coolly + professed to have entirely forgotten having received any such letter as + that of which his nephew complained. "At any rate I have mislaid it," he + said, "so that you see how much account it was with me." + </p> + <p> + As the king was in the habit of receiving such letters every week, not + only from the commander, since deceased, but from Ybarra and others, his + memory, to say the least, seemed to have grown remarkably feeble. But the + sequel will very soon show that he had kept the letters by him and + pondered them to much purpose. To expect frankness and sincerity from him, + however, even in his most intimate communications to his most trusted + servants, would have been to "swim with fins of lead." + </p> + <p> + Such being the private relations between the conspirators, it is + instructive to observe how they dealt with each other in the great game + they were playing for the first throne in Christendom. The military events + have been sufficiently sketched in the preceding pages, but the meaning + and motives of public affairs can be best understood by occasional glances + behind the scenes. It is well for those who would maintain their faith in + popular Governments to study the workings of the secret, irresponsible, + arbitrary system; for every Government, as every individual, must be + judged at last by those moral laws which no man born of woman can evade. + </p> + <p> + During the first French expedition-in the course of which Farnese had + saved Paris from falling into, the hands of Henry, and had been doing his + best to convert it prospectively into the capital of his master's empire—it + was his duty, of course, to represent as accurately as possible the true + state of France. He submitted his actions to his master's will, but he + never withheld from him the advantage that he might have derived, had he + so chosen, from his nephew's luminous intelligence and patient + observation. + </p> + <p> + With the chief personage he had to deal with he professed himself, at + first, well satisfied. "The Duke of Mayenne," said he to Philip, "persists + in desiring your Majesty only as King of France, and will hear of no other + candidate, which gives me satisfaction such as can't be exaggerated." + Although there were difficulties in the way, Farnese thought that the two + together with God's help might conquer them. "Certainly it is not + impossible that your Majesty may succeed," he said, "although very + problematical; and in case your Majesty does succeed in that which we all + desire and are struggling for, Mayenne not only demands the second place + in the kingdom for himself, but the fief of some great province for his + family." + </p> + <p> + Should it not be possible for Philip to obtain the crown, Farnese was, on + the whole, of opinion that Mayenne had better be elected. In that event he + would make over Brittany and Burgundy to Philip, together with the cities + opposite the English coast. If they were obliged to make the duke king, as + was to be feared, they should at any rate exclude the Prince of Bearne, + and secure, what was the chief point, the Catholic religion. "This," said + Alexander, "is about what I can gather of Mayenne's views, and perhaps he + will put them down in a despatch to your Majesty." + </p> + <p> + After all, the duke was explicit enough. He was for taking all he could + get—the whole kingdom if possible—but if foiled, then as large + a slice of it as Philip would give him as the price of his services. And + Philip's ideas were not materially different from those of the other + conspirator. + </p> + <p> + Both were agreed on one thing. The true heir must be kept out of his + rights, and the Catholic religion be maintained in its purity. As to the + inclination of the majority of the inhabitants, they could hardly be in + the dark. They knew that the Bearnese was instinctively demanded by the + nation; for his accession to the throne would furnish the only possible + solution to the entanglements which had so long existed. + </p> + <p> + As to the true sentiments of the other politicians and soldiers of the + League with whom Bearnese came in contact in France, he did not disguise + from his master that they were anything but favourable. + </p> + <p> + "That you may know, the humour of this kingdom," said he, "and the + difficulties in which I am placed, I must tell you that I am by large + experience much confirmed in that which I have always suspected. Men don't + love nor esteem the royal name of your Majesty, and whatever the benefits + and assistance they get from you they have no idea of anything redounding + to your benefit and royal service, except so far as implied in maintaining + the Catholic religion and keeping out the Bearne. These two things, + however, they hold to be so entirely to your Majesty's profit, that all + you are doing appears the fulfilment of a simple obligation. They are + filled with fear, jealousy, and suspicion of your Majesty. They dread your + acquiring power here. Whatever negotiations they pretend in regard to + putting the kingdom or any of their cities under your protection, they + have never had any real intention of doing it, but their only object is to + keep up our vain hopes while they are carrying out their own ends. If + to-day they seem to have agreed upon any measure, tomorrow they are sure + to get out of it again. This has always been the case, and all your + Majesty's ministers that have had dealings here would say so, if they + chose to tell the truth. Men are disgusted with the entrance of the army, + and if they were not expecting a more advantageous peace in the kingdom + with my assistance than without it, I don't know what they would do; for I + have heard what I have heard and seen what I have seen. They are afraid of + our army, but they want its assistance and our money." + </p> + <p> + Certainly if Philip desired enlightenment as to the real condition of the + country he had determined to, appropriate; and the true sentiments of its + most influential inhabitants, here, was the man most competent of all the + world to advise him; describing the situation for him, day by day, in the + most faithful manner. And at every step the absolutely puerile inadequacy + of the means, employed by the king to accomplish his gigantic purposes + became apparent. If the crime of subjugating or at least dismembering the + great kingdom of France were to be attempted with any hope of success, at + least it might have been expected that the man employed to consummate the + deed would be furnished with more troops and money than would be required + to appropriate a savage island off the Caribbean, or a German + principality. But Philip expected miracles to be accomplished by the mere + private assertion of his will. It was so easy to conquer realms the + writing table. + </p> + <p> + "I don't say," continued Farnese, "if I could have entered France with a + competent army, well paid and disciplined, with plenty of artillery, and + munitions, and with funds enough to enable Mayenne to buy up the nobles of + his party, and to conciliate the leaders generally with presents and + promises, that perhaps they might not have softened. Perhaps interest and + fear would have made that name agreeable which pleases them so little, now + that the very reverse of all this has occurred. My want of means is + causing a thousand disgusts among the natives of the country, and it is + this penury that will be the chief cause of the disasters which may + occur." + </p> + <p> + Here was sufficiently plain speaking. To conquer a war-like nation without + an army; to purchase a rapacious nobility with an empty purse, were tasks + which might break the stoutest heart. They were breaking Alexander's. + </p> + <p> + Yet Philip had funds enough, if he had possessed financial ability + himself, or any talent for selecting good financiers. The richest + countries of the old world and the new were under his sceptre; the mines + of Peru and Mexico; the wealth of farthest Ind, were at his disposition; + and moreover he drove a lucrative traffic in the sale of papal bulls and + massbooks, which were furnished to him at a very low figure, and which he + compelled the wild Indians of America and the savages of the Pacific to + purchase of him at an enormous advance. That very year, a Spanish carrack + had been captured by the English off the Barbary coast, with an assorted + cargo, the miscellaneous nature of which gives an idea of royal commercial + pursuits at that period. Besides wine in large quantities there were + fourteen hundred chests of quicksilver, an article indispensable to the + working of the silver mines, and which no one but the king could, upon + pain of death, send to America. He received, according to contract; for + every pound of quicksilver thus delivered a pound of pure silver, weight + for weight. The ship likewise contained ten cases of gilded mass-books and + papal bulls. The bulls, two million and seventy thousand in number, for + the dead and the living, were intended for the provinces of New Spain, + Yucatan, Guatemala, Honduras, and the Philippines. The quicksilver and the + bulls cost the king three hundred thousand florins, but he sold them for + five million. The price at, which the bulls were to be sold + varied-according to the letters of advice found in the ships—from + two to four reals a piece, and the inhabitants of those conquered regions + were obliged to buy them. "From all this," says a contemporary chronicler; + "is to be seen what a thrifty trader was the king." + </p> + <p> + The affairs of France were in such confusion that it was impossible for + them, according to Farnese, to remain in such condition much longer + without bringing about entire decomposition. Every man was doing as he + chose—whether governor of a city, commander of a district, or + gentleman in his castle. Many important nobles and prelates followed the + Bearnese party, and Mayenne was entitled to credit for doing as well as he + did. There was no pretence, however, that his creditable conduct was due + to anything but the hope of being well paid. "If your Majesty should + decide to keep Mayenne," said Alexander, "you can only do it with large: + sums of money. He is a good Catholic and very firm in his purpose, but is + so much opposed by his own party, that if I had not so stimulated him by + hopes of his own grandeur, he would have grown desperate—such small + means has he of maintaining his party—and, it is to be feared, he + would have made arrangements with Bearne, who offers him carte-blanche." + </p> + <p> + The disinterested man had expressed his assent to the views of Philip in + regard to the assembly of the estates and the election of king, but had + claimed the sum of six hundred thousand dollars as absolutely necessary to + the support of himself and followers until those events should occur. + Alexander not having that sum at his disposal was inclined to defer + matters, but was more and more confirmed in his opinion that the Duke was + a "man of truth, faith, and his word." He had distinctly agreed that no + king should be elected, not satisfactory to Philip, and had "stipulated in + return that he should have in this case, not only the second place in the + kingdom, but some very great and special reward in full property." + </p> + <p> + Thus the man of truth, faith, and his word had no idea of selling himself + cheap, but manifested as much commercial genius as the Fuggers themselves + could have displayed, had they been employed as brokers in these + mercantile transactions. + </p> + <p> + Above all things, Alexander implored the king to be expeditious, resolute, + and liberal; for, after all, the Bearnese might prove a more formidable + competitor than he was deemed. "These matters must be arranged while the + iron is hot," he said, "in order that the name and memory of the Bearne + and of all his family may be excluded at once and forever; for your + Majesty must not doubt that the whole kingdom inclines to him, both + because he is natural successor, to the crowns and because in this way the + civil war would cease. The only thing that gives trouble is the religions + defect, so that if this should be remedied in appearance, even if falsely, + men would spare no pains nor expense in his cause." + </p> + <p> + No human being at that moment, assuredly, could look into the immediate + future accurately enough to see whether the name and memory of the man, + whom his adherents called Henry the Fourth of France, and whom Spaniards, + legitimists and enthusiastic papists, called the Prince of Bearne, were to + be for ever excluded from the archives of France; whether Henry, after + spending the whole of his life as a pretender, was destined to bequeath + the same empty part to his descendants, should they think it worth their + while to play it. Meantime the sages smiled superior at his delusion; + while Alexander Farnese, on the contrary, better understanding the chances + of the great game which they were all playing, made bold to tell his + master that all hearts in France were inclining to their natural lord. + "Differing from your Majesty," said he, "I am of opinion that there is no + better means of excluding him than to make choice of the Duke of Mayenne, + as a person agreeable to the people, and who could only reign by your + permission and support." + </p> + <p> + Thus, after much hesitation and circumlocution, the nephew made up his + mind to chill his uncle's hopes of the crown, and to speak a decided + opinion in behalf of the man of his word, faith and truth. + </p> + <p> + And thus through the whole of the two memorable campaigns made by + Alexander in France, he never failed to give his master the most accurate + pictures of the country, and an interior view of its politics; urging + above all the absolute necessity of providing much more liberal supplies + for the colossal adventure in which he was engaged. "Money and again money + is what is required," he said. "The principal matter is to be accomplished + with money, and the particular individuals must be bought with money. The + good will of every French city must be bought with money. Mayenne must be + humoured. He is getting dissatisfied. Very probably he is intriguing with + Bearne. Everybody is pursuing his private ends. Mayenne has never + abandoned his own wish to be king, although he sees the difficulties in + the way; and while he has not the power to do us as much good as is + thought, it is certainly in his hands to do us a great deal of injury." + </p> + <p> + When his army was rapidly diminishing by disease, desertion, mutiny, and + death, he vehemently and perpetually denounced the utter inadequacy of the + king's means to his vast projects. He protested that he was not to blame + for the ruin likely to come upon the whole enterprise. He had besought, + remonstrated, reasoned with Philip—in vain. He assured his master + that in the condition of weakness in which they found themselves, not very + triumphant negotiations could be expected, but that he would do his best. + "The Frenchmen," he said, "are getting tired of our disorders, and + scandalized by our weakness, misery, and poverty. They disbelieve the + possibility of being liberated through us." + </p> + <p> + He was also most diligent in setting before the king's eyes the dangerous + condition of the obedient Netherlands, the poverty of the finances, the + mutinous degeneration of the once magnificent Spanish army, the misery of + the country, the ruin of the people, the discontent of the nobles, the + rapid strides made by the republic, the vast improvement in its military + organization, the rising fame of its young stadholder, the thrift of its + exchequer, the rapid development of its commerce, the menacing aspect + which it assumed towards all that was left of Spanish power in those + regions. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, in the midst of the toils and anxieties of war-making and + negotiation, he had found time to discover and to send to his master the + left leg of the glorious apostle St. Philip, and the head of the glorious + martyr St. Lawrence, to enrich his collection of relics; and it may be + doubted whether these treasures were not as welcome to the king as would + have been the news of a decisive victory. + </p> + <p> + During the absence of Farnese in his expeditions against the Bearnese, the + government of his provinces was temporarily in the hands of Peter Ernest + Mansfeld. + </p> + <p> + This grizzled old fighter—testy, choleric, superannuated—was + utterly incompetent for his post. He was a mere tool in the hands of his + son. Count Charles hated Parma very cordially, and old Count Peter was + made to believe himself in danger of being poisoned or poniarded by the + duke. He was perpetually wrangling with, importuning and insulting him in + consequence, and writing malicious letters to the king in regard to him. + The great nobles, Arschot, Chimay, Berlaymont, Champagny, Arenberg, and + the rest, were all bickering among themselves, and agreeing in nothing + save in hatred to Farnese. + </p> + <p> + A tight rein, a full exchequer, a well-ordered and well-paid army, and his + own constant patience, were necessary, as Alexander too well knew, to make + head against the republic, and to hold what was left of the Netherlands. + But with a monthly allowance, and a military force not equal to his own + estimates for the Netherland work, he was ordered to go forth from the + Netherlands to conquer France—and with it the dominion of the world—for + the recluse of the Escorial. + </p> + <p> + Very soon it was his duty to lay bare to his master, still more + unequivocally than ever, the real heart of Mayenne. No one could surpass + Alexander in this skilful vivisection of political characters; and he soon + sent the information that the Duke was in reality very near closing his + bargain with the Bearnese, while amusing Philip and drawing largely from + his funds. + </p> + <p> + Thus, while faithfully doing his master's work with sword and pen, with an + adroitness such as no other man could have matched, it was a necessary + consequence that Philip should suspect, should detest, should resolve to + sacrifice him. While assuring his nephew, as we have seen, that elaborate, + slanderous reports and protocols concerning him, sent with such regularity + by the chivalrous Moreo and the other spies, had been totally disregarded, + even if they had ever met his eye, he was quietly preparing—in the + midst of all these most strenuous efforts of Alexander, in the field at + peril of his life, in the cabinet at the risk of his soul—to deprive + him of his office, and to bring him, by stratagem if possible, but + otherwise by main force, from the Netherlands to Spain. + </p> + <p> + This project, once-resolved upon, the king proceeded to execute with that + elaborate attention to detail, with that feline stealth which + distinguished him above all kings or chiefs of police that have ever + existed. Had there been a murder at the end of the plot, as perhaps there + was to be—Philip could not have enjoyed himself more. Nothing + surpassed the industry for mischief of this royal invalid. + </p> + <p> + The first thing to be done was of course the inditing of a most + affectionate epistle to his nephew. + </p> + <p> + "Nephew," said he, "you know the confidence which I have always placed in + you and all that I have put in your hands, and I know how much you are to + me, and how earnestly you work in my service, and so, if I could have you + at the same time in several places, it would be a great relief to me. + Since this cannot be however, I wish to make use of your assistance, + according to the times and occasions, in order that I may have some + certainty as to the manner in which all this business is to be managed, + may see why the settlement of affairs in France is thus delayed, and what + the state of things in Christendom generally is, and may consult with, you + about an army which I am getting levied here, and about certain schemes + now on foot in regard to the remedy for all this; all which makes me + desire your presence here for some time, even if a short time, in order to + resolve upon and arrange with the aid of your advice and opinion, many + affairs concerning the public good and facilitate their execution by means + of your encouragement and presence, and to obtain the repose which I hope + for in putting them into your hands. And so I charge and command you that, + if you desire to content me, you use all possible diligence to let me see + you here as soon as possible, and that you start at once for Genoa." + </p> + <p> + He was further directed to leave Count Mansfeld at the head of affairs + during this temporary absence, as had been the case so often before, + instructing him to make use of the Marquis of Cerralbo, who was already + there, to lighten labours that might prove too much for a man of + Mansfeld's advanced age. + </p> + <p> + "I am writing to the marquis," continued the king, "telling him that he is + to obey all your orders. As to the reasons of your going away, you will + give out that it is a decision of your own, founded on good cause, or that + it is a summons of mine, but full of confidence and good will towards you, + as you see that it is." + </p> + <p> + The date of this letter was 20th February, 1592. + </p> + <p> + The secret instructions to the man who was thus to obey all the duke's + orders were explicit enough upon that point, although they were wrapped in + the usual closely-twisted phraseology which distinguished Philip's style + when his purpose was most direct. + </p> + <p> + Cerralbo was entrusted with general directions as to the French matter, + and as to peace negotiations with "the Islands;" but the main purport of + his mission was to remove Alexander Farnese. This was to be done by fair + means, if possible; if not, he was to be deposed and sent home by force. + </p> + <p> + This was to be the reward of all the toil and danger through which he had + grown grey and broken in the king's service. + </p> + <p> + "When you get to the Netherlands" (for the instructions were older than + the letter to Alexander just cited), "you are," said the king, "to treat + of the other two matters until the exact time arrives for the third, + taking good care not to, cut the thread of good progress in the affairs of + France if by chance they are going on well there. + </p> + <p> + "When the time arrives to treat of commission number three," continued his + Majesty, "you will take occasion of the arrival of the courier of 20th + February, and will give with much secrecy the letter of that date to the + duke; showing him at the same time the first of the two which you will + have received." + </p> + <p> + If the duke showed the letter addressed to him by his uncle—which + the reader has already seen—then the marquis was to discuss with him + the details of the journey, and comment upon the benefits and increased + reputation which would be the result of his return to Spain. + </p> + <p> + "But if the duke should not show you the letter," proceeded Philip, "and + you suspect that he means to conceal and equivocate about the particulars + of it, you can show him your letter number two, in which it is stated that + you have received a copy of the letter to the duke. This will make the + step easier." + </p> + <p> + Should the duke declare himself ready to proceed to Spain on the ground + indicated—that the king had need of his services—the marquis + was then to hasten his departure as earnestly as possible. Every pains + were to be taken to overcome any objections that might be made by the duke + on the score of ill health, while the great credit which attached to this + summons to consult with the king in such arduous affairs was to be duly + enlarged upon. Should Count Mansfeld meantime die of old age, and should + Farnese insist the more vehemently, on that account, upon leaving his son + the Prince Ranuccio in his post as governor, the marquis was authorised to + accept the proposition for the moment—although secretly instructed + that such an appointment was really quite out of the question—if by + so doing the father could be torn from the place immediately. + </p> + <p> + But if all would not do, and if it should become certain that the duke + would definitively refuse to take his departure, it would then become + necessary to tell him clearly, but secretly, that no excuse would be + accepted, but that go he must; and that if he did not depart voluntarily + within a fixed time, he would be publicly deprived of office and conducted + to Spain by force. + </p> + <p> + But all these things were to be managed with the secrecy and mystery so + dear to the heart of Philip. The marquis was instructed to go first to the + castle of Antwerp, as if upon financial business, and there begin his + operations. Should he find at last all his private negotiations and + coaxings of no avail, he was then to make use of his secret letters from + the king to the army commanders, the leading nobles of the country, and of + the neighbouring princes, all of whom were to be undeceived in regard to + the duke, and to be informed of the will of his majesty. + </p> + <p> + The real successor of Farnese was to be the Archduke Albert, Cardinal of + Austria, son of Archduke Ferdinand, and the letters on this subject were + to be sent by a "decent and confidential person" so soon as it should + become obvious that force would be necessary in order to compel the + departure of Alexander. For if it came to open rupture, it would be + necessary to have the cardinal ready to take the place. If the affair were + arranged amicably, then the new governor might proceed more at leisure. + The marquis was especially enjoined, in case the duke should be in France, + and even if it should be necessary for him to follow him there on account + of commissions number one and two, not to say a word to him then of his + recall, for fear of damaging matters in that kingdom. He was to do his + best to induce him to return to Flanders, and when they were both there, + he was to begin his operations. + </p> + <p> + Thus, with minute and artistic treachery, did Philip provide for the + disgrace and ruin of the man who was his near blood relation, and who had + served him most faithfully from earliest youth. It was not possible to + carry out the project immediately, for, as it has already been narrated, + Farnese, after achieving, in spite of great obstacles due to the dulness + of the king alone, an extraordinary triumph, had been dangerously wounded, + and was unable for a brief interval to attend to public affairs. + </p> + <p> + On the conclusion of his Rouen campaign he had returned to the + Netherlands, almost immediately betaking himself to the waters of Spa. The + Marquis de Cerralbo meanwhile had been superseded in his important secret + mission by the Count of Fuentes, who received the same instructions as had + been provided for the marquis. + </p> + <p> + But ere long it seemed to become unnecessary to push matters to + extremities. Farnese, although nominally the governor, felt himself + unequal to take the field against the vigorous young commander who was + carrying everything before him in the north and east. Upon the Mansfelds + was the responsibility for saving Steenwyk and Coeworden, and to the + Mansfelds did Verdugo send piteously, but in vain, for efficient help. For + the Mansfelds and other leading personages in the obedient Netherlands + were mainly occupied at that time in annoying Farnese, calumniating his + actions, laying obstacles in the way of his administration, military and + civil, and bringing him into contempt with the populace. When the weary + soldier—broken in health, wounded and harassed with obtaining + triumphs for his master such as no other living man could have gained with + the means placed at his disposal—returned to drink the waters, + previously to setting forth anew upon the task of achieving the + impossible, he was made the mark of petty insults on the part of both the + Mansfelds. Neither of them paid their respects to him; ill as he was, + until four days after his arrival. When the duke subsequently called a + council; Count Peter refused to attend it on account of having slept ill + the night before. Champagny; who was one of, the chief mischief-makers, + had been banished by Parma to his house in Burgundy. He became very much + alarmed, and was afraid of losing his head. He tried to conciliate the + duke, but finding it difficult he resolved to turn monk, and so went to + the convent of Capuchins, and begged hard to be admitted a member. They + refused him on account of his age and infirmities. He tried a Franciscan + monastery with not much better success, and then obeyed orders and went to + his Burgundy mansion; having been assured by Farnese that he was not to + lose his head. Alexander was satisfied with that arrangement, feeling + sure, he said, that so soon as his back was turned Champagny would come + out of his convent before the term of probation had expired, and begin to + make mischief again. A once valiant soldier, like Champagny, whose conduct + in the famous "fury of Antwerp" was so memorable; and whose services both + in field and-cabinet had, been so distinguished, fallen so low as to, be + used as a tool by the Mansfelds against a man like Farnese; and to be + rejected as unfit company by Flemish friars, is not a cheerful spectacle + to contemplate. + </p> + <p> + The walls of the Mansfeld house and gardens, too, were decorated by Count + Charles with caricatures, intending to illustrate the indignities put upon + his father: and himself. + </p> + <p> + Among others, one picture represented Count Peter lying tied hand and + foot, while people were throwing filth upon him; Count Charles being + pourtrayed as meantime being kicked away from the command of a battery of + cannon by, De la Motte. It seemed strange that the Mansfelds should, make + themselves thus elaborately ridiculous, in order to irritate Farnese; but + thus it was. There was so much stir, about these works of art that + Alexander transmitted copies of them to the king, whereupon Charles + Mansfeld, being somewhat alarmed, endeavoured to prove that they had been + entirely misunderstood. The venerable personage lying on the ground, he + explained, was not his father, but Socrates. He found it difficult however + to account for the appearance of La Motte, with his one arm wanting and + with artillery by his side, because, as Farnese justly remarked, artillery + had not been invented in the time of Socrates, nor was it recorded that + the sage had lost an arm. + </p> + <p> + Thus passed the autumn of 1592, and Alexander, having as he supposed + somewhat recruited his failing strength, prepared, according to his + master's orders for a new campaign in France. For with almost preterhuman + malice Philip was employing the man whom he had doomed to disgrace, + perhaps to death, and whom he kept under constant secret supervision, in + those laborious efforts to conquer without an army and to purchase a + kingdom with an empty purse, in which, as it was destined, the very last + sands of Parma's life were to run away. + </p> + <p> + Suffering from a badly healed wound, from water on the chest, degeneration + of the heart, and gout in the limbs, dropsical, enfeebled, broken down + into an old man before his time, Alexander still confronted disease and + death with as heroic a front as he had ever manifested in the field to + embattled Hollanders and Englishmen, or to the still more formidable array + of learned pedants and diplomatists in the hall of negotiation. This wreck + of a man was still fitter to lead armies and guide councils than any + soldier or statesman that Philip could call into his service, yet the + king's cruel hand was ready to stab the dying man in the dark. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could surpass the spirit with which the soldier was ready to do + battle with his best friend, coming in the guise of an enemy. To the last + moment, lifted into the saddle, he attended personally as usual to the + details of his new campaign, and was dead before he would confess himself + mortal. On the 3rd of December, 1592, in the city of Arran, he fainted + after retiring at his usual hour to bed, and thus breathed his last. + </p> + <p> + According to the instructions in his last will, he was laid out barefoot + in the robe and cowl of a Capuchin monk. Subsequently his remains were + taken to Parma, and buried under the pavement of the little Franciscan + church. A pompous funeral, in which the Italians and Spaniards quarrelled + and came to blows for precedence, was celebrated in Brussels, and a statue + of the hero was erected in the capitol at Rome. + </p> + <p> + The first soldier and most unscrupulous diplomatist of his age, he died + when scarcely past his prime, a wearied; broken-hearted old man. His + triumphs, military and civil, have been recorded in these pages, and his + character has been elaborately pourtrayed. Were it possible to conceive of + an Italian or Spaniard of illustrious birth in the sixteenth century, + educated in the school of Machiavelli, at the feet of Philip, as anything + but the supple slave of a master and the blind instrument of a Church, one + might for a moment regret that so many gifts of genius and valour had been + thrown away or at least lost to mankind. Could the light of truth ever + pierce the atmosphere in which such men have their being; could the sad + music of humanity ever penetrate to their ears; could visions of a world—on + this earth or beyond it—not exclusively the property of kings and + high-priests be revealed to them, one might lament that one so eminent + among the sons of women had not been a great man. But it is a weakness to + hanker for any possible connection between truth and Italian or Spanish + statecraft of that day. The truth was not in it nor in him, and high above + his heroic achievements, his fortitude, his sagacity, his chivalrous + self-sacrifice, shines forth the baleful light of his perpetual falsehood. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [I pass over, as beneath the level of history, a great variety of + censorious and probably calumnious reports as to the private + character of Farnese, with which the secret archives of the times + are filled. Especially Champagny, the man by whom the duke was most + hated and feared, made himself busy in compiling the slanderous + chronicle in which the enemies of Farnese, both in Spain and the + Netherlands, took so much delight. According to the secret history + thus prepared for the enlightenment of the king and his ministers, + the whole administration of the Netherlands—especially the + financial department, with the distribution of offices—was in the + hands of two favourites, a beardless secretary named Cosmo e Massi, + and a lady of easy virtue called Franceline, who seems to have had a + numerous host of relatives and friends to provide for at the public + expense. Towards the latter end of the duke's life, it was even + said that the seal of the finance department was in the hands of his + valet-de-chambre, who, in his master's frequent absences, was in the + habit of issuing drafts upon the receiver-general. As the valet- + dechambre was described as an idiot who did not know how to read, it + may be believed that the finances fell into confusion. Certainly, + if such statements were to be accepted, it would be natural enough + that for every million dollars expended by the king in the + provinces, not more than one hundred thousand were laid out for the + public service; and this is the estimate made by Champagny, who, as + a distinguished financier and once chief of the treasury in the + provinces, might certainly be thought to know something of the + subject. But Champagny was beside himself with rage, hatred.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Effect of the death of Farnese upon Philip's schemes—Priestly + flattery and counsel—Assembly of the States-General of France— + Meeting of the Leaguers at the Louvre—Conference at Surene between + the chiefs of the League and the "political" leaders—Henry convokes + an assembly of bishops, theologians, and others—Strong feeling on + all sides on the subject of the succession—Philip commands that the + Infanta and the Duke of Guise be elected King and Queen of France— + Manifesto of the Duke of Mayenne—Formal re-admission of Henry to + the Roman faith—The pope refuses to consent to his reconciliation + with the Church—His consecration with the sacred oil—Entry of the + king into Paris—Departure of the Spanish garrison from the capital + —Dissimulation of the Duke of Mayenne—He makes terms with Henry— + Grief of Queen Elizabeth on receipt of the communications from + France. +</pre> + <p> + During the past quarter of a century there had been tragic scenes enough + in France, but now the only man who could have conducted Philip's schemes + to a tragic if not a successful issue was gone. Friendly death had been + swifter than Philip, and had removed Alexander from the scene before his + master had found fitting opportunity to inflict the disgrace on which he + was resolved. Meantime, Charles Mansfeld made a feeble attempt to lead an + army from the Netherlands into France, to support the sinking fortunes of + the League; but it was not for that general-of-artillery to attempt the + well-graced part of the all-accomplished Farnese with much hope of + success. A considerable force of Spanish infantry, too, had been sent to + Paris, where they had been received with much enthusiasm; a very violent + and determined churchman, Sega, archbishop of Piacenza, and + cardinal-legate, having arrived to check on the part of the holy father + any attempt by the great wavering heretic to get himself readmitted into + the fold of the faithful. + </p> + <p> + The King of Spain considered it his duty, as well as his unquestionable + right, to interfere in the affairs of France, and to save the cause of + religion, civilization and humanity, in the manner so dear to the + civilization-savers, by reducing that distracted country—utterly + unable to govern itself—under his sceptre. To achieve this noble end + no bribery was too wholesale, no violence too brutal, no intrigue too + paltry. It was his sacred and special mission to save France from herself. + If he should fail, he could at least carve her in pieces, and distribute + her among himself and friends. Frenchmen might assist him in either of + these arrangements, but it was absurd to doubt that on him devolved the + work and the responsibility. Yet among his advisers were some who doubted + whether the purchase of the grandees of France was really the most + judicious course to pursue. There was a general and uneasy feeling that + the grandees were making sport of the Spanish monarch, and that they would + be inclined to remain his stipendiaries for an indefinite period, without + doing their share of the work. A keen Jesuit, who had been much in France, + often whispered to Philip that he was going astray. "Those who best + understand the fit remedy for this unfortunate kingdom, and know the + tastes and temper of the nation," said he, "doubt giving these vast + presents and rewards in order that the nobles of France may affect your + cause and further your schemes. It is the greatest delusion, because they + love nothing but their own interest, and for this reason wish for no king + at all, but prefer that the kingdom should remain topsy-turvy in order + that they may enjoy the Spanish doubloons, as they say themselves almost + publicly, dancing and feasting; that they may take a castle to-day, and + to-morrow a city, and the day, after a province, and so on indefinitely. + What matters it to them that blood flows, and that the miserable people + are destroyed, who alone are good for anything?" + </p> + <p> + "The immediate cause of the ruin of France," continued the Jesuit, "comes + from two roots which must be torn up; the one is the extreme ignorance and + scandalous life of the ecclesiastics, the other is the tyranny and the + abominable life of the nobility, who with sacrilege and insatiable avarice + have entered upon the property of the Church. This nobility is divided + into three factions. The first, and not the least, is heretic; the second + and the most pernicious is politic or atheist; the third and last is + catholic. All these, although they differ in opinion, are the same thing + in corruption of life and manners, so that there is no choice among them." + He then proceeded to set forth how entirely, the salvation of France + depended on the King of Spain. "Morally speaking," he said, "it is + impossible for any Frenchman to apply the remedy. For this two things are + wanting; intense zeal for the honour of God, and power. I ask now what + Frenchman: has both these, or either of them. No one certainly that we + know. It is the King of Spain who alone in the world has the zeal and the + power. No man who knows the insolence and arrogance of the French nature + will believe that even if a king should be elected out of France he would + be obeyed by the others. The first to oppose him would be Mayenne; even if + a king were chosen from his family, unless everything should be given him + that he asked; which would be impossible." + </p> + <p> + Thus did the wily Priest instil into the ready ears of Philip additional + reasons for believing himself the incarnate providence of God. When were + priestly flatterers ever wanting to pour this poison into the souls of + tyrants? It is in vain for us to ask why it is permitted that so much + power for evil should be within the grasp of one wretched human creature, + but it is at least always instructive to ponder the career of these + crowned conspirators, and sometimes consoling to find its conclusion + different from the goal intended. So the Jesuit advised the king not to be + throwing away his money upon particular individuals, but with the funds + which they were so unprofitably consuming to form a jolly army ('gallardo + egercito') of fifteen thousand foot, and five thousand-horse, all + Spaniards, under a Spanish general—not a Frenchman being admitted + into it—and then to march forward, occupy all the chief towns, + putting Spanish garrisons into them, but sparing the people, who now + considered the war eternal, and who were eaten up by both armies. In a + short time the king might accomplish all he wished, for it was not in the + power of the Bearnese to make considerable resistance for any length of + time. + </p> + <p> + This was the plan of Father Odo for putting Philip on the throne of + France, and at the same time lifting up the downtrodden Church, whose + priests, according to his statement, were so profligate, and whose tenets + were rejected by all but a small minority of the governing classes of the + country. Certainly it did not lack precision, but it remained to be seen + whether the Bearnese was to prove so very insignificant an antagonist as + the sanguine priest supposed. + </p> + <p> + For the third party—the moderate Catholics—had been making + immense progress in France, while the diplomacy of Philip had thus far + steadily counteracted their efforts at Rome. In vain had the Marquis + Pisani, envoy of the politicians' party, endeavoured to soften the heart + of Clement towards Henry. The pope lived in mortal fear of Spain, and the + Duke of Sessa, Philip's ambassador to the holy see, denouncing all these + attempts on the part of the heretic, and his friends, and urging that it + was much better for Rome that the pernicious kingdom of France should be + dismembered and subdivided, assured his holiness that Rome should be + starved, occupied, annihilated, if such abominable schemes should be for + an instant favoured. + </p> + <p> + Clement took to his bed with sickness brought on by all this violence, but + had nothing for it but to meet Pisani and other agents of the same cause + with a peremptory denial, and send most, stringent messages to his legate + in Paris, who needed no prompting. + </p> + <p> + There had already been much issuing of bulls by the pope, and much burning + of bulls by the hangman, according to decrees of the parliament of Chalons + and other friendly tribunals, and burning of Chalons decrees by Paris + hangmen, and edicts in favour of Protestants at Nantz and other places—measures + the enactment, repeal, and reenactment of which were to mark the ebb and + flow of the great tide of human opinion on the most important of subjects, + and the traces of which were to be for a long time visible on the shores + of time. + </p> + <p> + Early in 1593 Mayenne, yielding to the pressure of the Spanish party, + reluctantly consented to assemble the States-General of France, in order + that a king might be chosen. The duke, who came to be thoroughly known to + Alexander Farnese before the death of that subtle Italian, relied on his + capacity to outwit all the other champions of the League and agents of + Philip now that the master-spirit had been removed. As firmly opposed as + ever to the election of any other candidate but himself, or possibly his + son, according to a secret proposition which he had lately made to the + pope, he felt himself obliged to confront the army of Spanish + diplomatists, Roman prelates, and learned doctors, by whom it was proposed + to exclude the Prince of Bearne from his pretended rights. But he did not, + after all, deceive them as thoroughly as he imagined. The Spaniards + shrewdly suspected the French tactics, and the whole business was but a + round game of deception, in which no one was much deceived, who ever might + be destined ultimately, to pocket the stakes: "I know from a very good + source," said Fuentes, "that Mayenne, Guise, and the rest of them are + struggling hard in order not to submit to Bearne, and will suffer + everything your Majesty may do to them, even if you kick them in the + mouth, but still there is no conclusion on the road we are travelling, at + least not the one which your Majesty desires. They will go on + procrastinating and gaining time, making authority for themselves out of + your Majesty's grandeur, until the condition of things comes which they + are desiring. Feria tells me that they are still taking your Majesty's + money, but I warn your Majesty that it is only to fight off Bearne, and + that they are only pursuing their own ends at your Majesty's expense." + </p> + <p> + Perhaps Mayenne had already a sufficiently clear insight into the not + far-distant future, but he still presented himself in Spanish cloak and + most ultramontane physiognomy. His pockets were indeed full of Spanish + coin at that moment, for he had just claimed and received eighty-eight + thousand-nine hundred dollars for back debts, together with one hundred + and eighty, thousand dollars more to distribute among the deputies of the + estates. "All I can say about France," said Fuentes, "is that it is one + great thirst for money. The Duke of Feria believes in a good result, but I + think that Mayenne is only trying to pocket as much money as he can." + </p> + <p> + Thus fortified, the Duke of Mayenne issued the address to the + States-General of the kingdom, to meet at an early day in order to make + arrangements to secure religion and peace, and to throw off the possible + yoke of the heretic pretender. The great seal affixed to the document + represented an empty throne, instead of the usual effigy of a king. + </p> + <p> + The cardinal-legate issued a thundering manifesto at the same time + sustaining Mayenne and virulently denouncing the Bearnese. + </p> + <p> + The politicians' party now seized the opportunity to impress upon Henry + that the decisive moment was come. + </p> + <p> + The Spaniard, the priest; and the League, had heated the furnace. The iron + was at a white heat. Now was the time to strike. Secretary of State Revol + Gaspar de Schomberg, Jacques Auguste de Thou, the eminent historian, and + other influential personages urged the king to give to the great question + the only possible solution. + </p> + <p> + Said the king with much meekness, "If I am in error, let those who attack + me with so much fury instruct me, and show me the way of salvation. I hate + those who act against their conscience. I pardon all those who are + inspired by truly religious motives, and I am ready to receive all into + favour whom the love of peace, not the chagrin of ill-will, has disgusted + with the war." + </p> + <p> + There was a great meeting of Leaguers at the Louvre, to listen to Mayenne, + the cardinal-legate, Cardinal Pelleve, the Duke of Guise, and other + chieftains. The Duke of Feria made a long speech in Latin, setting forth + the Spanish policy, veiled as usual, but already sufficiently well known, + and assuring the assembly that the King of Spain desired nothing so much + as the peace of France and of all the world, together with the supremacy + of the Roman Church. Whether these objects could best be attained by the + election of Philip or of his daughter, as sovereign, with the Archduke + Ernest as king-consort, or with perhaps the Duke of Guise or some other + eligible husband, were fair subjects for discussion. No selfish motive + influenced the king, and he placed all his wealth and all his armies at + the disposal of the League to carry out these great projects. + </p> + <p> + Then there was a conference at Surene between the chiefs the League and + the "political" leaders; the Archbishop of Lyons, the cardinal-legate, + Villars, Admiral of France and defender of Rouen, Belin, Governor of + Paris, President Jeannin, and others upon one side; upon the other, the + Archbishop of Bourges, Bellievre, Schomberg, Revol, and De Thou. + </p> + <p> + The Archbishop of Lyons said that their party would do nothing either to + frustrate or to support the mission of Pisani, and that the pope would, as + ever, do all that could be done to maintain the interests of the true + religion. + </p> + <p> + The Archbishop of Bourges, knowing well the meaning of such fine phrases, + replied that he had much respect for the holy father, but that popes had + now, become the slaves and tools of the King of Spain, who, because he was + powerful, held them subject to his caprice. + </p> + <p> + At an adjourned meeting at the same place, the Archbishop of Lyons said + that all questions had been asked and answered. All now depended on the + pope, whom the League would always obey. If the pope would accept the + reconciliation of the Prince of Bearne it was well. He, hoped that his + conversion would be sincere. + </p> + <p> + The political archbishop (of Bourges) replied to the League's archbishop, + that there was no time for delays, and for journeys by land and sea to + Rome. The least obstruction might prove fatal to both parties. Let the + Leaguers now show that the serenity of their faces was but the mirror of + their minds. + </p> + <p> + But the Leaguers' archbishop said that he could make no further advances. + So ended the conference.' + </p> + <p> + The chiefs of the politicians now went to the king and informed him that + the decisive moment had arrived. + </p> + <p> + Henry had preserved: his coolness throughout. Amid all the hubbub of + learned doctors of law, archbishops-Leaguer and political-Sorbonne + pedants, solemn grandees from Spain with Latin orations in their pockets, + intriguing Guises, huckstering Mayennes, wrathful Huguenots, sanguinary + cardinal-legates, threatening world-monarchs—heralded by Spanish + musketeers, Italian lancers, and German reiters—shrill screams of + warning from the English queen, grim denunciations from Dutch Calvinists, + scornful repulses from the holy father; he kept his temper and his + eye-sight, as perfectly as he had ever done through the smoke and din of + the wildest battle-field. None knew better than he how to detect the + weakness of the adversary, and to sound the charge upon his wavering line. + </p> + <p> + He blew the blast—sure that loyal Catholics and Protestants alike + would now follow him pell-mell. + </p> + <p> + On the 16th, May, 1593, he gave notice that he consented to get himself + instructed, and that he summoned an assembly at Mantes on the 15th July, + of bishops, theologians, princes, lords, and courts of parliament to hold + council, and to advise him what was best to do for religion and the State. + </p> + <p> + Meantime he returned to the siege of Dreux, made an assault on the place, + was repulsed, and then hung nine prisoners of war in full sight of the + garrison as a punishment for their temerity in resisting him. The place + soon after capitulated (8th July, 1593). + </p> + <p> + The interval between the summons and the assembling of the clerical and + lay notables at Mantes was employed by the Leaguers in frantic and + contradictory efforts to retrieve a game which the most sagacious knew to + be lost. But the politicians were equal to the occasion, and baffled them + at every point. + </p> + <p> + The Leaguers' archbishop inveighed bitterly against the abominable edicts + recently issued in favour of the Protestants. + </p> + <p> + The political archbishop (of Bourges) replied not by defending; but by + warmly disapproving, those decrees of toleration, by excusing the king for + having granted them for a temporary purpose, and by asserting positively + that, so soon as the king should be converted, he would no longer + countenance such measures. + </p> + <p> + It is superfluous to observe that very different language was held on the + part of Henry to the English and Dutch Protestants, and to the Huguenots + of his own kingdom. + </p> + <p> + And there were many meetings of the Leaguers in Paris, many belligerent + speeches by the cardinal legate, proclaiming war to the knife rather than + that the name of Henry the heretic should ever be heard of again as + candidate for the throne, various propositions spasmodically made in full + assembly by Feria, Ybarra, Tassis, the jurisconsult Mendoza, and other + Spanish agents in favour of the Infanta as queen of France, with Archduke + Ernest or the Duke of Guise, or any other eligible prince, for her + husband. + </p> + <p> + The League issued a formal and furious invective in answer to Henry's + announcement; proving by copious citations from Jeremiah, St. Epiphany; + St. Jerome, St. Cyprian, and St. Bernard, that it was easier for a leopard + to change his spots or for a blackamoor to be washed white; than for a + heretic to be converted, and that the king was thinking rather of the + crown of France than of a heavenly crown, in his approaching conversion—an + opinion which there were few to gainsay. + </p> + <p> + And the Duke of Nemours wrote to his half-brother, the Duke of Mayenne; + offering to use all his influence to bring about Mayenne's election as + king on condition that if these efforts failed, Mayenne should do his best + to procure the election of Nemours. + </p> + <p> + And the Parliament of Paris formally and prospectively proclaimed any + election of a foreigner null and void, and sent deputies to Mayenne urging + him never to consent to the election of the Infanta. + </p> + <p> + What help, said they, can the League expect from the old and broken + Philip; from a king who in thirty years has not been able, with all the + resources of his kingdoms, to subdue the revolted provinces of the + Netherlands? How can he hope to conquer France? Pay no further heed to the + legate, they said, who is laughing in his sleeve at the miseries and + distractions of our country. So spake the deputies of the + League-Parliament to the great captain of the League, the Duke of Mayenne. + It was obvious that the "great and holy confederacy" was becoming less + confident of its invincibility. Madame League was suddenly grown decrepit + in the eyes of her adorers. + </p> + <p> + Mayenne was angry at the action of the Parliament, and vehemently swore + that he would annul their decree. Parliament met his threats with dignity, + and resolved to stand by the decree, even if they all died in their + places. + </p> + <p> + At the same time the Duke of Feria suddenly produced in full assembly of + Leaguers a written order from Philip that the Duke of Guise and the + Infanta should at once be elected king and queen. Taken by surprise, + Mayenne dissembled his rage in masterly-fashion, promised Feria to support + the election, and at once began to higgle for conditions. He stipulated + that he should have for himself the governments of Champagne, Burgundy, + and La Brie, and that they should be hereditary in his family: He + furthermore demanded that Guise should cede to him the principality of + Joinville, and that they should pay him on the spot in hard money two + hundred thousand crowns in gold, six hundred thousand more in different + payments, together with an annual payment of fifty thousand crowns. + </p> + <p> + It was obvious that the duke did not undervalue himself; but he had after + all no intention of falling into the trap set for him. "He has made these + promises (as above given) in writing," said the Duke of Savoy's envoy to + his master, "but he will never keep them. The Duchess of Mayenne could not + help telling me that her husband will never consent that the Duke of Guise + should have the throne." From this resolve he had never wavered, and was + not likely to do so now. Accordingly the man "of his word, of faith, and + truth," whom even the astute Farnese had at times half believed in, and + who had received millions of Philip's money, now thought it time to break + with Philip. He issued a manifesto, in which he observed that the + States-General of France had desired that Philip should be elected King of + France, and carry out his design of a universal monarchy, as the + only-means of ensuring the safety of the Catholic religion and the + pacification of the world. It was feared, however, said Mayenne; that the + king might come to the same misfortunes which befell his father, who, when + it was supposed that he was inspired only by private ambition; and by the + hope of placing a hereditary universal crown in his family, had excited + the animosity of the princes of the empire. "If a mere suspicion had + caused so great a misfortune in the empire," continued the man of his + word, "what will the princes of all Europe do when they find his Majesty + elected king of France, and grown by increase of power so formidable to + the world? Can it be doubted that they will fly to arms at once, and give + all their support to the King of Navarre, heretic though he be? What + motive had so many princes to traverse Philip's designs in the + Netherlands, but desire to destroy the enormous power which they feared? + Therefore had the Queen, of England, although refusing the sovereignty, + defended the independence of the Netherlands these fifteen years. + </p> + <p> + "However desirable," continued Mayenne, "that this universal monarchy, for + which the house of Austria has so long been working, should be + established, yet the king is too prudent not to see the difficulties in + his way. Although he has conquered Portugal, he is prevented by the fleets + of Holland and England from taking possession of the richest of the + Portuguese possessions, the islands and the Indies. He will find in France + insuperable objections to his election as king, for he could in this case + well reproach the Leaguers with having been changed from Frenchmen into + Spaniards. He must see that his case is hopeless in France, he who for + thirty years has been in vain endeavouring to re-establish his authority + in the Netherlands. It would be impossible in the present position of + affairs to become either the king or the protector of France. The dignity + of France allows it not." + </p> + <p> + Mayenne then insisted on the necessity of a truce with the royalists or + politicians, and, assembling the estates at the Louvre on the 4th July, he + read a written paper declining for the moment to hold an election for + king. + </p> + <p> + John Baptist Tassis, next day, replied by declaring that in this case + Philip would send no more succours of men or money; for that the only + effectual counter-poison to the pretended conversion of the Prince of + Bearne was the immediate election of a king. + </p> + <p> + Thus did Mayenne escape from the snare in which the Spaniards thought to + catch the man who, as they now knew, was changing every day, and was true + to nothing save his own interests. + </p> + <p> + And now the great day had come. The conversion of Henry to the Roman + faith, fixed long before for—the 23rd July,—1593, formally + took place at the time appointed. + </p> + <p> + From six in the morning till the stroke of noon did Henry listen to the + exhortations and expoundings of the learned prelates and doctors whom he + had convoked, the politic Archbishop of Bourges taking the lead in this + long-expected instruction. After six mortal hours had come to an end, the + king rose from his knees, somewhat wearied, but entirely instructed and + convinced. He thanked the bishops for having taught him that of which he + was before quite ignorant, and assured them that; after having invoked the + light, of the Holy Ghost upon his musings, he should think seriously over + what they had just taught him, in order to come to a resolution salutary + to himself and to the State. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more candid. Next day, at eight in the morning, there was + a great show in the cathedral of Saint Denis, and the population of Paris, + notwithstanding the prohibition of the League authorities, rushed thither + in immense crowds to witness the ceremony of the reconciliation of the + king. Henry went to the church, clothed as became a freshly purified + heretic, in white satin doublet and hose, white silk stockings, and white + silk shoes with white roses in them; but with a black hat and a black + mantle. There was a great procession with blare of trumpet and beat of + drum. The streets were strewn with flowers. + </p> + <p> + As Henry entered the great portal of the church, he found the Archbishop + of Bourges, seated in state, effulgent in mitre and chasuble, and + surrounded by other magnificent prelates in gorgeous attire. + </p> + <p> + "Who are you, and what do you want?" said the arch-bishop. + </p> + <p> + "I am the king," meekly replied Henry, "and I demand to be received into + the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church." + </p> + <p> + "Do you wish it sincerely?" asked the prelate. + </p> + <p> + "I wish it with all my heart," said the king. + </p> + <p> + Then throwing himself on his knees, the Bearne—great champion of the + Huguenots—protested before God that he would live and die in the + Catholic faith, and that he renounced all heresy. A passage was with + difficulty opened through the crowd, and he was then led to the high + altar, amid the acclamations of the people. Here he knelt devoutly and + repeated his protestations. His unction and contrition were most + impressive, and the people, of course, wept piteously. The king, during + the progress of the ceremony, with hands clasped together and adoring the + Eucharist with his eyes, or, as the Host was elevated, smiting himself + thrice upon the breast, was a model of passionate devotion. + </p> + <p> + Afterwards he retired to a pavilion behind the altar, where the archbishop + confessed and absolved him. Then the Te Deum sounded, and high mass was + celebrated by the Bishop of Nantes. Then, amid acclamations and blessings, + and with largess to the crowd, the king returned to the monastery of Saint + Denis, where he dined amid a multitude of spectators, who thronged so + thickly around him that his dinner-table was nearly overset. These were + the very Parisians, who, but three years before, had been feeding on rats + and dogs and dead men's bones, and the bodies of their own children, + rather than open their gates to this same Prince of Bearne. + </p> + <p> + Now, although Mayenne had set strong guards at those gates, and had most + strictly prohibited all egress, the city was emptied of its populace, + which pressed in transports of adoration around the man so lately the + object of their hate. Yet few could seriously believe that much change had + been effected in the inner soul of him, whom the legate, and the Spaniard, + and the holy father at Rome still continued to denounce as the vilest of + heretics and the most infamous of impostors. + </p> + <p> + The comedy was admirably played out and was entirely successful. It may be + supposed that the chief actor was, however, somewhat wearied. In private, + he mocked at all this ecclesiastical mummery, and described himself as + heartily sick of the business. "I arrived here last evening," he wrote to + the beautiful Gabrielle, "and was importuned with 'God save you' till + bed-time. In regard to the Leaguers I am of the order of St. Thomas. I am + beginning to-morrow morning to talk to the bishops, besides those I told + you about yesterday. At this moment of writing I have a hundred of these + importunates on my shoulders, who will make me hate Saint Denis as much as + you hate Mantes. 'Tis to-morrow that I take the perilous leap. I kiss a + million times the beautiful hands of my angel and the mouth of my dear + mistress." + </p> + <p> + A truce—renewed at intervals—with the Leaguers lasted till the + end of the year. The Duke of Nevers was sent on special mission to Rome to + procure the holy father's consent to the great heretic's reconciliation to + the Church, and he was instructed to make the king's submission in terms + so wholesale and so abject that even some of the life-long papists of + France were disgusted, while every honest Protestant in Europe shrank into + himself for shame. But Clement, overawed by Philip and his ambassador, was + deaf to all the representations of the French envoy. He protested that he + would not believe in the sincerity of the Bearne's conversion unless an + angel from Heaven should reveal it to him. So Nevers left Rome, highly + exasperated, and professing that he would rather have lost a leg, that he + would rather have been sewn in a sack and tossed into the Tiber, than bear + back such a message. The pope ordered the prelates who had accompanied + Nevers to remain in Rome and be tried by the Inquisition for misprision of + heresy, but the duke placed them by his side and marched out of the Porta + del Popolo with them, threatening to kill any man who should attempt to + enforce the command. + </p> + <p> + Meantime it became necessary to follow up the St. Denis comedy with a + still more exhilarating popular spectacle. The heretic had been purified, + confessed, absolved. It was time for a consecration. But there was a + difficulty. Although the fever of loyalty to the ancient house of Bourbon, + now redeemed from its worship of the false gods, was spreading + contagiously through the provinces; although all the white silk in Lyons + had been cut into scarves and banners to celebrate the reconciliation of + the candid king with mother Church; although that ancient city was ablaze + with bonfires and illuminations, while its streets ran red, with blood no + longer, but with wine; and although Madam League, so lately the object of + fondest adoration, was now publicly burned in the effigy of a grizzly hag; + yet Paris still held for that decrepit beldame, and closed its gates to + the Bearnese. + </p> + <p> + The city of Rheims, too, had not acknowledged the former Huguenot, and it + was at Rheims, in the church of St. Remy, that the Holy Bottle was + preserved. With what chrism, by what prelate, should the consecration of + Henry be performed? Five years before, the League had proposed in the + estates of Blois to place among the fundamental laws of the kingdom that + no king should be considered a legitimate sovereign whose head had not + been anointed by the bishop at Rheims with oil from that holy bottle. But + it was now decided that to ascribe a monopoly of sanctity to that prelate + and to that bottle would be to make a schism in the Church. + </p> + <p> + Moreover it was discovered that there was a chrism in existence still more + efficacious than the famous oil of St. Remy. One hundred and twelve years + before the baptism of Clovis, St. Martin had accidentally tumbled down + stairs, and lay desperately bruised and at the point of death. But, + according to Sulpicius Severus, an angel had straightway descended from + heaven, and with a miraculous balsam had anointed the contusions of the + saint, who next day felt no farther inconveniences from his fall. The + balsam had ever since been preserved in the church of Marmoutier near + Tours. Here, then, was the most potent of unguents brought directly from + heaven. To mix a portion thereof with the chrism of consecration was + clearly more judicious than to make use of the holy bottle, especially as + the holy bottle was not within reach. The monks of Marmoutier consented to + lend the sacred phial containing the famous oil of St. Martin for the + grand occasion of the royal consecration. + </p> + <p> + Accompanied by a strong military escort provided by Giles de Souvri, + governor of Touraine, a deputation of friars brought the phial to + Chartres, where the consecration was to take place. Prayers were offered + up, without ceasing, in the monastery during their absence that no mishap + should befal the sacred treasure. When the monks arrived at Chartres, four + young barons of the first nobility were assigned to them as hostages for + the safe restoration of the phial, which was then borne in triumph to the + cathedral, the streets through which it was carried being covered with + tapestry. There was a great ceremony, a splendid consecration; six + bishops, with mitres on their heads and in gala robes, officiating; after + which the king knelt before the altar and took the customary oath. + </p> + <p> + Thus the champion of the fierce Huguenots, the well-beloved of the dead La + Noue and the living Duplessis Mornay, the devoted knight of the heretic + Queen Elizabeth, the sworn ally of the stout Dutch Calvinists, was + pompously reconciled to that Rome which was the object of their hatred and + their fear. + </p> + <p> + The admirably arranged spectacles of the instruction at St. Denis and the + consecration at Chartres were followed on the day of the vernal equinox by + a third and most conclusive ceremony: + </p> + <p> + A secret arrangement had been made with De Cosse-Brissac, governor of + Paris, by the king, according to which the gates of Paris were at last to + be opened to him. The governor obtained a high price for his services—three + hundred thousand livres in hard cash, thirty thousand a year for his life, + and the truncheon of marshal of France. Thus purchased, Brissac made his + preparations with remarkable secrecy and skill. Envoy Ybarra, who had + scented something suspicious in the air, had gone straight to the governor + for information, but the keen Spaniard was thrown out by the governor's + ingenuous protestations of ignorance. The next morning, March 22nd, was + stormy and rainy, and long before daylight Ybarra, still uneasy despite + the statements of Brissac, was wandering about the streets of Paris when + he became the involuntary witness of an extraordinary spectacle. + </p> + <p> + Through the wind and the rain came trampling along the dark streets of the + capital a body of four thousand troopers and lansquenettes. Many + torch-bearers attended on the procession, whose flambeaux threw a lurid + light upon the scene. + </p> + <p> + There, surrounded by the swart and grizzly bearded visages of these + strange men-at-arms, who were discharging their arquebuses, as they + advanced upon any bystanders likely to oppose their progress; in the very + midst of this sea of helmed heads, the envoy was enabled to recognise the + martial figure of the Prince of Bearne. Armed to the teeth, with sword in + hand and dagger at side, the hero of Ivry rode at last through the + barriers which had so long kept him from his capital. "'Twas like + enchantment," said Ybarra. The first Bourbon entered the city through the + same gate out of which the last Valois had, five years before, so + ignominiously fled. It was a midnight surprise, although not fully + accomplished until near the dawn of day. It was not a triumphal entrance; + nor did Henry come as the victorious standard-bearer of a great principle. + He had defeated the League in many battle-fields, but the League still + hissed defiance at him from the very hearthstone of his ancestral palace. + He had now crept, in order to conquer, even lower than the League itself; + and casting off his Huguenot skin at last, he had soared over the heads of + all men, the presiding genius of the holy Catholic Church. + </p> + <p> + Twenty-one years before, he had entered the same city on the conclusion of + one of the truces which had varied the long monotony of the religious wars + of France. The youthful son of Antony Bourbon and Joan of Albret had then + appeared as the champion and the idol of the Huguenots. In the same year + had come the fatal nuptials with the bride of St. Bartholomew, the first + Catholic conversion of Henry and the massacre at which the world still + shudders. + </p> + <p> + Now he was chief of the "Politicians," and sworn supporter of the Council + of Trent. Earnest Huguenots were hanging their heads in despair. + </p> + <p> + He represented the principle of national unity against national + dismemberment by domestic treason and foreign violence. Had that principle + been his real inspiration, as it was in truth his sole support, history + might judge him more leniently. Had he relied upon it entirely it might + have been strong enough to restore him to the throne of his ancestors, + without the famous religious apostacy with which his name is for ever + associated. It is by no means certain that permanent religious toleration + might not have been the result of his mounting the throne, only when he + could do so without renouncing the faith of his fathers. A day of + civilization may come perhaps, sooner or later, when it will be of no + earthly consequence to their fellow creatures to what creed, what + Christian church, what religious dogma kings or humbler individuals may be + partial; when the relations between man and his Maker shall be undefiled + by political or social intrusion. But the day will never come when it will + be otherwise than damaging to public morality and humiliating to human + dignity to forswear principle for a price, and to make the most awful of + mysteries the subject of political legerdemain and theatrical buffoonery. + </p> + <p> + The so-called conversion of the king marks an epoch in human history. It + strengthened the Roman Church and gave it an indefinite renewal of life; + but it sapped the foundations of religious faith. The appearance of Henry + the Huguenot as the champion of the Council of Trent was of itself too + biting an epigram not to be extensively destructive. Whether for good or + ill, religion was fast ceasing to be the mainspring of political + combinations, the motive of great wars and national convulsions. The age + of religion was to be succeeded by the age of commerce. + </p> + <p> + But the king was now on his throne. All Paris was in rapture. There was Te + Deum with high mass in Notre Dame, and the populace was howling itself + hoarse with rapture in honour of him so lately the object of the general + curse. Even the Sorbonne declared in favour of the reclaimed heretic, and + the decision of those sages had vast influence with less enlightened + mortals. There was nothing left for the Duke of Feria but to take himself + off and make Latin orations in favour of the Infanta elsewhere, if fit + audience elsewhere could be found. A week after the entrance of Henry, the + Spanish garrison accordingly was allowed to leave Paris with the honours + of war. + </p> + <p> + "We marched out at 2 P.M.," wrote the duke to his master, "with closed + ranks, colours displayed, and drums beating. First came the Italians and + then the Spaniards, in the midst of whom was myself on horseback, with the + Walloons marching near me. The Prince of Bearne"—it was a solace to + the duke's heart, of which he never could be deprived, to call the king by + that title—"was at a window over the gate of St. Denis through which + we took our departure. He was dressed in light grey, with a black hat + surmounted by a great white feather. Our displayed standards rendered him + no courteous salute as we passed." + </p> + <p> + Here was another solace! + </p> + <p> + Thus had the game been lost and won, but Philip as usual did not + acknowledge himself beaten. Mayenne, too, continued to make the most + fervent promises to all that was left of the confederates. He betook + himself to Brussels, and by the king's orders was courteously received by + the Spanish authorities in the Netherlands. In the midst of the tempest + now rapidly destroying all rational hopes, Philip still clung to Mayenne + as to a spar in the shipwreck. For the king ever possessed the virtue, if + it be one, of continuing to believe himself invincible and infallible, + when he had been defeated in every quarter, and when his calculations had + all proved ridiculous mistakes. + </p> + <p> + When his famous Armada had been shattered and sunk, have we not seen him + peevishly requiring Alexander Farnese to construct a new one immediately + and to proceed therewith to conquer England out of hand? Was it to be + expected that he would renounce his conquest of France, although the + legitimate king had entered his capital, had reconciled himself to the + Church, and was on the point of obtaining forgiveness of the pope? If the + Prince of Bearne had already destroyed the Holy League, why should not the + Duke of Mayenne and Archduke Ernest make another for him, and so conquer + France without further delay? + </p> + <p> + But although it was still possible to deceive the king, who in the + universality of his deceptive powers was so prone to delude himself, it + was difficult even for so accomplished an intriguer as Mayenne to hoodwink + much longer the shrewd Spaniards who were playing so losing a game against + him. + </p> + <p> + "Our affairs in France," said Ybarra, "are in such condition that we are + losing money and character there, and are likely to lose all the provinces + here, if things are not soon taken up in a large and energetic manner. + Money and troops are what is wanted on a great scale for France. The + king's agents are mightily discontented with Mayenne, and with reason; but + they are obliged to dissimulate and to hold their tongues. We can send + them no assistance from these regions, unless from down yonder you send us + the cloth and the scissors to cut it with." + </p> + <p> + And the Archduke Ernest, although he invited Mayenne to confer with him at + Brussels, under the impression that he could still keep him and the Duke + of Guise from coming to an arrangement with Bearne, hardly felt more + confidence in the man than did Feria or Ybarra. "Since the loss of Paris," + said Ernest, "I have had a letter from Mayenne, in which, deeply affected + by that event, he makes me great offers, even to the last drop of his + blood, vowing never to abandon the cause of the League. But of the + intentions and inner mind of this man I find such vague information, that + I don't dare to expect more stability from him than may be founded upon + his own interest." + </p> + <p> + And so Mayenne came to Brussels and passed three days with the archduke. + "He avows himself ready to die in our cause," said Ernest. "If your + Majesty will give men and money enough, he will undertake so to deal with + Bearne that he shall not think himself safe in his own house." The + archduke expressed his dissatisfaction to Mayenne that with the money he + had already received, so little had been accomplished, but he still + affected a confidence which he was far from feeling, "because," said he, + "it is known that Mayenne is already treating with Bearne. If he has not + concluded those arrangements, it is because Bearne now offers him less + money than before." The amount of dissimulation, politely so-called, + practised by the grandees of that age, to say nothing of their infinite + capacity for pecuniary absorption, makes the brain reel and enlarges one's + ideas of the human faculties as exerted in certain directions. It is + doubtful whether plain Hans Miller or Hans Baker could have risen to such + level. + </p> + <p> + Feria wrote a despatch to the king, denouncing Mayenne as false, + pernicious to the cause of Spain and of catholicism, thoroughly + self-seeking and vile, and as now most traitorous to the cause of the + confederacy, engaged in surrendering its strong places to the enemy, and + preparing to go over to the Prince of Bearne. + </p> + <p> + "If," said he, "I were to recount all his base tricks, I should go on till + midnight, and perhaps till to-morrow morning." + </p> + <p> + This letter, being intercepted, was sent with great glee by Henry IV., not + to the royal hands for which it was destined, but to the Duke of Mayenne. + Great was the wrath of that injured personage as he read such libellous + truths. He forthwith fulminated a scathing reply, addressed to Philip II., + in which he denounced the Duke of Feria as "a dirty ignoramus, an impudent + coward, an impostor, and a blind thief;" adding, after many other + unsavoury epithets, "but I will do him an honour which he has not merited, + proving him a liar with my sword; and I humbly pray your Majesty to grant + me this favour and to pardon my just grief, which causes me to depart from + the respect due to your Majesty, when I speak of this impostor who has + thus wickedly torn my reputation." + </p> + <p> + His invectives were, however, much stronger than his arguments in defence + of that tattered reputation. The defiance to mortal combat went for + nothing; and, in the course of the next year, the injured Mayenne turned + his back on Philip and his Spaniards, and concluded his bargain with the + Prince of Bearne. He obtained good terms: the government of Burgundy, + payment of his debts, and a hundred and twenty thousand crowns in hard + cash. It is not on record that the man of his word, of credit, and of + truth, ever restored a penny of the vast sums which he had received from + Philip to carry on the business of the League. + </p> + <p> + Subsequently the duke came one very hot summer's-day to Monceaux to thank + the king, as he expressed it, for "delivering him from Spanish arrogance + and Italian wiles;" and having got with much difficulty upon his knees, + was allowed to kiss the royal hand. Henry then insisted upon walking about + with him through the park at a prodigious rate, to show him all the + improvements, while the duke panted, groaned, and perspired in his vain + efforts to keep pace with his new sovereign. + </p> + <p> + "If I keep this fat fellow walking about in the sun much longer," + whispered the king to De Bethune, who was third in the party, "I shall be + sufficiently avenged for all the mischief he has done us." + </p> + <p> + At last, when the duke was forced to admit himself to be on the point of + expiring with fatigue, he was dismissed to the palace with orders to + solace himself with a couple of bottles of excellent wine of Arbois, + expressly provided for him by the king's direction. And this was all the + punishment ever inflicted by the good-humoured monarch on the corpulent + conspirator. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Guise made his arrangements with the ex-Huguenot on even + better terms and at a still earlier day; while Joyeuse and Mercoeur stood + out a good while and higgled hard for conditions. "These people put such a + high price on themselves," said one of Henry's diplomatists, "that one + loses almost more than one gains in buying them. They strip and plunder us + even in our nakedness, and we are obliged, in order to conciliate such + harpies, to employ all that we can scrape out of our substance and our + blood. I think, however, that we ought to gain them by whatever means and + at whatever price." + </p> + <p> + Thus Henry IV., the man whom so many contemporary sages had for years been + rebuking or ridiculing for his persistency in a hopeless attempt to save + his country from dismemberment, to restore legitimate authority, and to + resist the "holy confederacy" of domestic traitors, aided by foreign + despots and sympathizers, was at last successful, and the fratricidal war + in France was approaching its only possible conclusion. + </p> + <p> + But, alas! the hopes of those who loved the reformed Church as well as + they loved their country were sadly blasted by the apostasy of their + leader. From the most eminent leaders of the Huguenots there came a wail, + which must have penetrated even to the well-steeled heart of the cheerful + Gascon. "It will be difficult," they said, "to efface very soon from your + memory the names of the men whom the sentiment of a common religion, + association in the same perils and persecutions, a common joy in the same + deliverance, and the long experience of so many faithful services, have + engraved there with a pencil of diamond. The remembrance of these things + pursues you and accompanies you everywhere; it interrupts your most + important affairs, your most ardent pleasures, your most profound slumber, + to represent to you, as in a picture, yourself to yourself: yourself not + as you are to-day, but such as you were when, pursued to the death by the + greatest princes of Europe, you went on conducting to the harbour of + safety the little vessel against which so many tempests were beating." + </p> + <p> + The States of the Dutch republic, where the affair of Henry's conversion + was as much a matter of domestic personal interest as it could be in + France—for religion up to that epoch was the true frontier between + nation and nation—debated the question most earnestly while it was + yet doubtful. It was proposed to send a formal deputation to the king, in + order to divert him, if possible, from the fatal step which he was about + to take. After ripe deliberation however, it was decided to leave the + matter "in the hands of God Almighty, and to pray Him earnestly to guide + the issue to His glory and the welfare of the Churches." + </p> + <p> + The Queen of England was, as might be supposed, beside herself with + indignation, and, in consequence of the great apostasy, and of her chronic + dissatisfaction with the manner in which her contingent of troops had been + handled in France, she determined to withdraw every English soldier from + the support of Henry's cause. The unfortunate French ambassador in London + was at his wits' ends. He vowed that he could not sleep of nights, and + that the gout and the cholic, to which he was always a martyr, were + nothing to the anguish which had now come upon his soul and brain, such as + he had never suffered since the bloody day of St. Bartholomew. + </p> + <p> + "Ah, my God!" said he to Burghley, "is it possible that her just choler + has so suddenly passed over the great glory which she has acquired by so + many benefits and liberalities?" But he persuaded himself that her majesty + would after all not persist in her fell resolution. To do so, he vowed, + would only be boiling milk for the French papists, who would be sure to + make the most of the occasion in order to precipitate the king into the + abyss, to the border of which they had already brought him. He so dreaded + the ire of the queen that he protested he was trembling all over merely to + see the pen of his secretary wagging as he dictated his despatches. + Nevertheless it was his terrible duty to face her in her wrath, and he + implored the lord treasurer to accompany him and to shield him at the + approaching interview. "Protect me," he cried, "by your wisdom from the + ire of this great princess; for by the living God, when I see her enraged + against any person whatever I wish myself in Calcutta, fearing her anger + like death itself." + </p> + <p> + When all was over, Henry sent De Morlans as special envoy to communicate + the issue to the Governments of England and of Holland. But the queen, + although no longer so violent, was less phlegmatic than the + States-General, and refused to be comforted. She subsequently receded, + however, from her determination to withdraw her troops from France. + </p> + <p> + "Ah! what grief; ah! what regrets; ah! what groans, have I felt in my + soul," she wrote, "at the sound of the news brought to me by Morlans! My + God! Is it possible that any worldly respect can efface the terror of + Divine wrath? Can we by reason even expect a good sequel to such + iniquitous acts? He who has maintained and preserved you by His mercy, can + you imagine that he permits you to walk alone in your utmost need? 'Tis + bad to do evil that good may come of it. Meantime I shall not cease to put + you in the first rank of my devotions, in order that the hands of Esau may + not spoil the blessings of Jacob. As to your promises to me of friendship + and fidelity, I confess to have dearly deserved them, nor do I repent, + provided you do not change your Father—otherwise I shall be your + bastard sister by the father's side—for I shall ever love a natural + better than an adopted one. I desire that God may guide you in a straight + road and a better path. Your most sincere sister in the old fashion. As to + the new, I have nothing to do with it. ELIZABETH R." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + All fellow-worms together + Continuing to believe himself invincible and infallible + He spent more time at table than the Bearnese in sleep + Henry the Huguenot as the champion of the Council of Trent + Highest were not necessarily the least slimy + His invectives were, however, much stronger than his arguments + History is a continuous whole of which we see only fragments + Infinite capacity for pecuniary absorption + Leading motive with all was supposed to be religion + Past was once the Present, and once the Future + Sages of every generation, read the future like a printed scroll + Sewers which have ever run beneath decorous Christendom + Wrath of that injured personage as he read such libellous truths +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXX. 1594 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Prince Maurice lays siege to Gertruydenberg—Advantages of the new + system of warfare—Progress of the besieging operations—Superiority + of Maurice's manoeuvres—Adventure of Count Philip of Nassau— + Capitulation of Gertruydenberg—Mutiny among the Spanish troops— + Attempt of Verdugo to retake Coeworden—Suspicions of treason in the + English garrison at Ostend—Letter of Queen Elizabeth to Sir Edward + Norris on the subject—Second attempt on Coeworden—Assault on + Groningen by Maurice—Second adventure of Philip of Nassau—Narrow + escape of Prince Maurice—Surrender of Groningen—Particulars of the + siege—Question of religious toleration—Progress of the United + Netherlands—Condition of the "obedient" Netherlands—Incompetency + of Peter Mansfeld as Governor—Archduke Ernest, the successor of + Farnese—Difficulties of his position—His unpopularity—Great + achievements of the republicans—Triumphal entry of Ernest into + Brussels and Antwerp—Magnificence of the spectacle—Disaffection of + the Spanish troops—Great military rebellion—Philip's proposal to + destroy the English fleet—His assassination plans—Plot to poison + Queen Elizabeth—Conspiracies against Prince Maurice—Futile + attempts at negotiation—Proposal of a marriage between Henry and + the Infanta—Secret mission from Henry to the King of Spain—Special + dispatch to England and the Staten—Henry obtains further aid from + Queen Elizabeth and the States—Council—Anxiety of the Protestant + countries to bring about a war with Spain—Aspect of affairs at the + close of the year 1594. +</pre> + <p> + While Philip's world-empire seemed in one direction to be so rapidly + fading into cloudland there were substantial possessions of the Spanish + crown which had been neglected in Brabant and Friesland. + </p> + <p> + Two very important cities still held for the King of Spain within the + territories of what could now be fairly considered the United Dutch + Republic—St. Gertruydenberg and Groningen. + </p> + <p> + Early in the spring of 1593, Maurice had completed his preparations for a + siege, and on the 24th March appeared before Gertruydenberg. + </p> + <p> + It was a stately, ancient city, important for its wealth, its strength, + and especially for its position. For without its possession even the + province of Holland could hardly consider itself mistress of its own + little domains. It was seated on the ancient Meuse, swollen as it + approached the sea almost to the dimension of a gulf, while from the south + another stream, called the Donge, very brief in its course, but with + considerable depth of water, came to mingle itself with the Meuse, exactly + under the walls of the city. + </p> + <p> + The site of the place was so low that it was almost hidden and protected + by its surrounding dykes. These afforded means of fortification, which had + been well improved. Both by nature and art the city was one of the + strongholds of the Netherlands. + </p> + <p> + Maurice had given the world a lesson in the beleaguering science at the + siege of Steenwyk, such as had never before been dreamt of; but he was + resolved that the operations before Gertruydenberg should constitute a + masterpiece. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be more beautiful as a production of military art, nothing, + to the general reader, more insipid than its details. + </p> + <p> + On the land side, Hohenlo's headquarters were at Ramsdonck, a village + about a German mile to the east of Gertruydenberg. Maurice himself was + established on the west side of the city. Two bridges constructed across + the Donge facilitated the communications between the two camps, while + great quantities of planks and brush were laid down across the swampy + roads to make them passable for waggon-trains and artillery. The first + care of the young general, whose force was not more than twenty thousand + men, was to protect himself rather than to assail the town. + </p> + <p> + His lines extended many miles in a circuit around the place, and his + forts, breastworks, and trenches were very numerous. + </p> + <p> + The river was made use of as a natural and almost impassable ditch of + defence, and windmills were freely employed to pump water into the + shallows in one direction, while in others the outer fields, in quarters + whence a relieving force might be expected, were turned into lakes by the + same machinery. Farther outside, a system of palisade work of caltrops and + man-traps—sometimes in the slang of the day called Turkish + ambassadors—made the country for miles around impenetrable or very + disagreeable to cavally. In a shorter interval than would have seemed + possible, the battlements and fortifications of the besieging army had + risen like an exhalation out of the morass. The city of Gertruydenberg was + encompassed by another city as extensive and apparently as impregnable as + itself. Then, for the first time in that age, men thoroughly learned the + meaning of that potent implement the spade. + </p> + <p> + Three thousand pioneers worked night and day with pickaxe and shovel. The + soldiers liked the business; for every man so employed received his ten + stivers a day additional wages, punctually paid, and felt moreover that + every stroke was bringing the work nearer to its conclusion. + </p> + <p> + The Spaniards no longer railed at Maurice as a hedger and ditcher. When he + had succeeded in bringing a hundred great guns to bear upon the + beleaguered city they likewise ceased to sneer at heavy artillery. + </p> + <p> + The Kartowen and half Kartowen were no longer considered "espanta + vellacos." + </p> + <p> + Meantime, from all the country round, the peasants flocked within the + lines. Nowhere in Europe were provisions so plentiful and cheap as in the + Dutch camp. Nowhere was a readier market for agricultural products, + prompter payment, or more perfect security for the life and property of + non-combatants. Not so much as a hen's egg was taken unlawfully. The + country people found themselves more at ease within Maurice's lines than + within any other part of the provinces, obedient or revolted. They + ploughed and sowed and reaped at their pleasure, and no more striking + example was ever afforded of the humanizing effect of science upon the + barbarism of war, than in this siege of Gertruydenberg. + </p> + <p> + Certainly it was the intention of the prince to take his city, and when he + fought the enemy it was his object to kill; but, as compared with the + bloody work which Alva, and Romero, and Requesens, and so many others had + done in those doomed provinces, such war-making as this seemed almost like + an institution for beneficent and charitable purposes. + </p> + <p> + Visitors from the neighbourhood, from other provinces, from foreign + countries, came to witness the extraordinary spectacle, and foreign + generals repaired to the camp of Maurice to take practical lessons in the + new art of war. + </p> + <p> + Old Peter Ernest Mansfeld, who was nominal governor of the Spanish + Netherlands since the death of Farnese, rubbed his eyes and stared aghast + when the completeness of the preparations for reducing the city at last + broke in upon his mind. Count Fuentes was the true and confidential regent + however until the destined successor to Parma should arrive; but Fuentes, + although he had considerable genius for assassination, as will hereafter + appear, and was an experienced and able commander of the old-fashioned + school, was no match for Maurice in the scientific combinations on which + the new system was founded. + </p> + <p> + In vain did the superannuated Peter call aloud upon his sofa and governor, + Count Charles, to assist him in this dire dilemma. That artillery general + had gone with a handful of Germans, Walloons; and other obedient + Netherlanders—too few to accomplish anything abroad, too many to be + spared from the provinces—to besiege Noyon in France. But what + signified the winning or losing of such a place as Noyon at exactly the + moment when the Prince of Bearne, assisted by the able generalship of the + Archbishop of Bourges, had just executed those famous flanking movements + in the churches of St. Denis and Chartres, by which the world-empire had + been effectually shattered, and Philip and the Pope completely + out-manoeuvred. + </p> + <p> + Better that the five thousand fighters under Charles Mansfeld had been + around Gertruydenberg. His aged father did what he could. As many men as + could be spared from the garrison of Antwerp and its neighbourhood were + collected; but the Spaniards were reluctant to march, except under old + Mondragon. That hero, who had done much of the hardest work, and had + fought in most of the battles of the century, was nearly as old as the + century. Being now turned of ninety, he thought best to keep house in + Antwerp Castle: Accordingly twelve thousand foot and three thousand horse + took the field under the more youthful Peter Ernest? But Peter Ernest, + when his son was not there to superintend his operations, was nothing but + a testy octogenarian, while the two together were not equal to the little + finger of Farnese, whom Philip would have displaced, had he not + fortunately died. + </p> + <p> + "Nothing is to be expected out of this place but toads and poison," wrote + Ybarra in infinite disgust to the two secretaries of state at Madrid. "I + have done my best to induce Fuentes to accept that which the patent + secured him, and Count Peter is complaining that Fuentes showed him the + patent so late only to play him a trick. There is a rascally pack of + meddlers here, and the worst of them all are the women, whom I + particularly give to the devil. There is no end to the squabbles as to who + shall take the lead in relieving Gertruydenberg." + </p> + <p> + Mansfeld at last came ponderously up in the neighbourhood of Turnhout. + There was a brilliant little skirmish, in the neighbourhood of this place, + in which a hundred and fifty Dutch cavalry under the famous brothers Bax + defeated four hundred picked lancers of Spain and Italy. But Mansfeld + could get nothing but skirmishes. In vain he plunged about among the + caltrops and man-traps. In vain he knocked at the fortifications of + Hohenlo on the east and of Maurice on the west. He found them + impracticable, impregnable, obdurate. It was Maurice's intention to take + his town at as small sacrifice of life as possible. A trumpet was sent on + some trifling business to Mansfeld, in reply to a communication made by + the general to Maurice. + </p> + <p> + "Why does your master," said the choleric veteran to the trumpeter, "why + does Prince Maurice, being a lusty young commander as he is, not come out + of his trenches into the open field and fight me like a man, where honour + and fame await him?" + </p> + <p> + "Because my master," answered the trumpeter, "means to live to be a lusty + old commander like your excellency, and sees no reason to-day to give you + an advantage." + </p> + <p> + At this the bystanders laughed, rather at the expense of the veteran. + </p> + <p> + Meantime there were not many incidents within the lines or within the city + to vary the monotony of the scientific siege. + </p> + <p> + On the land side, as has been seen, the city was enclosed and built out of + human sight by another Gertruydenberg. On the wide estuary of the Meuse, a + chain of war ships encircled the sea-front, in shape of a half moon, lying + so close to each other that it was scarcely possible even for a messenger + to swim out of a dark night. + </p> + <p> + The hardy adventurers who attempted that feat with tidings of despair were + almost invariably captured. + </p> + <p> + This blockading fleet took regular part in the daily cannonade; while, on + the other hand, the artillery practice from the landbatteries of Maurice + and Hohenlo was more perfect than anything ever known before in the + Netherlands or France. + </p> + <p> + And the result was that in the course of the cannonade which lasted nearly + ninety days, not more than four houses in the city escaped injury. The + approaches were brought, every hour, nearer and nearer to the walls. With + subterranean lines converging in the form of the letter Y, the prince had + gradually burrowed his way beneath the principal bastion. + </p> + <p> + Hohenlo, representative of the older school of strategy, had on one + occasion ventured to resist the authority of the commander-in-chief. He + had constructed a fort at Ramsdonck. Maurice then commanded the erection + of another, fifteen hundred yards farther back. It was as much a part of + his purpose to defend himself against the attempts of Mansfeld's relieving + force, as to go forward against the city. Hohenlo objected that it would + be impossible to sustain himself against a sudden attack in so isolated a + position. Maurice insisted. In the midst of the altercation Hohenlo called + to the men engaged in throwing up the new fortifications: "Here, you + captains and soldiers," he cried, "you are delivered up here to be + butchered. You may drop work and follow me to the old fort." + </p> + <p> + "And I swear to you," said Maurice quietly, "that the first man who moves + from this spot shall be hanged." + </p> + <p> + No one moved. The fort was completed and held to the and; Hohenlo sulkily + acquiescing in the superiority which this stripling—his former pupil—had + at last vindicated over all old-fashioned men-at-arms. + </p> + <p> + From the same cause which was apt to render Hohenlo's services + inefficient, the prince was apt to suffer inconvenience in the persons + placed in still nearer relation to himself. Count Philip of Nassau, + brother of the wise and valiant Lewis William, had already done much + brilliant campaigning against the Spaniards both in France and the + provinces. Unluckily, he was not only a desperate fighter but a mighty + drinker, and one day, after a dinner-party and potent carouse at Colonel + Brederode's quarters, he thought proper, in doublet and hose, without + armour of any kind, to mount his horse, in order to take a solitary survey + of the enemy's works. Not satisfied with this piece of reconnoitering—which + he effected with much tipsy gravity, but probably without deriving any + information likely to be of value to the commanding general—he then + proceeded to charge in person a distant battery. The deed was not + commendable in a military point of view. A fire was opened upon him at + long range so soon as he was discovered, and at the same time the + sergeant-major of his regiment and an equerry of Prince Maurice started in + pursuit, determined to bring him off if possible, before his life had been + thus absurdly sacrificed. Fortunately for him they came to the rescue in + time, pulled him from his horse, and succeeded in bringing him away + unharmed. The sergeant-major, however, Sinisky by name, while thus + occupied in preserving the count's life, was badly wounded in the leg by a + musket-shot from the fort; which casualty was the only result of this + after-dinner assault. + </p> + <p> + As the siege proceeded, and as the hopes of relief died away, great + confusion began to reign within the city. The garrison, originally of a + thousand veterans, besides burgher militia, had been much diminished. Two + commandants of the place, one after another, had lost their lives. On the + 1st of June, Governor De Masieres, Captain Mongyn, the father-confessor of + the garrison, and two soldiers, being on the top of the great church tower + taking observations, were all brought down with one cannon-shot. Thus the + uses of artillery were again proved to be something more than to scare + cowards. + </p> + <p> + The final result seemed to have been brought about almost by accident, if + accident could be admitted as a factor in such accurate calculations as + those of Maurice. On the 24th June Captains Haen and Bievry were relieving + watch in the trenches near the great north ravelin of the town—a + bulwark which had already been much undermined from below and weakened + above. Being adventurous officers, it occurred to them suddenly to scale + the wall of the fort and reconnoitre what was going on in the town. It was + hardly probable that they would come back alive from the expedition, but + they nevertheless threw some planks across the ditch, and taking a few + soldiers with them, climbed cautiously up. Somewhat to his own surprise, + still more to that of the Spanish sentinels, Bievry in a few minutes found + himself within the ravelin. He was closely followed by Captain Haen, + Captain Kalf, and by half a company of soldiers. The alarm was given. + There was a fierce hand-to-hand struggle. Sixteen of the bold stormers + fell, and nine of the garrison of the fort. The rest fled into the city. + The governor of the place, Captain Gysant, rushing to the rescue without + staying to put on his armour, was killed. Count Solms, on the other hand, + came from the besieging camp into the ravelin to investigate the sudden + uproar. To his profound astonishment he was met there, after a brief + interval, by a deputation from the city, asking for terms of surrender. + The envoys had already been for some little time looking in vain for a + responsible person with whom to treat. When Maurice was informed of the + propositions he thought it at first a trick; for he had known nothing of + the little adventure of the three captains. Soon afterwards he came into a + battery whither the deputies had been brought, and the terms of + capitulation were soon agreed upon. + </p> + <p> + Next day the garrison were allowed to go out with sidearms and personal + baggage, and fifty waggons were lent them by the victor to bring their + wounded men to Antwerp. + </p> + <p> + Thus was Gertruydenberg surrendered in the very face of Peter Mansfeld, + who only became aware of the fact by the salvos of artillery fired in + honour of the triumph, and by the blaze of illumination which broke forth + over camp and city. + </p> + <p> + The sudden result was an illustration of the prince's perfect + arrangements. When Maurice rode into the town, he found it strong enough + and sufficiently well provisioned to have held out many a long day. But it + had been demonstrated to the besieged that relief was impossible, and that + the surrender on one day or another, after the siege operations should be + brought to their close, was certain. The inexorable genius of the + commander—skilled in a science which to the coarser war-makers of + that age seemed almost superhuman—hovered above them like a fate. It + was as well to succumb on the 24th June as to wait till the 24th July. + </p> + <p> + Moreover the great sustaining principle—resistance to the foreigner—which + had inspired the deeds of daring, the wonders of endurance, in the Dutch + cities beleaguered so remorselessly by the Spaniard twenty years earlier + in the century, was wanting. + </p> + <p> + In surrendering to the born Netherlander—the heroic chieftain of the + illustrious house of Nassau—these Netherlanders were neither + sullying their flag nor injuring their country. Enough had been done for + military honour in the gallant resistance, in which a large portion of the + garrison had fallen. Nor was that religious superstition so active within + the city, which three years before had made miracles possible in Paris + when a heretic sovereign was to be defied by his own subjects. It was + known that even if the public ceremonies of the Catholic Church were + likely to be suspended for a time after the surrender, at least the rights + of individual conscience and private worship within individual households + would be tolerated, and there was no papal legate with fiery eloquence + persuading a city full of heroic dupes that it was more virtuous for men + or women to eat their own children than to forego one high mass, or to + wink at a single conventicle. + </p> + <p> + After all, it was no such bitter hardship for the citizens of + Gertruydenberg to participate in the prosperity of the rising and thriving + young republic, and to enjoy those municipal and national liberties which + her sister cities had found so sweet. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be calmer or more reasonable than such a triumph, nothing + less humiliating or less disastrous than such a surrender. + </p> + <p> + The problem was solved, the demonstration was made. To open their gates to + the soldiers of the Union was not to admit the hordes of a Spanish + commander with the avenging furies of murder, pillage, rape, which ever + followed in their train over the breach of a captured city. + </p> + <p> + To an enemy bated or dreaded to the uttermost mortal capacity, that + well-fortified and opulent city might have held out for months, and only + when the arms and the fraud of the foe without, and of famine within, had + done their work, could it have bowed its head to the conqueror, and + submitted to the ineffable tortures which would be the necessary + punishment of its courage. + </p> + <p> + Four thousand shots had been fired from the siege-guns upon the city, and + three hundred upon the relieving force. + </p> + <p> + The besieging army numbered in all nine thousand one hundred and fifty men + of all arms, and they lost during the eighty-five days' siege three + hundred killed and four hundred wounded. + </p> + <p> + After the conclusion of these operations, and the thorough remodelling of + the municipal government of the important city thus regained to the + republic, Maurice occupied himself with recruiting and refreshing his + somewhat exhausted little army. On the other hand, old Count Mansfeld, + dissatisfied with the impotent conclusion to his attempts, retired to + Brussels to be much taunted by the insolent Fuentes. He at least escaped + very violent censure on the part of his son Charles, for that general, + after his superfluous conquest of Noyon, while returning towards the + Netherlands, far too tardily to succour Gertruydenberg, had been paralyzed + in all his movements by a very extensive mutiny which broke out among the + Spanish troops in the province of Artois. The disorder went through all + its regular forms. A town was taken, an Eletto was appointed. The + country-side was black-mailed or plundered, and the rebellion lasted some + thirteen months. Before it was concluded there was another similar + outbreak among the Italians, together with the Walloons and other obedient + Netherlanders in Hainault, who obliged the city of Mons to collect nine + hundred florins a day for them. The consequence of these military + rebellions was to render the Spanish crown almost powerless during the + whole year, within the provinces nominally subject to its sway. The cause—as + always—was the non-payment of these veterans' wages, year after + year. It was impossible for Philip, with all the wealth of the Indies and + Mexico pouring through the Danaid sieve of the Holy League in France, to + find the necessary funds to save the bronzed and war-worn instruments of + his crimes in the Netherlands from starving and from revolt. + </p> + <p> + Meantime there was much desultory campaigning in Friesland. Verdugo and + Frederic van den Berg picked up a few cities, and strong places which had + thrown off their allegiance September, to the king—Auerzyl, + Schlochteren, Winschoten, Wedde, Ootmarzum—and invested the much + more important town of Coeworden, which Maurice had so recently reduced to + the authority of the Union. Verdugo's force was insufficient, however, and + he had neither munitions nor provisions for a long siege. Winter was + coming on; and the States, aware that he would soon be obliged to retire + from before the well-garrisoned and fortified place, thought it + unnecessary to interfere with him. After a very brief demonstration the + Portuguese veteran was obliged to raise the siege. + </p> + <p> + There were also certain vague attempts made by the enemy to re-possess + himself of those most important seaports which had been pledged to the + English queen. On a previous page the anxiety has been indicated with + which Sir Robert Sydney regarded the withdrawal of the English troops in + the Netherlands for the sake of assisting the French king. This palpable + breach of the treaty had necessarily weakened England's hold on the + affections of the Netherlanders, and awakened dark suspicions that treason + might be impending at Flushing or Ostend. The suspicions were unjust—so + far as the governors of those places were concerned—for Sydney and + Norris were as loyal as they were intelligent and brave; but the trust in + their characters was not more implicit than it had been in that of Sir + William Stanley before the commission of his crime. It was now believed + that the enemy was preparing for a sudden assault upon Ostend, with the + connivance, it was feared, of a certain portion of the English garrison. + The intelligence was at once conveyed to her Majesty's Government by Sir + Edward Norris, and they determined to take a lesson from past experience. + Norris was at once informed that in view of the attack which he + apprehended, his garrison should be strengthened by five hundred men under + Sir Conyers Clifford from certain companies in Flushing, and that other + reinforcements should be sent from the English troops in Normandy. The + governor was ordered to look well after his captains and soldiers, to + remind them, in the queen's name, of their duty to herself and to the + States, to bid all beware of sullying the English name, to make close + investigations into any possible intrigues of the garrison with the enemy, + and, should any culprits be found, to bring them at once to condign + punishment. + </p> + <p> + The queen, too, determined that there should be no blighting of English + honour, if she could prevent it by her warnings, indited with her own hand + a characteristic letter to Sir Edward Norris, to accompany the more formal + despatch of Lord Burghley. Thus it ran "Ned!— + </p> + <p> + "Though you have some tainted sheep among your flock, let not that serve + for excuse for the rest. We trust you are so carefully regarded as nought + shall be left for your excuses, but either ye lack heart or want will; for + of fear we will not make mention, as that our soul abhors, and we assure + ourselves you will never discern suspicion of it. Now or never let for the + honour of us and our nation, each man be so much of bolder heart as their + cause is good, and their honour must be according, remembering the old + goodness of our God, who never yet made us fail His needful help, who ever + bless you as I with my prince's hand beseech Him." + </p> + <p> + The warnings and preparations proved sufficiently effective, and the great + schemes with which the new royal governor of the Netherlands was supposed + to be full—a mere episode in which was the conquest of Ostend—seemed + not so formidable as their shadows had indicated. There was, in the not + very distant future, to be a siege of Ostend, which the world would not + soon forget, but perhaps the place would not yield to a sudden assault. + Its resistance, on the contrary, might prove more protracted than was then + thought possible. But the chronicle of events must not be anticipated. For + the present, Ostend was safe. + </p> + <p> + Early in the following spring, Verdugo again appeared before Coeworden in + force. It was obvious that the great city of Groningen, the mistress of + all the north-eastern provinces, would soon be attacked, and Coeworden was + the necessary base of any operations against the place. Fortunately for + the States, William Lewis had in the preceding autumn occupied and + fortified the only avenue through the Bourtange morass, so that when + Verdugo sat down before Coeworden, it was possible for Maurice, by moving + rapidly, to take the royal governor at a disadvantage. + </p> + <p> + Verdugo had eight thousand picked troops, including two thousand Walloon + cavalry, troopers who must have been very formidable, if they were to be + judged by the prowess of one of their captains, Gaucier by name. This + obedient Netherlander was in the habit of boasting that he had slain four + hundred and ten men with his own hand, including several prisoners and + three preachers; but the rest of those warriors were not so famed for + their martial achievements. + </p> + <p> + The peril, however, was great, and Prince Maurice, trifling not a moment, + threw himself with twelve thousand infantry, Germans, Frisians, Scotch, + English, and Hollanders, and nearly two thousand horse, at once upon the + road between the Vecht and the Bourtange morass. On the 6th of May, + Verdugo found the States' commander-in-chief trenched and impregnable, + squarely established upon his line of communications. He reconnoitred, + called a council of war, and decided that to assail him were madness; to + remain, destruction. On the night of the 6th of May, he broke up his camp + and stole away in the darkness, without sound of drum or trumpet, leaving + all his fortifications and burning all his huts. + </p> + <p> + Thus had Maurice, after showing the world how strong places were to be + reduced, given a striking exhibition of the manner in which they were to + be saved. + </p> + <p> + Coeworden, after thirty-one weeks' investment, was relieved. + </p> + <p> + The stadholder now marched upon Groningen. This city was one of the most + splendid and opulent of all the Netherland towns. Certainly it should have + been one of the most ancient in Europe, since it derived its name—according + to that pains-taking banker, Francis Guicciardini—"from Grun, a + Trojan gentleman," who, nevertheless, according to Munster, was "a + Frenchman by birth."—"Both theories, however, might be true," added + the conscientious Florentine, "as the French have always claimed to be + descended from the relics of Troy." A simpler-minded antiquary might have + babbled of green fields, since 'groenighe,' or greenness, was a + sufficiently natural appellation for a town surrounded as was Groningen on + the east and west by the greenest and fattest of pastures. In population + it was only exceeded by Antwerp and Amsterdam. Situate on the line where + upper and nether Germany blend into one, the capital of a great province + whose very name was synonymous with liberty, and whose hardy sons had + clone fierce battle with despotism in every age, so long as there had been + human record of despotism and of battles, Groningen had fallen into the + hands of the foreign foe, not through the prowess of the Spaniard but the + treason of the Netherlander. The baseness of the brilliant, trusted, + valiant, treacherous young Renneberg has been recorded on a previous page + of these volumes. For thirteen years long the republic had chafed at this + acquisition of the hated enemy within its very heart. And now the day had + come when a blow should be struck for its deliverance by the ablest + soldier that had ever shown himself in those regions, one whom the + commonwealth had watched over from his cradle. + </p> + <p> + For in Groningen there was still a considerable party in favour of the + Union, although the treason of Renneberg had hitherto prevented both city + and province from incorporating themselves in the body politic of the + United Netherlands. Within the precincts were five hundred of Verdugo's + veterans under George Lanckema, stationed at a faubourg called + Schuytendiess. In the city there was, properly speaking, no garrison, for + the citizens in the last few years had come to value themselves on their + fidelity to church and king, and to take a sorry pride in being false to + all that was noble in their past. Their ancestors had wrested privilege + after privilege at the sword's point from the mailed hands of dukes and + emperors, until they were almost a self-governing republic; their courts + of justice recognizing no appeal to higher powers, even under the despotic + sway of Charles V. And now, under the reign of his son, and in the feebler + days of that reign, the capital of the free Frisians—the men whom + their ancient pagan statutes had once declared to be "free so long as the + wind blew out of the clouds"—relied upon the trained bands of her + burghers enured to arms and well-provided with all munitions of war to + protect her, not against foreign tyranny nor domestic sedition, but + against liberty and against law. + </p> + <p> + For the representative of the most ancient of the princely houses of + Europe, a youth whose ancestors had been emperors when the forefathers of + Philip, long-descended as he was, were but country squires, was now + knocking at their gates. Not as a conqueror and a despot, but as the + elected first magistrate and commander-in-chief of the freest commonwealth + in the world, Maurice of Nassau, at the head of fifteen thousand + Netherlanders, countrymen of their own, now summoned the inhabitants of + the town and province to participate with their fellow citizens in all the + privileges and duties of the prosperous republic. + </p> + <p> + It seemed impossible that such an appeal could be resisted by force of + arms. Rather it would seem that the very walls should have fallen at his + feet at the first blast of the trumpet; but there was military honour, + there was religious hatred, there was the obstinacy of party. More than + all, there were half a dozen Jesuits within the town, and to those ablest + of generals in times of civil war it was mainly owing that the siege of + Groningen was protracted longer than under other circumstances would have + been possible. + </p> + <p> + It is not my purpose to describe in detail the scientific operations + during the sixty-five days between the 20th May and the 24th July. Again + the commander-in-chief enlightened the world by an exhibition of a more + artistic and humane style of warfare than previously to his appearance on + the military stage had been known. But the daily phenomena of the Leaguer—although + they have been minutely preserved by most competent eyewitnesses—are + hardly entitled to a place except in special military histories where, + however, they should claim the foremost rank. + </p> + <p> + The fortifications of the city were of the most splendid and substantial + character known to the age. The ditches, the ravelins, the curtains, the + towers were as thoroughly constructed as the defences of any place in + Europe. It was therefore necessary that Maurice and his cousin Lewis + should employ all their learning, all their skill, and their best + artillery to reduce this great capital of the Eastern Netherlands. Again + the scientific coil of approaches wound itself around and around the + doomed stronghold; again were constructed the galleries, the covered ways, + the hidden mines, where soldiers, transformed to gnomes, burrowed and + fought within the bowels of the earth; again that fatal letter Y advanced + slowly under ground, stretching its deadly prongs nearer and nearer up to + the walls; and again the system of defences against a relieving force was + so perfectly established that Verdugo or Mansfield, with what troops they + could muster, seemed as powerless as the pewter soldiers with which + Maurice in his boyhood—not yet so long passed away—was wont to + puzzle over the problems which now practically engaged his early manhood. + Again, too, strangely enough, it is recorded that Philip Nassau, at almost + the same period of the siege as in that of Gertruydenberg, signalized + himself by a deed of drunken and superfluous daring. This time the dinner + party was at the quarters of Count Solms, in honour of the Prince of + Anhalt, where, after potations pottle deep, Count Philip rushed from the + dinner-table to the breach, not yet thoroughly practicable, of the north + ravelin, and, entirely without armour, mounted pike in hand to the + assault, proposing to carry the fort by his own unaided exertions. Another + officer, one Captain Vaillant, still more beside himself than was the + count, inspired him to these deeds of valour by assuring him that the mine + was to be sprung under the ravelin that afternoon, and that it was a plot + on the part of the Holland boatmen to prevent the soldiers who had been + working so hard and so long in the mines from taking part in the honours + of the assault. The count was with difficulty brought off with a whole + skin and put to bed. Yet despite these disgraceful pranks there is no + doubt that a better and braver officer than he was hardly to be found even + among the ten noble Nassaus who at that moment were fighting for the cause + of Dutch liberty—fortunately with more sobriety than he at all times + displayed. On the following day, Prince Maurice, making a reconnoissance + of the works with his usual calmness, yet with the habitual contempt of + personal danger which made so singular a contrast with the cautious and + painstaking characteristics of his strategy, very narrowly escaped death. + A shot from the fort struck so hard upon the buckler under cover of which + he was taking his observations as to fell him to the ground. Sir Francis + Vere, who was with the prince under the same buckler, likewise measured + his length in the trench, but both escaped serious injury. + </p> + <p> + Pauli, one of the States commissioners present in the camp, wrote to + Barneveld that it was to be hoped that the accident might prove a warning + to his Excellency. He had repeatedly remonstrated with him, he said, + against his reckless exposure of himself to unnecessary danger, but he was + so energetic and so full of courage that it was impossible to restrain him + from being everywhere every day. + </p> + <p> + Three days later, the letter Y did its work. At ten o'clock 15 July, of + the night of the 15th July, Prince Maurice ordered the mines to be sprung, + when the north ravelin was blown into the air, and some forty of the + garrison with it. Two of them came flying into the besiegers' camp, and, + strange to say, one was alive and sound. The catastrophe finished the + sixty-five days' siege, the breach was no longer defensible, the obstinacy + of the burghers was exhausted, and capitulation followed. In truth, there + had been a subterranean intrigue going on for many weeks, which was almost + as effective as the mine. A certain Jan to Boer had been going back and + forth between camp and city, under various pretexts and safe-conducts, and + it had at last appeared that the Jesuits and the five hundred of Verdugo's + veterans were all that prevented Groningen from returning to the Union. + There had been severe fighting within the city itself, for the Jesuits had + procured the transfer of the veterans from the faubourg to the town + itself, and the result of all these operations, political, military, and + jesuitical, was that on 22nd July articles of surrender were finally + agreed upon between Maurice and a deputation from the magistrates, the + guilds, and commander Lanckema. + </p> + <p> + The city was to take its place thenceforth as a member of the Union. + William Lewis, already stadholder of Friesland for the united States, was + to be recognised as chief magistrate of the whole province, which was thus + to retain all its ancient privileges, laws, and rights of self-government, + while it exchanged its dependence on a distant, foreign, and decaying + despotism for incorporation with a young and vigorous commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + It was arranged that no religion but the reformed religion, as then + practised in the united republic, should be publicly exercised in the + province, but that no man should be questioned as to his faith, or + troubled in his conscience: Cloisters and ecclesiastical property were to + remain 'in statu quo,' until the States-General should come to a definite + conclusion on these subjects. + </p> + <p> + Universal amnesty was proclaimed for all offences and quarrels. Every + citizen or resident foreigner was free to remain in or to retire from the + town or province, with full protection to his person and property, and it + was expressly provided in the articles granted to Lanckema that his + soldiers should depart with arms and baggage, leaving to Prince Maurice + their colours only, while the prince furnished sufficient transportation + for their women and their wounded. The property of Verdugo, royal + stadholder of the province, was to be respected, and to remain in the + city, or to be taken thence under safe conduct, as might be preferred. + </p> + <p> + Ten thousand cannon-shot had been fired against the city. The cost of + powder and shot consumed was estimated at a hundred thousand florins. Four + hundred of the besiegers had been killed, and a much larger number + wounded. The army had been further weakened by sickness and numerous + desertions. Of the besieged, three hundred soldiers in all were killed, + and a few citizens. + </p> + <p> + Thirty-six cannon were taken, besides mortars, and it was said that eight + hundred tons of powder, and plenty of other ammunition and provisions were + found in the place. + </p> + <p> + On the 23rd July Maurice and William Lewis entered the city. Some of the + soldiers were disappointed at the inexorable prohibition of pillage; but + it was the purpose of Maurice, as of the States-General, to place the + sister province at once in the unsullied possession of the liberty and the + order for which the struggle with Spain had, been carried on so long. If + the limitation of public religious worship seemed harsh, it should be + remembered that Romanism in a city occupied by Spanish troops had come to + mean unmitigated hostility to the republic. In the midst of civil war, the + hour for that religious liberty which was the necessary issue of the great + conflict had not yet struck. It was surely something gained for humanity + that no man should be questioned at all as to his creed in countries where + it was so recently the time-honoured practice to question him on the rack, + and to burn him if the answer was objectionable to the inquirer. + </p> + <p> + It was something that the holy Inquisition had been for ever suppressed in + the land. It must be admitted, likewise, that the terms of surrender and + the spectacle of re-established law and order which succeeded the capture + of Groningen furnished a wholesome contrast to the scenes of ineffable + horror that had been displayed whenever a Dutch town had fallen into the + hands of Philip. + </p> + <p> + And thus the commonwealth of the United Netherlands, through the practical + military genius and perseverance of Maurice and Lewis William, and the + substantial statesmanship of Barneveld and his colleagues, had at last + rounded itself into definite shape; while in all directions toward which + men turned their eyes, world-empire, imposing and gorgeous as it had + seemed for an interval, was vanishing before its votaries like a mirage. + The republic, placed on the solid foundations of civil liberty, + self-government, and reasonable law, was steadily consolidating itself. + </p> + <p> + No very prominent movements were undertaken by the forces of the Union + during the remainder of the year. According to the agreements with Henry + IV. it had been necessary to provide that monarch with considerable + assistance to carry on his new campaigns, and it was therefore difficult + for Maurice to begin for the moment upon the larger schemes which he had + contemplated. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the condition of the obedient Netherlands demands a hasty glance. + </p> + <p> + On the death of brother Alexander the Capuchin, Fuentes produced a patent + by which Peter Ernest Mansfeld was provisionally appointed governor, in + case the post should become vacant. During the year which followed, that + testy old campaigner had indulged himself in many petty feuds with all + around him, but had effected, as we have seen, very little to maintain the + king's authority either in the obedient or disobedient provinces. + </p> + <p> + His utter incompetency soon became most painfully apparent. His more than + puerile dependence upon his son, and the more than paternal severity + exercised over him by Count Charles, were made manifest to all the world. + The son ruled the trembling but peevish old warrior with an iron rod, and + endless was their wrangling with Fuentes and all the other Spaniards. + Between the querulousness of the one and the ferocity of the other, poor + Fuentes became sick of his life. + </p> + <p> + "'Tis a diabolical genius, this count Charles," said Ybarra, "and so full + of ambition that he insists on governing everybody just as he rules his + father. As for me, until the archduke comes I am a fish out of water." + </p> + <p> + The true successor to Farnese was to be, the Archduke Ernest, one of the + many candidates for the hand of the Infanta, and for the throne of that + department of the Spanish dominions which was commonly called France. + Should Philip not appropriate the throne without further scruple, in + person, it was on the whole decided that his favorite nephew should be the + satrap of that outlying district of the Spanish empire. In such case + obedient France might be annexed to obedient Netherlands, and united under + the sway of Archduke Ernest. + </p> + <p> + But these dreams had proved in the cold air of reality but midsummer + madness. When the name of the archduke was presented to the estates as + King Ernest I. of France, even the most unscrupulous and impassioned + Leaguers of that country fairly hung their heads. That a foreign prince, + whose very name had never been before heard of by the vast bulk of the + French population, should be deliberately placed upon the throne of St. + Louis and Hugh Capet, was a humiliation hard to defend, profusely as + Philip had scattered the Peruvian and Mexican dollars among the great ones + of the nation, in order to accomplish his purpose. + </p> + <p> + So Archduke Ernest, early in the year 1594, came to Brussels, but he came + as a gloomy, disappointed man. To be a bachelor-governor of the + impoverished, exhausted, half-rebellious, and utterly forlorn little + remnant of the Spanish Netherlands, was a different position from that of + husband of Clara Isabella and king of France, on which his imagination had + been feeding so long. + </p> + <p> + For nearly the whole twelvemonth subsequent to the death of Farnese, the + Spanish envoy to the Imperial court had been endeavouring to arrange for + the departure of the archduke to his seat of government in the + Netherlands. The prince himself was willing enough, but there were many + obstacles on the part of the emperor and his advisers. "Especially there + is one very great impossibility," said San Clemente, "and that is the + poverty of his Highness, which is so great that my own is not greater in + my estate. So I don't see how he can stir a step without money. Here + they'll not furnish him with a penny, and for himself he possesses nothing + but debts." The emperor was so little pleased with the adventure that in + truth, according to the same authority, he looked upon the new viceroy's + embarrassments with considerable satisfaction, so that it was necessary + for Philip to provide for his travelling expenses. + </p> + <p> + Ernest was next brother of the Emperor Rudolph, and as intensely devoted + to the interests of the Roman Church as was that potentate himself, or + even his uncle Philip. + </p> + <p> + He was gentle, weak, melancholy, addicted to pleasure, a martyr to the + gout. He brought no soldiers to the provinces, for the emperor, threatened + with another world-empire on his pagan flank, had no funds nor troops to + send to the assistance of his Christian brother-in-law and uncle. + Moreover, it may be imagined that Rudolph, despite the bonds of religion + and consanguinity, was disposed to look coldly on the colossal projects of + Philip. + </p> + <p> + So Ernest brought no troops, but he brought six hundred and seventy + gentlemen, pages, and cooks, and five hundred and thirty-four horses, not + to charge upon the rebellious Dutchmen withal, but to draw coaches and + six. + </p> + <p> + There was trouble enough prepared for the new governor at his arrival. The + great Flemish and Walloon nobles were quarrelling fiercely with the + Spaniards and among themselves for office and for precedence. Arschot and + his brother Havre both desired the government of Flanders; so did + Arenberg. All three, as well as other gentlemen, were scrambling for the + majordomo's office in Ernest's palace. Havre wanted the finance department + as well, but Ybarra, who was a financier, thought the public funds in his + hands would be in a perilous condition, inasmuch as he was provinces was + accounted the most covetous man in all the provinces. + </p> + <p> + So soon as the archduke was known to be approaching the capital there was + a most ludicrous race run by all these grandees, in order to be the first + to greet his Highness. While Mansfeld and Fuentes were squabbling, as + usual, Arschot got the start of both, and arrived at Treves. Then the + decrepit Peter Ernest struggled as far as Luxembourg, while Fuentes posted + on to Namur. The archduke was much perplexed as to the arranging of all + these personages on the day of his entrance into Brussels. In the council + of state it was still worse. Arschot claimed the first place as duke and + as senior member, Peter Ernest demanded it as late governor-general and + because of his grey hairs. Never was imperial highness more disturbed, + never was clamour for loaves and fishes more deafening. The caustic + financier—whose mind was just then occupied with the graver matter + of assassination on a considerable scale—looked with profound + contempt at the spectacle thus presented to him. "There has been the + devil's own row," said he, "between these counts about offices, and also + about going out to receive the most serene archduke. I have had such work + with them that by the salvation of my soul I swear if it were to last a + fortnight longer I would go off afoot to Spain, even if I were sure of + dying in jail after I got there. I have reconciled the two counts (Fuentes + and Mansfeld) with each other a hundred times, and another hundred times + they have fallen out again, and behaved themselves with such vulgarity + that I blushed for them. They are both to blame, but at any rate we have + now got the archduke housed, and he will get us out of this + embarrassment." + </p> + <p> + The archduke came with rather a prejudice against the Spaniards—the + result doubtless of his disappointment in regard to France—and he + manifested at first an extreme haughtiness to those of that nation with + whom he came in contact. A Castilian noble of high rank, having audience + with him on one occasion, replaced his hat after salutation, as he had + been accustomed to do—according to the manner of grandees of Spain—during + the government of Farnese. The hat was rudely struck from his head by the + archduke's chamberlain, and he was himself ignominiously thrust out of the + presence. At another time an interview was granted to two Spanish + gentlemen who had business to transact. They made their appearance in + magnificent national costume, splendidly embroidered in gold. After a + brief hearing they were dismissed, with appointment of another audience + for a few days later. When they again presented themselves they found the + archduke with his court jester standing at his side, the buffoon being + attired in a suit precisely similar to their own, which in the interval + had been prepared by the court tailor. + </p> + <p> + Such amenities as these did not increase the popularity of Ernest with the + high-spirited Spaniards, nor was it palatable to them that it should be + proposed to supersede the old fighting Portuguese, Verdugo, as governor + and commander-in-chief for the king in Friesland, by Frederic van den + Berg, a renegade Netherlander, unworthy cousin of the Nassaus, who had + never shown either military or administrative genius. + </p> + <p> + Nor did he succeed in conciliating the Flemings or the Germans by these + measures. In truth he was, almost without his own knowledge, under the + controlling influence of Fuentes, the most unscrupulous and dangerous + Spaniard of them all, while his every proceeding was closely watched not + only by Diego and Stephen Ybarra, but even by Christoval de Moura, one of + Philip's two secretaries of state who at this crisis made a visit to + Brussels. + </p> + <p> + These men were indignant at the imbecility of the course pursued in the + obedient provinces. They knew that the incapacity of the Government to + relieve the sieges of Gertruydenberg and Groningen had excited the + contempt of Europe, and was producing a most damaging effect an Spanish + authority throughout Christendom. They were especially irritated by the + presence of the arch-intrigues, Mayenne, in Brussels, even after all his + double dealings had been so completely exposed that a blind man could have + read them. Yet there was Mayenne, consorting with the archduke, and + running up a great bill of sixteen thousand florins at the hotel, which + the royal paymaster declined to settle for want of funds, notwithstanding + Ernest's order to that effect, and there was no possibility of inducing + the viceroy to arrest him, much as he had injured and defrauded the king. + </p> + <p> + How severely Ybarra and Feria denounced Mayenne has been seen; but + remonstrances about this and other grave mistakes of administration were + lost upon Ernest, or made almost impossible by his peculiar temper. "If I + speak of these things to his Highness," said Ybarra, "he will begin to + cry, as he always does." + </p> + <p> + Ybarra, however, thought it his duty secretly to give the king frequent + information as to the blasted and forlorn condition of the provinces. + "This sick man will die in our arms," he said, "without our wishing to + kill him." He also left no doubt in the royal mind as to the utter + incompetency of the archduke for his office. Although he had much + Christianity, amiability, and good intentions, he was so unused to + business, so slow and so lazy, so easily persuaded by those around him, as + to be always falling into errors. He was the servant of his own servants, + particularly of those least disposed to the king's service and most + attentive to their own interests. He had endeavoured to make himself + beloved by the natives of the country, while the very reverse of this had + been the result. + </p> + <p> + "As to his agility and the strength of his body," said the Spaniard, as if + he were thinking of certain allegories which were to mark the archduke's + triumphal entry, "they are so deficient as to leave him unfit for arms. I + consider him incapable of accompanying an army to the field, and we find + him so new to all such affairs as constitute government and the conduct of + warlike business, that he could not steer his way without some one to + enlighten and direct him." + </p> + <p> + It was sometimes complained of in those days—and the thought has + even prolonged itself until later times—that those republicans of + the United Netherlands had done and could do great things; but that, after + all, there was no grandeur about them. Certainly they had done great + things. It was something to fight the Ocean for ages, and patiently and + firmly to shut him out from his own domain. It was something to extinguish + the Spanish Inquisition—a still more cruel and devouring enemy than + the sea. It was something that the fugitive spirit of civil and religious + liberty had found at last its most substantial and steadfast home upon + those storm-washed shoals and shifting sandbanks. + </p> + <p> + It was something to come to the rescue of England in her great agony, and + help to save her from invasion. It was something to do more than any + nation but England, and as much as she, to assist Henry the Huguenot to + the throne of his ancestors and to preserve the national unity of France + which its own great ones had imperilled. It was something to found two + magnificent universities, cherished abodes of science and of antique lore, + in the midst of civil commotions and of resistance to foreign oppression. + It was something, at the same period, to lay the foundation of a system of + common schools—so cheap as to be nearly free—for rich and poor + alike, which, in the words of one of the greatest benefactors to the young + republic, "would be worth all the soldiers, arsenals, armouries, + munitions, and alliances in the world." It was something to make a + revolution, as humane as it was effective, in military affairs, and to + create an army whose camps were European academies. It was something to + organize, at the same critical period, on the most skilful and liberal + scale, to carry out with unexampled daring, sagacity, and fortitude, great + voyages of discovery to the polar regions, and to open new highways for + commerce, new treasures for science. Many things of this nature had been + done by the new commonwealth; but, alas! she did not drape herself + melodramatically, nor stalk about with heroic wreath and cothurn. She was + altogether without grandeur. + </p> + <p> + When Alva had gained his signal victories, and followed them up by those + prodigious massacres which, but for his own and other irrefragable + testimony, would seem too monstrous for belief, he had erected a colossal + statue to himself, attired in the most classical of costumes, and + surrounded with the most mythological of attributes. Here was grandeur. + But William the Silent, after he had saved the republic, for which he had + laboured during his whole lifetime and was destined to pour out his + heart's blood, went about among the brewers and burghers with unbuttoned + doublet and woollen bargeman's waistcoat. It was justly objected to his + clothes, by the euphuistic Fulke Greville, that a meanborn student of the + Inns of Court would have been ashamed to walk about London streets in + them. + </p> + <p> + And now the engineering son of that shabbily-dressed personage had been + giving the whole world lessons in the science of war, and was fairly + perfecting the work which William and his great contemporaries had so well + begun. But if all this had been merely doing great things without + greatness, there was one man in the Netherlands who knew what grandeur + was. He was not a citizen of the disobedient republic, however, but a + loyal subject of the obedient provinces, and his name was John Baptist + Houwaerts, an eminent schoolmaster of Brussels. He was still more eminent + as a votary of what was called "Rhetoric" and as an arranger of triumphal + processions and living pictures. + </p> + <p> + The arrival of Archduke Ernest at the seat of the provincial Government + offered an opportunity, which had long been wanting, for a display of John + Baptist's genius. The new viceroy was in so shattered a condition of + health, so crippled with the gout, as to be quite unable to stand, and it + required the services of several lackeys to lift him into and out of his + carriage. A few days of repose therefore were indispensable to him before + he could make his "joyous entrance" into the capital. But the day came at + last, and the exhibition was a masterpiece. + </p> + <p> + It might have seemed that the abject condition of the Spanish provinces—desolate, + mendicant, despairing—would render holiday making impossible. But + although almost every vestige of the ancient institutions had vanished + from the obedient Netherlands as a reward for their obedience; although to + civil and religious liberty, law, order, and a thriving commercial and + manufacturing existence, such as had been rarely witnessed in the world, + had succeeded the absolute tyranny of Jesuits, universal beggary, and a + perennial military mutiny—setting Government at defiance and + plundering the people—there was one faithful never deserted Belgica, + and that was Rhetoric. + </p> + <p> + Neither the magnificence nor the pedantry of the spectacles by which the + entry of the mild and inefficient Ernest into Brussels and Antwerp was now + solemnized had ever been surpassed. The town councils, stimulated by hopes + absolutely without foundation as to great results to follow the advent of + the emperor's brother, had voted large sums and consumed many days in + anxious deliberation upon the manner in which they should be expended so + as most to redound to the honour of Ernest and the reputation of the + country. + </p> + <p> + In place of the "bloody tragedies of burning, murdering, and ravishing," + of which the provinces had so long been the theatre, it was resolved that, + "Rhetoric's sweet comedies, amorous jests, and farces," should gladden all + eyes and hearts. A stately procession of knights and burghers in + historical and mythological costumes, followed by ships, dromedaries, + elephants, whales, giants, dragons, and other wonders of the sea and + shore, escorted the archduke into the city. Every street and square was + filled with triumphal arches, statues and platforms, on which the most + ingenious and thoroughly classical living pictures were exhibited. There + was hardly an eminent deity of Olympus, or hero of ancient history, that + was not revived and made visible to mortal eyes in the person of Ernestus + of Austria. + </p> + <p> + On a framework fifty-five feet high and thirty-three feet in breadth he + was represented as Apollo hurling his darts at an enormous Python, under + one of whose fore-paws struggled an unfortunate burgher, while the other + clutched a whole city; Tellus, meantime, with her tower on her head, + kneeling anxious and imploring at the feet of her deliverer. On another + stage Ernest assumed the shape of Perseus; Belgica that of the bound and + despairing Andromeda. On a third, the interior of Etna was revealed, when + Vulcan was seen urging his Cyclops to forge for Ernest their most + tremendous thunderbolts with which to smite the foes of the provinces, + those enemies being of course the English and the Hollanders. Venus, the + while, timidly presented an arrow to her husband, which he was requested + to sharpen, in order that when the wars were over Cupid, therewith might + pierce the heart of some beautiful virgin, whose charms should reward + Ernest—fortunately for the female world, still a bachelor—for + his victories and his toils. + </p> + <p> + The walls of every house were hung with classic emblems and inscribed with + Latin verses. All the pedagogues of Brussels and Antwerp had been at work + for months, determined to amaze the world with their dithyrambics and + acrostics, and they had outdone themselves. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, in addition to all these theatrical spectacles and pompous + processions—accompanied as they were by blazing tar-barrels, flying + dragons, and leagues of flaring torches—John Baptist, who had been + director-in-chief of all the shows successively arranged to welcome Don + John of Austria, Archduke Matthias, Francis of Alengon, and even William + of Orange, into the capital, had prepared a feast of a specially + intellectual character for the new governor-general. + </p> + <p> + The pedant, according to his own account, so soon as the approach of + Ernest had been announced, fell straightway into a trance. While he was in + that condition, a beautiful female apparition floated before his eyes, + and, on being questioned, announced her name to be Moralization. John + Baptist begged her to inform him whether it were true, as had been stated, + that Jupiter had just sent Mercury to the Netherlands. The phantom, + correcting his mistake, observed that the king of gods and men had not + sent Hermes but the Archduke Ernestus, beloved of the three Graces, + favourite of the nine Muses, and, in addition to these advantages, nephew + and brother-in-law of the King of Spain, to the relief of the suffering + provinces. The Netherlands, it was true, for their religious infidelity, + had justly incurred great disasters and misery; but benignant Jove, who, + to the imagination of this excited Fleming, seemed to have been converted + to Catholicism while still governing the universe, had now sent them in + mercy a deliverer. The archduke would speedily relieve "bleeding Belgica" + from her sufferings, bind up her wounds, and annihilate her enemies. The + spirit further informed the poet that the forests of the Low Countries—so + long infested by brigands, wood-beggars, and malefactors of all kinds—would + thenceforth swarm with "nymphs, rabbits, hares, and animals of that + nature." + </p> + <p> + A vision of the conquering Ernest, attended by "eight-and-twenty noble and + pleasant females, marching two and two, half naked, each holding a torch + in one hand and a laurel-wreath in the other," now swept before the + dreamer's eyes. He naturally requested the "discreet spirit" to mention + the names of this bevy of imperfectly attired ladies thronging so lovingly + around the fortunate archduke, and was told that "they were the + eight-and-twenty virtues which chiefly characterized his serene Highness." + Prominent in this long list, and they were all faithfully enumerated, were + "Philosophy, Audacity, Acrimony, Virility, Equity, Piety, Velocity, and + Alacrity." The two last-mentioned qualities could hardly be attributed to + the archduke in his decrepit condition, except in an intensely + mythological sense. Certainly, they would have been highly useful virtues + to him at that moment. The prince who had just taken Gertruydenberg, and + was then besieging Groningen, was manifesting his share of audacity, + velocity, and other good gifts on even a wider platform than that erected + for Ernest by John Baptist Houwaerts; and there was an admirable + opportunity for both to develope their respective characteristics for the + world's judgment. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the impersonation of the gentle and very gouty invalid as Apollo, + as Perseus, as the feather-heeled Mercury, was highly applauded by the + burghers of Brussels. + </p> + <p> + And so the dreamer dreamed on, and the discreet nymph continued to + discourse, until John Baptist, starting suddenly from his trance beheld + that it was all a truth and no vision. Ernest was really about to enter + the Netherlands, and with him the millennium. The pedant therefore + proceeded to his desk, and straightway composed the very worst poem that + had ever been written in any language, even Flemish. + </p> + <p> + There were thousands of lines in it, and not a line without a god or a + goddess. + </p> + <p> + Mars, Nemesis, and Ate, Pluto, Rhadamanthus, and Minos, the Fates and the + Furies, together with Charon, Calumnia, Bellona, and all such + objectionable divinities, were requested to disappear for ever from the + Low Countries; while in their stead were confidently invoked Jupiter, + Apollo, Triptolemus, and last, though not least, Rhetorica. + </p> + <p> + Enough has been said of this raree-show to weary the reader's patience, + but not more than enough to show the docile and enervated nature of this + portion of a people who had lost everything for which men cherish their + fatherland, but who could still find relief—after thirty years of + horrible civil war in painted pageantry, Latin versification, and the + classical dictionary. + </p> + <p> + Yet there was nothing much more important achieved by the archduke in the + brief period for which his administration was destined to endure. Three + phenomena chiefly marked his reign, but his own part in the three was + rather a passive than an active one—mutiny, assassination, and + negotiation—the two last attempted on a considerable scale but + ending abortively. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to exaggerate the misery of the obedient provinces at + this epoch. The insane attempt of the King of Spain, with such utterly + inadequate machinery, to conquer the world has been sufficiently dilated + upon. The Spanish and Italian and Walloon soldiers were starving in + Brabant and Flanders in order that Spanish gold might be poured into the + bottomless pit of the Holy League in France. + </p> + <p> + The mutiny that had broken forth the preceding year in Artois and Hamault + was now continued on a vast scale in Brabant. Never had that national + institution—a Spanish mutiny—been more thoroughly organized, + more completely carried out in all its details. All that was left of the + famous Spanish discipline and military science in this their period of + rapid decay, seemed monopolized by the mutineers. Some two thousand choice + troops (horse and foot), Italians and Spanish, took possession of two + considerable cities, Sichem and Arschot, and ultimately concentrated + themselves at Sichem, which they thoroughly fortified. Having chosen their + Eletto and other officers they proceeded regularly to business. To the + rallying point came disaffected troops of all nations from far and near. + Never since the beginning of the great war had there been so extensive a + military rebellion, nor one in which so many veteran officers, colonels, + captains, and subalterns took part. The army of Philip had at last grown + more dangerous to himself than to the Hollanders. + </p> + <p> + The council at Brussels deliberated anxiously upon the course to be + pursued, and it was decided at last to negotiate with instead of attacking + them. But it was soon found that the mutineers were as hard to deal with + as were the republicans on the other side the border. They refused to hear + of anything short of complete payment of the enormous arrears due to them, + with thorough guarantees and hostages that any agreement made between + themselves and the archduke should be punctually carried out. Meanwhile + they ravaged the country far and near, and levied their contributions on + towns and villages, up to the very walls of Brussels, and before the very + eyes of the viceroy. + </p> + <p> + Moreover they entered into negotiation with Prince Maurice of Nassau, not + offering to enlist under his flag, but asking for protection against the + king in exchange for a pledge meanwhile not to serve his cause. At last + the archduke plucked up a heart and sent some troops against the rebels, + who had constructed two forts on the river Demer near the city of Sichem. + In vain Velasco, commander of the expedition, endeavoured to cut off the + supplies for these redoubts. The vigour and audacity of the rebel cavalry + made the process impossible. Velasco then attempted to storm the lesser + stronghold of the two, but was repulsed with the loss of two hundred + killed. Among these were many officers, one of whom, Captain Porto + Carrero, was a near relative of Fuentes. After a siege, Velasco, who was a + marshal of the camp of considerable distinction, succeeded in driving the + mutineers out of the forts; who, finding their position thus weakened, + renewed their negotiations with Maurice. They at last obtained permission + from the prince to remain under the protection of Gertruydenberg and Breda + until they could ascertain what decision the archduke would take. More + they did not ask of Maurice, nor did he require more of them. + </p> + <p> + The mutiny, thus described in a few lines, had occupied nearly a year, and + had done much to paralyze for that period all the royal operations in the + Netherlands. In December the rebellious troops marched out of Sichem in + perfect order, and came to Langstraet within the territory of the + republic. + </p> + <p> + The archduke now finding himself fairly obliged to treat with them sent an + offer of the same terms which had been proposed to mutineers on previous + occasions. At first they flatly refused to negotiate at all, but at last, + with the permission of Maurice, who conducted himself throughout with + scrupulous delicacy, and made no attempts to induce them to violate their + allegiance to the king, they received Count Belgioso, the envoy of the + archduke. They held out for payment of all their arrears up to the last + farthing, and insisted on a hostage of rank until the debt should be + discharged. Full forgiveness of their rebellious proceedings was added as + a matter of course. Their terms were accepted, and Francisco Padiglia was + assigned as a hostage. They then established themselves, according to + agreement, at Tirlemont, which they were allowed to fortify at the expense + of the province and to hold until the money for their back wages could be + scraped together. Meantime they received daily wages and rations from the + Government at Brussels, including thirty stivers a day for each horseman, + thirteen crowns a day for the Eletto, and ten crowns a day for each + counsellor, making in all five hundred crowns a day. And here they + remained, living exceedingly at their ease and enjoying a life of leisure + for eighteen months, and until long after the death of the archduke, for + it was not until the administration of Cardinal Albert that the funds, + amounting to three hundred and sixty thousand crowns, could be collected. + </p> + <p> + These were the chief military exploits of the podagric Perseus in behalf + of the Flemish Andromeda. + </p> + <p> + A very daring adventure was however proposed to the archduke. Philip + calmly suggested that an expedition should be rapidly fitted out in + Dunkirk, which should cross the channel, ascend the Thames as far as + Rochester, and burn the English fleet. "I am informed by persons well + acquainted with the English coast," said the king, "that it would be an + easy matter for a few quick-sailing vessels to accomplish this. Two or + three thousand soldiers might be landed at Rochester who might burn or + sink all the unarmed vessels they could find there, and the expedition + could return and sail off again before the people of the country could + collect in sufficient numbers to do them any damage." The archduke was + instructed to consult with Fuentes and Ybarra as to whether this little + matter, thus parenthetically indicated, could be accomplished without too + much risk and trouble. + </p> + <p> + Certainly it would seem as if the king believed in the audacity, virility, + velocity, alacrity, and the rest of the twenty-eight virtues of his + governor-general, even more seriously than did John Baptist Houwaerts. The + unfortunate archduke would have needed to be, in all earnestness, a + mythological demigod to do the work required of him. With the best part of + his army formally maintained by him in recognised mutiny, with the great + cities of the Netherlands yielding themselves to the republic with hardly + an attempt on the part of the royal forces to relieve them, and with the + country which he was supposed to govern, the very centre of the obedient + provinces, ruined, sacked, eaten up by the soldiers of Spain; villages, + farmhouses, gentlemen's castles, churches plundered; the male population + exposed to daily butchery, and the women to outrages worse than death; it + seemed like the bitterest irony to propose that he should seize that + moment to outwit the English and Dutch sea-kings who were perpetually + cruising in the channel, and to undertake a "beard-singeing" expedition + such as even the dare-devil Drake would hardly have attempted. + </p> + <p> + Such madcap experiments might perhaps one day, in the distant future, be + tried with reasonable success, but hardly at the beck of a Spanish king + sitting in his easy chair a thousand miles off, nor indeed by the servants + of any king whatever. + </p> + <p> + The plots of murder arranged in Brussels during this administration were + on a far more extensive scale than were the military plans. + </p> + <p> + The Count of Fuentes, general superintendent of foreign affairs, was + especially charged with the department of assassination. This office was + no sinecure; for it involved much correspondence, and required great + personal attention to minute details. Philip, a consummate artist in this + branch of industry, had laid out a good deal of such work which he thought + could best be carried out in and from the Netherlands. Especially it was + desirable to take off, by poison or otherwise, Henry IV., Queen Elizabeth, + Maurice of Nassau, Olden-Barneveld, St. Aldegonde, and other less + conspicuous personages. + </p> + <p> + Henry's physician-in-chief, De la Riviere, was at that time mainly + occupied with devising antidotes to poison, which he well knew was offered + to his master on frequent occasions, and in the most insidious ways. + Andrada, the famous Portuguese poisoner, amongst others is said, under + direction of Fuentes and Ybarra, to have attempted his life by a nosegay + of roses impregnated with so subtle a powder that its smell alone was + relied upon to cause death, and De la Riviere was doing his best to search + for a famous Saxon drug, called fable-powder, as a counter-poison. "The + Turk alarms us, and well he may," said a diplomatic agent of Henry, "but + the Spaniard allows us not to think of the Turk. And what a strange manner + is this to exercise one's enmities and vengeance by having recourse to + such damnable artifices, after force and arms have not succeeded, and to + attack the person of princes by poisonings and assassinations." + </p> + <p> + A most elaborate attempt upon the life of Queen Elizabeth early in this + year came near being successful. A certain Portuguese Jew, Dr. Lopez, had + for some time been her physician-in-ordinary. He had first been received + into her service on the recommendation of Don Antonio, the pretender, and + had the reputation of great learning and skill. With this man Count + Fuentes and Stephen Ybarra, chief of the financial department at Brussels, + had a secret understanding. Their chief agent was Emanuel Andrada, who was + also in close communication with Bernardino de Mendoza and other leading + personages of the Spanish court. Two years previously, Philip, by the + hands of Andrada, had sent a very valuable ring of rubies and diamonds as + a present to Lopez, and the doctor had bound himself to do any service for + the king of Spain that might be required of him. Andrada accordingly wrote + to Mendoza that he had gained over this eminent physician, but that as + Lopez was poor and laden with debt, a high price would be required for his + work. Hereupon Fuentes received orders from the King of Spain to give the + Jew all that he could in reason demand, if he would undertake to poison + the queen. + </p> + <p> + It now became necessary to handle the matter with great delicacy, and + Fuentes and Ybarra entered accordingly into a correspondence, not with + Lopez, but with a certain Ferrara de Gama. These letters were entrusted to + one Emanuel Lewis de Tinoco, secretly informed of the plot, for delivery + to Ferrara. Fuentes charged Tinoco to cause Ferrara to encourage Lopez to + poison her Majesty of England, that they might all have "a merry Easter." + Lopez was likewise requested to inform the King of Spain when he thought + he could accomplish the task. The doctor ultimately agreed to do the deed + for fifty thousand crowns, but as he had daughters and was an affectionate + parent, he stipulated for a handsome provision in marriage for those young + ladies. The terms were accepted, but Lopez wished to be assured of the + money first. + </p> + <p> + "Having once undertaken the work," said Lord Burghley, if he it were, "he + was so greedy to perform it that he would ask Ferrara every day, 'When + will the money come? I am ready to do the service if the answer were come + out of Spain.'" + </p> + <p> + But Philip, as has been often seen, was on principle averse to paying for + work before it had been done. Some delay occurring, and the secret, thus + confided to so many, having floated as it were imperceptibly into the air, + Tinoco was arrested on suspicion before he had been able to deliver the + letters of Fuentes and Ybarra to Ferrara, for Ferrara, too, had been + imprisoned before the arrival of Tinoco. The whole correspondence was + discovered, and both Ferrara and Tinoco confessed the plot. Lopez, when + first arrested, denied his guilt very stoutly, but being confronted with + Ferrara, who told the whole story to his face in presence of the judges, + he at last avowed the crime. + </p> + <p> + They were all condemned, executed, and quartered at London in the spring + of 1594. The queen wished to send a special envoy to the archduke at + Brussels, to complain that Secretary of State Cristoval de Moura, Count + Fuentes, and Finance Minister Ybarra—all three then immediately + about his person—were thus implicated in the plot against her life, + to demand their punishment, or else, in case of refusals to convict the + king and the archduke as accomplices in the crime. Safe conduct was + requested for such an envoy, which was refused by Ernest as an insulting + proposition both to his uncle and himself. The queen accordingly sent word + to President Richardot by one of her council, that the whole story would + be published, and this was accordingly done. + </p> + <p> + Early in the spring of this same year, a certain Renichon, priest and + schoolmaster of Namur, was summoned from his school to a private interview + with Count Berlaymont. That nobleman very secretly informed the priest + that the King of, Spain wished to make use of him in an affair of great + importance, and one which would be very profitable to himself. The pair + then went together to Brussels, and proceeded straightway to the palace. + They were secretly admitted to the apartments of the archduke, but the + priest, meaning to follow his conductor into the private chamber, where he + pretended to recognize the person of Ernest, was refused admittance. The + door was, however, not entirely closed, and he heard, as he declared, the + conversation between his Highness and Berlaymont, which was carried on + partly in Latin and partly in Spanish. He heard them discussing the + question—so he stated—of the recompense to be awarded for the + business about to be undertaken, and after a brief conversation, + distinctly understood the archduke to say, as the count was approaching + the door, "I will satisfy him abundantly and with interest." + </p> + <p> + Berlaymont then invited his clerical guest to supper—so ran his + statement—and, after that repast was finished, informed him that he + was requested by the archduke to kill Prince Maurice of Nassau. For this + piece of work he was to receive one hundred Philip-dollars in hand, and + fifteen thousand more, which were lying ready for him, so soon as the deed + should be done. + </p> + <p> + The schoolmaster at first objected to the enterprise, but ultimately + yielded to the persuasions of the count. He was informed that Maurice was + a friendly, familiar gentleman, and that there would be opportunities + enough for carrying out the project if he took his time. He was to buy a + good pair of pistols and remove to the Hague, where he was to set up a + school, and wait for the arrival of his accomplices, of whom there were + six. Berlaymont then caused to be summoned and introduced to the pedagogue + a man whom he described as one of the six. The new comer, hearing that + Renichon had agreed to the propositions made to him, hailed him cordially + as comrade and promised to follow him very soon into Holland. Berlaymont + then observed that there were several personages to be made away with, + besides Prince Maurice—especially Barneveld, and St. Aldegonde and + that the six assassins had, since the time of the Duke of Parma, been kept + in the pay of the King of Spain as nobles, to be employed as occasion + should serve. + </p> + <p> + His new comrade accompanied Renichon to the canal boat, conversing by the + way, and informed him that they were both to be sent to Leyden in order to + entice away and murder the young brother of Maurice, Frederic Henry, then + at school at that place, even as Philip William, eldest of all the + brothers, had been kidnapped five-and-twenty years before from the same + town. + </p> + <p> + Renichon then disguised himself as a soldier, proceeded to Antwerp, where + he called himself Michael de Triviere, and thence made his way to Breda, + provided with letters from Berlaymont. He was, however, arrested on + suspicion not long after his arrival there, and upon trial the whole plot + was discovered. Having unsuccessfully attempted to hang himself, he + subsequently, without torture, made a full and minute confession, and was + executed on the 3rd June, 1594. + </p> + <p> + Later in the year, one Pierre du Four, who had been a soldier both in the + States and the French service, was engaged by General La Motte and + Counsellor Assonleville to attempt the assassination of Prince Maurice. La + Motte took the man to the palace, and pretended at least to introduce him + to the chamber of the archduke, who was said to be lying ill in bed. Du + Four was advised to enrol himself in the body-guard at the Hague, and to + seek an opportunity when the prince went hunting, or was mounting his + horse, or was coming from church, or at some such unguarded moment, to + take a shot at him. "Will you do what I ask," demanded from the bed the + voice of him who was said to be Ernest, "will you kill this tyrant?"—"I + will," replied the soldier. "Then my son," was the parting benediction of + the supposed archduke, "you will go straight to paradise." + </p> + <p> + Afterwards he received good advice from Assonleville, and was assured that + if he would come and hear a mass in the royal chapel next morning, that + religious ceremony would make him invisible when he should make his + attempt on the life of Maurice, and while he should be effecting his + escape. The poor wretch accordingly came next morning to chapel, where + this miraculous mass was duly performed, and he then received a certain + portion of his promised reward in ready money. He was also especially + charged, in case he should be arrested, not to make a confession—as + had been done by those previously employed in such work—as all + complicity with him on part of his employers would certainly be denied. + </p> + <p> + The miserable dupe was arrested, convicted, executed; and of course the + denial was duly made on the part of the archduke, La Motte, and + Assonleville. It was also announced, on behalf of Ernest, that some one + else, fraudulently impersonating his Highness, had lain in the bed to + which the culprit had been taken, and every one must hope that the + statement was a true one. + </p> + <p> + Enough has been given to show the peculiar school of statesmanship + according to the precepts of which the internal concerns and foreign + affairs of the obedient Netherlands were now administered. Poison and + pistols in the hands of obscure priests and deserters were relied on to + bring about great political triumphs, while the mutinous royal armies, + entrenched and defiant, were extorting capitulations from their own + generals and their own sovereign upon his own soil. + </p> + <p> + Such a record as this seems rather like the exaggeration of a diseased + fancy, seeking to pander to a corrupt public taste which feeds greedily + upon horrors; but, unfortunately, it is derived from the register of high + courts of justice, from diplomatic correspondence, and from the + confessions, without torture or hope of free pardon, of criminals. For a + crowned king and his high functionaries and generals to devote so much of + their time, their energies, and their money to the murder of brother and + sister sovereigns, and other illustrious personages, was not to make after + ages in love with the monarchic and aristocratic system, at least as thus + administered. Popular governments may be deficient in polish, but a system + resting for its chief support upon bribery and murder cannot be considered + lovely by any healthy mind. And this is one of the lessons to be derived + from the history of Philip II. and of the Holy League. + </p> + <p> + But besides mutiny and assassination there were also some feeble attempts + at negotiation to characterize the Ernestian epoch at Brussels. The + subject hardly needs more than a passing allusion. + </p> + <p> + Two Flemish juris-consults, Otto Hertius and Jerome Comans, offered their + services to the archduke in the peacemaking department. Ernest accepted + the proposition,—although it was strongly opposed by Fuentes, who + relied upon the more practical agency of Dr. Lopez, Andrada, Renichon, and + the rest—and the peace-makers accordingly made their appearance at + the Hague, under safe conduct, and provided with very conciliatory letters + from his Highness to the States-General. In all ages and under all + circumstances it is safe to enlarge, with whatever eloquence may be at + command, upon the blessings of peace and upon the horrors of war; for the + appeal is not difficult to make, and a response is certain in almost every + human breast. But it is another matter to descend from the general to the + particular, and to demonstrate how the desirable may be attained and the + horrible averted. The letters of Ernest were full of benignity and + affection, breathing a most ardent desire that the miserable war, now a + quarter of a century old, should be then and there terminated. But not one + atom of concession was offered, no whisper breathed that the republic, if + it should choose to lay down its victorious arms, and renounce its dearly + gained independence, should share any different fate from that under which + it saw the obedient provinces gasping before its eyes. To renounce + religious and political liberty and self-government, and to submit + unconditionally to the authority of Philip II. as administered by Ernest + and Fuentes, was hardly to be expected as the result of the three years' + campaigns of Maurice of Nassau. + </p> + <p> + The two doctors of law laid the affectionate common-places of the archduke + before the States-General, each of them making, moreover, a long and + flowery oration in which the same protestations of good will and hopes of + future good-fellowship were distended to formidable dimensions by much + windy rhetoric. The accusations which had been made against the Government + of Brussels of complicity in certain projects of assassination were + repelled with virtuous indignation. + </p> + <p> + The answer of the States-General was wrathful and decided. They informed + the commissioners that they had taken up arms for a good cause and meant + to retain them in their hands. They expressed their thanks for the + expressions of good will which had been offered, but avowed their right to + complain before God and the world of those who under pretext of peace were + attempting to shed the innocent blood of Christians, and to procure the + ruin and destruction of the Netherlands. To this end the state-council of + Spain was more than ever devoted, being guilty of the most cruel and + infamous proceedings and projects. They threw out a rapid and stinging + summary of their wrongs; and denounced with scorn the various hollow + attempts at negotiation during the preceding twenty-five years. Coming + down to the famous years 1587 and 1588, they alluded in vehement terms to + the fraudulent peace propositions which had been thrown as a veil over the + Spanish invasion of England and the Armada; and they glanced at the + mediation-projects of the emperor in 1591 at the desire of Spain, while + armies were moving in force from Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands to + crush the King of France, in order that Philip might establish his tyranny + over all kings, princes, provinces, and republics. That the Spanish + Government was secretly dealing with the emperor and other German + potentates for the extension of his universal empire appeared from + intercepted letters of the king—copies of which were communicated—from + which it was sufficiently plain that the purpose of his Majesty was not to + bestow peace and tranquillity upon the Netherlands. The names of Fuentes, + Clemente, Ybarra, were sufficient in themselves to destroy any such + illusion. They spoke in blunt terms of the attempt of Dr. Lopez to poison + Queen Elizabeth, at the instigation of Count Fuentes for fifty thousand + crowns to be paid by the King of Spain: they charged upon the same Fuentes + and upon Ybarra that they had employed the same Andrada to murder the King + of France with a nosegay of roses; and they alluded further to the + revelations of Michael Renichon, who was to murder Maurice of Nassau and + kidnap Frederic William, even as their father and brother had been already + murdered and kidnapped. + </p> + <p> + For such reasons the archduke might understand by what persons and what + means the good people of the Netherlands were deceived, and how difficult + it was for the States to forget such lessons, or to imagine anything + honest in the present propositions. + </p> + <p> + The States declared themselves, on the contrary, more called upon than + ever before to be upon the watch against the stealthy proceedings of the + Spanish council of state—bearing in mind the late execrable attempts + at assassination, and the open war which was still carried on against the + King of France. + </p> + <p> + And although it was said that his Highness was displeased with such + murderous and hostile proceedings, still it was necessary for the States + to beware of the nefarious projects of the King of Spain and his council. + </p> + <p> + After the conversion of Henry IV. to the Roman Church had been duly + accomplished that monarch had sent a secret envoy to Spain. The mission of + this agent—De Varenne by name—excited intense anxiety and + suspicion in England and Holland and among the Protestants of France and + Germany. It was believed that Henry had not only made a proposition of a + separate peace with Philip, but that he had formally but mysteriously + demanded the hand of the Infanta in marriage. Such a catastrophe as this + seemed to the heated imaginations of the great body of Calvinists + throughout Europe, who had so faithfully supported the King of Navarre up + to the moment of his great apostasy, the most cruel and deadly treachery + of all. That the princess with the many suitors should come to reign over + France after all—not as the bride of her own father, not as the + queen-consort of Ernest the Habsburger or of Guise the Lorrainer, but as + the lawful wife of Henry the Huguenot—seemed almost too astounding + for belief, even amid the chances and changes of that astonishing epoch. + Yet Duplessis Mornay avowed that the project was entertained, and that he + had it from the very lips of the secret envoy who was to negotiate the + marriage. "La Varenne is on his way to Spain," wrote Duplessis to the Duke + of Bouillon, "in company with a gentleman of Don Bernardino de Mendoza, + who brought the first overtures. He is to bring back the portrait of the + Infanta. 'Tis said that the marriage is to be on condition that the Queen + and the Netherlands are comprised in the peace, but you know that this + cannot be satisfactorily arranged for those two parties. All this was once + guess-work, but is now history." + </p> + <p> + That eminent diplomatist and soldier Mendoza had already on his return + from France given the King of Spain to understand that there were no hopes + of his obtaining the French crown either for himself or for his daughter, + that all the money lavished on the chiefs of the League was thrown away, + and that all their promises were idle wind. Mendoza in consequence had + fallen into contempt at court, but Philip, observing apparently that there + might have been something correct in his statements, had recently recalled + him, and, notwithstanding his blindness and other infirmities, was + disposed to make use of him in secret negotiations. Mendoza had + accordingly sent a confidential agent to Henry IV. offering his good + offices, now that the king had returned to the bosom of the Church. + </p> + <p> + This individual, whose name was Nunez, was admitted by De Bethune + (afterwards the famous Due de Sully) to the presence of the king, but De + Bethune, believing it probable that the Spaniard had been sent to + assassinate Henry, held both the hands of the emissary during the whole + interview, besides subjecting him to a strict personal visitation + beforehand. Nunez stated that he was authorized to propose to his Majesty + a marriage with the Infanta Clara Isabella, and Henry, much to the + discontent of De Bethune, listened eagerly to the suggestion, and promised + to send a secret agent to Spain to confer on the subject with Mendoza. + </p> + <p> + The choice he made of La Varenne, whose real name was Guillaume Fouquet, + for this mission was still more offensive to De Bethune. Fouquet had + originally been a cook in the service of Madame Catherine, and was famous + for his talent for larding poultry, but he had subsequently entered the + household of Henry, where he had been employed in the most degrading + service which one man can render to another. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ["La Varenne," said Madame Catherine on one occasion "tu as plus + gagne ti porter les poulets de men frere, qu'a piquer les miens." + Memoires de Sully, Liv. vi. p. 296, note 6. He accumulated a large + fortune in these dignified pursuits—having, according to Winwood, + landed estates to the annual amount of sixty thousand francs a-year + —and gave large dowries to his daughters, whom he married into + noblest families; "which is the more remarkable," adds Winwood, + "considering the services wherein he is employed about the king, + which is to be the Mezzano for his loves; the place from whence he + came, which is out of the kitchen of Madame the king's sister."— + Memorials, i. 380.] +</pre> + <p> + On his appointment to this office of secret diplomacy he assumed all the + airs of an ambassador, while Henry took great pains to contradict the + reports which were spread as to the true nature of this mission to Spain. + </p> + <p> + Duplessis was, in truth, not very far wrong in his conjectures, but, as + might be supposed, Henry was most anxious to conceal these secret + negotiations with his Catholic Majesty from the Huguenot chiefs whom he + had so recently deserted. "This is all done without the knowledge of the + Duke of Bouillon," said Calvaert, "or at least under a very close + disguise, as he, himself keenly feels and confesses to me." The envoy of + the republic, as well as the leaders of the Protestant party in France, + were resolved if possible to break off these dark and dangerous intrigues, + the nature of which they so shrewdly suspected, and to substitute for them + an open rupture of Henry with the King of Spain, and a formal declaration + of war against him. None of the diplomatists or political personages + engaged in these great affairs, in which the whole world was so deeply + interested, manifested more sagacity and insight on this occasion than did + the Dutch statesmen. We have seen that even Sir Edward Stafford was + deceived up to a very late moment, as to the rumoured intentions of Henry + to enter the Catholic Church. Envoy Edmonds was now equally and completely + in the dark as to the mission of Varenne, and informed his Government that + the only result of it was that the secret agent to Spain was favoured, + through the kindness of Mendoza, with a distant view of Philip II. with + his son and daughter at their devotions in the chapel of the Escorial. + This was the tale generally recounted and believed after the agent's + return from Spain, so that Varenne was somewhat laughed at as having gone + to Spain on a fool's errand, and as having got nothing from Mendoza but a + disavowal of his former propositions. But the shrewd Calvaert, who had + entertained familiar relations with La Varenne, received from that + personage after his return a very different account of his excursion to + the Escorial from the one generally circulated. "Coming from Monceaus to + Paris in his company," wrote Calvaert in a secret despatch to the States, + "I had the whole story from him. The chief part of his negotiations with + Don Bernardino de Mendoza was that if his Majesty (the French king) would + abandon the Queen of England and your Highnesses (the States of the + Netherlands), there were no conditions that would be refused the king, + including the hand of the Infanta, together with a good recompense for the + kingdom of Navarre. La Varenne maintained that the King of Spain had + caused these negotiations to be entered upon at this time with him in the + certain hope and intention of a definite conclusion, alleging to me many + pertinent reasons, and among others that he, having been lodged at Madrid, + through the adroitness of Don Bernardino, among all the agents of the + League, and hearing all their secrets and negotiations, had never been + discovered, but had always been supposed to be one of the League himself. + He said also that he was well assured that the Infanta in her heart had an + affection for the French king, and notwithstanding any resolutions that + might be taken (to which I referred, meaning the projects for bestowing + her on the house of Austria) that she with her father's consent or in case + of his death would not fail to carry out this marriage. You may from all + this, even out of the proposal for compensation for the kingdom of Navarre + (of which his Majesty also let out something to me inadvertently); collect + the reasons why such feeble progress is made in so great an occasion as + now presents itself for a declaration of war and an open alliance with + your Highnesses. I shall not fail to watch these events, even in case of + the progress of the said resolutions, notwithstanding the effects of which + it is my opinion that this secret intrigue is not to be abandoned. To this + end, besides the good intelligence which one gets by means of good + friends, a continual and agreeable presentation of oneself to his Majesty, + in order to see and hear everything, is necessary." + </p> + <p> + Certainly, here were reasons more than sufficient why Henry should be + making but feeble preparations for open war in alliance with England and + the republic against Philip, as such a step was hardly compatible with the + abandonment of England and the republic and the espousal of Philip's + daughter—projects which Henry's commissioner had just been + discussing with Philip's agent at Madrid and the Escorial. + </p> + <p> + Truly it was well for the republican envoy to watch events as closely as + possible, to make the most of intelligence from his good friends, and to + present himself as frequently and as agreeably as possible to his Majesty, + that he might hear and see everything. There was much to see and to hear, + and it needed adroitness and courage, not to slip or stumble in such dark + ways where the very ground seemed often to be sliding from beneath the + feet. + </p> + <p> + To avoid the catastrophe of an alliance between Henry, Philip, and the + Pope against Holland and England, it was a pressing necessity for Holland + and England to force Henry into open war against Philip. To this end the + Dutch statesmen were bending all their energies. Meantime Elizabeth + regarded the campaign in Artois and Hainault with little favour. + </p> + <p> + As he took leave on departing for France, La Varenne had requested Mendoza + to write to King Henry, but the Spaniard excused himself—although + professing the warmest friendship for his Majesty—on the ground of + the impossibility of addressing him correctly. "If I call him here King of + Navarre, I might as well put my head on the block at once," he observed; + "if I call him King of France, my master has not yet recognized him as + such; if I call him anything else, he will himself be offended." + </p> + <p> + And the vision of Philip in black on his knees, with his children about + him, and a rapier at his side, passed with the contemporary world as the + only phenomenon of this famous secret mission. + </p> + <p> + But Henry, besides this demonstration towards Spain, lost no time in + despatching a special minister to the republic and to England, who was + instructed to make the most profuse, elaborate, and conciliatory + explanations as to his recent conversion and as to his future intentions. + Never would he make peace, he said, with Spain without the full consent of + the States and of England; the dearest object of his heart in making his + peace with Rome having been to restore peace to his own distracted realm, + to bring all Christians into one brotherhood, and to make a united attack + upon the grand Turk—a vision which the cheerful monarch hardly + intended should ever go beyond the ivory gate of dreams, but which + furnished substance enough for several well-rounded periods in the + orations of De Morlans. + </p> + <p> + That diplomatist, after making the strongest representations to Queen + Elizabeth as to the faithful friendship of his master, and the necessity + he was under of pecuniary and military assistance, had received generous + promises of aid both in men and money—three thousand men besides the + troops actually serving in Brittany—from that sagacious sovereign, + notwithstanding the vehement language in which she had rebuked her royal + brother's apostasy. He now came for the same purpose to the Hague, where + he made very eloquent harangues to the States-General, acknowledging that + the republic had ever been the most upright, perfect, and undisguised + friend to his master and to France in their darkest days and deepest + affliction; that she had loved the king and kingdom for themselves, not + merely hanging on to their prosperity, but, on the contrary, doing her + best to produce that prosperity by her contributions in soldiers, ships, + and subsidies. "The king," said De Morlans, "is deeply grieved that he can + prove his gratitude only in words for so many benefits conferred, which + are absolutely without example, but he has commissioned me to declare that + if God should ever give him the occasion, he will prove how highly he + places your friendship." + </p> + <p> + The envoy assured the States that all fears entertained by those of the + reformed religion on account of the conversion of his Majesty were + groundless. Nothing was farther from the king's thoughts than to injure + those noble spirits with whom his soul had lived so long, and whom he so + much loved and honoured. No man knew better than the king did, the + character of those who professed the Religion, their virtue, valour, + resolution, and patience in adversity. Their numbers had increased in war, + their virtues had been purified by affliction, they had never changed + their position, whether battles had been won or lost. Should ever an + attempt be made to take up arms against them within his realms, and should + there be but five hundred of them against ten thousand, the king, + remembering their faithful and ancient services, would leave the greater + number in order to die at the head of his old friends. He was determined + that they should participate in all the honours of the kingdom, and with + regard to a peace with Spain, he would have as much care for the interests + of the United Provinces as for his own. But a peace was impossible with + that monarch, whose object was to maintain his own realms in peace while + he kept France in perpetual revolt against the king whom God had given + her. The King of Spain had trembled at Henry's cradle, at his youth, at + the bloom of his manhood, and knew that he had inflicted too much injury + upon him ever to be on friendly terms with him. The envoy was instructed + to say that his master never expected to be in amity with one who had + ruined his house confiscated his property, and caused so much misery to + France; and he earnestly hoped—without presuming to dictate—that + the States-General would in this critical emergency manifest their + generosity. If the king were not assisted now, both king and kingdom would + perish. If he were assisted, the succour would bear double fruit. + </p> + <p> + The sentiments expressed on the part of Henry towards his faithful + subjects of the Religion, the heretic Queen of England, and the stout + Dutch Calvinists who had so long stood by him, were most noble. It was + pity that, at the same moment, he was proposing to espouse the Infanta, + and to publish the Council of Trent. + </p> + <p> + The reply of the States-General to these propositions of the French envoy + was favourable, and it was agreed that a force of three thousand foot and + five hundred horse should be sent to the assistance of the king. Moreover, + the state-paper drawn up on this occasion was conceived with so much + sagacity and expressed with so much eloquence, as particularly to charm + the English queen when it was communicated to her Majesty. She protested + very loudly and vehemently to Noel de Caron, envoy from the provinces at + London, that this response on the part of his Government to De Morlans was + one of the wisest documents that she had ever seen. "In all their + actions," said she, "the States-General show their sagacity, and indeed, + it is the wisest Government ever known among republics. I would show you," + she added to the gentlemen around her, "the whole of the paper if it were + this moment at hand." + </p> + <p> + After some delays, it was agreed between the French Government and that of + the United Provinces, that the king should divide his army into three + parts, and renew the military operations against Spain with the expiration + of the truce at the end of the year (1593). + </p> + <p> + One body, composed of the English contingent, together with three thousand + French horse, three thousand Swiss, and four thousand French + harquebus-men, were to be under his own immediate command, and were to act + against the enemy wherever it should appear to his Majesty most + advantageous. A second, army was to expel the rebels and their foreign + allies from Normandy and reduce Rouen to obedience. A third was to make a + campaign in the provinces of Artois and Hainault, under the Duke of + Bouillon (more commonly called the Viscount Turenne), in conjunction with + the forces to be supplied by the republic. "Any treaty of peace on our + part with the King of Spain," said the States-General, "is our certain + ruin. This is an axiom. That monarch's object is to incorporate into his + own realms not only all the states and possessions of neighbouring kings, + principalities, and powers, but also all Christendom, aye, the whole + world, were it possible. We joyfully concur then in your Majesty's + resolution to carry on the war in Artois and Hainault, and agree to your + suggestion of diversions on our part by sieges and succour by + contingents." + </p> + <p> + Balagny, meantime, who had so long led an independent existence at + Cambray, now agreed to recognise Henry's authority, in consideration of + sixty-seven thousand crowns yearly pension and the dignity of Marshal of + France. + </p> + <p> + Towards the end of the year 1594, Buzanval, the regular French envoy at + the Hague, began to insist more warmly than seemed becoming that the + campaign in Artois and Hainault—so often the base of military + operations on the part of Spain against France—should begin. Further + achievements on the part of Maurice after the fall of Groningen were + therefore renounced for that year, and his troops went into garrison and + winter-quarters. The States-General, who had also been sending supplies, + troops, and ships to Brittany to assist the king, now, after soundly + rebuking Buzanval for his intemperate language, entrusted their contingent + for the proposed frontier campaign to Count Philip Nassau, who accordingly + took the field toward the end of the year at the head of twenty-eight + companies of foot and five squadrons of cavalry. He made his junction with + Turenne-Bouillon, but the duke, although provided with a tremendous + proclamation, was but indifferently supplied with troops. The German + levies, long-expected, were slow in moving, and on the whole it seemed + that the operations might have been continued by Maurice with more effect, + according to his original plan, than in this rather desultory fashion. The + late winter campaign on the border was feeble and a failure. + </p> + <p> + The bonds of alliance, however, were becoming very close between Henry and + the republic. Despite the change in religion on the part of the king, and + the pangs which it had occasioned in the hearts of leading Netherlanders, + there was still the traditional attraction between France and the States, + which had been so remarkably manifested during the administration of + William the Silent. The republic was more restive than ever under the + imperious and exacting friendship of Elizabeth, and, feeling more and more + its own strength, was making itself more and more liable to the charge of + ingratitude; so constantly hurled in its face by the queen. And Henry, now + that he felt himself really king of France, was not slow to manifest a + similar ingratitude or an equal love of independence. Both monarch and + republic, chafing under the protection of Elizabeth, were drawn into so + close a union as to excite her anger and jealousy—sentiments which + in succeeding years were to become yet more apparent. And now; while Henry + still retained the chivalrous and flowery phraseology, so sweet to her + ears, in his personal communications to the queen, his ministers were in + the habit of using much plainer language. "Mr. de Sancy said to me," wrote + the Netherland minister in France, Calvaert, "that his Majesty and your + Highnesses (the States-General) must without long delay conclude an + alliance offensive and defensive. In regard to England, which perhaps + might look askance at this matter, he told me it would be invited also by + his Majesty into the same alliance; but if, according to custom, it + shilly-shallied, and without coming to deeds or to succour should put him + off with words, he should in that case proceed with our alliance without + England, not doubting that many other potentates in Italy and Germany + would join in it likewise. He said too, that he, the day before the + departure of the English ambassador, had said these words to him in the + presence of his Majesty; namely, that England had entertained his Majesty + sixteen months long with far-fetched and often-repeated questions and + discontents, that one had submitted to this sort of thing so long as his + Majesty was only king of Mantes, Dieppe, and Louviers, but that his + Majesty being now king of Paris would be no longer a servant of those who + should advise him to suffer it any longer or accept it as good payment; + that England must treat his Majesty according to his quality, and with + deeds, not words. He added that the ambassador had very anxiously made + answer to these words, and had promised that when he got back to England + he would so arrange that his Majesty should be fully satisfied, insisting + to the last on the alliance then proposed." + </p> + <p> + In Germany, meanwhile, there was much protocolling, and more hard + drinking, at the Diet of Ratisbon. The Protestant princes did little for + their cause against the new designs of Spain and the moribund League, + while the Catholics did less to assist Philip. In truth, the holy Roman + Empire, threatened with a Turkish invasion, had neither power nor + inclination to help the new universal empire of the west into existence. + So the princes and grandees of Germany, while Amurath was knocking at the + imperial gates, busied themselves with banquetting and other diplomatic + work, but sent few reiters either to the east or west. + </p> + <p> + Philip's envoys were indignant at the apathy displayed towards the great + Catholic cause, and felt humbled at the imbecility exhibited by Spain in + its efforts against the Netherlands and France. San Clemente, who was + attending the Diet at Ratisbon, was shocked at the scenes he witnessed. + "In less than three months," said that temperate Spaniard, "they have + drunk more than five million florins' worth of wine, at a time when the + Turk has invaded the frontiers of Germany; and among those who have done + the most of this consumption of wine, there is not one who is going to + give any assistance on the frontier. In consequence of these disorders my + purse is drained so low, that unless the king helps me I am ruined. You + must tell our master that the reputation of his grandeur and strength has + never been so low as it is now in Germany. The events in France and those + which followed in the Netherlands have thrown such impediments in the + negotiations here, that not only our enemies make sport of Marquis Havre + and myself, but even our friends—who are very few—dare not go + to public feasts, weddings, and dinners, because they are obliged to + apologize for us." + </p> + <p> + Truly the world-empire was beginning to crumble. "The emperor has been + desiring twenty times," continued the envoy, "to get back to Prague from + the Diet, but the people hold him fast like a steer. As I think over all + that passes, I lose all judgment, for I have no money, nor influence, nor + reputation. Meantime, I see this rump of an empire keeping itself with + difficulty upon its legs. 'Tis full of wrangling and discord about + religion, and yet there is the Turk with two hundred thousand men + besieging a place forty miles from Vienna, which is the last outpost. God + grant it may last!" + </p> + <p> + Such was the aspect of the Christian world at the close of the year 1594 + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Beneficent and charitable purposes (War) + Chronicle of events must not be anticipated + Eat their own children than to forego one high mass + Humanizing effect of science upon the barbarism of war + Slain four hundred and ten men with his own hand +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXI. 1595 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Formal declaration of war against Spain—Marriage festivities—Death + of Archduke Ernest—His year of government—Fuentes declared + governor-general—Disaffection of the Duke of Arschot and Count + Arenberg—Death of the Duke of Arschot——Fuentes besieges Le + Catelet—The fortress of Ham, sold to the Spanish by De Gomeron, + besieged and taken by the Duke of Bouillon—Execution of De + Gomeron—Death of Colonel Verdugo—Siege of Dourlens by Fuentes— + Death of La Motte—Death of Charles Mansfeld—Total defeat of the + French—Murder of Admiral De Pillars—Dourlens captured, and the + garrison and citizens put to the sword—Military operations in + eastern Netherlands and on the Rhine—Maurice lays siege to Groento + —Mondragon hastening to its relief, Prince Maurice raises the + siege—Skirmish between Maurice and Mondragon—Death of Philip of + Nassau—Death of Mondragon—Bombardment and surrender of Weerd + Castle—Maurice retires into winter quarters—Campaign of Henry IV. + —He besieges Dijon—Surrender of Dijon—Absolution granted to Henry + by the pope—Career of Balagny at Cambray—Progress of the siege— + Capitulation of the town—Suicide of the Princess of Cambray, wife + of Balagny +</pre> + <p> + The year 1595 Opened with a formal declaration of war by the King of + France against the King of Spain. It would be difficult to say for exactly + how many years the war now declared had already been waged, but it was a + considerable advantage to the United Netherlands that the manifesto had + been at last regularly issued. And the manifesto was certainly not + deficient in bitterness. Not often in Christian history has a monarch been + solemnly and officially accused by a brother sovereign of suborning + assassins against his life. Bribery, stratagem, and murder, were, however, + so entirely the commonplace machinery of Philip's administration as to + make an allusion to the late attempt of Chastel appear quite natural in + Henry's declaration of war. The king further stigmatized in energetic + language the long succession of intrigues by which the monarch of Spain, + as chief of the Holy League, had been making war upon him by means of his + own subjects, for the last half dozen years. Certainly there was hardly + need of an elaborate statement of grievances. The deeds of Philip required + no herald, unless Henry was prepared to abdicate his hardly-earned title + to the throne of France. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless the politic Gascon subsequently regretted the fierce style in + which he had fulminated his challenge. He was accustomed to observe that + no state paper required so much careful pondering as a declaration of war, + and that it was scarcely possible to draw up such a document without + committing many errors in the phraseology. The man who never knew fear, + despondency, nor resentment, was already instinctively acting on the + principle that a king should deal with his enemy as if sure to become his + friend, and with his friends as if they might easily change to foes. + </p> + <p> + The answer to the declaration was delayed for two months. When the reply + came it of course breathed nothing but the most benignant sentiments in + regard to France, while it expressed regret that it was necessary to carry + fire and sword through that country in order to avert the unutterable woe + which the crimes of the heretic Prince of Bearne were bringing upon all + mankind. + </p> + <p> + It was a solace for Philip to call the legitimate king by the title borne + by him when heir-presumptive, and to persist in denying to him that + absolution which, as the whole world was aware, the Vicar of Christ was at + that very moment in the most solemn manner about to bestow upon him. + </p> + <p> + More devoted to the welfare of France than were the French themselves, he + was determined that a foreign prince himself, his daughter, or one of his + nephews—should supplant the descendant of St. Louis on the French + throne. More catholic than the pope he could not permit the heretic, whom + his Holiness was just washing whiter than snow, to intrude himself into + the society of Christian sovereigns. + </p> + <p> + The winter movements by Bouillon in Luxembourg, sustained by Philip Nassau + campaigning with a meagre force on the French frontier, were not very + brilliant. The Netherland regiments quartered at Yssoire, La Ferte, and in + the neighbourhood accomplished very little, and their numbers were sadly + thinned by dysentery. A sudden and successful stroke, too, by which that + daring soldier Heraugiere, who had been the chief captor of Breda, + obtained possession of the town, and castle of Huy, produced no permanent + advantage. This place, belonging to the Bishop of Liege, with its stone + bridge over the Meuse, was an advantageous position from which to aid the + operations of Bouillon in Luxembourg. Heraugiere was, however, not + sufficiently reinforced, and Huy was a month later recaptured by La Motte. + The campaigning was languid during that winter in the United Netherlands, + but the merry-making was energetic. The nuptials of Hohenlo with Mary, + eldest daughter of William the Silent and own sister of the captive Philip + William; of the Duke of Bouillon with Elizabeth, one of the daughters of + the same illustrious prince by his third wife, Charlotte of Bourbon; and + of Count Everard Solms, the famous general of the Zeeland troops, with + Sabina, daughter of the unfortunate Lamoral Egmont, were celebrated with + much pomp during the months of February and March. The States of Holland + and of Zeeland made magnificent presents of diamonds to the brides; the + Countess Hohenlo receiving besides a yearly income of three thousand + florins for the lives of herself and her husband. + </p> + <p> + In the midst of these merry marriage bells at the Hague a funeral knell + was sounding in Brussels. On the 20th February, the governor-general of + the obedient Netherlands, Archduke Ernest, breathed his last. His career + had not been so illustrious as the promises of the Spanish king and the + allegories of schoolmaster Houwaerts had led him to expect. He had not + espoused the Infanta nor been crowned King of France. He had not blasted + the rebellious Netherlands with Cyclopean thunderbolts, nor unbound the + Belgic Andromeda from the rock of doom. His brief year of government had + really been as dismal as, according to the announcement of his sycophants, + it should have been amazing. He had accomplished nothing, and all that was + left him was to die at the age of forty-two, over head and ears in debt, a + disappointed, melancholy man. He was very indolent, enormously fat, very + chaste, very expensive, fond of fine liveries and fine clothes, so solemn + and stately as never to be known to laugh, but utterly without capacity + either as a statesman or a soldier. He would have shone as a portly abbot + ruling over peaceful friars, but he was not born to ride a revolutionary + whirlwind, nor to evoke order out of chaos. Past and Present were + contending with each other in fierce elemental strife within his domain. A + world was in dying agony, another world was coming, full-armed, into + existence within the hand-breadth of time and of space where he played his + little part, but he dreamed not of it. He passed away like a shadow, and + was soon forgotten. + </p> + <p> + An effort was made, during the last illness of Ernest, to procure from him + the appointment of the elector of Cologne as temporary successor to the + government, but Count Fuentes was on the spot and was a man of action. He + produced a power in the French language from Philip, with a blank for the + name. This had been intended for the case of Peter Ernest Mansfeld's + possible death during his provisional administration, and Fuentes now + claimed the right of inserting his own name. + </p> + <p> + The dying Ernest consented, and upon his death Fuentes was declared + governor-general until the king's further pleasure should be known. + </p> + <p> + Pedro de Guzman, Count of Fuentes, a Spaniard of the hard and antique + type, was now in his sixty-fourth year. The pupil and near relative of the + Duke of Alva, he was already as odious to the Netherlanders as might have + been inferred from such education and such kin. A dark, grizzled, baldish + man, with high steep forehead, long, haggard, leathern visage, sweeping + beard, and large, stern, commanding, menacing eyes, with his Brussels ruff + of point lace and his Milan coat of proof, he was in personal appearance + not unlike the terrible duke whom men never named without a shudder, + although a quarter of a century had passed since he had ceased to curse + the Netherlands with his presence. Elizabeth of England was accustomed to + sneer at Fuentes because he had retreated before Essex in that daring + commander's famous foray into Portugal. The queen called the Spanish + general a timid old woman. If her gibe were true, it was fortunate for + her, for Henry of France, and for the republic, that there were not many + more such old women to come from Spain to take the place of the veteran + chieftains who were destined to disappear so rapidly during this year in + Flanders. He was a soldier of fortune, loved fighting, not only for the + fighting's sake, but for the prize-money which was to be accumulated by + campaigning, and he was wont to say that he meant to enter Paradise sword + in hand. + </p> + <p> + Meantime his appointment excited the wrath of the provincial magnates. The + Duke of Arschot was beside himself with frenzy, and swore that he would + never serve under Fuentes nor sit at his council-board. The duke's + brother, Marquis Havre, and his son-in-law, Count Arenberg, shared in the + hatred, although they tried to mitigate the vehemence of its expression. + But Arschot swore that no man had the right to take precedence of him in + the council of state, and that the appointment of this or any Spaniard was + a violation of the charters of the provinces and of the promises of his + Majesty. As if it were for the nobles of the obedient provinces to prate + of charters and of oaths! Their brethren under the banner of the republic + had been teaching Philip for a whole generation how they could deal with + the privileges of freemen and with the perjury of tyrants. It was late in + the day for the obedient Netherlanders to remember their rights. Havre and + Arenberg, dissembling their own wrath, were abused and insulted by the + duke when they tried to pacify him. They proposed a compromise, according + to which Arschot should be allowed to preside in the council of state + while Fuentes should content himself with the absolute control of the + army. This would be putting a bit of fat in the duke's mouth, they said. + Fuentes would hear of no such arrangement. After much talk and daily + attempts to pacify this great Netherlander, his relatives at last + persuaded him to go home to his country place. He even promised Arenberg + and his wife that he would go to Italy, in pursuance of a vow made to our + lady of Loretto. Arenberg privately intimated to Stephen Ybarra that there + was a certain oil, very apt to be efficacious in similar cases of + irritation, which might be applied with prospect of success. If his + father-in-law could only receive some ten thousand florins which he + claimed as due to him from Government, this would do more to quiet him + than a regiment of soldiers could. He also suggested that Fuentes should + call upon the duke, while Secretary Ybarra should excuse himself by + sickness for not having already paid his respects. This was done. Fuentes + called. The duke returned the call, and the two conversed amicably about + the death of the archduke, but entered into no political discussion. + </p> + <p> + Arschot then invited the whole council of state, except John Baptist + Tassis, to a great dinner. He had prepared a paper to read to them in + which he represented the great dangers likely to ensue from such an + appointment as this of Fuentes, but declared that he washed his hands of + the consequences, and that he had determined to leave a country where he + was of so little account. He would then close his eyes and ears to + everything that might occur, and thus escape the infamy of remaining in a + country where so little account was made of him. He was urged to refrain + from reading this paper and to invite Tassis. After a time he consented to + suppress the document, but he manfully refused to bid the objectionable + diplomatist to his banquet. + </p> + <p> + The dinner took place and passed off pleasantly enough. Arschot did not + read his manifesto, but, as he warmed with wine, he talked a great deal of + nonsense which, according to Stephen Ybarra, much resembled it, and he + vowed that thenceforth he would be blind and dumb to all that might occur. + A few days later, he paid a visit to the new governor-general, and took a + peaceful farewell of him. "Your Majesty knows very well what he is," wrote + Fuentes: "he is nothing but talk." Before leaving the country he sent a + bitter complaint to Ybarra, to the effect that the king had entirely + forgotten him, and imploring that financier's influence to procure for him + some gratuity from his Majesty. He was in such necessity, he said, that it + was no longer possible for him to maintain his household. + </p> + <p> + And with this petition the grandee of the obedient provinces shook the + dust from his shoes, and left his natal soil for ever. He died on the 11th + December of the same year in Venice. + </p> + <p> + His son the Prince of Chimay, his brother, and son-inlaw, and the other + obedient nobles, soon accommodated themselves to the new administration, + much as they had been inclined to bluster at first about their privileges. + The governor soon reported that matters were proceeding very, smoothly. + There was a general return to the former docility now that such a + disciplinarian as Fuentes held the reins. + </p> + <p> + The opening scenes of the campaign between the Spanish governor and France + were, as usual, in Picardy. The Marquis of Varambon made a demonstration + in the neighbourhood of Dourlens—a fortified town on the river + Authie, lying in an open plain, very deep in that province—while + Fuentes took the field with eight thousand men, and laid siege to Le + Catelet. He had his eye, however, upon Ham. That important stronghold was + in the hands of a certain nobleman called De Gomeron, who had been an + energetic Leaguer, and was now disposed, for a handsome consideration, to + sell himself to the King of Spain. In the auction of governors and + generals then going on in every part of France it had been generally found + that Henry's money was more to be depended upon in the long run, although + Philip's bids were often very high, and, for a considerable period, the + payments regular. Gomeron's upset price for himself was twenty-five + thousand crowns in cash, and a pension of eight thousand a year. Upon + these terms he agreed to receive a Spanish garrison into the town, and to + cause the French in the citadel to be sworn into the service of the + Spanish king. Fuentes agreed to the bargain and paid the adroit tradesman, + who knew so well how to turn a penny for himself, a large portion of the + twenty-five thousand crowns upon the nail. + </p> + <p> + De Gomeron was to proceed to Brussels to receive the residue. His + brother-in-law, M. d'Orville, commanded in the citadel, and so soon as the + Spanish troops had taken possession of the town its governor claimed full + payment of his services. + </p> + <p> + But difficulties awaited him in Brussels. He was informed that a French + garrison could not be depended upon for securing the fortress, but that + town and citadel must both be placed in Spanish hands. De Gomeron loudly + protesting that this was not according to contract, was calmly assured, by + command of Fuentes, that unless the citadel were at once evacuated and + surrendered, he would not receive the balance of his twenty-five thousand + crowns, and that he should instantly lose his head. Here was more than De + Gomeron had bargained for; but this particular branch of commerce in + revolutionary times, although lucrative, has always its risks. De Gomeron, + thus driven to the wall, sent a letter by a Spanish messenger to his + brother-in-law, ordering him to surrender the fortress. D'Orville—who + meantime had been making his little arrangements with the other party—protested + that the note had been written under duress, and refused to comply with + its directions. + </p> + <p> + Time was pressing, for the Duke of Bouillon and the Count of St. Pol lay + with a considerable force in the neighbourhood, obviously menacing Ham. + </p> + <p> + Fuentes accordingly sent that distinguished soldier and historian, Don + Carlos Coloma, with a detachment of soldiers to Brussels, with orders to + bring Gomeron into camp. He was found seated at supper with his two young + brothers, aged respectively sixteen and eighteen years, and was just + putting a cherry into his mouth as Coloma entered the room. He remained + absorbed in thought, trifling with the cherry without eating it, which Don + Carlos set down as a proof of guilt: The three brothers were at once put + in a coach, together with their sister, a nun of the age of twenty, and + conveyed to the head-quarters of Fuentes, who lay before Le Catelet, but + six leagues from Ham. + </p> + <p> + Meantime D'Orville had completed his negotiations with Bouillon, and had + agreed to surrender the fortress so soon as the Spanish troops should be + driven from the town. The duke knowing that there was no time to lose, + came with three thousand men before the place. His summons to surrender + was answered by a volley of cannon-shot from the town defences. An assault + was made and repulsed, D'Humieres, a most gallant officer and a favourite + of King Henry, being killed, besides at least two hundred soldiers. The + next attack was successful, the town was carried, and the Spanish garrison + put to the sword. + </p> + <p> + D'Orville then, before giving up the citadel, demanded three hostages for + the lives of his three brothers-in-law. + </p> + <p> + The hostages availed him little. Fuentes had already sent word to + Gomeron's mother, that if the bargain were not fulfilled he would send her + the heads of her three sons on three separate dishes. The distracted woman + made her way, to D'Orville, and fell at his feet with tears and + entreaties. It was too late, and D'Orville, unable to bear her + lamentations, suddenly rushed from the castle, and nearly fell into the + hands of the Spaniards as he fled from the scene. Two of the four + cuirassiers, who alone of the whole garrison accompanied him, were taken + prisoners. The governor escaped to unknown regions. Madame de Gomeron then + appeared before Fuentes, and tried in vain to soften him. De Gomeron was + at once beheaded in the sight of the whole camp. The two younger sons were + retained in prison, but ultimately set at liberty. The town and citadel + were thus permanently acquired by their lawful king, who was said to be + more afflicted at the death of D'Humieres than rejoiced at the capture of + Ham. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Colonel Verdugo, royal governor of Friesland, whose occupation in + those provinces, now so nearly recovered by the republic, was gone, had + led a force of six thousand foot, and twelve hundred horse across the + French border, and was besieging La Ferte on the Cher. The siege was + relieved by Bouillon on the 26th May, and the Spanish veteran was then + ordered to take command in Burgundy. But his days were numbered. He had + been sick of dysentery at Luxembourg during the summer, but after apparent + recovery died suddenly on the 2nd September, and of course was supposed to + have been poisoned. He was identified with the whole history of the + Netherland wars. Born at Talavera de la Reyna, of noble parentage, as he + asserted—although his mother was said to have sold dogs' meat, and + he himself when a youth was a private soldier—he rose by steady + conduct and hard fighting to considerable eminence in his profession. He + was governor of Harlem after the famous siege, and exerted himself with + some success to mitigate the ferocity of the Spaniards towards the + Netherlanders at that epoch. He was marshal-general of the camp under Don + John of Austria, and distinguished himself at the battle of Gemblours. He + succeeded Count Renneberg as governor of Friesland and Groningen, and bore + a manful part in most of the rough business that had been going on for a + generation of mankind among those blood-stained wolds and morasses. He was + often victorious, and quite as often soundly defeated; but he enjoyed + campaigning, and was a glutton of work. He cared little for parade and + ceremony, but was fond of recalling with pleasure the days when he was a + soldier at four crowns a month, with an undivided fourth of one cloak, + which he and three companions wore by turns on holidays. Although accused + of having attempted to procure the assassination of William Lewis Nassau, + he was not considered ill-natured, and he possessed much admiration for + Prince Maurice. An iron-clad man, who had scarcely taken harness from his + back all his life, he was a type of the Spanish commanders who had + implanted international hatred deeply in the Netherland soul, and who, now + that this result and no other had been accomplished, were rapidly passing + away. He had been baptised Franco, and his family appellation of Verdugo + meant executioner. Punning on these names he was wont to say, that he was + frank for all good people, but a hangman for heretics; and he acted up to + his gibe. + </p> + <p> + Foiled at Ham, Fuentes had returned to the siege of Catelet, and had soon + reduced the place. He then turned his attention again to Dourlens, and + invested that city. During the preliminary operations, another veteran + commander in these wars, Valentin Pardieu de la Motte, recently created + Count of Everbecque by Philip, who had been for a long time + general-in-chief of the artillery, and was one of the most famous and + experienced officers in the Spanish service, went out one fine moonlight + night to reconnoitre the enemy, and to superintend the erection of + batteries. As he was usually rather careless of his personal safety, and + rarely known to put on his armour when going for such purposes into the + trenches, it was remarked with some surprise, on this occasion, that he + ordered his page to bring his, accoutrements, and that he armed himself + cap-a pie before leaving his quarters. Nevertheless, before he had reached + the redoubt, a bullet from the town struck him between the fold of his + morion and the edge of his buckler and he fell dead without uttering a + sound. + </p> + <p> + Here again was a great loss to the king's service. La Motte, of a noble + family in Burgundy, had been educated in the old fierce traditions of the + Spanish system of warfare in the Netherlands, and had been one of the very + hardest instruments that the despot could use for his bloody work. He had + commanded a company of horse at the famous battle of St. Quintin, and + since that opening event in Philip's reign he had been unceasingly—engaged + in the Flemish wars. Alva made him a colonel of a Walloon regiment; the + grand commander Requesena appointed him governor of Gravelines. On the + whole he had been tolerably faithful to his colours; having changed sides + but twice. After the pacification of Ghent he swore allegiance to the + States-General, and assisted in the bombardment of the citadel of that + place. Soon afterwards he went over to Don John of Austria, and + surrendered to him the town and fortress of Gravelines, of which he then + continued governor in the name of the king. He was fortunate in the + accumulation of office and of money; rather unlucky in his campaigning. He + was often wounded in action, and usually defeated when commanding in + chief. He lost an arm at the siege of Sluy's, and had now lost his life + almost by an accident. Although twice married he left no children to + inherit his great estates, while the civil and military offices left + vacant by his death were sufficient to satisfy the claims of five aspiring + individuals. The Count of Varax succeeded him as general of artillery; but + it was difficult to find a man to replace La Motte, possessing exactly the + qualities which had made that warrior so valuable to his king. The type + was rapidly disappearing, and most fortunately for humanity, if half the + stories told of him by grave chroniclers, accustomed to discriminate + between history and gossip, are to be believed. He had committed more than + one cool homicide. Although not rejoicing in the same patronymic as his + Spanish colleague of Friesland, he too was ready on occasion to perform + hangman's work. When sergeant-major in Flanders, he had himself + volunteered—so ran the chronicle—to do execution on a poor + wretch found guilty of professing the faith of Calvin; and, with his own + hands, had prepared a fire of straw, tied his victim to the stake, and + burned him to cinders. Another Netherlander for the name crime of heresy + had been condemned to be torn to death by horses. No one could be found to + carry out the sentence. The soldiers under La Motte's command broke into + mutiny rather than permit themselves to be used for such foul purposes; + but the ardent young sergeant-major came forward, tied the culprit by the + arms and legs to two horses, and himself whipped them to their work till + it was duly accomplished. Was it strange that in Philip's reign such + energy should be rewarded by wealth, rank, and honour? Was not such a + labourer in the vineyard worthy of his hire? + </p> + <p> + Still another eminent chieftain in the king's service disappeared at this + time—one who, although unscrupulous and mischievous enough in his + day, was however not stained by any suspicion of crimes like these. Count + Charles Mansfeld, tired of governing his decrepit parent Peter Ernest, + who, since the appointment of Fuentes, had lost all further chance of + governing the Netherlands, had now left Philip's service and gone to the + Turkish wars. For Amurath III., who had died in the early days of the + year, had been succeeded by a sultan as warlike as himself. Mahomet III., + having strangled his nineteen brothers on his accession, handsomely buried + them in cypress coffins by the side of their father, and having + subsequently sacked and drowned ten infant princes posthumously born to + Amurath, was at leisure to carry the war through Transylvania and Hungary, + up to the gates of Vienna, with renewed energy. The Turk, who could + enforce the strenuous rules of despotism by which all secundogenitures and + collateral claimants in the Ottoman family were thus provided for, was a + foe to be dealt with seriously. The power of the Moslems at that day was a + full match for the holy Roman Empire. The days were far distant when the + grim Turk's head was to become a mockery and a show; and when a pagan + empire, born of carnage and barbarism, was to be kept alive in Europe when + it was ready to die, by the collective efforts of Christian princes. + Charles Mansfeld had been received with great enthusiasm at the court of + Rudolph, where he was created a prince of the Empire, and appointed to the + chief command of the Imperial armies under the Archduke Matthias. But his + warfare was over. At the siege of Gran he was stricken with sickness and + removed to Comorn, where he lingered some weeks. There, on the 24th + August, as he lay half-dozing on his couch, he was told that the siege was + at last successful; upon which he called for a goblet of wine, drained it + eagerly, and then lay resting his head on his hand, like one absorbed in + thought. When they came to arouse him from his reverie they found that he + was dead. His father still remained superfluous in the Netherlands, hating + and hated by Fuentes; but no longer able to give that governor so much + annoyance as during his son's life-time the two had been able to create + for Alexander Farnese. The octogenarian was past work and past mischief + now; but there was one older soldier than he still left upon the stage, + the grandest veteran in Philip's service, and now the last survivor, + except the decrepit Peter Ernest, of the grim commanders of Alva's school. + Christopher Mondragon—that miracle of human endurance, who had been + an old man when the great duke arrived in the Netherlands—was still + governor of Antwerp citadel, and men were to speak of him yet once more + before he passed from the stage. + </p> + <p> + I return from this digression to the siege of Dourlens. The death of La + Motte made no difference in the plans of Fuentes. He was determined to + reduce the place preparatively to more important operations. Bouillon was + disposed to relieve it, and to that end had assembled a force of eight + thousand men within the city of Amiens. By midsummer the Spaniards had + advanced with their mines and galleries close to the walls of the city. + Meantime Admiral Villars, who had gained so much renown by defending Rouen + against Henry IV., and who had subsequently made such an excellent bargain + with that monarch before entering his service, arrived at Amiens. On the + 24th July an expedition was sent from that city towards Dourlens. Bouillon + and St. Pol commanded in person a force of six hundred picked cavalry. + Pillars and Sanseval each led half as many, and there was a supporting + body of twelve hundred musketeers. This little army convoyed a train of + wagons, containing ammunition and other supplies for the beleaguered town. + But Fuentes, having sufficiently strengthened his works, sallied forth + with two thousand infantry, and a flying squadron of Spanish horse, to + intercept them. It was the eve of St. James, the patron saint of Spain, at + the sound, of whose name as a war-cry so many battle-fields had been won + in the Netherlands, so many cities sacked, so many wholesale massacres + perpetrated. Fuentes rode in the midst of his troops with the royal + standard of Spain floating above him. On the other hand Yillars, + glittering in magnificent armour and mounted on a superbly caparisoned + charger came on, with his three hundred troopers, as if about to ride a + course in a tournament. The battle which ensued was one of the most bloody + for the numbers engaged, and the victory one of the most decisive recorded + in this war. Villars charged prematurely, furiously, foolishly. He seemed + jealous of Bouillon, and disposed to show the sovereign to whom he had so + recently given his allegiance that an ancient Leaguer and Papist was a + better soldier for his purpose than the most grizzled Huguenot in his + army. On the other hand the friends of Villars accused the duke of + faintheartedness, or at least of an excessive desire to save himself and + his own command. The first impetuous onset of the admiral was successful, + and he drove half-a-dozen companies of Spaniards before him. But he had + ventured too far from his supports. Bouillon had only intended a feint, + instead of a desperate charge; the Spaniards were rallied, and the day was + saved by that cool and ready soldier, Carlos Coloma. In less than an hour + the French were utterly defeated and cut to pieces. Bouillon escaped to + Amiens with five hundred men; this was all that was left of the + expedition. The horse of Villars was shot under him and the admiral's leg + was broken as he fell. He was then taken prisoner by two lieutenants of + Carlos Coloma; but while these warriors were enjoying, by anticipation, + the enormous ransom they should derive from so illustrious a captive, two + other lieutenants in the service of Marshal de Rosnes came up and claimed + their share in the prize. While the four were wrangling, the admiral + called out to them in excellent Spanish not to dispute, for he had money + enough to satisfy them all. Meantime the Spanish commissary—general + of cavalry, Contreras, came up, rebuked this unseemly dispute before the + enemy had been fairly routed, and, in order to arrange the quarrel + impartially, ordered his page to despatch De Villars on the spot. The + page, without a word, placed his arquebus to the admiral's forehead and + shot him dead. + </p> + <p> + So perished a bold and brilliant soldier, and a most unscrupulous + politician. Whether the cause of his murder was mere envy on the part of + the commissary at having lost a splendid opportunity for prize-money, or + hatred to an ancient Leaguer thus turned renegade, it is fruitless now to + enquire. + </p> + <p> + Villars would have paid two hundred thousand crowns for his ransom, so + that the assassination was bad as a mercantile speculation; but it was + pretended by the friends of Contreras that rescue was at hand. It is + certain, however, that nothing was attempted by the French to redeem their + total overthrow. Count Belin was wounded and fell into the hands of + Coloma. Sanseval was killed; and a long list of some of the most brilliant + nobles in France was published by the Spaniards as having perished on that + bloody field. This did not prevent a large number of these victims, + however, from enjoying excellent health for many long years afterwards, + although their deaths have been duly recorded in chronicle from that day + to our own times. + </p> + <p> + But Villars and Sanseval were certainly slain, and Fuentes sent their + bodies, with a courteous letter, to the Duke of Nevers, at Amiens, who + honoured them with a stately funeral. + </p> + <p> + There was much censure cast on both Bouillon and Villars respectively by + the antagonists of each chieftain; and the contest as to the cause of the + defeat was almost as animated as the skirmish itself. Bouillon was + censured for grudging a victory to the Catholics, and thus leaving the + admiral to his fate. Yet it is certain that the Huguenot duke himself + commanded a squadron composed almost entirely of papists. Villars, on the + other hand, was censured for rashness, obstinacy, and greediness for + distinction; yet it is probable that Fuentes might have been defeated had + the charges of Bouillon been as determined and frequent as were those of + his colleague. Savigny de Rosnes, too, the ancient Leaguer, who commanded + under Fuentes, was accused of not having sufficiently followed up the + victory, because unwilling that his Spanish friends should entirely + trample upon his own countrymen. Yet there is no doubt whatever that De + Rosnes was as bitter an enemy to his own country as the most ferocious + Spaniard of them all. It has rarely been found in civil war that the man + who draws his sword against his fatherland, under the banner of the + foreigner, is actuated by any lingering tenderness for the nation he + betrays; and the renegade Frenchman was in truth the animating spirit of + Fuentes during the whole of his brilliant campaign. The Spaniard's + victories were, indeed, mainly attributable to the experience, the genius, + and the rancour of De Rosnes. + </p> + <p> + But debates over a lost battle are apt to be barren. Meantime Fuentes, + losing no time in controversy, advanced upon the city of Dourlens, was + repulsed twice, and carried it on the third assault, exactly one week + after the action just recounted. The Spaniards and Leaguers, howling + "Remember Ham!" butchered without mercy the garrison and all the citizens, + save a small number of prisoners likely to be lucrative. Six hundred of + the townspeople and two thousand five hundred French soldiers were killed + within a few hours. Well had Fuentes profited by the relationship and + tuition of Alva! + </p> + <p> + The Count of Dinant and his brother De Ronsoy were both slain, and two or + three hundred thousand florins were paid in ransom by those who escaped + with life. The victims were all buried outside of the town in one vast + trench, and the effluvia bred a fever which carried off most of the + surviving inhabitants. Dourlens became for the time a desert. + </p> + <p> + Fuentes now received deputies with congratulations from the obedient + provinces, especially from Hainault, Artois, and Lille. He was also + strongly urged to attempt the immediate reduction of Cambray, to which end + those envoys were empowered to offer contributions of four hundred and + fifty thousand florins and a contingent of seven thousand infantry. + Berlaymont, too, bishop of Tournay and archbishop of Cambray, was ready to + advance forty thousand florins in the same cause. + </p> + <p> + Fuentes, in the highest possible spirits at his success, and having just + been reinforced by Count Bucquoy with a fresh Walloon regiment of fifteen + hundred foot and with eight hundred and fifty of the mutineers from + Tirlemont and Chapelle, who were among the choicest of Spanish veterans, + was not disposed to let the grass grow under his feet. Within four days + after the sack of Dourlens he broke up his camp, and came before Cambray + with an army of twelve thousand foot and nearly four thousand horse. But + before narrating the further movements of the vigorous new + governor-general, it is necessary to glance at the military operations in + the eastern part of the Netherlands and upon the Rhine. + </p> + <p> + The States-General had reclaimed to their authority nearly all that + important region lying beyond the Yssel—the solid Frisian bulwark of + the republic—but there were certain points nearer the line where + Upper and Nether Germany almost blend into one, which yet acknowledged the + name of the king. The city of Groenlo, or Grol, not a place of much + interest or importance in itself, but close to the frontier, and to that + destined land of debate, the duchies of Cleves, Juliers, and Berg, still + retained its Spanish garrison. On the 14th July Prince Maurice of Nassau + came before the city with six thousand infantry, some companies of + cavalry, and sixteen pieces of artillery. He made his approaches in form, + and after a week's operations he fired three volleys, according to his + custom, and summoned the place to capitulate. Governor Jan van Stirum + replied stoutly that he would hold the place for God and the king to the + last drop of his blood. Meantime there was hope of help from the outside. + </p> + <p> + Maurice was a vigorous young commander, but there was a man to be dealt + with who had been called the "good old Mondragon" when the prince was in + his cradle; and who still governed the citadel of Antwerp, and was still + ready for an active campaign. + </p> + <p> + Christopher Mondragon was now ninety-two years old. Not often in the + world's history has a man of that age been capable of personal, + participation in the joys of the battlefield, whatever natural reluctance + veterans are apt to manifest at relinquishing high military control. + </p> + <p> + But Mondragon looked not with envy but with admiration on the growing fame + of the Nassau chieftain, and was disposed, before he himself left the + stage, to match himself with the young champion. + </p> + <p> + So soon as he heard of the intended demonstration of Maurice against Grol, + the ancient governor of Antwerp collected a little army by throwing + together all the troops that could be spared from the various garrisons + within his command. With two Spanish regiments, two thousand Swiss, the + Walloon troops of De Grisons, and the Irish regiment of Stanley—in + all seven thousand foot and thirteen hundred horse—Mondragon marched + straight across Brabant and Gelderland to the Rhine. At Kaiserworth he + reviewed his forces, and announced his intention of immediately crossing + the river. There was a murmur of disapprobation among officers and men at + what they considered the foolhardy scheme of mad old Mondragon. But the + general had not campaigned a generation before, at the age of sixty-nine, + in the bottom of the sea, and waded chin-deep for six hours long of an + October night, in the face of a rising tide from the German Ocean and of + an army of Zeelanders, to be frightened now at the summer aspect of the + peaceful Rhine. + </p> + <p> + The wizened little old man, walking with difficulty by the aid of a staff, + but armed in proof, with plumes waving gallantly from his iron headpiece, + and with his rapier at his side, ordered a chair to be brought to the + river's edge. Then calmly seating himself in the presence of his host, he + stated that he should not rise from that chair until the last man had + crossed the river. Furthermore, he observed that it was not only his + purpose to relieve the city of Grol, but to bring Maurice to an action, + and to defeat him, unless he retired. The soldiers ceased to murmur, the + pontoons were laid, the river was passed, and on the 25th July, Maurice, + hearing of the veteran's approach, and not feeling safe in his position, + raised the siege of the city. Burning his camp and everything that could + not be taken with him on his march, the prince came in perfect order to + Borkelo, two Dutch miles from Grol. Here he occupied himself for some time + in clearing the country of brigands who in the guise of soldiers infested + that region and made the little cities of Deutecom, Anholt, and Heerenberg + unsafe. He ordered the inhabitants of these places to send out detachments + to beat the bushes for his cavalry, while Hohenlo was ordered to hunt the + heaths and wolds thoroughly with packs of bloodhounds until every man and + beast to be found lurking in those wild regions should be extirpated. By + these vigorous and cruel, but perhaps necessary, measures the brigands + were at last extirpated, and honest people began to sleep in their beds. + </p> + <p> + On the 18th August Maurice took up a strong position at Bislich, not far + from Wesel, where the River Lippe empties itself into the Rhine. + Mondragon, with his army strengthened by reinforcements from garrisons in + Gelderland, and by four hundred men brought by Frederic, van den Berg from + Grol, had advanced to a place called Walston in den Ham, in the + neighbourhood of Wesel. The Lippe flowed between the two hostile forces. + Although he had broken up his siege, the prince was not disposed to + renounce his whole campaign before trying conclusions with his veteran + antagonist. He accordingly arranged an ambush with much skill, by means of + which he hoped to bring on a general engagement and destroy Mondragon and + his little army. + </p> + <p> + His cousin and favourite lieutenant, Philip Nassau, was entrusted with the + preliminaries. That adventurous commander, with a picked force of seven + hundred cavalry, moved quietly from the camp on the evening of the 1st + September. He took with him his two younger brothers, Ernest and Lewis + Gunther, who, as has been seen, had received the promise of the eldest + brother of the family, William Lewis, that they should be employed from + time to time in any practical work that might be going, forward. Besides + these young gentlemen, several of the most famous English and Dutch + commanders were on, the expedition; the brothers Paul and Marcellus Bax, + Captains Parker, Cutler, and Robert Vere, brother of Sir Francis, among + the number. + </p> + <p> + Early in the morning of the 2nd September the force crossed the Lippe, + according to orders, keeping a pontoon across the stream to secure their + retreat. + </p> + <p> + They had instructions thus to feel the enemy at early dawn, and, as he was + known to have foraging parties out every morning along the margin of the + river, to make a sudden descent upon their pickets, and to capture those + companies before they could effect their escape or be reinforced. + Afterwards they were to retreat across the Lippe, followed, as it was + hoped would be the case, by the troops: of Mondragon, anxious to punish + this piece of audacity. Meantime Maurice with five thousand infantry, the + rest of his cavalry, and several pieces of artillery, awaited their + coming, posted behind some hills in the neighbourhood of Wesel. + </p> + <p> + The plot of the young commander was an excellent one, but the ancient + campaigner on the other side of the river had not come all the way from + his comfortable quarters in Antwerp to be caught napping on that September + morning. Mondragon had received accurate information from his scouts as to + what was going on in the enemy's camp; and as to the exact position of + Maurice. He was up long before daybreak—"the good old Christopher"—and + himself personally arranged a counter-ambush. In the fields lying a little + back from the immediate neighbourhood of, the Lippe he posted the mass of + his cavalry, supported by a well-concealed force of infantry. The pickets + on the stream and the foraging companies were left to do their usual work + as if nothing were likely to happen. + </p> + <p> + Philip Nassau galloped cheerfully forward; according to the well-concerted + plan, sending Cutler and Marcellus Bax with a handful of troopers to + pounce upon the enemy's pickets. When those officers got to the usual + foraging ground they, came upon a much larger cavalry force than they had + looked for; and, suspecting something wrong; dashed back—again to + give information to Count Philip. That impatient commander, feeling sure + of his game unless this foolish delay should give the foraging companies + time to, escape; ordered an immediate advance with his whole cavalry + force: The sheriff of Zallant was ordered to lead the way. He objected + that the pass, leading through a narrow lane and opening by a gate into an + open field, was impassable for more than two troopers abreast; and that + the enemy was in force beyond. Philips scorning these words of caution, + and exclaiming that seventy-five lancers were enough to put fifty + carabineers to rout; put on his casque, drew his sword; and sending his + brother Lewis to summon Kinski and Donck; dashed into the pass, + accompanied by the two counts and, a couple of other nobles. The sheriff, + seeing this, followed him at full gallop; and after him came the troopers + of Barchon, of Du Bois, and of Paul Bax; riding single file but in much + disorder. When they had all entered inextricably into the lane, with the + foremost of the lancers already passing through the gate, they discovered + the enemy's cavalry and infantry drawn up in force upon the watery, + heathery pastures beyond. There was at once a scene of confusion. To use + lances was impossible, while they were all struggling together through the + narrow passage offering themselves an easy prey to the enemy as they + slowly emerged into the gelds. The foremost defended themselves with sabre + and pistol as well as they could. The hindmost did their best to escape, + and rode for their lives to the other side of the river. All trampled upon + each other and impeded each other's movements. There was a brief + engagement, bloody, desperate, hand to hand, and many Spaniards fell + before the entrapped Netherlanders. But there could not be a moment's + doubt as to the issue. Count Philip went down in the beginning of the + action, shot through the body by an arquebus, discharged so close to him + that his clothes were set on fire. As there was no water within reach the + flames could be extinguished at last only by rolling him over, and over, + wounded as he was, among the sand and heather. Count Ernest Solms was + desperately wounded at the same time. For a moment both gentlemen + attempted to effect their escape by mounting on one horse, but both fell + to the ground exhausted and were taken prisoners. Ernest Nassau was also + captured. His young brother, Lewis Gunther, saved himself by swimming the + river. Count Kinski was mortally wounded. Robert Vere, too, fell into the + enemy's hands, and was afterwards murdered in cold blood. Marcellus Bax, + who had returned to the field by a circuitous path, still under the + delusion that he was about handsomely to cut off the retreat of the + foraging companies, saved himself and a handful of cavalry by a rapid + flight, so soon as he discovered the enemy drawn up in line of battle. + Cutler and Parker were equally fortunate. There was less than a hundred of + the States' troops killed, and it is probable that a larger number of the + Spaniards fell. But the loss of Philip Nassau, despite the debauched life + and somewhat reckless valour of that soldier, was a very severe one to the + army and to his family. He was conveyed to Rheinberg, where his wounds + were dressed. As he lay dying he was courteously visited by Mondragon, and + by many other Spanish officers, anxious to pay their respects to so + distinguished and warlike a member of an illustrious house. He received + them with dignity, and concealed his physical agony so as to respond to + their conversation as became a Nassau. His cousin, Frederic van den Berg, + who was among the visitors, indecently taunted him with his position; + asking him what he had expected by serving the cause of the Beggars. + Philip turned from him with impatience and bade him hold his peace. At + midnight he died. + </p> + <p> + William of Orange and his three brethren had already laid down their lives + for the republic, and now his eldest brother's son had died in the same + cause. "He has carried the name of Nassau with honour into the grave," + said his brother Lewis William, to their father. Ten others of the house, + besides many collateral relations, were still in arms for their adopted + country. Rarely in history has a single noble race so entirely identified + itself with a nation's record in its most heroic epoch as did that of + Orange-Nassau with the liberation of Holland. + </p> + <p> + Young Ernest Solms, brother of Count Everard, lay in the same chamber with + Philip Nassau, and died on the following day. Their bodies were sent by + Mondragon with a courteous letter to Maurice at Bisslich. Ernest Nassau + was subsequently ransomed for ten thousand florins. + </p> + <p> + This skirmish on the Lippe has no special significance in a military point + of view, but it derives more than a passing interest, not only from the + death of many a brave and distinguished soldier, but for the illustration + of human vigour triumphing, both physically and mentally, over the + infirmities of old age, given by the achievement of Christopher Mondragon. + Alone he had planned his expedition across the country from Antwerp, alone + he had insisted on crossing the Rhine, while younger soldiers hesitated; + alone, with his own active brain and busy hands, he had outwitted the + famous young chieftain of the Netherlands, counteracted his subtle policy, + and set the counter-ambush by which his choicest cavalry were cut to + pieces, and one of his bravest generals slain. So far could the icy blood + of ninety-two prevail against the vigour of twenty-eight. + </p> + <p> + The two armies lay over against each other, with the river between them, + for some days longer, but it was obvious that nothing further would be + attempted on either side. Mondragon had accomplished the object for which + he had marched from Brabant. He had, spoiled the autumn campaign of + Maurice, and, was, now disposed to return before winter to, his own + quarters. He sent a trumpet accordingly to his antagonist, begging him, + half in jest, to have more consideration for his infirmities than to keep + him out in his old age in such foul weather, but to allow him the military + honour of being last to break up camp. Should Maurice consent to move + away, Mondragon was ready to pledge himself not to pursue him, and within + three days to leave his own entrenchments. + </p> + <p> + The proposition was not granted, and very soon afterwards the Spaniard, + deciding to retire, crossed the Rhine on the 11th October. Maurice made a + slight attempt at pursuit, sending Count William Lewis with some cavalry, + who succeeded in cutting off a few wagons. The army, however, returned + safely, to be dispersed into various garrisons. + </p> + <p> + This was Mondragon's last feat of, arms. Less than three months + afterwards, in Antwerp citadel, as the veteran was washing his hands + previously to going to the dinner-table, he sat down and died. Strange to + say, this man—who had spent almost a century on the battlefield, who + had been a soldier in nearly every war that had been waged in any part of + Europe during that most belligerent age, who had come an old man to the + Netherlands before Alva's arrival, and had ever since been constantly and + personally engaged in the vast Flemish tragedy which had now lasted well + nigh thirty years—had never himself lost a drop of blood. His + battle-fields had been on land and water, on ice, in fire, and at the + bottom of the sea, but he had never received a wound. Nay, more; he had + been blown up in a fortress—the castle of Danvilliers in Luxembourg, + of which he was governor—where all perished save his wife and + himself, and, when they came to dig among the ruins, they excavated at + last the ancient couple, protected by the framework of a window in the + embrasure of which they had been seated, without a scratch or a bruise. He + was a Biscayan by descent, but born in Medina del Campo. A strict + disciplinarian, very resolute and pertinacious, he had the good fortune to + be beloved by his inferiors, his equals, and his superiors. He was called + the father of his soldiers, the good Mondragon, and his name was unstained + by any of those deeds of ferocity which make the chronicles of the time + resemble rather the history of wolves than of men. To a married daughter, + mother of several children, he left a considerable fortune. + </p> + <p> + Maurice broke up his camp soon after the departure of his antagonist, and + paused for a few days at Arnheim to give honourable burial to his cousin + Philip and Count Solms. Meantime Sir Francis Vere was detached, with three + regiments, which were to winter in Overyssel, towards Weerd castle, + situate at a league's distance from Ysselsburg, and defended by a garrison + of twenty-six men under Captain Pruys. That doughty commandant, on being + summoned to surrender, obstinately refused. Vere, according to Maurice's + orders, then opened with his artillery against the place, which soon + capitulated in great panic and confusion. The captain demanded the honours + of war. Vere told him in reply that the honours of war were halters for + the garrison who had dared to defend such a hovel against artillery. The + twenty-six were accordingly ordered to draw black and white straws. This + was done, and the twelve drawing white straws were immediately hanged; the + thirteenth receiving his life on consenting to act as executioner for his + comrades. The commandant was despatched first of all. The rope broke, but + the English soldiers held him under the water of the ditch until he was + drowned. The castle was then thoroughly sacked, the women being sent + unharmed to Ysselsburg. + </p> + <p> + Maurice then shipped the remainder of his troops along the Rhine and Waal + to their winter quarters and returned to the Hague. It was the feeblest + year's work yet done by the stadholder. + </p> + <p> + Meantime his great ally, the Huguenot-Catholic Prince of Bearne, was + making a dashing, and, on the whole, successful campaign in the heart of + his own kingdom. The constable of Castile, Don Ferdinando de Velasco, one + of Spain's richest grandees and poorest generals, had been sent with an + army of ten thousand men to take the field in Burgundy against the man + with whom the great Farnese had been measuring swords so lately, and with + not unmingled success, in Picardy. Biron, with a sudden sweep, took + possession of Aussone, Autun, and Beaune, but on one adventurous day found + himself so deeply engaged with a superior force of the enemy in the + neighbourhood of Fontaine Francaise, or St. Seine, where France's great + river takes its rise, as to be nearly cut off and captured. But Henry + himself was already in the field, and by one of those mad, reckless + impulses which made him so adorable as a soldier and yet so profoundly + censurable as a commander-in-chief, he flung himself, like a young + lieutenant, with a mere handful of cavalry, into the midst of the fight, + and at the imminent peril of his own life succeeded in rescuing the + marshal and getting off again unscathed. On other occasions Henry said he + had fought for victory, but on that for dear life; and, even as in the + famous and foolish skirmish at Aumale three years before, it was absence + of enterprise or lack of cordiality on the part of his antagonists, that + alone prevented a captive king from being exhibited as a trophy of triumph + for the expiring League. + </p> + <p> + But the constable of Castile was not born to cheer the heart of his + prudent master with such a magnificent spectacle. Velasco fell back to + Gray and obstinately refused to stir from his entrenchments, while Henry + before his eyes laid siege to Dijon. On the 28th June the capital of + Burgundy surrendered to its sovereign, but no temptations could induce the + constable to try the chance of a battle. Henry's movements in the interior + were more successful than were the operations nearer the frontier, but + while the monarch was thus cheerfully fighting for his crown in France, + his envoys were winning a still more decisive campaign for him in Rome. + </p> + <p> + D'Ossat and Perron had accomplished their diplomatic task with consummate + ability, and, notwithstanding the efforts and the threats of the Spanish + ambassador and the intrigues of his master, the absolution was granted. + The pope arose early on the morning of the 5th August, and walked barefoot + from his palace of Mount Cavallo to the church of Maria Maggiore, with his + eyes fixed on the ground, weeping loudly and praying fervently. He + celebrated mass in the church, and then returned as he went, saluting no + one on the road and shutting himself up in his palace afterwards. The same + ceremony was performed ten days later on the festival of our Lady's + Ascension. In vain, however, had been the struggle on the part of his + Holiness to procure from the ambassador the deposition of the crown of + France in his hands, in order that the king might receive it back again as + a free gift and concession from the chief pontiff. Such a triumph was not + for Rome, nor could even the publication of the Council of Trent in France + be conceded except with a saving clause "as to matters which could not be + put into operation without troubling the repose of the kingdom." And to + obtain this clause the envoys declared "that they had been obliged to + sweat blood and water." + </p> + <p> + On the 17th day of September the absolution was proclaimed with great pomp + and circumstance from the gallery of St. Peter's, the holy father seated + on the highest throne of majesty, with his triple crown on has head, and + all his cardinals and bishops about him in their most effulgent robes. + </p> + <p> + The silver trumpets were blown, while artillery roared from the castle of + St. Angelo, and for two successive nights Rome was in a blaze of bonfires + and illumination, in a whirl of bell-ringing, feasting, and singing of + hosannaha. There had not been such a merry-making in the eternal city + since the pope had celebrated solemn thanksgiving for the massacre of St. + Bartholomew. The king was almost beside himself with rapture when the + great news reached him, and he straightway wrote letters, overflowing with + gratitude and religious enthusiasm, to the pontiff and expressed his + regret that military operations did not allow him to proceed at once to + Rome in person to kiss the holy father's feet. + </p> + <p> + The narrative returns to Fuentes, who was left before the walls of + Cambray. + </p> + <p> + That venerable ecclesiastical city; pleasantly seated amid gardens, + orchards, and green pastures, watered, by the winding Scheld, was well + fortified after the old manner, but it was especially defended and + dominated by a splendid pentagonal citadel built by Charles V. It was + filled with fine churches, among which the magnificent cathedral was + pre-eminent, and with many other stately edifices. The population was + thrifty, active, and turbulent, like that of all those Flemish and Walloon + cities which the spirit of mediaeval industry had warmed for a time into + vehement little republics. + </p> + <p> + But, as has already been depicted in these pages, the Celtic element had + been more apt to receive than consistent to retain the generous impress + which had once been stamped on all the Netherlands. The Walloon provinces + had fallen away from their Flemish sisters and seemed likely to accept a + permanent yoke, while in the territory of the united States, as John + Baptist Tassis was at that very moment pathetically observing in a private + letter to Philip, "with the coming up of a new generation educated as + heretics from childhood, who had never heard what the word king means, it + was likely to happen at last that the king's memory, being wholly + forgotten nothing would remain in the land but heresy alone." From this + sad fate Cambray had been saved. Gavre d'Inchy had seventeen years before + surrendered the city to the Duke of Alencon during that unlucky + personage's brief and base career in the Netherlands, all, that was left + of his visit being the semi-sovereignty which the notorious Balagny had + since that time enjoyed, in the archiepiscopal city. This personage, a + natural son of Monluc, Bishop of Valence, and nephew of the distinguished + Marshal Monluci was one of the most fortunate and the most ignoble of all + the soldiers of fortune who had played their part at this epoch in the + Netherlands. A poor creature himself, he had a heroine for a wife. Renee, + the sister of Bussy d'Amboise, had vowed to unite herself to a man who + would avenge the assassination of her brother by the Count Montsoreau? + Balagny readily agreed to perform the deed, and accordingly espoused the + high-born dame, but it does not appear that he ever wreaked her vengeance + on the murderer. He had now governed Cambray until the citizens and the + whole countryside were galled and exhausted by his grinding tyranny, his + inordinate pride, and his infamous extortions. His latest achievement had + been to force upon his subjects a copper currency bearing the nominal + value of silver, with the same blasting effects which such experiments in + political economy are apt to produce on princes and peoples. He had been a + Royalist, a Guisist, a Leaguer, a Dutch republican, by turns, and had + betrayed all the parties, at whose expense he had alternately filled his + coffers. During the past year he had made up his mind—like most of + the conspicuous politicians and campaigners of France—that the + moribund League was only fit to be trampled upon by its recent + worshippers, and he had made accordingly one of the very best bargains + with Henry IV. that had yet been made, even at that epoch of self-vending + grandees. + </p> + <p> + Henry, by treaty ratified in August, 1594, had created him Prince of + Cambray and Marshal of France, so that the man who had been receiving up + to that very moment a monthly subsidy of seven thousand two hundred + dollars from the King of Spain was now gratified with a pension to about + the same yearly amount by the King of France. During the autumn Henry had + visited Cambray, and the new prince had made wondrous exhibitions of + loyalty to the sovereign whom he had done his best all his life to exclude + from his kingdom. There had been a ceaseless round of tournaments, + festivals, and masquerades in the city in honour of the Huguenot + chieftain, now changed into the most orthodox and most legitimate of + monarchs, but it was not until midsummer of the present year that Balagny + was called on to defend his old possessions and his new principality + against a well-seasoned army and a vigorous commander. Meanwhile his new + patron was so warmly occupied in other directions that it might be + difficult for him to send assistance to the beleaguered city. + </p> + <p> + On the 14th August Fuentes began his siege operations. Before the + investment had been completed the young Prince of Rhetelois, only fifteen + years of age, son of the Duke of Nevers, made his entrance into the city + attended by thirty of his father's archers. De Vich, too, an experienced + and faithful commander, succeeded in bringing four or five hundred + dragoons through the enemy's lines. These meagre reinforcements were all + that reached the place; for, although the States-General sent two or three + thousand Scotchmen and Zeelanders, under Justinus of Nassau, to Henry, + that he might be the better enabled to relieve this important frontier + city, the king's movements were not sufficiently prompt to turn the force + to good account Balagny was left with a garrison of three thousand French + and Walloons in the city, besides five hundred French in the fortress. + </p> + <p> + After six weeks steady drawing of parallels and digging of mines Fuentes + was ready to open his batteries. On the 26th September, the news, very + much exaggerated, of Mondragon's brilliant victory near Wessel, and of the + deaths of Philip Nassau and Ernest Solms, reached the Spanish camp. + Immense was the rejoicing. Triumphant salutes from eighty-seven cannon and + many thousand muskets shook the earth and excited bewilderment and anxiety + within the walls of the city. Almost immediately afterwards a tremendous + cannonade was begun and so vigorously sustained that the burghers, and + part of the garrison, already half rebellious with hatred to Balagny, + began loudly to murmur as the balls came flying into their streets. A few + days later an insurrection broke out. Three thousand citizens, with red + flags flying, and armed to the teeth were discovered at daylight drawn up + in the market place. Balagny came down from the citadel and endeavoured to + calm the tumult, but was received with execrations. They had been + promised, shouted the insurgents, that every road about Cambray was to + swarm with French soldiers under their formidable king, kicking the heads + of the Spaniards in all directions. And what had they got? a child with + thirty archers, sent by his father, and half a man at the head of four + hundred dragoons. To stand a siege under such circumstances against an + army of fifteen thousand Spaniards, and to take Balagny's copper as if it + were gold, was more than could be asked of respectable burghers. + </p> + <p> + The allusion to the young prince Rhetelois and to De Vich, who had lost a + leg in the wars, was received with much enthusiasm. Balagny, appalled at + the fury of the people, whom he had so long been trampling upon while + their docility lasted, shrank back before their scornful denunciations + into the citadel. + </p> + <p> + But his wife was not appalled. This princess had from the beginning of the + siege showed a courage and an energy worthy of her race. Night and day she + had gone the rounds of the ramparts, encouraging and directing the efforts + of the garrison. She had pointed batteries against the enemy's works, and, + with her own hands, had fired the cannon. She now made her appearance in + the market-place, after her husband had fled, and did her best to assuage + the tumult, and to arouse the mutineers to a sense of duty or of shame. + She plucked from her bosom whole handfuls of gold which she threw among + the bystanders, and she was followed by a number of carts filled with + sacks of coin ready to be exchanged for the debased currency. + </p> + <p> + Expressing contempt for the progress made by the besieging army, and for + the slight impression so far produced upon the defences of the city, she + snatched a pike from a soldier and offered in person to lead the garrison + to the breach. Her audience knew full well that this was no theatrical + display, but that the princess was ready as the boldest warrior to lead a + forlorn hope or to repel the bloodiest assault. Nor, from a military point + of view, was their situation desperate. But their hatred and scorn for + Balagny could not be overcome by any passing sentiment of admiration for + his valiant though imperious wife. No one followed her to the breach. + Exclaiming that she at least would never surrender, and that she would die + a sovereign princess rather than live a subject, Renee de Balagny retained + to the citadel. + </p> + <p> + The town soon afterwards capitulated, and as the Spanish soldiers, on + entering, observed the slight damage that had been caused by their + batteries, they were most grateful to the faint-hearted or mutinous + condition by which they had been spared the expense of an assault. + </p> + <p> + The citadel was now summoned to surrender; and Balagny agreed, in case he + should not be relieved within six days, to accept what was considered + honourable terms. It proved too late to expect succour from Henry, and + Balagny, but lately a reigning prince, was fain to go forth on the + appointed day and salute his conqueror. But the princess kept her vow. She + had done her best to defend her dominions and to live a sovereign, and now + there was nothing left her but to die. With bitter reproaches on her + husband's pusillanimity, with tears and sobs of rage and shame, she + refused food, spurned the idea of capitulation, and expired before the 9th + of October. + </p> + <p> + On that day a procession moved out of the citadel gates. Balagny, with a + son of eleven years of age, the Prince of Rhetelois, the Commander De + Vich; and many other distinguished personages, all magnificently attired, + came forth at the head of what remained of the garrison. The soldiers, + numbering thirteen hundred foot and two hundred and forty horse, marched + with colours flying, drums beating, bullet in mouth, and all the other + recognised palliatives of military disaster. Last of all came a hearse, + bearing the coffin of the Princess of Cambray. Fuentes saluted the living + leaders of the procession, and the dead heroine; with stately courtesy, + and ordered an escort as far as Peronne. + </p> + <p> + Balagny met with a cool reception from Henry at St. Quintin, but + subsequently made his peace, and espoused the sister of the king's + mistress, Gabrielle d'Estrees. The body of Gavre d'Inchy, which had been + buried for years, was dug up and thrown into a gutter. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Deal with his enemy as if sure to become his friend + Mondragon was now ninety-two years old + More catholic than the pope + Octogenarian was past work and past mischief + Sacked and drowned ten infant princes + Strangled his nineteen brothers on his accession +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXII. 1595-1596 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Archduke Cardinal Albert appointed governor of the Netherlands— + Return of Philip William from captivity—His adherence to the King + of Spain—Notice of the Marquis of Varambon, Count Varax, and other + new officers—Henry's communications with Queen Elizabeth—Madame de + Monceaux—Conversation of Henry with the English ambassador— + Marseilles secured by the Duke of Guise—The fort of Rysbank taken + by De Roane Calais in the hands of the Spanish—Assistance from + England solicited by Henry—Unhandsome conditions proposed by + Elizabeth—Annexation of Calais to the obedient provinces—Pirates + of Dunkirk—Uneasiness of the Netherlanders with regard to the + designs of Elizabeth—Her protestations of sincerity—Expedition of + Dutch and English forces to Spain—Attack on the Spanish war-ships— + Victory of the allies—Flag of the Republic planted on the fortress + of Cadiz—Capitulation of the city—Letter of Elizabeth to the Dutch + Admirals—State of affairs in France—Proposition of the Duke of + Montpensier for the division of the kingdom—Successes of the + Cardinal Archduke in Normandy—He proceeds to Flanders—Siege and + capture of Hulat—Projected alliance against Spain—Interview of De + Sancy with Lord Burghley—Diplomatic conference at Greenwich— + Formation of a league against Spain—Duplicity of the treaty— + Affairs in Germany—Battle between the Emperor and the Grand Turk— + Endeavours of Philip to counteract the influence of the league—His + interference in the affairs of Germany—Secret intrigue of Henry + with Spain—Philip's second attempt at the conquest of England. +</pre> + <p> + Another governor-general arrived in the early days of the year 1596, to + take charge of the obedient provinces. It had been rumoured for many + months that Philip's choice was at last fixed upon the Archduke Cardinal + Albert, Archbishop of Toledo, youngest of the three surviving brothers, of + the Emperor Rudolph, as the candidate for many honours. He was to espouse + the Infanta, he was to govern the Netherlands, and, as it was supposed, + there were wider and wilder schemes for the aggrandizement of this + fortunate ecclesiastic brooding in the mind of Philip than yet had seen + the light. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the cardinal's first care was to unfrock himself. He had also + been obliged to lay down the most lucrative episcopate in Christendom, + that of Toledo, the revenues of which amounted to the enormous sum of + three hundred thousand dollars a year. Of this annual income, however, he + prudently reserved to himself fifty thousand dollars, by contract with his + destined successor. + </p> + <p> + The cardinal reached the Netherlands before the end of January. He brought + with him three thousand Spanish infantry, and some companies of cavalry, + while his personal baggage was transported on three hundred and fifty + mules. Of course there was a triumphal procession when, on the 11th + February, the new satrap entered the obedient Netherlands, and there was + the usual amount of bell-ringing, cannon-firing, trumpet-blowing, with + torch-light processions, blazing tar-barrels, and bedizened platforms, + where Allegory, in an advanced state of lunacy, performed its wonderful + antics. It was scarcely possible for human creatures to bestow more + adulation, or to abase themselves more thoroughly, than the honest + citizens of Brussels had so recently done in honour of the gentle, gouty + Ernest, but they did their best. That mythological conqueror and demigod + had sunk into an unhonoured grave, despite the loud hosannaha sung to him + on his arrival in Belgica, and the same nobles, pedants, and burghers were + now ready and happy to grovel at the feet of Albert. But as it proved as + impossible to surpass the glories of the holiday which had been culled out + for his brother, so it would be superfluous now to recall the pageant + which thus again delighted the capital. + </p> + <p> + But there was one personage who graced this joyous entrance whose presence + excited perhaps more interest than did that of the archduke himself. The + procession was headed by three grandees riding abreast. There was the Duke + of Aumale, pensionary of Philip, and one of the last of the Leaguers, who + had just been condemned to death and executed in effigy at Paris, as a + traitor to his king and country; there was the Prince of Chimay, now since + the recent death of his father at Venice become Duke of Arschot; and + between the two rode a gentleman forty-two years of age, whose grave; + melancholy features—although wearing a painful expression of + habitual restraint and distrust suggested, more than did those of the rest + of his family, the physiognomy of William the Silent to all who remembered + that illustrious rebel. + </p> + <p> + It was the eldest son of the great founder of the Dutch republic. Philip + William, Prince of Orange, had at last, after twenty-eight years of + captivity in Spain, returned to the Netherlands, whence he had been + kidnapped while a school boy at Louvain, by order of the Duke of Alva. + Rarely has there been a more dreary fate, a more broken existence than + his. His almost life-long confinement, not close nor cruel, but strict and + inexorable, together with the devilish arts of the Jesuits, had produced + nearly as blighting an effect upon his moral nature as a closer dungeon + might have done on his physical constitution. Although under perpetual + arrest in Madrid, he had been allowed to ride and to hunt, to go to mass, + and to enjoy many of the pleasures of youth. But he had been always a + prisoner, and his soul—a hopeless captive—could no longer be + liberated now that the tyrant, in order to further his own secret + purposes; had at last released his body from gaol. Although the + eldest-born of his father, and the inheritor of the great estates of + Orange and of Buren, he was no longer a Nassau except in name. The change + wrought by the pressure of the Spanish atmosphere was complete. All that + was left of his youthful self was a passionate reverence for his father's + memory, strangely combined with a total indifference to all that his + father held dear, all for which his father had laboured his whole + lifetime, and for which his heart's blood had been shed. On being at last + set free from bondage he had been taken to the Escorial, and permitted to + kiss the hand of the king—that hand still reeking with his father's + murder. He had been well received by the Infante and the Infanta, and by + the empress-mother, daughter of Charles V., while the artistic treasures + of the palace and cloister were benignantly pointed out to him. It was + also signified to him that he was to receive the order of the Golden + Fleece, and to enter into possession of his paternal and maternal estates. + And Philip William had accepted these conditions as if a born loyal + subject of his Most Catholic Majesty. + </p> + <p> + Could better proof be wanting that in that age religion was the only + fatherland, and that a true papist could sustain no injury at the hands of + his Most Catholic Majesty. If to be kidnapped in boyhood, to be imprisoned + during a whole generation of mankind, to be deprived of vast estates, and + to be made orphan by the foulest of assassinations, could not engender + resentment against, the royal, perpetrator of these crimes in the bosom of + his victim, was it strange that Philip should deem himself, something far, + more than man, and should placidly accept the worship rendered to him by + inferior beings, as to the holy impersonation of Almighty Wrath? + </p> + <p> + Yet there is no doubt that the prince had a sincere respect for his + father, and had bitterly sorrowed at his death. When a Spanish officer, + playing chess with him, in prison, had ventured to speak lightly of that + father, Philip William had seized him bodily, thrown him from the window, + and thus killed him on the spot. And when on his arrival in Brussels it + was suggested to him by President Riehardat that it was the king's + intention to reinstate him in the possession of his estates, but that a + rent-charge of eighteen thousand florins a year was still to be paid from + them; to the heirs of Balthazar Gerard, his father's assassin, he flamed + into a violent rage, drew his poniard, and would have stabbed the + president; had not the bystanders forcibly interferred. In consequence of + this refusal—called magnanimous by contemporary writers—to + accept his property under such conditions, the estates were detained from + him for a considerable time longer. During the period of his captivity he + had been allowed an income of fifteen thousand livres; but after his + restoration his household, gentlemen, and servants alone cost him eighty + thousand livres annually. It was supposed that the name of Orange-Nassau + might now be of service to the king's designs in the Netherlands. Philip + William had come by way of Rome, where he had been allowed to kiss the + pope's feet and had received many demonstrations of favour, and it was + fondly thought that he would now prove an instrument with which king and + pontiff might pipe back the rebellious republic to its ancient allegiance. + But the Dutchmen and Frisians were deaf. They had tasted liberty too long, + they had dealt too many hard blows on the head of regal and sacerdotal + despotism, to be deceived by coarse artifices. Especially the king thought + that something might be done with Count Hohenlo. That turbulent personage + having recently married the full sister of Philip William, and being + already at variance with Count Maurice, both for military and political + causes, and on account of family and pecuniary disputes, might, it was + thought, be purchased by the king, and perhaps a few towns and castles in + the united Netherlands might be thrown into the bargain. In that + huckstering age, when the loftiest and most valiant nobles of Europe were + the most shameless sellers of themselves, the most cynical mendicants for + alms and the most infinite absorbers of bribes in exchange for their + temporary fealty; when Mayenne, Mercoeur, Guise, Pillars, Egmont, and + innumerable other possessors of ancient and illustrious names alternately + and even simultaneously drew pensions from both sides in the great + European conflict, it was not wonderful that Philip should think that the + boisterous Hohenlo might be bought as well as another. The prudent king, + however, gave his usual order that nothing was to be paid beforehand, but + that the service was to be rendered first; and the price received + afterwards. + </p> + <p> + The cardinal applied himself to the task on his first arrival, but was + soon obliged to report that he could make but little progress in the + negotiation. + </p> + <p> + The king thought, too, that Heraugiere, who had commanded the memorable + expedition against Breda, and who was now governor of that stronghold, + might be purchased, and he accordingly instructed the cardinal to make use + of the Prince of Orange in the negotiations to be made for that purpose. + The cardinal, in effect, received an offer from Heraugiere in the course + of a few months not only to surrender Breda, without previous recompense, + but likewise to place Gertruydenberg, the governor of which city was his + relative, in the king's possession. But the cardinal was afraid of a + trick, for Heraugiere was known to be as artful as he was brave, and there + can be little doubt that the Netherlander was only disposed to lay an + ambush for the governor-general. + </p> + <p> + And thus the son of William the Silent made his reappearance in the + streets of Brussels, after twenty-eight years of imprisonment, riding in + the procession of the new viceroy. The cardinal-archduke came next, with + Fuentes riding at his left hand. That vigorous soldier and politician soon + afterwards left the Netherlands to assume the government of Milan. + </p> + <p> + There was a correspondence between the Prince of Orange and the + States-General, in which the republican authorities after expressing + themselves towards him with great propriety, and affectionate respect, + gave him plainly but delicately to understand that his presence at that + time in the United Provinces would neither be desirable, nor, without + their passports, possible. They were quite aware of the uses to which the + king was hoping to turn their reverence for the memory and the family of + the great martyr, and were determined to foil such idle projects on the + threshold. + </p> + <p> + The Archduke Albert, born on 3rd of November, 1560, was now in his + thirty-sixth year. A small, thin, pale-faced man, with fair hair, and + beard, commonplace features, and the hereditary underhanging Burgundian + jaw prominently developed, he was not without a certain nobility of + presence. His manners were distant to haughtiness and grave to solemnity. + He spoke very little and very slowly. He had resided long in Spain, where + he had been a favourite with his uncle—as much as any man could be a + favourite with Philip—and he had carefully formed himself on that + royal model. He looked upon the King of Spain as the greatest, wisest, and + best of created beings, as the most illustrious specimen of kingcraft ever + yet vouchsafed to the world. He did his best to look sombre and Spanish, + to turn his visage into a mask; to conceal his thoughts and emotions, not + only by the expression of his features but by direct misstatements of his + tongue, and in all things to present to the obedient Flemings as elaborate + a reproduction of his great prototype as copy can ever recall inimitable + original. Old men in the Netherlands; who remembered in how short a time + Philip had succeeded, by the baleful effect of his personal presence, in + lighting up a hatred which not the previous twenty years of his father's + burnings, hangings, and butcherings in those provinces had been able to + excite, and which forty subsequent years of bloodshed had not begun to + allay, might well shake their heads when they saw this new representative + of Spanish authority. It would have been wiser—so many astute + politicians thought—for Albert to take the Emperor Charles for his + model, who had always the power of making his tyranny acceptable to the + Flemings, through the adroitness with which he seemed to be entirely a + Fleming himself. + </p> + <p> + But Albert, although a German, valued himself on appearing like a + Spaniard. He was industrious, regular in his habits, moderate in eating + and drinking, fond of giving audiences on business. He spoke German, + Spanish, and Latin, and understood French and Italian. He had at times + been a student, and, especially, had some knowledge of mathematics. He was + disposed to do his duty—so far as a man can do his duty, who + imagines himself so entirely lifted above his fellow creatures as to owe + no obligation except to exact their obedience and to personify to them the + will of the Almighty. To Philip and the Pope he was ever faithful. He was + not without pretensions to military talents, but his gravity, slowness, + and silence made him fitter to shine in the cabinet than in the field. + Henry IV., who loved his jests whether at his own expense or that of + friend or foe, was wont to observe that there were three things which + nobody would ever believe, and which yet were very true; that Queen + Elizabeth deserved her title of the throned vestal, that he was himself a + good Catholic, and that Cardinal Albert was a good general. It is probable + that the assertions were all equally accurate. + </p> + <p> + The new governor did not find a very able group of generals or statesmen + assembled about him to assist in the difficult task which he had + undertaken. There were plenty of fine gentlemen, with ancient names and + lofty pretensions, but the working men in field or council had mostly + disappeared. Mondragon, La Motte, Charles Mansfeld, Frank Verdugo were all + dead. Fuentes was just taking his departure for Italy. Old Peter Ernest + was a cipher; and his son's place was filled by the Marquis of Varambon; + as principal commander in active military operations. This was a + Burgundian of considerable military ability, but with an inordinate + opinion of himself and of his family. "Accept the fact that his lineage is + the highest possible, and that he has better connections than those of + anybody else in the whole world, and he will be perfectly contented," said + a sharp, splenetic Spaniard in the cardinal's confidence. "'Tis a faithful + and loyal cavalier, but full of impertinences." The brother of Varambon, + Count Varax, had succeeded la Motte as general of artillery, and of his + doings there was a tale ere long to be told. On the whole, the best + soldier in the archduke's service for the moment was the Frenchman Savigny + de Rosne, an ancient Leaguer, and a passionate hater of the Bearnese, of + heretics, and of France as then constituted. He had once made a contract + with Henry by which he bound himself to his service; but after occasioning + a good deal of injury by his deceitful attitude, he had accepted a large + amount of Spanish dollars, and had then thrown off the mask and proclaimed + himself the deadliest foe of his lawful sovereign. "He was foremost," said + Carlos Coloma, "among those who were successfully angled for by the + Commander Moreo with golden hooks." Although prodigiously fat, this + renegade was an active and experienced campaigner; while his personal + knowledge of his own country made his assistance of much value to those + who were attempting its destruction. + </p> + <p> + The other great nobles, who were pressing themselves about the new viceroy + with enthusiastic words of welcome, were as like to give him embarrassment + as support. All wanted office, emoluments, distinctions, nor could, much + dependence be placed on the ability or the character of any of them. The + new duke of Arschot had in times past, as prince of Chimay, fought against + the king, and had even imagined himself a Calvinist, while his wife was + still a determined heretic. It is true that she was separated from her + husband. He was a man of more quickness and acuteness than his father had + been, but if possible more mischievous both to friend and foe; being + subtle, restless, intriguing, fickle; ambitious, and deceitful. The Prince + of Orange was considered a man of very ordinary intelligence, not more + than half witted, according to Queen Elizabeth, and it was probable that + the peculiar circumstances of his life would extinguish any influence that + he might otherwise have attained with either party. He was likely to + affect a neutral position and, in times of civil war, to be neutral is to + be nothing. + </p> + <p> + Arenberg, unlike the great general on the Catholic side who had made the + name illustrious in the opening scenes of the mighty contest, was disposed + to quiet obscurity so far as was compatible with his rank. Having + inherited neither fortune nor talent with his ancient name, he was chiefly + occupied with providing for the wants of his numerous family. A good + papist, well-inclined and docile, he was strongly recommended for the post + of admiral, not because he had naval acquirements, but because he had a + great many children. The Marquis of Havre, uncle to the Duke of Arschot, + had played in his time many prominent parts in the long Netherland + tragedy. Although older than he was when Requesens and Don John of Austria + had been governors, he was not much wiser, being to the full as + vociferous, as false, as insolent, as self-seeking, and as mischievous as + in his youth. Alternately making appeals to popular passions in his + capacity of high-born demagogue, or seeking crumbs of bounty as the supple + slave of his sovereign, he was not more likely to acquire the confidence + of the cardinal than he had done that of his predecessors. + </p> + <p> + The most important and opulent grandee of all the provinces was the Count + de Ligne, who had become by marriage or inheritance Prince of Espinay, + Seneschal of Hainault, and Viscount of Ghent. But it was only his enormous + estates that gave him consideration, for he was not thought capable of + either good or bad intentions. He had, however, in times past, succeeded + in the chief object of his ambition, which was to keep out of trouble, and + to preserve his estates from confiscation. His wife, who governed him, and + had thus far guided him safely, hoped to do so to the end. The cardinal + was informed that the Golden Fleece would be all-sufficient to keep him + upon the right track. + </p> + <p> + Of the Egmonts, one had died on the famous field of Ivry, another was an + outlaw, and had been accused of participation in plots of assassination + against William of Orange; the third was now about the archduke's court, + and was supposed, to be as dull a man—as Ligne, but likely to be + serviceable so long as he could keep his elder brother out of his + inheritance. Thus devoted to Church and King were the sons of the man + whose head Philip had taken off on a senseless charge of treason. The two + Counts Van den Berg—Frederic and Herman—sons of the sister of + William the Silent, were, on the whole, as brave, efficient, and + trustworthy servants of the king and cardinal as were to be found in the + obedient, provinces. + </p> + <p> + The new governor had come well provided with funds, being supplied for the + first three-quarters of the year with a monthly: allowance of 1,100,000 + florins. For reasons soon to appear, it was not probable that the + States-General would be able very, soon to make a vigorous campaign, and + it was thought best for the cardinal to turn his immediate attention to + France. + </p> + <p> + The negotiations for, effecting an alliance offensive and defensive, + between the three powers most interested in opposing the projects of Spain + for universal empire, were not yet begun, and will be reserved for a + subsequent chapter. Meantime there had been much informal discussion and + diplomatic trifling between France and England for the purpose of bringing + about a sincere co-operation of the two crowns against the Fifth Monarchy—as + it was much the fashion to denominate Philip's proposed dominion. + </p> + <p> + Henry had suggested at different times to Sir Robert Sidney, during his + frequent presence in France as special envoy for the queen, the necessity + of such a step, but had not always found a hearty sympathy. But as the + king began to cool in his hatred to Spain, after his declaration of war + against that power, it seemed desirable to Elizabeth to fan his resentment + afresh, and to revert to those propositions which had been so coolly + received when made. Sir Harry Umton, ambassador from her Majesty, was + accordingly provided with especial letters on the subject from the queen's + own hand, and presented them early in the year at Coucy (Feb. 13, 1596). + No man in the world knew better the tone to adopt in his communications + with Elizabeth than did the chivalrous king. No man knew better than he + how impossible it was to invent terms of adulation too gross for her to + accept as spontaneous and natural effusions, of the heart. He received the + letters from the hands of Sir Henry, read them with rapture, heaved a deep + sigh, and exclaimed. "Ah! Mr. Ambassador, what shall I say to you? This + letter of the queen, my sister, is full of sweetness and affection. I see + that she loves me, while that I love her is not to be doubted. Yet your + commission shows me the contrary, and this proceeds from her, ministers. + How else can these obliquities stand with her professions of love? I am + forced, as a king, to take a course which, as Henry, her loving brother, I + could never adopt." + </p> + <p> + They then walked out into the park, and the king fell into frivolous + discourse, on purpose to keep the envoy from the important subject which + had been discussed in the cabinet. Sir Henry brought him back to business, + and insisted that there was no disagreement between her Majesty and her + counsellors, all being anxious to do what she wished. The envoy, who + shared in the prevailing suspicions that Henry was about to make a truce + with Spain, vehemently protested against such a step, complaining that his + ministers, whose minds were distempered with jealousy, were inducing him + to sacrifice her friendship to a false and hollow reconciliation with + Spain. Henry protested that his preference would be for England's amity, + but regretted that the English delays were so great, and that such dangers + were ever impending over his head, as to make it impossible for him, as a + king, to follow the inclinations of his heart. + </p> + <p> + They then met Madame de Monceaux, the beautiful Gabrielle, who was invited + to join in the walk, the king saying that she was no meddler in politics, + but of a tractable spirit. + </p> + <p> + This remark, in Sir Henry's opinion, was just, for, said he to Burghley, + she is thought incapable of affairs, and, very simple. + </p> + <p> + The duchess unmasked very graciously as the ambassador was presented; but, + said the splenetic diplomatist, "I took no pleasure in it, nor held it any + grace at all." "She was attired in a plain satin gown," he continued, + "with a velvet hood to keep her from the weather, which became her very + ill. In my opinion, she is altered very much for the worse, and was very + grossly painted." The three walked together discoursing of trifles, much + to the annoyance of Umton. At last, a shower forced the lady into the + house, and the king soon afterwards took the ambassador to his cabinet. + "He asked me how I liked his mistress," wrote Sir Henry to Burghley, "and + I answered sparingly in her praise, and told him that if without offence I + might speak it, I had the picture of a far more excellent mistress, and + yet did her picture come far from the perfection of her beauty." + </p> + <p> + "As you love me," cried the king, "show it me, if you have it about you!" + </p> + <p> + "I made some difficulty," continued Sir Henry, "yet upon his importunity I + offered it to his view very secretly, still holding it in my hand. He + beheld it with passion and admiration, saying that I was in the right." "I + give in," said the king, "Je me rends." + </p> + <p> + Then, protesting that he had never seen such beauty all his life, he + kissed it reverently twice or thrice, Sir Henry still holding the + miniature firmly in his hand. + </p> + <p> + The king then insisted upon seizing the picture, and there was a charming + struggle between the two, ending in his Majesty's triumph. He then told + Sir Henry that he might take his leave of the portrait, for he would never + give it up again for any treasure, and that to possess the favour of the + original he would forsake all the world. He fell into many more such + passionate and incoherent expressions of rhapsody, as of one suddenly + smitten and spell-bound with hapless love, bitterly reproaching the + ambassador for never having brought him any answers to the many + affectionate letters which he had written to the queen, whose silence had + made him so wretched. Sir Henry, perhaps somewhat confounded at being + beaten at his own fantastic game, answered as well as he could, "but I + found," said he, "that the dumb picture did draw on more speech and + affection from him than all my best arguments and eloquence. This was the + effect of our conference, and, if infiniteness of vows and outward + professions be a strong argument of inward affection, there is good + likelihood of the king's continuance of amity with her Majesty; only I + fear lest his necessities may inconsiderately draw him into some hazardous + treaty with Spain, which I hope confidently it is yet in the power of her + Majesty to prevent." + </p> + <p> + The king, while performing these apish tricks about the picture of a lady + with beady black eyes, a hooked nose, black teeth, and a red wig, who was + now in the sixty-fourth year of her age, knew very well that the whole + scene would be at once repeated to the fair object of his passion by her + faithful envoy; but what must have been the opinion entertained of + Elizabeth by contemporary sovereigns and statesmen when such fantastic + folly could be rehearsed and related every day in the year! + </p> + <p> + And the king knew, after all, and was destined very soon to acquire proof + of it which there was no gainsaying, that the beautiful Elizabeth had + exactly as much affection for him as he had for her, and was as capable of + sacrificing his interests for her own, or of taking advantage of his + direct necessities as cynically and as remorselessly, as the King of + Spain, or the Duke of Mayenne, or the Pope had ever done. + </p> + <p> + Henry had made considerable progress in re-establishing his authority over + a large portion of the howling wilderness to which forty years of civil + war had reduced his hereditary kingdom. There was still great danger, + however, at its two opposite extremities. Calais, key to the Norman gate + of France, was feebly held; while Marseilles, seated in such dangerous + proximity to Spain on the one side, and to the Republic of Genoa, that + alert vassal of Spain, on the other, was still in the possession of the + League. A concerted action was undertaken by means of John Andrew Doria, + with a Spanish fleet from Genoa on the outside and a well-organised + conspiracy from within, to carry the city bodily over to Philip. Had it + succeeded, this great Mediterranean seaport would have become as much a + Spanish 'possession as Barcelona or Naples, and infinite might have been + the damage to Henry's future prospects in consequence. But there was a man + in Marseilles; Petrus Libertas by name, whose ancestors had gained this + wholesome family appellation by a successful effort once made by them to + rescue the little town of Calvi, in Corsica, from the tyranny of Genoa. + Peter Liberty needed no prompting to vindicate, on a fitting occasion, his + right to his patronymic. In conjunction with men in Marseilles who hated + oppression, whether of kings, priests, or renegade republics, as much as + he did, and with a secret and well-arranged understanding with the Duke of + Guise, who was burning with ambition to render a signal benefit to the + cause which he had just espoused, this bold tribune of the people + succeeded in stirring the population to mutiny at exactly the right + moment, and in opening the gates of Marseilles to the Duke of Guise and + his forces before it was possible for the Leaguers to admit the fleet of + Doria into its harbour. Thus was the capital of Mediterranean France lost + and won. Guise gained great favour in Henry's eyes; and with reason; for + the son of the great Balafre, who was himself the League, had now given + the League the stroke of mercy. Peter Liberty became consul of Marseilles, + and received a patent of nobility. It was difficult, however, for any + diploma to confer anything more noble upon him than the name which he hade + inherited, and to which he had so well established his right. + </p> + <p> + But while Henry's cause had thus been so well served in the south, there + was danger impending in the north. The king had been besieging, since + autumn, the town of La Fere, an important military and strategic position, + which had been Farnese's basis of operations during his memorable + campaigns in France, and which had ever since remained in the hands of the + League. + </p> + <p> + The cardinal had taken the field with an army of fifteen thousand foot and + three thousand horse, assembled at Valenciennes, and after hesitating some + time whether, or not he should attempt to relieve La Fere, he decided + instead on a diversion. In the second week of April; De Rosne was detached + at the head of four thousand men, and suddenly appeared before Calais. The + city had been long governed by De Gordan, but this wary and experienced + commander had unfortunately been for two years dead. Still more + unfortunately, it had been in his power to bequeath, not only his fortune, + which was very large, but the government of Calais, considered the most + valuable command in France, to his nephew, De Vidosan. He had, however, + not bequeathed to him his administrative and military genius. + </p> + <p> + The fortress called the Risban, or Rysbank, which entirely governed the + harbour, and the possession of which made Calais nearly impregnable, as + inexhaustible supplies could thus be poured into it by sea, had fallen + into comparative decay. De Gordan had been occupied in strengthening the + work, but since his death the nephew had entirely neglected the task. On + the land side, the bridge of Nivelet was the key to the place. The + faubourg was held by two Dutch companies, under Captains Le Gros and + Dominique, who undertook to prevent the entrance of the archduke's forces. + Vidosan, however; ordered these faithful auxiliaries into the citadel. + </p> + <p> + De Rosne, acting with great promptness; seized both the bridge of Nivelet + and the fort of Rysbank by a sudden and well-concerted movement. This + having been accomplished, the city was in his power, and, after sustaining + a brief cannonade, it surrendered. Vidosan, with his garrison, however, + retired into the citadel, and it was agreed between, himself and De Rosne + that unless succour should be received from the French king before the + expiration of six days; the citadel should also be-evacuated. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Henry, who was at Boulogne, much disgusted at this unexpected + disaster, had sent couriers to the Netherlands, demanding assistance of + the States-General and of the stadholder. Maurice had speedily responded + to the appeal. Proceeding himself to Zeeland, he had shipped fifteen + companies of picked troops from Middelburg, together with a flotilla laden + with munitions and provisions enough to withstand a siege of several + weeks. When the arrangements were completed, he went himself on board of a + ship of war to take command of the expedition in person. On the 17th of + April he arrived with his succours off the harbour of Calais, and found to + his infinite disappointment that the Rysbank fort was in the hands of the + enemy. As not a vessel could pass the bar without almost touching that + fortress, the entrance to Calais was now impossible. Had the incompetent + Vidosan heeded the advice of his brave Dutch officers; the place might + still have been saved, for it had surrendered in a panic on the very day + when the fleet of Maurice arrived off the port. + </p> + <p> + Henry had lost no time in sending, also, to his English allies for + succour. The possession of Calais by the Spaniards might well seem + alarming to Elizabeth, who could not well forget that up to the time of + her sister this important position had been for two centuries an English + stronghold. The defeat of the Spanish husband of an English queen had torn + from England the last trophies of the Black Prince, and now the prize had + again fallen into the hands of Spain; but of Spain no longer in alliance, + but at war, with England. Obviously it was most dangerous to the interests + and to the safety of the English realm, that this threatening position, so + near the gates of London, should be in the hands of the most powerful + potentate in the world and the dire enemy of England. In response to + Henry's appeal, the Earl of Essex was despatched with a force of six + thousand men—raised by express command of the queen on Sunday when + the people were all at church—to Dover, where shipping was in + readiness to transport the troops at once across the Channel. At the same + time, the politic queen and some of her counsellors thought the opening a + good one to profit by the calamity of their dear ally, Certainly it was + desirable to prevent Calais from falling into the grasp of Philip. But it + was perhaps equally desirable, now that the place without the assistance + of Elizabeth could no longer be preserved by Henry, that Elizabeth, and + not Henry, should henceforth be its possessor. To make this proposition as + clear to the French king as it seemed to the English queen, Sir Robert + Sidney was despatched in all haste to Boulogne, even while the guns of De + Rosne were pointed at Calais citadel, and while Maurice's fleet, baffled + by the cowardly surrender of the Risban, was on its retreat from the + harbour. + </p> + <p> + At two o'clock in the afternoon of the 21st of April, Sidney landed at + Boulogne. Henry, who had been intensely impatient to hear from England, + and who suspected that the delay was boding no good to his cause, went + down to the strand to meet the envoy, with whom then and there he engaged + instantly in the most animated discourse. + </p> + <p> + As there was little time to be lost, and as Sidney on getting out of the + vessel found himself thus confronted with the soldier-king in person, he + at once made the demand which he had been sent across the Channel to make. + He requested the king to deliver up the town and citadel of Calais to the + Queen of England as soon as, with her assistance, he should succeed in + recovering the place. He assigned as her Majesty's reasons for this + peremptory summons that she would on no other terms find it in her power + to furnish the required succour. Her subjects, she said, would never + consent to it except on these conditions. It was perhaps not very common + with the queen to exhibit so much deference to the popular will, but on + this occasion the supposed inclinations of the nation furnished her with + an excellent pretext for carrying out her own. Sidney urged moreover that + her Majesty felt certain of being obliged—in case she did not take + Calais into her own safe-keeping and protection—to come to the + rescue again within four or six months to prevent it once more from being + besieged, conquered, and sacked by the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The king had feared some such proposition as this, and had intimated as + much to the States' envoy, Calvaert, who had walked with him down to the + strand, and had left him when the conference began. Henry was not easily + thrown from his equanimity nor wont to exhibit passion on any occasion, + least of all in his discussions with the ambassadors of England, but the + cool and insolent egotism of this communication was too much for him. + </p> + <p> + He could never have believed, he said in reply, that after the repeated + assurances of her Majesty's affection for him which he had received from + the late Sir Henry Umton in their recent negotiations, her Majesty would + now so discourteously seek to make her profit out of his misery. He had + come to Boulogne, he continued, on the pledge given by the Earl of Essex + to assist him with seven or eight thousand men in the recovery of Calais. + If this after all should fail him—although his own reputation would + be more injured by the capture of the place thus before his eyes than if + it had happened in his absence—he would rather a hundred times + endure the loss of the place than have it succoured with such injurious + and dishonourable conditions. After all, he said, the loss of Calais was + substantially of more importance to the queen than to himself. To him the + chief detriment would be in the breaking up of his easy and regular + communications with his neighbours through this position, and especially + with her Majesty. But as her affection for him was now proved to be so + slender as to allow her to seek a profit from his misfortune and + dishonour, it would be better for him to dispense with her friendship + altogether and to strengthen his connections with truer and more + honourable friends. Should the worst come to the worst, he doubted not + that he should be able, being what he was and much more than he was of + old, to make a satisfactory arrangement with, the King of Spain. He was + ready to save Calais at the peril of his life, to conquer it in person, + and not by the hands of any of his lieutenants; but having done so, he was + not willing—at so great a loss of reputation without and at so much + peril within—to deliver it to her Majesty or to any-one else. He + would far rather see it fall into the hands of the Spaniards. + </p> + <p> + Thus warmly and frankly did Henry denounce the unhandsome proposition made + in the name of the queen, while, during his vehement expostulations, + Sidney grew red with shame, and did not venture to look the king for one + moment in the face. He then sought to mitigate the effect of his demand by + intimating, with much embarrassment of demeanour, that perhaps her Majesty + would be satisfied with the possession of Calais for her own life-time, + and—as this was at once plumply refused—by the suggestion of a + pledge of it for the term of one year. But the king only grew the more + indignant as the bargaining became more paltry, and he continued to heap + bitter reproaches upon the queen, who, without having any children or + known inheritor of her possessions, should nevertheless, be so desirous of + compassing his eternal disgrace and of exciting the discontent of his + subjects for the sake of an evanescent gain for herself. At such a price, + he avowed, he had no wish to purchase her Majesty's friendship. + </p> + <p> + After this explosion the conference became more amicable. The English + envoy assured the king that there could be, at all events, no doubt of the + arrival of Essex with eight thousand men on the following Thursday to + assist in the relief of the citadel; notwithstanding the answer which, he + had received to the demand of her Majesty. + </p> + <p> + He furthermore expressed the strong desire which he felt that the king + might be induced to make a personal visit to the queen at Dover, whither + she would gladly come to receive him, so soon as Calais should have been + saved. To this the king replied with gallantry, that it was one of the + things in the world that he had most at heart. The envoy rejoined that her + Majesty would consider such a visit a special honour and favour. She had + said that she could leave this world more cheerfully, when God should + ordain, after she had enjoyed two hours' conversation with his Majesty. + </p> + <p> + Sidney on taking his departure repeated the assurance that the troops + under Essex would arrive before Calais by Thursday, and that they were + fast marching to the English coast; forgetting, apparently, that, at the + beginning of the interview, he had stated, according to the queen's + instructions, that the troops had been forbidden to march until a + favourable answer had been returned by the king to her proposal. + </p> + <p> + Henry then retired to his headquarters for the purpose of drawing up + information for his minister in England, De Saucy, who had not yet been + received by the queen, and who had been kept in complete ignorance of this + mission of Sidney and of its purport. + </p> + <p> + While the king was thus occupied, the English envoy was left in the + company of Calvaert, who endeavoured, without much success, to obtain from + him the result of the conference which had just taken place. Sidney was + not to be pumped by the Dutch diplomatist, adroit as he unquestionably + was, but, so soon as the queen's ambassador was fairly afloat again on his + homeward track—which was the case within three hours after his + arrival at Boulogne—Calvaert received from the king a minute account + of the whole conversation. + </p> + <p> + Henry expressed unbounded gratitude to the States-General of the republic + for their prompt and liberal assistance, and he eagerly contrasted the + conduct of Prince Maurice—sailing forth in person so chivalrously to + his rescue—with the sharp bargainings and shortcomings of the queen. + He despatched a special messenger to convey his thanks to the prince, and + he expressed his hope to Calvaert that the States might be willing that + their troops should return to the besieged place under the command of + Maurice, whose presence alone, as he loudly and publicly protested, was + worth four thousand men. + </p> + <p> + But it was too late. The six days were rapidly passing, away. The governor + of Boulogne, Campagnolo, succeeded, by Henry's command, in bringing a + small reinforcement of two or three hundred men into the citadel of Calais + during the night of the 22nd of April. This devoted little band made their + way, when the tide was low, along the flats which stretched between the + fort of Rysbank and the sea. Sometimes wading up to the neck in water, + sometimes swimming for their lives, and during a greater part of their + perilous, march clinging so close to the hostile fortress as almost to + touch its guns, the gallant adventurers succeeded in getting into the + citadel in time to be butchered with the rest of the garrison on the + following day. For so soon as the handful of men had gained admittance to + the gates—although otherwise the aspect of affairs was quite + unchanged—the rash and weak De Vidosan proclaimed that the + reinforcements stipulated in his conditional capitulation having arrived, + he should now resume hostilities. Whereupon he opened fire, upon the town, + and a sentry was killed. De Rosne, furious, at what he considered a breach + of faith, directed a severe cannonade against the not very formidable + walls of the castle. During the artillery engagement which ensued the + Prince of Orange, who had accompanied De Rosne to the siege, had a very + narrow escape. A cannon-ball from the town took off the heads of two + Spaniards standing near him, bespattering him with their blood and brains. + He was urged to retire, but assured those about him that he came of too + good a house to be afraid. His courage was commendable, but it seems not + to have occurred to him that the place for his father's son was not by the + aide of the general who was doing the work of his father's murderer. While + his brother Maurice with a fleet of twenty Dutch war-ships was attempting + in vain to rescue Calais from the grasp of the Spanish king, Philip + William of Nassau was looking on, a pleased and passive spectator of the + desperate and unsuccessful efforts at defence. The assault was then + ordered? The-first storm was repulsed, mainly by the Dutch companies, who + fought in the breach until most of their numbers were killed or wounded, + their captains Dominique and Le Gros having both fallen. The next attack + was successful, the citadel was carried; and the whole garrison, with + exception of what remained of the Hollanders and Zeelanders, put to the + sword. De Vidosan himself perished. Thus Calais was once more a Spanish + city, and was re-annexed to the obedient provinces of Flanders. Of five + thousand persons, soldiers and citizens, who had taken refuge in the + castle, all were killed or reduced to captivity.' + </p> + <p> + The conversion of this important naval position into a Spanish-Flemish + station was almost as disastrous to the republic as it was mortifying to + France and dangerous to England. The neighbouring Dunkirk had long been a + nest of pirates, whence small, fast-sailing vessels issued, daily and + nightly, to prey indiscriminately upon the commerce of all nations. These + corsairs neither gave nor took quarter, and were in the habit, after they + had plundered their prizes, of setting them adrift, with the sailors + nailed to the deck or chained to the rigging; while the officers were held + for ransom. In case the vessels themselves were wanted, the crews were + indiscriminately tossed overboard; while, on the ether hand, the + buccaneers rarely hesitated to blow up their own ships, when unable to + escape from superior force. Capture was followed by speedy execution, and + it was but recently that one of these freebooters having been brought into + Rotterdam, the whole crew, forty-four in number, were hanged on the day of + their arrival, while some five and twenty merchant-captains held for + ransom by the pirates thus obtained their liberty. + </p> + <p> + And now Calais was likely to become a second and more dangerous + sea-robbers' cave than even Dunkirk had been. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this unlucky beginning of the campaign for the three + allies, it was determined to proceed with a considerable undertaking which + had been arranged between England and the republic. For the time, + therefore, the importunate demands of the queen for repayments by the + States of her disbursements during the past ten years were suspended. It + had, indeed, never been more difficult than at that moment for the + republic to furnish extraordinary sums of money. The year 1595 had not + been prosperous. Although the general advance in commerce, manufactures, + and in every department of national development had been very remark able, + yet there had recently been, for exceptional causes, an apparent falling + off; while, on the other hand, there had been a bad harvest in the north + of Europe. In Holland, where no grain was grown, and which yet was the + granary of the world, the prices were trebled. One hundred and eight + bushels (a last) of rye, which ordinarily was worth fifty florins, now + sold for one hundred and fifty florins, and other objects of consumption + were equally enhanced in value. On the other hand, the expenses of the war + were steadily increasing, and were fixed for this year at five millions of + florins. The republic, and especially the States of Holland, never + hesitated to tax heroically. The commonwealth had no income except that + which the several provinces chose to impose upon themselves in order to + fill the quota assigned to them by the States-General; but this defect in + their political organization was not sensibly felt so long as the + enthusiasm for the war continued in full force. The people of the + Netherlands knew full well that there was no liberty for them without + fighting, no fighting without an army, no army without wages, and no wages + without taxation; and although by the end of the century the imposts had + become so high that, in the language of that keen observer, Cardinal + Bentivoglio; nuncio at Brussels, they could scarcely be imagined higher, + yet, according to the same authority, they were laid unflinchingly and + paid by the people without a murmur. During this year and the next the + States of Holland, whose proportion often amounted to fifty per cent. of + the whole contribution of the United Provinces, and who ever set a + wholesome example in taxation, raised the duty on imports and all internal + taxes by one-eighth, and laid a fresh impost on such articles of luxury as + velvets and satins, pleas and processes. Starch, too, became a source of + considerable revenue. With the fast-rising prosperity of the country + luxury had risen likewise, and, as in all ages and countries of the world + of which there is record, woman's dress signalized itself by extravagant + and very often tasteless conceptions. In a country where, before the + doctrine of popular sovereignty had been broached in any part of the world + by the most speculative theorists, very vigorous and practical examples of + democracy had been afforded to Europe; in a country where, ages before the + science of political economy had been dreamed of, lessons of free trade on + the largest scale had been taught to mankind by republican traders + instinctively breaking in many directions through the nets by which + monarchs and oligarchs, guilds and corporations, had hampered the + movements of commerce; it was natural that fashion should instinctively + rebel against restraint. The honest burgher's vrow of Middelburg or + Enkhuyzen claimed the right to make herself as grotesque as Queen + Elizabeth in all her glory. Sumptuary laws were an unwholesome part of + feudal tyranny, and, as such, were naturally dropping into oblivion on the + free soil of the Netherlands. It was the complaint therefore of moralists + that unproductive consumption was alarmingly increasing. Formerly starch + had been made of the refuse parts of corn, but now the manufacturers of + that article made use of the bloom of the wheat and consumed as much of it + as would have fed great cities. In the little village of Wormer the + starch-makers used between three and four thousand bushels a week. Thus a + substantial gentlewoman in fashionable array might bear the food of a + parish upon her ample bosom. A single manufacturer in Amsterdam required + four hundred weekly bushels. Such was the demand for the stiffening of the + vast ruffs, the wonderful head-gear, the elaborate lace-work, stomachers + and streamers, without which no lady who respected herself could possibly + go abroad to make her daily purchases of eggs and poultry in the + market-place. + </p> + <p> + "May God preserve us," exclaimed a contemporary chronicler, unreasonably + excited on the starch question, "from farther luxury and wantonness, and + abuse of His blessings and good gifts, that the punishment of Jeroboam, + which followed upon Solomon's fortunate reign and the gold-ships of Ophir + may not come upon us." + </p> + <p> + The States of Holland not confounding—as so often has been the case—the + precepts of moral philosophy with those of political economy, did not, out + of fear for the doom of Jeroboam, forbid the use of starch. They simply + laid a tax of a stiver a pound on the commodity, or about six per cent, ad + valorem; and this was a more wholesome way of serving the State than by + abridging the liberty of the people in the choice of personal attire. + Meantime the preachers were left to thunder from their pulpits upon the + sinfulness of starched rues and ornamental top-knots, and to threaten + their fair hearers with the wrath to come, with as much success as usually + attends such eloquence. + </p> + <p> + There had been uneasiness in the provinces in regard to the designs of the + queen, especially since the States had expressed their inability to comply + in full with her demands for repayment. Spanish emissaries had been busily + circulating calumnious reports that her Majesty was on the eve of + concluding a secret peace with Philip, and that it was her intention to + deliver the cautionary towns to the king. The Government attached little + credence to such statements, but it was natural that Envoy Caron should be + anxious at their perpetual recurrence both in England and in the + provinces. So, one day, he had a long conversation with the Earl of Essex + on the subject; for it will be recollected that Lord Leicester had + strenuously attempted at an earlier day to get complete possession, not + only of the pledged cities but of Leyden also, in order to control the + whole country. Essex was aflame with indignation at once, and, expressed + himself with his customary recklessness. He swore that if her Majesty were + so far forsaken of God and so forgetful of her own glory, as through evil + counsel to think of making any treaty with Spain without the knowledge of + the States-General and in order to cheat them, he would himself make the + matter as public as it was possible to do, and would place himself in + direct opposition to such a measure, so as to show the whole world that + his heart and soul were foreign at least to any vile counsel of the kind + that might have been given to his Sovereign. Caron and Essex conversed + much in this vein, and although the envoy, especially requested him not to + do so, the earl, who was not distinguished, for his powers of + dissimulation, and who suspected Burleigh of again tampering, as he had + often before tampered, with secret agents of Philip, went straight to the + queen with the story. Next day, Essex invited Caron to dine and to go with + him after dinner to the queen. This was done, and, so soon as the States' + envoy was admitted to the royal presence, her Majesty at once opened the + subject. She had heard, she said, that the reports in question had been + spread through the provinces, and she expressed much indignation in regard + to them. She swore very vehemently, as usual, and protested that she had + better never have been born than prove so miserable a princess as these + tales would make her. The histories of England, she said, should never + describe her as guilty of such falsehood. She could find a more honourable + and fitting means of making peace than by delivering up cities and + strongholds so sincerely and confidingly placed in her hands. She hoped to + restore them as faithfully as they had loyally been entrusted to her + keeping. She begged Caron to acquaint the States-General with these + asseverations; declaring that never since she had sent troops to the + Netherlands had she lent her ear to those who had made such underhand + propositions. She was aware that Cardinal Albert had propositions to make, + and that he was desirous of inducing both the French king and, herself to + consent to a peace with Spain: but she promised, the States' envoy + solemnly before God to apprise him of any such overtures, so soon as they + should be made known to herself. + </p> + <p> + Much more in this strain, with her usual vehemence and mighty oaths, did + the great queen aver, and the republican envoy, to whom she was on this + occasion very gracious, was fain to believe in her sincerity. Yet the + remembrance of the amazing negotiations between the queen's ministers and + the agents of Alexander Farnese, by which the invasion of the Armada had + been masked; could not but have left an uneasy feeling in the mind of + every Dutch statesman. "I trust in God," said Caron, "that He may never so + abandon her as to permit her to do the reverse of what she now protests + with so much passion. Should it be otherwise—which God forbid—I + should think that He would send such chastisement upon her and her people + that other princes would see their fate therein as in a mirror, should + they make and break such oaths and promises. I tell you these things as + they occur, because, as I often feel uneasiness myself, I imagine that my + friends on the other side the water may be subject to the same anxiety. + Nevertheless, beat the bush as I may, I can obtain no better information + than this which I am now sending you." + </p> + <p> + It had been agreed that for a time the queen should desist from her + demands for repayment—which, according to the Treaty of 1585, was to + be made only after conclusion of peace between Spain and the provinces, + but which Elizabeth was frequently urging on the ground that the States + could now make that peace when they chose—and in return for such + remission the republic promised to furnish twenty-four ships of war and + four tenders for a naval expedition which was now projected against the + Spanish coast. These war-ships were to be of four hundred, three hundred, + and two hundred tons-eight of each dimension—and the estimated + expense of their fitting out for five months was 512,796 florins. + </p> + <p> + Before the end of April, notwithstanding the disappointment occasioned in + the Netherlands by the loss of Calais, which the States had so + energetically striven to prevent, the fleet under Admiral John of + Duvenwoord, Seigneur of Warmond, and Vice-Admirals Jan Gerbrantz and + Cornelius Leusen, had arrived at Plymouth, ready to sail with their + English allies. There were three thousand sailors of Holland and Zeeland + on board, the best mariners in the world, and two thousand two hundred + picked veterans from the garrisons of the Netherlands. These land-troops + were English, but they belonged to the States' army, which was composed of + Dutch, German, Walloon, Scotch, and Irish soldiers, and it was a liberal + concession on the part of the republican Government to allow them to serve + on the present expedition. By the terms of the treaty the queen had no + more power to send these companies to invade Spain than to campaign + against Tyr Owen in Ireland, while at a moment when the cardinal archduke + had a stronger and better-appointed army in Flanders than had been seen + for many years in the provinces, it was a most hazardous experiment for + the States to send so considerable a portion of their land and naval + forces upon a distant adventure. It was also a serious blow to them to be + deprived for the whole season of that valiant and experienced commander, + Sir Francis Vere, the most valuable lieutenant, save Lewis William, that + Maurice had at his disposition. Yet Vere was to take command of this + contingent thus sent to the coast of Spain, at the very moment when the + republican army ought to issue from their winter quarters and begin active + operations in the field. The consequence of this diminution of their + strength and drain upon their resources was that the States were unable to + put an army in the field during the current year, or make any attempt at a + campaign. + </p> + <p> + The queen wrote a warm letter of thanks to Admiral Warmond for the + promptness and efficiency with which he had brought his fleet to the place + of rendezvous, and now all was bustle and preparation in the English ports + for the exciting expedition resolved upon. Never during Philip's + life-time, nor for several years before his birth, had a hostile foot trod + the soil of Spain, except during the brief landing at Corunna in 1590, + and, although the king's beard had been well singed ten years previously + by Sir Francis Drake, and although the coast of Portugal had still more + recently been invaded by Essex and Vere, yet the present adventure was on + a larger scale, and held out brighter prospects of success than any + preceding expedition had done. In an age when the line between the land + and sea service, between regular campaigners and volunteers, between + public and private warfare, between chivalrous knights-errant and + buccaneers, was not very distinctly drawn, there could be nothing more + exciting to adventurous spirits, more tempting to the imagination of those + who hated the Pope and Philip, who loved fighting, prize-money, and the + queen, than a foray into Spain. + </p> + <p> + It was time to return the visit of the Armada. Some of the sea-kings were + gone. Those magnificent freebooters, Drake and Hawkins, had just died in + the West Indies, and doughty Sir Roger Williams had left the world in + which he had bustled so effectively, bequeathing to posterity a classic + memorial of near a half century of hard fighting, written, one might + almost imagine, in his demi-pique saddle. But that most genial, valiant, + impracticable, reckless, fascinating hero of romance, the Earl of Essex—still + a youth although a veteran in service—was in the spring-tide of + favour and glory, and was to command the land-forces now assembled at + Plymouth. That other "corsair"—as the Spaniards called him—that + other charming and heroic shape in England's chequered chronicle of + chivalry and crime—famous in arts and arms, politics, science, + literature, endowed with so many of the gifts by which men confer lustre + on their age and country, whose name was already a part of England's + eternal glory, whose tragic destiny was to be her undying shame—Raleigh, + the soldier, sailor, scholar, statesman, poet, historian, geographical + discoverer, planter of empires yet unborn—was also present, helping + to organize the somewhat chaotic elements of which the chief Anglo-Dutch + enterprise for this year against—the Spanish world-dominion was + compounded. + </p> + <p> + And, again, it is not superfluous to recal the comparatively slender + materials, both in bulk and numbers, over which the vivid intelligence and + restless energy of the two leading Protestant powers, the Kingdom and the + Republic, disposed. Their contest against the overshadowing empire, which + was so obstinately striving to become the fifth-monarchy of history, was + waged by land: and naval forces, which in their aggregate numbers would + scarce make a startling list of killed and wounded in a single modern + battle; by ships such that a whole fleet of them might be swept out of + existence with half-a-dozen modern broadsides; by weapons which would seem + to modern eyes like clumsy toys for children. Such was the machinery by + which the world was to be lost and won, less than three centuries ago. + Could science; which even in that age had made gigantic strides out of the + preceding darkness, have revealed its later miracles, and have presented + its terrible powers to the despotism which was seeking to crush all + Christendom beneath its feet, the possible result might have been most + tragical to humanity. While there are few inventions in morals, the demon + Intellect is ever at his work, knowing no fatigue and scorning contentment + in his restless demands upon the infinite Unknown. Yet moral truth remains + unchanged, gradually through the ages extending its influence, and it is + only by conformity to its simple and, eternal dictates that nations, like + individuals, can preserve a healthful existence. In the unending warfare + between right and wrong, between liberty and despotism; Evil has the + advantage of rapidly assuming many shapes. It has been well said that + constant vigilance is the price of liberty. The tendency of our own times, + stimulated by scientific discoveries and their practical application, is + to political consolidation, to the absorption of lesser communities in + greater; just as disintegration was the leading characteristic of the + darker ages. The scheme of Charlemagne to organize Europe into a single + despotism was a brilliant failure because the forces which were driving + human society into local and gradual reconstruction around various centres + of crystallization: were irresistible to any countervailing enginry which + the emperor had at his disposal. The attempt of Philip, eight centuries + later, at universal monarchy, was frivolous, although he could dispose of + material agencies which in the hands of Charlemagne might have made the + dreams of Charlemagne possible. It was frivolous because the rising + instinct of the age was for religious, political, and commercial freedom + in a far intenser degree than those who lived in that age were themselves + aware. A considerable republic had been evolved as it were involuntarily + out of the necessities of the time almost without self-consciousness that + it was a republic, and even against the desire of many who were guiding + its destinies. And it found itself in constant combination with two + monarchs, despotic at heart and of enigmatical or indifferent religious + convictions, who yet reigned over peoples, largely influenced by + enthusiasm for freedom. Thus liberty was preserved for the world; but, as + the law of human progress would seem to be ever by a spiral movement, it; + seems strange to the superficial observer not prone to generalizing, that + Calvinism, which unquestionably was the hard receptacle in which the germ + of human freedom was preserved in various countries and at different + epochs, should have so often degenerated into tyranny. Yet notwithstanding + the burning of Servetus at Geneva, and the hanging of Mary Dyer at Boston, + it is certain that France, England, the Netherlands, and America, owe a + large share of such political liberty as they have enjoyed to Calvinism. + It may be possible for large masses of humanity to accept for ages the + idea of one infallible Church, however tyrannical but the idea once + admitted that there may be many churches; that what is called the State + can be separated from what is called the Church; the plea of infallibility + and of authority soon becomes ridiculous—a mere fiction of political + or fashionable quackery to impose upon the uneducated or the unreflecting. + </p> + <p> + And now Essex, Raleigh and Howard, Vere, Warmond and Nassau were about to + invade the shores of the despot who sat in his study plotting to annex + England, Scotland, Ireland, France, the Dutch republic, and the German + empire to the realms of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Milan, and the Eastern + and Western Indies, over which he already reigned. + </p> + <p> + The fleet consisted of fifty-seven ships of war, of which twenty-four were + Dutch vessels under Admiral Warmond, with three thousand sailors of + Holland and Zeeland. Besides the sailors, there was a force of six + thousand foot soldiers, including the English veterans from the + Netherlands under Sir Francis Vere. There were also fifty transports laden + with ammunition and stores. The expedition was under the joint command of + Lord High Admiral Howard and of the Earl of Essex. Many noble and knightly + volunteers, both from England and the republic, were on board, including, + besides those already mentioned, Lord Thomas Howard, son of the Duke of + Norfolk, Sir John Wingfield, who had commanded at Gertruydenburg, when it + had been so treacherously surrendered to Farnese; Count Lewis Gunther of + Nassau, who had so recently escaped from the disastrous fight with + Mondragon in the Lippe, and was now continuing his education according to + the plan laid down for him by his elder brother Lewis William; Nicolas + Meetkerk, Peter Regesmortes, Don Christopher of Portugal, son of Don + Antonio, and a host of other adventurers. + </p> + <p> + On the last day of June the expedition arrived off Cadiz. Next morning + they found a splendid Spanish fleet in the harbour of that city, including + four of the famous apostolic great galleons, St. Philip, St. Matthew, St. + Thomas, and St. Andrew, with twenty or thirty great war-ships besides, and + fifty-seven well-armed Indiamen, which were to be convoyed on their + outward voyage, with a cargo estimated at twelve millions of ducats. + </p> + <p> + The St. Philip was the phenomenon of naval architecture of that day, + larger and stronger than any ship before known. She was two thousand tons + burthen, carried eighty-two bronze cannon, and had a crew of twelve + hundred men. The other three apostles carried each fifty guns and four + hundred men. The armament of the other war-ships varied from fifty-two to + eighteen guns each. The presence of such a formidable force might have + seemed a motive for discouragement, or at least of caution. On the + contrary, the adventurers dashed at once upon their prey; thus finding a + larger booty than they had dared to expect. There was but a brief + engagement. At the outset a Dutch ship accidentally blew up, and gave much + encouragement to the Spaniards. Their joy was but short-lived. Two of the + great galleons were soon captured, the other two, the St. Philip and the + St. Thomas, were run aground and burned. The rest of the war-ships were + driven within the harbour, but were unable to prevent a landing of the + enemy's forces. In the eagerness of the allies to seize the city, they + unluckily allowed many of the Indiamen to effect their escape through the + puente del Zuazzo, which had not been supposed a navigable passage for + ships of such burthen. Nine hundred soldiers under Essex, and four hundred + noble volunteers under Lewis Gunther of Nassau, now sprang on shore, and + drove some eleven hundred Spanish skirmishers back within the gates of the + city, or into a bastion recently raised to fortify the point when the + troops had landed. Young Nassau stormed the bulwark sword in hand, carried + it at the first assault, and planted his colours on its battlement. It was + the flag of William the Silent; for the republican banner was composed of + the family colours of the founder of the new commonwealth. The blazonry of + the proscribed and assassinated rebel waved at last defiantly over one of + the chief cities of Spain. Essex and Nassau and all the rest then entered + the city. There was little fighting. Twenty-five English and Hollanders + were killed, and about as many Spaniards. Essex knighted about fifty + gentlemen, Englishmen and Hollanders, in the square of Cadiz for their + gallantry. Among the number were Lewis Gunther of Nassau, Admiral Warmond, + and Peter Regesmortes. Colonel Nicolas Meetkerke was killed in the brief + action, and Sir John Wingfield, who insisted in prancing about on + horseback without his armour, defying the townspeople and neglecting the + urgent appeal of Sir Francis Vere, was also slain. The Spanish soldiers, + discouraged by the defeat of the ships on which they had relied for + protection of the town, retreated with a great portion of the inhabitants + into the citadel. Next morning the citadel capitulated without striking a + blow, although there, were six thousand able-bodied, well-armed men within + its walls. It was one of the most astonishing panics ever recorded. The + great fleet, making a third of the king's navy, the city of Cadiz and its + fortress, were surrendered to this audacious little force, which had only + arrived off the harbour thirty-six hours before. The invaders had, + however, committed a great mistake. They had routed, and, as it were, + captured the Spanish galleons, but they had not taken possession of them, + such had been their eagerness to enter the city. It was now agreed that + the fleet should be ransomed for two million ducats, but the proud Duke of + Medina Sidonia, who had already witnessed the destruction of one mighty + armada, preferred that these splendid ships too should perish rather than + that they should pay tribute to the enemy. Scorning the capitulation of + the commandant of the citadel, he ordered the fleet to be set on fire. + Thirty-two ships, most of them vessels of war of the highest class, were + burned, with all their equipments. Twelve hundred cannon sunk at once to + the bottom of the Bay of Cadiz, besides arms for five or six thousand men. + At least one-third of Philip's effective navy was thus destroyed. + </p> + <p> + The victors now sacked the city very thoroughly, but the results were + disappointing. A large portion of the portable wealth of the inhabitants, + their gold and their jewelry, had been so cunningly concealed that, + although half a dozen persons were tortured till they should reveal hidden + treasures, not more than five hundred thousand ducats worth of-plunder was + obtained. Another sum of equal amount having been levied upon the + citizens; forty notable personages; among them eighteen ecclesiastical + dignitaries, were carried off as hostages for its payment. The city was + now set on fire by command of Essex in four different quarters. Especially + the cathedral and other churches, the convents and the hospitals, were + burned. It was perhaps not unnatural: that both Englishmen and Hollanders + should be disposed to wreak a barbarous vengeance on everything + representative of the Church which they abhorred, and from which such + endless misery had issued to the uttermost corners of their own countries. + But it is at any rate refreshing to record amid these acts of pillage and + destruction, in which, as must ever be the case, the innocent and the + lowly were made to suffer for the crimes of crowned and mitred culprits, + that not many special acts of cruelty were committed upon individuals: + </p> + <p> + No man was murdered in cold blood, no woman was outraged. The beautiful + city was left a desolate and blackened ruin, and a general levy of spoil + was made for the benefit of the victors, but there was no infringement of + the theory and practice of the laws of war as understood in that day or in + later ages. It is even recorded that Essex ordered one of his soldiers, + who was found stealing a woman's gown, to be hanged on the spot, but that, + wearied by the intercession of an ecclesiastic of Cadiz, the canon + Quesada, he consented at last to pardon the marauder. + </p> + <p> + It was the earnest desire of Essex to hold Cadiz instead of destroying it. + With three thousand men, and with temporary supplies from the fleet, the + place could be maintained against all comers; Holland and England together + commanding the seas. Admiral Warmond and all the Netherlanders seconded + the scheme, and offered at once to put ashore from their vessels food and + munitions enough to serve two thousand men for two months. If the English + admiral would do as much, the place might be afterwards supplied without + limit and held till doomsday, a perpetual thorn in Philip's side. Sir + Francis Vere was likewise warmly in favour of the project, but he stood + alone. All the other Englishmen opposed it as hazardous, extravagant, and + in direct contravention of the minute instructions of the queen. With a + sigh or a curse for what he considered the superfluous caution of his + royal mistress, and the exaggerated docility of Lord High Admiral Howard, + Essex was fain to content himself with the sack and the conflagration, and + the allied fleet sailed away from Cadiz. + </p> + <p> + On their way towards Lisbon they anchored off Faro, and landed a force, + chiefly of Netherlanders, who expeditiously burned and plundered the + place. When they reached the neighbourhood of Lisbon, they received + information that a great fleet of Indiamen, richly laden, were daily + expected from the Flemish islands, as the Azores were then denominated. + Again Essex was vehemently disposed to steer at once for that station, in + order to grasp so tempting a prize; again he was strenuously supported by + the Dutch admiral and Yere, and again Lord Howard peremptorily interdicted + the plan. It was contrary to his instructions and to his ideas of duty, he + said, to risk so valuable a portion of her Majesty's fleet on so doubtful + a venture. His ships were not fitted for a winter's cruise, he urged. + Thus, although it was the very heart of midsummer, the fleet was ordered + to sail homeward. The usual result of a divided command was made manifest, + and it proved in the sequel that, had they sailed for the islands, they + would have pounced at exactly the right moment upon an unprotected fleet + of merchantmen, with cargoes valued at seven millions of ducats. Essex, + not being willing to undertake the foray to the Azores with the Dutch + ships alone, was obliged to digest his spleen as: best he could. Meantime + the English fleet bore away for England, leaving Essex in his own ship, + together with the two captured Spanish galleons, to his fate. That fate + might, have been a disastrous one, for his prizes were not fully manned, + his own vessel was far from powerful, and there were many rovers and + cruisers upon the seas. The Dutch admiral, with all his ships, however, + remained in company, and safely convoyed him to Plymouth, where they + arrived only a day or two later than Howard and his fleet. Warmond, who + had been disposed to sail up the Thames in order to pay his respects to + the queen, was informed that his presence would not be desirable but + rather an embarrassment. He, however, received the following letter from + the hand of Elizabeth. + </p> + <p> + MONSIEUR DUYENWOORD,—The report made to me by the generals of our + fleet, just happily arrived from the coast of Spain, of the devoirs of + those who have been partakers in so, famous a victory, ascribes so much of + it to the valour, skill, and readiness exhibited by yourself and our other + friends from the Netherlands under your command, during the whole course + of the expedition, as to fill our mind with special joy and satisfaction, + and, with a desire to impart these feelings to you. No other means + presenting themselves at this moment than that of a letter (in some sense + darkening the picture of the conceptions of our soul), we are willing to + make use of it while waiting for means more effectual. Wishing thus to + disburthen ourselves we find ourselves confused, not knowing where to + begin, the greatness of each part exceeding the merit of the other. For, + the vigour and promptness with which my lords the States-General stepped + into the enterprise, made us acknowledge that the good favour, which we + have always borne the United Provinces and the proofs thereof which we + have given in the benefits conferred by us upon them, had not been + ill-bestowed. The valour, skill, and discipline manifested by you in this + enterprise show that you and your whole nation are worthy the favour and + protection of princes against those who wish to tyrannize over you. But + the honourableness and the valour shown by you, Sir Admiral, towards our + cousin the Earl of Essex on his return, when he unfortunately was cut off + from the fleet, and deep in the night was deprived of all support, when + you kept company with him and gave him escort into the harbour of + Plymouth, demonstrate on the one hand your foresight in providing thus by + your pains and patience against all disasters, which through an accident + falling upon one of the chiefs of our armada might have darkened the great + victory; and on the other hand the fervour and fire of the affection which + you bear us, increasing thus, through a double bond, the obligations we + are owing you, which is so great in our hearts that we have felt bound to + discharge a part of it by means of this writing, which we beg you to + communicate to the whole company of our friends under your command; saying + to them besides, that they may feel assured that even as we have before + given proof of our goodwill to their fatherland, so henceforth—incited + by their devoirs and merits—we are ready to extend our bounty and + affection in all ways which may become a princess recompensing the virtues + and gratitude of a nation so worthy as yours. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "ELIZABETH R. +</pre> + <p> + "14th August, 1596." + </p> + <p> + This letter was transmitted by the admiral to the States-General; who, + furnished him with a copy of it, but enrolled the original in their + archives; recording as it did, in the hand of the great English queen, so + striking a testimony to the valour and the good conduct of Netherlanders. + </p> + <p> + The results of this expedition were considerable, for the king's navy was + crippled, a great city was destroyed, and some millions of plunder had + been obtained. But the permanent possession of Cadiz, which, in such case, + Essex hoped to exchange for Calais, and the destruction of the fleet at + the Azores—possible achievements both, and unwisely neglected—would + have been far more profitable, at least to England. It was also matter of + deep regret that there was much quarrelling between the Netherlanders and + the Englishmen as to their respective share of the spoils; the + Netherlanders complaining loudly that they had been defrauded. Moreover + the merchants of Middelburg, Amsterdam, and other commercial cities of + Holland and Zeeland were, as it proved, the real owners of a large portion + of the property destroyed or pillaged at Cadiz; so that a loss estimated + as high as three hundred thousand florins fell upon those unfortunate + traders through this triumph of the allies. + </p> + <p> + The internal consequences of the fall of Calais had threatened at the + first moment to be as disastrous as the international results of that + misfortune had already proved. The hour for the definite dismemberment and + partition of the French kingdom, not by foreign conquerors but among its + own self-seeking and disloyal grandees, seemed to have struck. The + indomitable Henry, ever most buoyant when most pressed by misfortune, was + on the way to his camp at La Fere, encouraging the faint-hearted, and + providing as well as he could for the safety of the places most menaced, + when he was met at St. Quentin by a solemn deputation of the principal + nobles, military commanders, and provincial governors of France. The Duke + of Montpensier was spokesman of the assembly, and, in an harangue + carefully prepared for the occasion, made an elaborate proposition to the + king that the provinces, districts, cities, castles; and other + strong-holds throughout the kingdom should now be formally bestowed upon + the actual governors and commandants thereof in perpetuity, and as + hereditary property, on condition of rendering a certain military service + to the king and his descendants. It seemed so amazing that this temporary + disaster to the national arms should be used as a pretext for parcelling + out France, and converting a great empire into a number of insignificant + duchies and petty principalities; that this movement should be made, not + by the partisans of Spain, but by the adherents of the king; and that its + leader should be his own near relative, a prince of the blood, and a + possible successor to the crown, that Henry was struck absolutely dumb. + Misinterpreting his silence, the duke proceeded very confidently with his + well-conned harangue; and was eloquently demonstrating that, under such a + system, Henry, as principal feudal chief, would have greater military + forces at his disposal whenever he chose to summon his faithful vassals to + the field than could be the case while the mere shadow of royal power or + dignity was allowed to remain; when the king, finding at last a tongue, + rebuked his cousin; not angrily, but with a grave melancholy which was + more impressive than wrath. + </p> + <p> + He expressed his pity for the duke that designing intriguers should have + thus taken advantage of his facility of character to cause him to enact a + part so entirely unworthy a Frenchman, a gentleman, and a prince of the + blood. He had himself, at the outset of his career, been much farther from + the throne than Montpensier was at that moment; but at no period of his + life would he have consented to disgrace himself by attempting the + dismemberment of the realm. So far from entering for a moment into the + subject-matter of the duke's discourse, he gave him and all his colleagues + distinctly to understand that he would rather die a thousand deaths than + listen to suggestions which would cover his family and the royal dignity + with infamy. + </p> + <p> + Rarely has political cynicism been displayed in more revolting shape than + in this deliberate demonstration by the leading patricians and generals of + France, to whom patriotism seemed an unimaginable idea. Thus signally was + their greediness to convert a national disaster into personal profit + rebuked by the king. Henry was no respecter of the People, which he + regarded as something immeasurably below his feet. On the contrary, he was + the most sublime self-seeker of them all; but his courage, his intelligent + ambition, his breadth and strength of purpose, never permitted him to + doubt that his own greatness was inseparable from the greatness of France. + Thus he represented a distinct and wholesome principle—the national + integrity of a great homogeneous people at a period when that integrity + seemed, through domestic treason and foreign hatred, to be hopelessly + lost. Hence it is not unnatural that he should hold his place in the + national chronicle as Henry the Great. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, while the military events just recorded had been occurring in + the southern peninsula, the progress of the archduke and his lieutenants + in the north against the king and against the republic had been gratifying + to the ambition of that martial ecclesiastic. Soon after the fall of + Calais, De Rosne had seized the castles of Guynes and Hames, while De + Mexia laid siege to the important stronghold of Ardres. The garrison, + commanded by Count Belin, was sufficiently numerous and well supplied to + maintain the place until Henry, whose triumph at La Fere could hardly be + much longer delayed, should come to its relief. To the king's infinite + dissatisfaction, however, precisely as Don Alvario de Osorio was + surrendering La Fere to him, after a seven months' siege, Ardres was + capitulating to De Mexia. The reproaches upon Belin for cowardice, + imbecility, and bad faith, were bitter and general. All his officers had + vehemently protested against the surrender, and Henry at first talked of + cutting off his head. It was hardly probable, however—had the + surrender been really the result of treachery—that the governor + would have put himself, as he did at once in the king's power; for the + garrison marched out of Ardres with the commandant at their head, banners + displayed, drums beating, matches lighted and bullet in mouth, twelve + hundred fighting men strong, besides invalids. Belin was possessed of too + much influence, and had the means of rendering too many pieces of service + to the politic king, whose rancour against Spain was perhaps not really so + intense as was commonly supposed, to meet with the condign punishment + which might have been the fate of humbler knaves. + </p> + <p> + These successes having been obtained in Normandy, the cardinal with a + force of nearly fifteen thousand men now took the field in Flanders; and, + after hesitating for a time whether he should attack Breda, Bergen, + Ostend, or Gertruydenburg,—and after making occasional feints in + various directions, came, towards the end of June, before Hulst. This + rather insignificant place, with a population of but one thousand + inhabitants, was defended by a strong garrison under command of that + eminent and experienced officer Count Everard Solms. Its defences were + made more complete by a system of sluices, through which the country + around could be laid under water; and Maurice, whose capture of the town + in the year 1591 had been one of his earliest military achievements, was + disposed to hold it at all hazards. He came in person to inspect the + fortifications, and appeared to be so eager on the subject, and so likely + to encounter unnecessary hazards, that the States of Holland passed a + resolution imploring him "that he would not, in his heroic enthusiasm and + laudable personal service, expose a life on which the country so much + depended to manifest dangers." The place was soon thoroughly invested, and + the usual series of minings and counter-minings, assaults, and sorties + followed, in the course of which that courageous and corpulent renegade, + De Rosne, had his head taken off by a cannon-ball, while his son, a lad of + sixteen, was fighting by his side. On the 16th August the cardinal + formally demanded the surrender of the place, and received the magnanimous + reply that Hulst would be defended to the death. This did not, however, + prevent the opening of negotiations the very same day. All the officers, + save one, united in urging Solms to capitulate; and Solms, for somewhat + mysterious reasons, and, as was stated, in much confusion, gave his + consent. The single malcontent was the well-named Matthew Held, whose + family name meant Hero, and who had been one of the chief actors in the + far-famed capture of Breda. He was soon afterwards killed in an + unsuccessful attack made by Maurice upon Venlo. + </p> + <p> + Hulst capitulated on the 18th August. The terms were honourable; but the + indignation throughout the country against Count Solms was very great. The + States of Zeeland, of whose regiment he had been commander ever, since the + death of Sir Philip Sidney, dismissed him from their service, while a + torrent of wrath flowed upon him from every part of the country. Members + of the States-General refused to salute him in the streets; eminent + person, ages turned their backs upon him, and for a time there was no one + willing to listen to a word in his defence. The usual reaction in such + cases followed; Maurice sustained the commander, who had doubtless + committed a grave error, but who had often rendered honourable service to + the republic, and the States-General gave him a command as important as + that of which he had been relieved by the Zeeland States. It was mainly on + account of the tempest thus created within the Netherlands, that an affair + of such slight importance came to occupy so large a space in contemporary + history. The defenders of Solmstold wild stories about the losses of the + besieging army. The cardinal, who was thought prodigal of blood, and who + was often quoted as saying "his soldiers' lives belonged to God and their + bodies to the king," had sacrificed, it, was ridiculously said, according + to the statement of the Spaniards themselves, five thousand soldiers + before the walls of Hulst. It was very logically deduced therefrom that + the capture of a few more towns of a thousand inhabitants each would cost + him his whole army. People told each other, too, that the conqueror had + refused a triumph which the burghers of Brussels wished to prepare for him + on his entrance into the capital, and that he had administered the very + proper rebuke that, if they had more money than they knew what to do with, + they should expend it in aid of the wounded and of the families of the + fallen, rather than in velvets and satins and triumphal arches. The + humanity of the suggestion hardly tallied with the blood-thirstiness of + which he was at the same time so unjustly accused—although it might + well be doubted whether the commander-in-chief, even if he could witness + unflinchingly the destruction of five thousand soldiers on the + battle-field, would dare to confront a new demonstration of schoolmaster + Houwaerts and his fellow-pedants. + </p> + <p> + The fact was, however, that the list of casualties in the cardinal's camp + during the six weeks' siege amounted to six hundred, while the losses + within the city were at least as many. There was no attempt to relieve the + place; for the States, as before observed, had been too much cramped by + the strain upon their resources and by the removal of so many veterans for + the expedition against Cadiz to be able to muster any considerable forces + in the field during the whole of this year. + </p> + <p> + For a vast war in which the four leading powers of the earth were engaged, + the events, to modern eyes, of the campaign of 1596 seem sufficiently + meagre. Meantime, during all this campaigning by land and sea in the west, + there had been great but profitless bloodshed in the east. With difficulty + did the holy Roman Empire withstand the terrible, ever-renewed assaults of + the unholy realm of Ottoman—then in the full flush of its power—but + the two empires still counterbalanced each other, and contended with each + other at the gates of Vienna. + </p> + <p> + As the fighting became more languid, however, in the western part of + Christendom, the negotiations and intrigues grew only the more active. It + was most desirable for the republic to effect, if possible, a formal + alliance offensive and defensive with France and England against Spain. + The diplomacy of the Netherlands had been very efficient in bringing about + the declaration of war by Henry against Philip, by which the current year + had opened, after Henry and Philip had been doing their best to destroy + each other and each other's subjects during the half-dozen previous years. + Elizabeth, too, although she had seen her shores invaded by Philip with + the most tremendous armaments that had ever floated on the seas, and + although she had herself just been sending fire and sword into the heart + of Spain, had very recently made the observation that she and Philip were + not formally at war with each other. It seemed, therefore, desirable to + the States-General that this very practical warfare should be, as it were, + reduced to a theorem. In this case the position of the republic to both + powers and to Spain itself might perhaps be more accurately defined. + </p> + <p> + Calvaert, the States' envoy—to use his own words—haunted Henry + like his perpetual shadow, and was ever doing his best to persuade him of + the necessity of this alliance. De Saucy, as we have seen, had just + arrived in England, when the cool proposition of the queen to rescue + Calais from Philip on condition of keeping it for herself had been brought + to Boulogne by Sidney. Notwithstanding the indignation of the king, he had + been induced directly afterwards to send an additional embassy to + Elizabeth, with the Duke of Bouillon at its head; and he had insisted upon + Calvaert's accompanying the mission. He had, as he frequently observed, no + secrets from the States-General, or from Calvaert, who had been + negotiating upon these affairs for two years past and was so well + acquainted with all their bearings. The Dutch envoy was reluctant to go, + for he was seriously ill and very poor in purse, but Henry urged the point + so vehemently, that Calvaert found himself on board ship within six hours + of the making of the proposition. The incident shows of how much account + the republican diplomatist was held by so keen a judge of mankind as the + Bearnese; but it will subsequently appear that the candour of the king + towards the States-General and their representative was by no means + without certain convenient limitations. + </p> + <p> + De Sancy had arrived just as—without his knowledge—Sidney had + been despatched across the channel with the brief mission already + mentioned. When he was presented to the queen, the next day, she excused + herself for the propositions by which Henry had been so much enraged, by + assuring the envoy that it had been her intention only to keep Calais out + of the enemy's hand, so long as the king's forces were too much occupied + at a distance to provide for its safety. As diplomatic conferences were + about to begin in which—even more than in that age, at least, was + usually the case—the object of the two conferring powers was to + deceive each other, and at the same time still more decidedly to defraud + other states, Sancy accepted the royal explanation, although Henry's + special messenger, Lomenie, had just brought him from the camp at Boulogne + a minute account of the propositions of Sidney. + </p> + <p> + The envoy had, immediately afterwards, an interview with Lord Burghley, + and at once perceived that he was no friend to his master. Cecil observed + that the queen had formerly been much bound to the king for religion's + sake. As this tie no longer existed, there was nothing now to unite them + save the proximity of the two States to each other and their ancient + alliances, a bond purely of interest which existed only so long as princes + found therein a special advantage. + </p> + <p> + De Sancy replied that the safety of the two crowns depended upon their + close alliance against a very powerful foe who was equally menacing to + them both. Cecil rejoined that he considered the Spaniards deserving of + the very highest praise for having been able to plan so important an + enterprise, and to have so well deceived the King of France by the + promptness and the secrecy of their operations as to allow him to conceive + no suspicion as to their designs. + </p> + <p> + To this not very friendly sarcasm the envoy, indignant that France should + thus be insulted in her misfortunes, exclaimed that he prayed to God that + the affairs of Englishmen might never be reduced to such a point as to + induce the world to judge by the result merely, as to the sagacity of + their counsels. He added that there were many passages through which to + enter France, and that it was difficult to be present everywhere, in order + to defend them all against the enemy. + </p> + <p> + A few days afterwards the Duke of Bouillon arrived in London. He had seen + Lord Essex at Dover as he passed, and had endeavoured without success to + dissuade him from his expedition against the Spanish coast. The + conferences opened on the 7th May, at Greenwich, between Burghley, Cobham, + the Lord Chamberlain, and one or two other commissioners on the part of + the queen, and Bouillon, Sancy, Du Yair, and Ancel, as plenipotentiaries + of Henry. + </p> + <p> + There was the usual indispensable series of feints at the outset, as if it + were impossible for statesmen to meet around a green table except as + fencers in the field or pugilists in the ring. + </p> + <p> + "We have nothing to do," said Burghley, "except to listen to such + propositions as may be made on the part of the king, and to repeat them to + her Highness the queen." + </p> + <p> + "You cannot be ignorant," replied Bouillon, "of the purpose for which we + have been sent hither by his Very Christian Majesty. You know very well + that it is to conclude a league with England. 'Tis necessary, therefore, + for the English to begin by declaring whether they are disposed to enter + into such an alliance. This point once settled, the French can make their + propositions, but it would be idle to dispute about the conditions of a + treaty, if there is after all no treaty to be made." + </p> + <p> + To this Cecil rejoined, that, if the king were reduced to the necessity of + asking succour from the queen, and of begging for her alliance, it was + necessary for them, on the other hand, to see what he was ready to do for + the queen in return, and to learn what advantage she could expect from the + league. + </p> + <p> + The duke said that the English statesmen were perfectly aware of the + French intention of proposing a league against the common enemy of both + nations, and that it would be unquestionably for the advantage of both to + unite their forces for a vigorous attack upon Spain, in which case it + would be more difficult for the Spanish to resist them than if each were + acting separately. It was no secret that the Spaniards would rather attack + England than France, because their war against England, being coloured by + a religious motive, would be much less odious, and would even have a + specious pretext. Moreover the conquest of England would give them an + excellent vantage ground to recover what they had lost in the Netherlands. + If, on the contrary, the enemy should throw himself with his whole force + upon France, the king, who would perhaps lose many places at once, and + might hardly be able to maintain himself single-handed against domestic + treason and a concentrated effort on the part of Spain, would probably + find it necessary to make a peace with that power. Nothing could be more + desirable for Spain than such a result, for she would then be free to + attack England and Holland, undisturbed by any fear of France. This was a + piece of advice, the duke said, which the king offered, in the most + friendly spirit, and as a proof of his affection, to her Majesty's earnest + consideration. + </p> + <p> + Burghley replied that all this seemed to him no reason for making a + league. "What more can the queen do," he observed, "than she is already + doing? She has invaded Spain by land and sea, she has sent troops to + Spain, France, and the Netherlands; she has lent the king fifteen hundred + thousand crowns in gold. In short, the envoys ought rather to be studying + how to repay her Majesty for her former benefits than to be soliciting + fresh assistance." He added that the king was so much stronger by the + recent gain of Marseilles as to be easily able to bear the loss of places + of far less importance, while Ireland, on the contrary, was a constant + danger to the queen. The country was already in a blaze, on account of the + recent landing effected there by the Spaniards, and it was a very ancient + proverb among the English, that to attack England it was necessary to take + the road of Ireland. + </p> + <p> + Bouillon replied that in this war there was much difference between the + position of France and that of England. The queen, notwithstanding + hostilities, obtained her annual revenue as usual, while the king was cut + off from his resources and obliged to ruin his kingdom in order to wage + war. Sancy added, that it must be obvious to the English ministers that + the peril of Holland was likewise the peril of England and of France, but + that at the same time they could plainly see that the king, if not + succoured, would be forced to a peace with Spain. All his counsellors were + urging him to this, and it was the interest of all his neighbours to + prevent such a step. Moreover, the proposed league could not but be + advantageous to the English; whether by restraining the Spaniards from + entering England, or by facilitating a combined attack upon the common + enemy. The queen might invade any portion of the Flemish coast at her + pleasure, while the king's fleet could sail with troops from his ports to + prevent any attack upon her realms. + </p> + <p> + At this Burghley turned to his colleagues and said, in English, "The + French are acting according to the proverb; they wish to sell us the + bear-skin before they have killed the bear." Sancy, who understood + English, rejoined, "We have no bear-skin to sell, but we are giving you a + very good and salutary piece of advice. It is for you to profit by it as + you may." + </p> + <p> + "Where are these ships of war, of which you were speaking?" asked + Burghley. + </p> + <p> + "They are at Rochelle, at Bordeaux, and at St. Malo," replied de Sancy. + </p> + <p> + "And these ports are not in the king's possession," said the Lord + Treasurer. + </p> + <p> + The discussion was growing warm. The Duke of Bouillon, in order to, put an + end to it, said that what England had most to fear was a descent by Spain + upon her coasts, and that the true way to prevent this was to give + occupation to Philip's army in Flanders. The soldiers in the fleet then + preparing were raw levies with which he would not venture to assail her + kingdom. The veterans in Flanders were the men on whom he relied for that + purpose. Moreover the queen, who had great influence with the + States-General, would procure from them a prohibition of all commerce + between the provinces and Spain; all the Netherlands would be lost to + Philip, his armies would disperse of their own accord; the princes of + Italy, to whom the power of Spain was a perpetual menace, would secretly + supply funds to the allied powers, and the Germans, declared enemies of + Philip, would furnish troops. + </p> + <p> + Burghley asserted confidently that this could never be obtained from the + Hollanders, who lived by commerce alone. Upon which Saucy, wearied with + all these difficulties, interrupted the Lord Treasurer by exclaiming, "If + the king is to expect neither an alliance nor any succour on your part, he + will be very much obliged to the queen if she will be good enough to + inform him of the decision taken by her, in order that he may, upon his + side, take the steps most suitable to the present position of his + affairs." + </p> + <p> + The session then terminated. Two days afterwards, in another conference, + Burghley offered three thousand men on the part of the queen, on condition + that they should be raised at the king's expense, and that they should not + leave England until they had received a month's pay in advance. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Bouillon said this was far from being what had been expected + of the generosity of her Majesty, that if the king had money he would find + no difficulty in raising troops in Switzerland and Germany, and that there + was a very great difference between hired princes and allies. The English + ministers having answered that this was all the queen could do, the duke + and Saucy rose in much excitement, saying that they had then no further + business than to ask for an audience of leave, and to return to France as + fast as possible. + </p> + <p> + Before they bade farewell to the queen, however, the envoys sent a memoir + to her Majesty, in which they set forth that the first proposition as to a + league had been made by Sir Henry Umton, and that now, when the king had + sent commissioners to treat concerning an alliance, already recommended by + the queen's ambassador in France, they had been received in such a way as + to indicate a desire to mock them rather than to treat with them. They + could not believe, they said, that it was her Majesty's desire to use such + language as had been addressed to them, and they therefore implored her + plainly to declare her intentions, in order that they might waste no more + time unnecessarily, especially as the high offices with which their + sovereign had honoured them did not allow them to remain for a long time + absent from France. + </p> + <p> + The effect of this memoir upon the queen was, that fresh conferences were + suggested, which took place at intervals between the 11th and the 26th of + May. They were characterized by the same mutual complaints of + overreachings and of shortcomings by which all the previous discussions + had been distinguished. On the 17th May the French envoys even insisted on + taking formal farewell of the queen, and were received by her Majesty for + that purpose at a final audience. After they had left the presence—the + preparations for their homeward journey being already made—the queen + sent Sir Robert Cecil, Henry Brooke, son of Lord Cobham, and La Fontaine, + minister of a French church in England, to say to them how very much + mortified she was that the state of her affairs did not permit her to give + the king as much assistance as he desired, and to express her wish to + speak to them once more before their departure. + </p> + <p> + The result of the audience given accordingly to the envoys, two days + later, was the communication of her decision to enter into the league + proposed, but without definitely concluding the treaty until it should be + ratified by the king. + </p> + <p> + On the 26th May articles were finally agreed upon, by which the king and + queen agreed to defend each other's dominions, to unite in attacking the + common enemy, and to invite other princes and states equally interested + with themselves in resisting the ambitious projects of Spain, to join in + the league. It was arranged that an army should be put in the field as + soon as possible, at the expense of the king and queen, and of such other + powers as should associate themselves in the proposed alliance; that this + army should invade the dominions of the Spanish monarch, that the king and + queen were never, without each other's consent, to make peace or truce + with Philip; that the queen should immediately raise four thousand + infantry to serve six months of every year in Picardy and Normandy, with + the condition that they were never to be sent to a distance of more than + fifty leagues from Boulogna; that when the troubles of Ireland should be + over the queen should be at liberty to add new troops to the four thousand + men thus promised by her to the league; that the queen was to furnish to + these four thousand men six months' pay in advance before they should + leave England, and that the king should agree to repay the amount six + months afterwards, sending meanwhile four nobles to England as hostages. + If the dominions of the queen should be attacked it was stipulated that, + at two months' notice, the king should raise four thousand men at the + expense of the queen and send them to her assistance, and that they were + to serve for six months at her charge, but were not to be sent to a + distance of more than fifty leagues from the coasts of France. + </p> + <p> + The English were not willing that the States-General should be + comprehended among the powers to be invited to join the league, because + being under the protection of the Queen of England they were supposed to + have no will but hers. Burghley insisted accordingly that, in speaking of + those who were thus to be asked, no mention was to be made of peoples nor + of states, for fear lest the States-General might be included under those + terms. The queen was, however, brought at last to yield the point, and + consented, in order to satisfy the French envoys, that to the word princes + should be added the general expression orders or estates. The obstacle + thus interposed to the formation of the league by the hatred of the queen + and of the privileged classes of England to popular liberty, and by the + secret desire entertained of regaining that sovereignty over the provinces + which had been refused ten years before by Elizabeth, was at length set + aside. The republic, which might have been stifled at its birth, was now a + formidable fact, and could neither be annexed to the English dominions nor + deprived of its existence as a new member of the European family. + </p> + <p> + It being no longer possible to gainsay the presence of the young + commonwealth among the nations, the next best thing—so it was + thought—was to defraud her in the treaty to which she was now + invited to accede. This, as it will presently appear, the King of France + and the Queen of England succeeded in doing very thoroughly, and they + accomplished it notwithstanding the astuteness and the diligence of the + States' envoy, who at Henry's urgent request had accompanied the French + mission to England. Calvaert had been very active in bringing about the + arrangement, to assist in which he had, as we have seen, risen from a sick + bed and made the journey to England: "The proposition for an offensive and + defensive alliance was agreed to by her Majesty's Council, but under + intolerable and impracticable conditions," said he, "and, as such, + rejected by the duke and Sancy, so that they took leave of her Majesty. At + last, after some negotiation in which, without boasting, I may say that I + did some service, it was again taken in hand, and at last, thank God, + although with much difficulty, the league has been concluded." + </p> + <p> + When the task was finished the French envoys departed to obtain their + master's ratification of the treaty. Elizabeth expressed herself warmly in + regard to her royal brother, inviting him earnestly to pay her a visit, in + which case she said she would gladly meet him half way; for a sight of him + would be her only consolation in the midst of her adversity and annoyance. + "He may see other princesses of a more lovely appearance," she added, "but + he will never make a visit to a more faithful friend." + </p> + <p> + But the treaty thus concluded was for the public. The real agreement + between France and England was made by a few days later, and reduced the + ostensible arrangement to a sham, a mere decoy to foreign nations, + especially to the Dutch republic, to induce them to imitate England in + joining the league, and to emulate her likewise in affording that + substantial assistance to the league which in reality England was very far + from giving. + </p> + <p> + "Two contracts were made," said Secretary of State Villeroy; "the one + public, to give credit and reputation to the said league, the other + secret, which destroyed the effects and the promises of the first. By the + first his Majesty was to be succoured by four thousand infantry, which + number was limited by the second contract to two thousand, who were to + reside and to serve only in the cities of Boulogne and Montreuil, assisted + by an equal number of French, and not otherwise, and on condition of not + being removed from those towns unless his Majesty should be personally + present in Picardy with an army, in which case they might serve in + Picardy, but nowhere else." + </p> + <p> + An English garrison in a couple of French seaports, over against the + English coast, would hardly have seemed a sufficient inducement to other + princes and states to put large armies in the field to sustain the + Protestant league, had they known that this was the meagre result of the + protocolling and disputations that had been going on all the summer at + Greenwich. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless the decoy did its work, The envoys returned to France, and it + was not until three months later that the Duke of Bouillon again made his + appearance in England, bringing the treaty duly ratified by Henry. The + league was then solemnized, on, the 26th August, by the queen with much + pomp and ceremony. Three peers of the realm waited upon the French + ambassador at his lodgings, and escorted him and his suite in seventeen + royal coaches to the Tower. Seven splendid barges then conveyed them along + the Thames to Greenwich. On the pier the ambassador was received by the + Earl of Derby at the head of a great suite of nobles and high + functionaries, and conducted to the palace of Nonesuch. + </p> + <p> + There was a religious ceremony in the royal chapel, where a special + pavilion had been constructed. Standing, within this sanctuary, the queen; + with her hand on her breast, swore faithfully to maintain the league just + concluded. She then gave her hand to the Duke of Bouillon, who held it in + both his own, while psalms were sung and the organ resounded through the + chapel. Afterwards there was a splendid banquet in the palace, the duke + sitting in solitary grandeur at the royal table, being placed at a + respectful distance from her Majesty, and the dishes being placed on the + board by the highest nobles of the realm, who, upon their knees, served + the queen with wine. No one save the ambassador sat at Elizabeth's table, + but in the same hall was spread another, at which the Earl of Essex + entertained many distinguished guests, young Count Lewis Gunther of Nassau + among the number. + </p> + <p> + In the midsummer twilight the brilliantly decorated barges were again + floating on the historic river, the gaily-coloured lanterns lighting the + sweep of the oars, and the sound of lute and viol floating merrily across + the water. As the ambassador came into the courtyard of his house, he + found a crowd of several thousand people assembled, who shouted welcome to + the representative of Henry, and invoked blessings on the head of Queen + Elizabeth and of her royal brother of France. Meanwhile all the bells of + London were ringing, artillery was thundering, and bonfires were blazing, + until the night was half spent. + </p> + <p> + Such was the holiday-making by which the league between the great + Protestant queen and the ex-chief of the Huguenots of France was + celebrated within a year after the pope had received him, a repentant + sinner, into the fold of the Church. Truly it might be said that religion + was rapidly ceasing to be the line of demarcation among the nations, as + had been the case for the two last generations of mankind. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Bouillon soon afterwards departed for the Netherlands, where + the regular envoy to the commonwealth, Paul Chouart Seigneur de Buzanval, + had already been preparing the States-General for their entrance into the + league. Of course it was duly impressed upon those republicans that they + should think themselves highly honoured by the privilege of associating + themselves with so august an alliance. The queen wrote an earnest letter + to the States, urging them to join the league. "Especially should you do + so," she said, "on account of the reputation which you will thereby gain + for your affairs with the people who are under you, seeing you thus + sustained (besides the certainty which you have of our favour) by the + friendship of other confederated princes, and particularly by that of the + most Christian king." + </p> + <p> + On the 31st October the articles of agreement under which the republic + acceded to the new confederation were signed at the Hague. Of course it + was not the exact counterpart of the famous Catholic association. Madam + League, after struggling feebly for the past few years, a decrepit + beldame, was at last dead and buried. But there had been a time when she + was filled with exuberant and terrible life. She, at least, had known the + object of her creation, and never, so long as life was in her, had she + faltered in her dread purpose. To extirpate Protestantism, to murder + Protestants, to burn, hang, butcher, bury them alive, to dethrone every + Protestant sovereign in Europe, especially to assassinate the Queen of + England, the Prince of Orange, with all his race, and Henry of Navarre, + and to unite in the accomplishment of these simple purposes all the powers + of Christendom under the universal monarchy of Philip of Spain—for + all this, blood was shed in torrents, and the precious metals of the + "Indies" squandered as fast as the poor savages, who were thus taking + their first lessons in the doctrines of Jesus of Nazareth, could dig it + from the mines. For this America had been summoned, as it were by almighty + fiat, out of previous darkness, in order that it might furnish money with + which to massacre all the heretics of the earth. For this great purpose + was the sublime discovery of the Genoese sailor to be turned to account. + These aims were intelligible, and had in part been attained. William of + Orange had fallen, and a patent of nobility, with a handsome fortune, had + been bestowed upon his assassin. Elizabeth's life had been frequently + attempted. So had those of Henry, of Maurice, of Olden-Barneveld. Divine + providence might perhaps guide the hand of future murderers with greater + accuracy, for even if Madam League were dead, her ghost still walked among + the Jesuits and summoned them to complete the crimes left yet unfinished. + </p> + <p> + But what was the design of the new confederacy? It was not a Protestant + league. Henry of Navarre could no longer be the chief of such an + association, although it was to Protestant powers only that he could turn + for assistance. It was to the commonwealth of the Netherlands, to the + northern potentates and to the Calvinist and Lutheran princes of Germany, + that the king and queen could alone appeal in their designs against Philip + of Spain. + </p> + <p> + The position of Henry was essentially a false one from the beginning. He + felt it to be so, and the ink was scarce dry with which he signed the new + treaty before he was secretly casting about him to, make peace with that + power with which he was apparently summoning all the nations of the earth + to do battle. Even the cautious Elizabeth was deceived by the crafty + Bearnese, while both united to hoodwink the other states and princes. + </p> + <p> + On the 31st October, accordingly, the States-General agreed to go into the + league with England and France; "in order to resist the enterprises and + ambitious designs of the King of Spain against all the princes and + potentates of Christendom." As the queen had engaged—according to + the public treaty or decoy—to furnish four thousand infantry to the + league, the States now agreed to raise and pay for another four thousand + to be maintained in the king's service at a cost of four hundred and fifty + thousand florins annually, to be paid by the month. The king promised, in + case the Netherlands should be invaded by the enemy with the greater part + of his force, that these four thousand soldiers should return to the + Netherlands. The king further bound himself to carry on a sharp offensive + war in Artois and Hainault. + </p> + <p> + The States-General would have liked a condition inserted in the treaty + that no peace should be made with Spain by England or France without the + consent of the provinces; but this was peremptorily refused. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the republic had no special reason to be grateful for the grudging + and almost contemptuous manner in which it had thus been virtually + admitted into the community of sovereigns; but the men who directed its + affairs were far too enlightened not to see how great a step was taken + when their political position, now conceded to them, had been secured. In + good faith they intended to carry out the provisions of the new treaty, + and they immediately turned their attention to the vital matters of making + new levies and of imposing new taxes, by means of which they might render + themselves useful to their new allies. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Ancel was deputed by Henry to visit the various courts of Germany + and the north in order to obtain, if possible, new members for the league? + But Germany was difficult to rouse. The dissensions among Protestants were + ever inviting the assaults of the Papists. Its multitude of sovereigns + were passing their leisure moments in wrangling among themselves as usual + on abstruse points of theology, and devoting their serious hours to + banquetting, deep drinking, and the pleasures of the chase. The jeremiads + of old John of Nassau grew louder than ever, but his voice was of one + crying in the wilderness. The wrath to come of that horrible Thirty Years' + War, which he was not to witness seemed to inspire all his prophetic + diatribes. But there were few to heed them. Two great dangers seemed ever + impending over Christendom, and it is difficult to decide which fate would + have been the more terrible, the establishment of the universal monarchy + of Philip II., or the conquest of Germany by the Grand Turk. But when + Ancel and other emissaries sought to obtain succour against the danger + from the south-west, he was answered by the clash of arms and the shrieks + of horror which came daily from the south-east. In vain was it urged, and + urged with truth, that the Alcoran was less cruel than the Inquisition, + that the soil of Europe might be overrun by Turks and Tartars, and the + crescent planted triumphantly in every village, with less disaster to the + human race, and with better hope that the germs of civilization and the + precepts of Christianity might survive the invasion, than if the system of + Philip, of Torquemada, and of Alva, should become the universal law. But + the Turk was a frank enemy of Christianity, while Philip murdered + Christians in the name of Christ. The distinction imposed upon the + multitudes, with whom words were things. Moreover, the danger from the + young and enterprising Mahomet seemed more appalling to the imagination + than the menace, from which experience had taken something of its terrors, + of the old and decrepit Philip. + </p> + <p> + The Ottoman empire, in its exact discipline, in its terrible concentration + of purpose, in its contempt for all arts and sciences, and all human + occupation save the trade of war and the pursuit of military dominion, + offered a strong contrast to the distracted condition of the holy Roman + empire, where an intellectual and industrious people, distracted by half a + century of religious controversy and groaning under one of the most + elaborately perverse of all the political systems ever invented by man, + seemed to offer itself an easy prey to any conqueror. The Turkish power + was in the fulness of its aggressive strength, and seemed far more + formidable than it would have done had there been clearer perceptions of + what constitutes the strength and the wealth of nations. Could the simple + truth have been thoroughly, comprehended that a realm founded upon such + principles was the grossest of absurdities, the Eastern might have seemed + less terrible than the Western danger. + </p> + <p> + But a great campaign, at no considerable distance from the walls of + Vienna, had occupied the attention of Germany during the autumn. Mahomet + had taken the field in person with a hundred thousand men, and the + emperor's brother, Maximilian, in conjunction with the Prince of + Transylvania, at the head of a force of equal magnitude, had gone forth to + give him battle. Between the Theiss and the Danube, at Keveste, not far + from the city of Erlau, on the 26th October, the terrible encounter on + which the fate of Christendom seemed to hang at last took place, and + Europe held its breath in awful suspense until its fate should be decided. + When the result at last became known, a horrible blending of the comic and + the tragic, such as has rarely been presented in history, startled the + world. Seventy thousand human beings—Moslems and Christians—were + lying dead or wounded on the banks of a nameless little stream which flows + into the Theisa, and the commanders-in-chief of both armies were running + away as fast as horses could carry them. Each army believed itself + hopelessly defeated, and abandoning tents, baggage, artillery, ammunition, + the remnants of each, betook themselves to panic-stricken flight. + Generalissimo Maximilian never looked behind him as he fled, until he had + taken refuge in Kaschan, and had thence made his way, deeply mortified and + despondent, to Vienna. The Prince of Transylvania retreated into the + depths of his own principality. Mahomet, with his principal officers, shut + himself up in Buda, after which he returned to Constantinople and + abandoned himself for a time to a voluptuous ease, inconsistent with the + Ottoman projects of conquering the world. The Turks, less prone to + desperation than the Christians, had been utterly overthrown in the early + part of the action, but when the victors were, as usual, greedily bent + upon plunder before the victory had been fairly secured, the tide of + battle was turned by the famous Italian renegade Cicala. The Turks, too, + had the good sense to send two days afterwards and recover their + artillery, trains, and other property, which ever since the battle had + been left at the mercy of the first comers. + </p> + <p> + So ended the Turkish campaign of the year 1596. Ancel, accordingly, fared + ill in his negotiations with Germany. On the other hand Mendoza, Admiral + of Arragon, had been industriously but secretly canvassing the same + regions as the representative of the Spanish king. It was important for + Philip, who put more faith in the league of the three powers than Henry + himself did, to lose no time in counteracting its influence. The condition + of the holy Roman empire had for some time occupied his most serious + thoughts. It seemed plain that Rudolph would never marry. Certainly he + would never marry the Infanta, although he was very angry that his brother + should aspire to the hand which he himself rejected. In case of his death + without children, Philip thought it possible that there might be a + Protestant revolution in Germany, and that the house of Habsburg might + lose the imperial crown altogether. It was even said that the emperor + himself was of that opinion, and preferred that the empire should "end + with his own life." Philip considered that neither Matthias nor Maximilian + was fit to succeed their brother, being both of them "lukewarm in the + Catholic faith." In other words, he chose that his destined son-in-law, + the Cardinal Albert, should supersede them, and he was anxious to have him + appointed as soon as possible King of the Romans. + </p> + <p> + "His Holiness the Pope and the King of Spain," said the Admiral of + Arragon, "think it necessary to apply most stringent measures to the + emperor to compel him to appoint a successor, because, in case of his + death without one, the administration during the vacancy would fall to the + elector palatine,—a most perverse Calvinistic heretic, and as great + an enemy of the house of Austria and of our holy religion as the Turk + himself—as sufficiently appears in those diabolical laws of his + published in the palatinate a few months since. A vacancy is so dreadful, + that in the north of Germany the world would come to an end; yet the + emperor, being of rather a timid nature than otherwise, is inclined to + quiet, and shrinks from the discussions and conflicts likely to be caused + by an appointment. Therefore his Holiness and his Catholic Majesty, not + choosing that we should all live in danger of the world's falling in + ruins, have resolved to provide the remedy. They are to permit the + electors to use the faculty which they possess of suspending the emperor + and depriving him of his power; there being examples of this in other + times against emperors who governed ill." + </p> + <p> + The Admiral farther alluded to the great effort made two years before to + elect the King of Denmark emperor, reminding Philip that in Hamburg they + had erected triumphal arches, and made other preparations to receive him. + This year, he observed, the Protestants were renewing their schemes. On + the occasion of the baptism of the child of the elector palatine, the + English envoy being present, and Queen Elizabeth being god-mother, they + had agreed upon nine articles of faith much more hostile to the Catholic + creed than anything ever yet professed. In case of the death of the + emperor, this elector palatine would of course make much trouble, and the + emperor should therefore be induced, by fair means if possible, on account + of the great inconvenience of forcing him, but not without a hint of + compulsion, to acquiesce in the necessary measures. Philip was represented + as willing to assist the empire with considerable force against the Turk—as + there could be no doubt that Hungary was in great danger—but in + recompense it was necessary to elect a King of the Romans in all respects + satisfactory to him. There were three objections to the election of + Albert, whose recent victories and great abilities entitled him in + Philip's opinion to the crown. Firstly, there was a doubt whether the + kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia were elective or hereditary, and it was + very important that the King of the Romans should succeed to those two + crowns, because the electors and other princes having fiefs within those + kingdoms would be unwilling to swear fealty to two suzerains, and as + Albert was younger than his brothers he could scarcely expect to take by + inheritance. + </p> + <p> + Secondly, Albert had no property of his own, but the Admiral suggested + that the emperor might be made to abandon to him the income of the Tyrol. + </p> + <p> + Thirdly, it was undesirable for Albert to leave the Netherlands at that + juncture. Nevertheless, it was suggested by the easy-going Admiral, with + the same tranquil insolence which marked all his proposed arrangements, + that as Rudolph would retire from the government altogether, Albert, as + King of the Romans and acting emperor, could very well take care of the + Netherlands as part of his whole realm. Albert being moreover about to + marry the Infanta, the handsome dowry which he would receive with her from + the king would enable him to sustain his dignity. + </p> + <p> + Thus did Philip who had been so industrious during the many past years in + his endeavours to expel the heretic Queen of England and the Huguenot + Henry from the realms of their ancestors, and to seat himself or his + daughter, or one or another of his nephews, in their places, now busy + himself with schemes to discrown Rudolph of Habsburg, and to place the + ubiquitous Infanta and her future husband on his throne. Time would show + the result. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, while the Protestant Ancel and other agents of the new league + against Philip were travelling about from one court of Europe to another + to gain adherents to their cause, the great founder of the confederacy was + already secretly intriguing for a peace with that monarch. The ink was + scarce dry on the treaty to which he had affixed his signature before he + was closeted with the agents of the Archduke Albert, and receiving + affectionate messages and splendid presents from that military + ecclesiastic. + </p> + <p> + In November, 1596, La Balvena, formerly a gentleman of the Count de la + Fera, came to Rouen. He had a very secret interview with Henry IV. at + three o'clock one morning, and soon afterwards at a very late hour in the + night. The king asked him why the archduke was not willing to make a + general peace, including England and Holland. Balvena replied that he had + no authority to treat on that subject; it being well known, however, that + the King of Spain would never consent to a peace with the rebels, except + on the ground of the exclusive maintenance of the Catholic religion. + </p> + <p> + He is taking the very course to destroy that religion, said Henry. The + king then avowed himself in favour of peace for the sake of the poor + afflicted people of all countries. He was not tired of arms, he said, + which were so familiar to him, but his wish was to join in a general + crusade against the Turk. This would be better for the Catholic religion + than the present occupations of all parties. He avowed that the Queen of + England was his very good friend, and said he had never yet broken his + faith with her, and never would do so. She had sent him the Garter, and he + had accepted it, as his brother Henry III. had done before him, and he + would negotiate no peace which did not include her. The not very distant + future was to show how much these stout professions of sincerity were + worth. Meantime Henry charged Balvena to keep their interviews a profound + secret, especially from every one in France. The king expressed great + anxiety lest the Huguenots should hear of it, and the agent observed that + any suspicion of peace negotiations would make great disturbance among the + heretics, as one of the conditions of the king's absolution by the pope + was supposed to be that he should make war upon his Protestant subjects. + On his return from Rouen the emissary made a visit to Monlevet, marshal of + the camp to Henry IV. and a Calvinist. There was much conversation about + peace, in the course of which Monlevet observed, "We are much afraid of + you in negotiation, for we know that you Spaniards far surpass us in + astuteness." + </p> + <p> + "Nay," said Balvena, "I will only repeat the words of the Emperor Charles + V.—'The Spaniards seem wise, and are madmen; the French seem madmen, + and are wise.'" + </p> + <p> + A few weeks later the archduke sent Balvena again to Rouen. He had another + interview with the king, at which not only Villeroy and other Catholics + were present, but Monlevet also. This proved a great obstacle to freedom + of conversation. The result was the same as before. + </p> + <p> + There were strong professions of a desire on the part of the king for a + peace but it was for a general peace; nothing further. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th December Balvena was sent for by the king before daylight, just + as he was mounting his horse for the chase. + </p> + <p> + "Tell his Highness," said Henry, "that I am all frankness, and incapable + of dissimulation, and that I believe him too much a man of honour to wish + to deceive me. Go tell him that I am most anxious for peace, and that I + deeply regret the defeat that has been sustained against the Turk. Had I + been there I would have come out dead or victorious. Let him arrange an + agreement between us, so that presto he may see me there with my brave + nobles, with infantry and with plenty of Switzers. Tell him that I am his + friend: Begone. Be diligent." + </p> + <p> + On the last day but two of the year, the archduke, having heard this + faithful report of Henry's affectionate sentiments, sent him a suit of + splendid armour, such as was then made better in Antwerp than anywhere + else, magnificently burnished of a blue colour, according to an entirely + new fashion. + </p> + <p> + With such secret courtesies between his most Catholic Majesty's vicegerent + and himself was Henry's league with the two Protestant powers accompanied. + </p> + <p> + Exactly at the same epoch Philip was again preparing an invasion of the + queen's dominions. An armada of a hundred and twenty-eight ships, with a + force of fourteen thousand infantry and three thousand horse, had been + assembled during the autumn of this year at Lisbon, notwithstanding the + almost crushing blow that the English and Hollanders had dealt the king's + navy so recently at Cadiz. This new expedition was intended for Ireland, + where it was supposed that the Catholics would be easily roused. It was + also hoped that the King of Scots might be induced to embrace this + opportunity of wreaking vengeance on his mother's destroyer. "He was on + the watch the last time that my armada went forth against the English," + said Philip, "and he has now no reason to do the contrary, especially if + he remembers that here is a chance to requite the cruelty which was + practised on his mother." + </p> + <p> + The fleet sailed on the 5th October under the command of the Count Santa + Gadea. Its immediate destination was the coast of Ireland, where they were + to find some favourable point for disembarking the troops. Having + accomplished this, the ships, with the exception of a few light vessels, + were to take their departure and pass the winter in Ferrol. In case the + fleet should be forced by stress of weather on the English coast, the port + of Milford Haven in Wales was to be seized, "because," said Philip, "there + are a great many Catholics there well affected to our cause, and who have + a special enmity to the English." In case the English fleet should come + forth to give battle, Philip sent directions that it was to be conquered + at once, and that after the victory Milford Haven was to be firmly held. + </p> + <p> + This was easily said. But it was not fated that this expedition should be + more triumphant than that of the unconquerable armada which had been so + signally conquered eight years before. Scarcely had the fleet put to sea + when it was overtaken by a tremendous storm, in which forty ships + foundered with five thousand men. The shattered remnants took refuge in + Ferrol. There the ships were to refit, and in the spring the attempt was + to be renewed. Thus it was ever with the King of Spain. There was a placid + unconsciousness on his part of defeat which sycophants thought sublime. + And such insensibility might have been sublimity had the monarch been in + person on the deck of a frigate in the howling tempest, seeing ship after + ship go down before his eyes; and exerting himself with tranquil energy + and skill to encourage his followers, and to preserve what remained afloat + from destruction. Certainly such exhibitions of human superiority to the + elements are in the highest degree inspiring. His father had shown himself + on more than one occasion the master of his fate. The King of France, too, + bare-headed, in his iron corslet, leading a forlorn hope, and, by the + personal charm of his valour, changing fugitives into heroes and defeat + into victory, had afforded many examples of sublime unconsciousness of + disaster, such as must ever thrill the souls of mankind. But it is more + difficult to be calm in battle and shipwreck than at the writing desk; nor + is that the highest degree of fortitude which enables a monarch—himself + in safety—to endure without flinching the destruction of his fellow + creatures. + </p> + <p> + No sooner, however, was the remnant of the tempest-tost fleet safe in + Ferrol than the king requested the cardinal to collect an army at Calais + and forthwith to invade England. He asked his nephew whether he could not + manage to send his troops across the channel in vessels of light draught, + such as he already had at command, together with some others which might + be furnished him from Spain. In this way he was directed to gain a + foot-hold in England, and he was to state immediately whether he could + accomplish this with his own resources or should require the assistance of + the fleet at Ferrol. The king further suggested that the enemy, encouraged + by his success at Cadiz the previous summer, might be preparing a fresh + expedition against Spain, in which case the invasion of England would be + easier to accomplish. + </p> + <p> + Thus on the last day of 1596, Philip, whose fleet sent forth for the + conquest of Ireland and England had been too crippled to prosecute the + adventure, was proposing to his nephew to conquer England without any + fleet at all. He had given the same advice to Alexander Farnese so soon as + he heard of the destruction of the invincible armada. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Allow her to seek a profit from his misfortune + Burning of Servetus at Geneva + Constant vigilance is the price of liberty + Evil has the advantage of rapidly assuming many shapes + French seem madmen, and are wise + Hanging of Mary Dyer at Boston + Imposed upon the multitudes, with whom words were things + Impossible it was to invent terms of adulation too gross + In times of civil war, to be neutral is to be nothing + Meet around a green table except as fencers in the field + One-third of Philip's effective navy was thus destroyed + Patriotism seemed an unimaginable idea + Placid unconsciousness on his part of defeat + Plea of infallibility and of authority soon becomes ridiculous + Religion was rapidly ceasing to be the line of demarcation + So often degenerated into tyranny (Calvinism) + Spaniards seem wise, and are madmen + The Alcoran was less cruel than the Inquisition + There are few inventions in morals + To attack England it was necessary to take the road of Ireland + Tranquil insolence + Unproductive consumption was alarmingly increasing + Upon their knees, served the queen with wine + Wish to sell us the bear-skin before they have killed the bear +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIII. 1597-1598 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Straggle of the Netherlands against Spain—March to Turnhout— + Retreat of the Spanish commander—Pursuit and attack—Demolition of + the Spanish army—Surrender of the garrison of Turnhout—Improved + military science—Moral effect of the battle—The campaign in + France—Attack on Amiens by the Spaniards—Sack and burning of the + city—De Rosny's plan for reorganization of the finances—Jobbery + and speculation—Philip's repudiation of his debts—Effects of the + measure—Renewal of persecution by the Jesuits—Contention between + Turk and Christian—Envoy from the King of Poland to the Hague to + plead for reconciliation with Philip—His subsequent presentation to + Queen Elizabeth—Military events Recovery of Amiens—Feeble + operations of the confederate powers against Spain—Marriage of the + Princess Emilia, sister of Maurice—Reduction of the castle and town + of Alphen—Surrender of Rheinberg—Capitulation of Meurs—Surrender + of Grol—Storming and taking of Brevoort Capitulation of Enschede, + Ootmaxsum, Oldenzaal, and Lingen—Rebellion of the Spanish garrisons + in Antwerp and Ghent—Progress of the peace movement between Henry + and Philip—Relations of the three confederate powers—Henry's + scheme for reconciliation with Spain—His acceptance of Philip's + offer of peace announced to Elizabeth—Endeavours for a general + peace. +</pre> + <p> + The old year had closed with an abortive attempt of Philip to fulfil his + favourite dream—the conquest of England. The new year opened with a + spirited effort of Prince Maurice to measure himself in the open field + with the veteran legions of Spain. + </p> + <p> + Turnhout, in Brabant, was an open village—the largest in all the + Netherlands lying about twenty-five English miles in almost a direct line + south from Gertruydenburg. It was nearly as far distant in an easterly + direction from Antwerp, and was about five miles nearer Breda than it was + to Gertruydenberg. + </p> + <p> + At this place the cardinal-archduke had gathered a considerable force, + numbering at least four thousand of his best infantry, with several + squadrons of cavalry, the whole under-command of the general-in-chief of + artillery, Count Varax. People in the neighbourhood were growing uneasy, + for it was uncertain in what direction it might be intended to use this + formidable force. It was perhaps the cardinal's intention to make a sudden + assault upon Breda, the governor of which seemed not inclined to carry out + his proposition to transfer that important city to the king, or it was + thought that he might take advantage of a hard frost and cross the frozen + morasses and estuaries into the land of Ter Tholen, where he might + overmaster some of the important strongholds of Zeeland. + </p> + <p> + Marcellus Bax, that boldest and most brilliant of Holland's cavalry + officers, had come to Maurice early in January with an urgent suggestion + that no time might be lost in making an attack upon the force of Turnhout, + before they should succeed in doing any mischief. The prince pondered the + proposition, for a little time, by himself, and then conferred very + privately upon the subject with the state-council. On the 14th January it + was agreed with that body that the enterprise should be attempted, but + with the utmost secrecy. A week later the council sent an express + messenger to Maurice urging him not to expose his own life to peril, but + to apprise them as soon as possible as to the results of the adventure. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, patents had been sent to the various garrisons for fifty + companies of foot and sixteen squadrons of horse. On the 22nd January + Maurice came to Gertruydenberg, the place of rendezvous, attended by Sir + Francis Vere and Count Solms. Colonel Kloetingen was already there with + the transports of ammunition and a few pieces of artillery from Zeeland, + and in the course of the day the whole infantry force had assembled. + Nothing could have been managed with greater promptness or secrecy. + </p> + <p> + Next day, before dawn, the march began. The battalia was led by Van der + Noot, with six companies of Hollanders. Then came Vere, with eight + companies of the reserve, Dockray with eight companies of Englishmen, + Murray with eight companies of Scotch, and Kloetingen and La Corde with + twelve companies of Dutch and Zeelanders. In front of the last troop under + La Corde marched the commander of the artillery, with two demi-cannon and + two field-pieces, followed by the ammunition and, baggage trains. Hohenlo + arrived just as the march was beginning, to whom the stadholder, + notwithstanding their frequent differences, communicated his plans, and + entrusted the general command of the cavalry. That force met the + expedition at Osterhout, a league's distance from Gertruydenberg, and + consisted of the best mounted companies, English and Dutch, from the + garrisons of Breda, Bergen, Nymegen, and the Zutphen districts. + </p> + <p> + It was a dismal, drizzly, foggy morning; the weather changing to steady + rain as the expedition advanced. There had been alternate frost and thaw + for the few previous weeks, and had that condition of the atmosphere + continued the adventure could not have been attempted. It had now turned + completely to thaw. The roads were all under water, and the march was + sufficiently difficult. Nevertheless, it was possible; so the stout + Hollanders, Zeelanders, and Englishmen struggled on manfully, shoulder to + shoulder, through the mist and the mire. By nightfall the expedition had + reached Ravels, at less than a league's distance from Turnhout, having + accomplished, under the circumstances, a very remarkable march of over + twenty miles. A stream of water, the Neethe, one of the tributaries of the + Scheld, separated Ravels from Turnhout, and was crossed by a stone bridge. + It was an anxious moment. Maurice discovered by his scouts that he was + almost within cannon-shot of several of the most famous regiments in the + Spanish army lying fresh, securely posted, and capable of making an attack + at any moment. He instantly threw forward Marcellus Bax with four + squadrons of Bergen cavalry, who, jaded as they were by their day's work, + were to watch the bridge that night, and to hold it against all comers and + at every hazard. + </p> + <p> + The Spanish commander, on his part, had reconnoitred the advancing, foe, + for it was impossible for the movement to have been so secret or so swift + over those inundated roads as to be shrouded to the last moment in + complete mystery. It was naturally to be expected therefore that those + splendid legions—the famous Neapolitan tercio of Trevico, the + veteran troops of Sultz and Hachicourt, the picked Epirote and Spanish + cavalry of Nicolas Basta and Guzman—would be hurled upon the + wearied, benumbed, bemired soldiers of the republic, as they came slowly + along after their long march through the cold winter's rain. + </p> + <p> + Varax took no such heroic resolution. Had he done so that January + afternoon, the career of Maurice of Nassau might have been brought to a + sudden close, despite the affectionate warning of the state-council. + Certainly it was difficult for any commander to be placed in a more + perilous position than that in which the stadholder found himself. He + remained awake and afoot the whole night, perfecting his arrangements for + the morning, and watching every indication of a possible advance on the + part of the enemy. Marcellus Bax and his troopers remained at the bridge + till morning, and were so near the Spaniards that they heard the voices of + their pickets, and could even distinguish in the distance the various + movements in their camp. + </p> + <p> + But no attack was made, and the little army of Maurice was allowed to + sleep off its fatigue. With the dawn of the 24th January, a reconnoitring + party, sent out from the republican camp, discovered that Varax, having no + stomach for an encounter, had given his enemies the slip. Long before + daylight his baggage and ammunition trains had been sent off in a + southerly direction, and his whole force had already left the village of + Turnhout. It was the intention of the commander to take refuge in the + fortified city of Herenthals, and there await the attack of Maurice. + Accordingly, when the stadholder arrived on the fields beyond the + immediate precincts of the village, he saw the last of the enemy's + rearguard just disappearing from view. The situation was a very peculiar + one. + </p> + <p> + The rain and thaw, following upon frosty weather, had converted the fenny + country in many directions into a shallow lake. The little river which + flowed by the village had risen above its almost level banks, and could + with difficulty be traversed at any point, while there was no permanent + bridge, such as there was at Ravels. The retreating Spaniards had made + their way through a narrow passage, where a roughly-constructed causeway + of planks had enabled the infantry to cross the waters almost in single + file, while the cavalry had floundered through as best they might. Those + who were acquainted with the country reported that beyond this defile + there was an upland heath, a league in extent, full of furze and thickets, + where it would be easy enough for Varax to draw up his army in battle + array, and conceal it from view. Maurice's scouts, too, brought + information that the Spanish commander had left a force of musketeers to + guard the passage at the farther end. + </p> + <p> + This looked very like an ambush. In the opinion of Hohenlo, of Solms, and + of Sidney, an advance was not to be thought of; and if the adventure + seemed perilous to such hardy and experienced campaigners as these three, + the stadholder might well hesitate. Nevertheless, Maurice had made up his + mind. Sir Francis Vere and Marcellus Bax confirmed him in his + determination, and spoke fiercely of the disgrace which would come upon + the arms of the republic if now, after having made a day's march to meet + the enemy, they should turn their backs upon him just as he was doing his + best to escape. + </p> + <p> + On leave obtained from the prince, these two champions, the Englishman and + the Hollander, spurred their horses through the narrow pass, with the + waters up to the saddle-bow, at the head of a mere handful of troopers, + not more than a dozen men in all. Two hundred musketeers followed, picking + their way across the planks. As they emerged into the open country beyond, + the Spanish soldiers guarding the passage fled without firing a shot. Such + was already the discouraging effect produced upon veterans by the + unexpected order given that morning to retreat. Vere and Bax sent word for + all the cavalry to advance at once, and meantime hovered about the + rearguard of the retreating enemy, ready to charge upon him so soon as + they should be strong enough. + </p> + <p> + Maurice lost no time in plunging with his whole mounted force through the + watery defile; directing the infantry to follow as fast as practicable. + When the commander-in-chief with his eight hundred horsemen, Englishmen, + Zeelanders, Hollanders, and Germans, came upon the heath, the position and + purpose of the enemy were plainly visible. He was not drawn up in battle + order, waiting to sweep down upon his rash assailants so soon as, after + struggling through the difficult pass, they should be delivered into his + hands. On the contrary, it was obvious at a glance that his object was + still to escape. The heath of Tiel, on which Spaniards, Italians, + Walloons, Germans, Dutchmen, English; Scotch, and Irishmen now all found + themselves together, was a ridgy, spongy expanse of country, bordered on + one side by the swollen river, here flowing again through steeper banks + which were overgrown with alders and pollard willows. Along the left of + the Spanish army, as they moved in the direction of Herenthals, was a + continuous fringe of scrub-oaks, intermixed with tall beeches, skirting + the heath, and forming a leafless but almost impervious screen for the + movements of small detachments of troops. Quite at the termination of the + open apace, these thickets becoming closely crowded, overhung another + extremely narrow passage, which formed the only outlet from the plain. + Thus the heath of Tiel, upon that winter's morning, had but a single + entrance and a single exit, each very dangerous or very fortunate for + those capable of taking or neglecting the advantages offered by the + position. + </p> + <p> + The whole force of Varax, at least five thousand strong, was advancing in + close marching order towards the narrow passage by which only they could + emerge from the heath. Should they reach this point in time, and thus + effect their escape, it would be useless to attempt to follow them, for, + as was the case with the first defile, it was not possible for two abreast + to go through, while beyond was a swampy-country in which military + operations were impossible. Yet there remained less than half a league's + space for the retreating soldiers to traverse, while not a single + foot-soldier Of Maurice's army had thus far made his appearance on the + heath. All were still wallowing and struggling, single file, in the marshy + entrance, through which only the cavalry had forced their way. Here was a + dilemma. Should Maurice look calmly on while the enemy, whom he had made + so painful a forced march to meet, moved off out of reach before his eyes? + Yet certainly this was no slight triumph in itself. There sat the + stadholder on his horse at the head of eight hundred carabineers, and + there marched four of Philip's best infantry regiments, garnished with + some of his most renowned cavalry squadrons, anxious not to seek but to + avoid a combat. First came the Germans of Count Sultz, the musketeers in + front, and the spearsmen, of which the bulk of this and of all the + regiments was composed, marching in closely serried squares, with the + company standards waving over each. Next, arranged in the same manner, + came the Walloon regiments of Hachicourt and of La Barlotte. Fourth and + last came the famous Neapolitans of Marquis Trevico. The cavalry squadrons + rode on the left of the infantry, and were commanded by Nicolas Basta, a + man who had been trampling upon the Netherlanders ever since the days of + Alva, with whom he had first come to the country. + </p> + <p> + And these were the legions—these very men or their immediate + predecessors—these Italians, Spaniards, Germans, and Walloons, who + during so many terrible years had stormed and sacked almost every city of + the Netherlands, and swept over the whole breadth of those little + provinces as with the besom of destruction. + </p> + <p> + Both infantry and cavalry, that picked little army of Varax was of the + very best that had shared in the devil's work which had been the chief + industry practised for so long in the obedient Netherlands. Was it not + madness for the stadholder, at the head of eight hundred horsemen, to + assail such an army as this? Was it not to invoke upon his head the swift + vengeance of Heaven? Nevertheless, the painstaking, cautious Maurice did + not hesitate. He ordered Hohenlo, with all the Brabantine cavalry, to ride + as rapidly as their horses could carry them along the edge of the plain, + and behind the tangled woodland, by which the movement would be concealed. + He was at all hazards to intercept the enemy's vanguard before it should + reach the fatal pass. Vere and Marcellus Bax meanwhile, supported now by + Edmont with the Nymegen squadrons, were to threaten the Spanish rear. A + company of two under Laurentz was kept by Maurice near his person in + reserve. + </p> + <p> + The Spaniards steadily continued their march, but as they became aware of + certain slight and indefinite movements on their left, their cavalry, + changing their position, were transferred from the right to the left of + the line of march, and now rode between the infantry and the belt of + woods. + </p> + <p> + In a few minutes after the orders given to Hohenlo, that dashing soldier + had circumvented the Spaniards, and emerged upon the plain between them + and the entrance to the defile, The next instant the trumpets sounded a + charge, and Hohenlo fell upon the foremost regiment, that of Sultz, while + the rearguard, consisting of Trevico's Neapolitan regiment, was assailed + by Du Bois, Donck, Rysoir, Marcellus Bax, and Sir Francis Vere. The effect + seemed almost supernatural. The Spanish cavalry—those far-famed + squadrons of Guzman and Basta—broke at the first onset and galloped + off for the pass as if they had been riding a race. Most of them escaped + through the hollow into the morass beyond. The musketeers of Sultz's + regiment hardly fired a shot, and fell back in confusion upon the thickly + clustered pikemen. The assailants, every one of them in complete armour, + on powerful horses, and armed not with lances but with carbines, trampled + over the panic-struck and struggling masses of leather jerkined pikemen + and shot them at arm's length. The charge upon Trevico's men at the same + moment was just as decisive. In less time than it took afterwards to + describe the scene, those renowned veterans were broken into a helpless + mass of dying, wounded, or fugitive creatures, incapable of striking a + blow. + </p> + <p> + Thus the Germans in the front and the Neapolitans in the rear had been + simultaneously shattered, and rolled together upon the two other + regiments, those of Hachicourt and La Barlotte, which were placed between + them. Nor did these troops offer any better resistance, but were paralysed + and hurled out of existence like the rest. In less than an hour the + Spanish army was demolished. Varax himself lay dead upon the field, too + fortunate not to survive his disgrace. It was hardly more than daylight on + that dull January morning; nine o'clock had scarce chimed from the old + brick steeples of Turnhout, yet two thousand Spaniards had fallen before + the blows of eight hundred Netherlanders, and there were five hundred + prisoners beside. Of Maurice's army not more than nine or ten were slain. + The story sounds like a wild legend. It was as if the arm of each + Netherlander had been nerved by the memory of fifty years of outrage, as + if the spectre of their half-century of crime had appalled the soul of + every Spaniard. Like a thunderbolt the son of William the Silent smote + that army of Philip, and in an instant it lay blasted on the heath of + Tiel. At least it could hardly be called sagacious generalship on the part + of the stadholder. The chances were all against him, and if instead of + Varax those legions had been commanded that morning by old Christopher + Mondragon, there might perhaps have been another tale to tell. Even as it + was, there had been a supreme moment when the Spanish disaster had nearly + been changed to victory. The fight was almost done, when a small party of + Staten' cavalry, who at the beginning of the action had followed the + enemy's horse in its sudden retreat through the gap, came whirling back + over the plain in wild confusion, pursued by about forty of the enemy's + lancers. They swept by the spot where Maurice, with not more than ten + horsemen around him, was directing and watching the battle, and in vain + the prince threw himself in front of them and strove to check their + flight. They were panic-struck, and Maurice would himself have been swept + off the field, had not Marcellus Bax and Edmont, with half a dozen heavy + troopers, come to the rescue. A grave error had been committed by Parker, + who, upon being ordered by Maurice to cause Louis Laurentz to charge, had + himself charged with the whole reserve and left the stadholder almost + alone upon the field. Thus the culprits—who after pursuing the + Spanish cavalry through the pass had been plundering the enemy's baggage + until they were set upon by the handful left to guard it, and had become + fugitives in their turn—might possibly have caused the lose of the + day after the victory had been won, had there been a man on the Spanish + side to take in the situation at a glance. But it is probable that the + rout had been too absolute to allow of any such sudden turning to account + of the serious errors of the victors. The cavalry, except this handful, + had long disappeared, at least half the infantry lay dead or wounded in + the field, while the remainder, throwing away pipe and matchlock, were + running helter-skelter for their lives. + </p> + <p> + Besides Prince Maurice himself, to whom the chief credit of the whole + expedition justly belonged, nearly all the commanders engaged obtained + great distinction by their skill and valour. Sir Francis Vere, as usual, + was ever foremost in the thickest of the fray, and had a horse killed + under him. Parker erred by too much readiness to engage, but bore himself + manfully throughout the battle. Hohenlo, Solma, Sidney, Louis Laurentz, Du + Bois, all displayed their usual prowess; but the real hero of the hour, + the personal embodiment of the fortunate madness which prompted and won + the battle, was undoubtedly Marcellus Bax. + </p> + <p> + Maurice remained an hour or two on the field of battle, and then, + returning towards the village of Turnhout, summoned its stronghold. The + garrison of sixty, under Captain Van der Delf, instantly surrendered. The + victor allowed these troops to go off scot free, saying that there had + been blood enough shed that day. Every standard borne by the Spaniards in + the battle-thirty-eight in number—was taken, besides nearly all + their arms. The banners were sent to the Hague to be hung up in the great + hall of the castle. The dead body of Varax was sent to the archduke with a + courteous letter, in which, however, a categorical explanation was + demanded as to a statement in circulation that Albert had decided to give + the soldiers of the republic no quarter. + </p> + <p> + No answer being immediately returned, Maurice ordered the five hundred + prisoners to be hanged or drowned unless ransomed within twenty days, and + this horrible decree appears from official documents to be consistent with + the military usages of the period. The arrival of the letter from the + cardinal-archduke, who levied the money for the ransom on the villagers of + Brabant, prevented, however, the execution of the menace, which could + hardly have been seriously intended. + </p> + <p> + Within a week from the time of his departure from the Hague to engage in + this daring adventure, the stadholder had returned to that little capital, + having achieved a complete success. The enthusiastic demonstrations + throughout the land on account of so signal a victory can easily be + imagined. Nothing like this had ever before been recorded in the archives + of the young commonwealth. There had been glorious defences of beleaguered + cities, where scenes of heroic endurance and self-sacrifice had been + enacted, such as never can be forgotten so long as the history of human + liberty shall endure, but a victory won in the open field over the most + famous legions of Spain and against overwhelming numbers, was an + achievement entirely without example. It is beyond all doubt that the + force under Varax was at least four times as large as that portion of the + States' army which alone was engaged; for Maurice had not a foot-soldier + on the field until the battle was over, save the handful of musketeers who + had followed Vere and Bax at the beginning of the action. + </p> + <p> + Therefore it is that this remarkable action merits a much more attentive + consideration than it might deserve, regarded purely as a military + exploit. To the military student a mere cavalry affair, fought out upon an + obscure Brabantine heath between a party of Dutch carabineers and Spanish + pikemen, may seem of little account—a subject fitted by picturesque + costume and animated action for the pencil of a Wouvermanns or a Terburg, + but conveying little instruction. As illustrating a period of transition + in which heavy armoured troopers—each one a human iron-clad fortress + moving at speed and furnished with the most formidable portable artillery + then known—could overcome the resistance of almost any number of + foot-soldiers in light marching gear and armed with the antiquated pike, + the affair may be worthy of a moment's attention; and for this improvement—itself + now as obsolete as the slings and cataphracts of Roman legions—the + world was indebted to Maurice. But the shock of mighty armies, the + manoeuvring of vast masses in one magnificent combination, by which the + fate of empires, the happiness or the misery of the peoples for + generations, may perhaps be decided in a few hours, undoubtedly require a + higher constructive genius than could be displayed in any such + hand-to-hand encounter as that of Turnhout, scientifically managed as it + unquestionably was. The true and abiding interest of the battle is derived + from is moral effect, from its influence on the people of the Netherlands. + And this could scarcely be exaggerated. The nation was electrified, + transformed in an instant. Who now should henceforth dare to say that one + Spanish fighting-man was equal to five or ten Hollanders? At last the days + of Jemmingen and Mooker-heath needed no longer to be remembered by every + patriot with a shudder of shame. Here at least in the open field a Spanish + army, after in vain refusing a combat and endeavouring to escape, had + literally bitten the dust before one fourth of its own number. And this + effect was a permanent one. Thenceforth for foreign powers to talk of + mediation between the republic and the ancient master, to suggest schemes + of reconciliation and of a return to obedience, was to offer gratuitous + and trivial insult, and we shall very soon have occasion to mark the + simple eloquence with which the thirty-eight Spanish standards of + Turnhout, hung up in the old hall of the Hague, were made to reply to the + pompous rhetoric of an interfering ambassador. + </p> + <p> + This brief episode was not immediately followed by other military events + of importance in the provinces during what remained of the winter. Very + early in the spring, however, it was probable that the campaign might open + simultaneously in France and on the frontiers of Flanders. Of all the + cities in the north of France there was none, after Rouen, so important, + so populous, so wealthy as Amiens. Situate in fertile fields, within three + days march of Paris, with no intervening forests or other impediments of a + physical nature to free communication, it was the key to the gates of the + capital. It had no garrison, for the population numbered fifteen thousand + men able to bear arms, and the inhabitants valued themselves on the + prowess of their trained militiamen, five thousand of whom they boasted to + be able to bring into the field at an hour's notice—and they were + perfectly loyal to Henry. + </p> + <p> + One morning in March there came a party of peasants, fifteen or twenty in + number, laden with sacks of chestnuts and walnuts, to the northernmost + gate of the town. They offered them for sale, as usual, to the soldiers at + the guard-house, and chaffered and jested—as boors and soldiers are + wont to do—over their wares. It so happened that in the course of + the bargaining one of the bags became untied, and its contents, much to + the dissatisfaction of the proprietor, were emptied on the ground. There + was a scramble for the walnuts, and much shouting, kicking, and squabbling + ensued, growing almost into a quarrel between the burgher-soldiers and the + peasants. As the altercation was at its height a heavy wagon, laden with + long planks, came towards the gate for the use of carpenters and + architects within the town. The portcullis was drawn up to admit this + lumbering vehicle, but in the confusion caused by the chance medley going + on at the guard-house, the gate dropped again before the wagon had fairly + got through the passage, and remained resting upon the timber with which + it was piled. + </p> + <p> + At that instant a shrill whistle was heard; and as if by magic the twenty + chestnut-selling peasants were suddenly transformed to Spanish and Walloon + soldiers armed to the teeth, who were presently reinforced by as many more + of their comrades, who sprang from beneath the plank-work by which the + real contents of the wagon had thus been screened. Captain Dognano, his + brother the sergeant-major, Captain d'Arco, and other officers of a + Walloon regiment stationed in Dourlans, were the leaders of the little + party, and while they were busily occupied in putting the soldiers of the + watch, thus taken unawares, to death, the master-spirit of the whole + adventure suddenly made his appearance and entered the city at the head of + fifteen hundred men. This was an extremely small, yellow, dried up, + energetic Spanish captain, with a long red beard, Hernan Tello de Porto + Carrero by came, governor of the neighbouring city of Dourlens, who had + conceived this plan for obtaining possession of Amiens. Having sent these + disguised soldiers on before him, he had passed the night with his men in + ambush until the signal should sound. The burghers of the town were mostly + in church; none were dreaming of an attack, as men rarely do—for + otherwise how should they ever be surprised—and in half an hour + Amiens was the property of Philip of Spain. There were not very many lives + lost, for the resistance was small, but great numbers were tortured for + ransom and few women escaped outrage. The sack was famous, for the city + was rich and the captors were few in number, so that each soldier had two + or three houses to plunder for his own profit. + </p> + <p> + When the work was done, the faubourgs were all destroyed, for it was the + intention of the conquerors to occupy the place, which would be a most + convenient basis of operations for any attack upon Paris, and it was + desirable to contract the limits to be defended. Fifteen hundred houses, + many of them beautiful villas surrounded with orchards and pleasure + gardens,—were soon in flames, and afterwards razed to the ground. + The governor of the place, Count St. Pol, managed to effect his escape. + His place was now supplied by the Marquis of Montenegro, an Italian in the + service of the Spanish king. Such was the fate of Amiens in the month of + March, 1597; such the result of the refusal by the citizens to accept the + garrison urged upon them by Henry. + </p> + <p> + It would be impossible to exaggerate the consternation produced. + throughout France by this astounding and altogether unlooked for event. + "It seemed," said President De Thou, "as if it had extinguished in a + moment the royal majesty and the French name." A few nights later than the + date of this occurrence, Maximilian de Bethune (afterwards Duke of Sully, + but then called Marquis de Rosny) was asleep in his bed in Paris. He had + returned, at past two o'clock in the morning, from a magnificent ball + given by the Constable of France. The capital had been uncommonly + brilliant during the winter with banquets and dances, tourneys and + masquerades, as if to cast a lurid glare over the unutterable misery of + the people and the complete desolation of the country; but this + entertainment—given by Montmorency in honour of a fair dame with + whom he supposed himself desperately in love, the young bride of a very + ancient courtier—surpassed in splendour every festival that had been + heard of for years. De Bethune had hardly lost himself in slumber when he + was startled by Beringen, who, on drawing his curtains in this dead hour + of the night, presented such a ghastly visage that the faithful friend of + Henry instantly imagined some personal disaster to his well-beloved + sovereign. "Is the King dead?" he cried. + </p> + <p> + Being re-assured as to, this point and told to hasten to the Louvre, Rosny + instantly complied with the command. When he reached the palace he was + admitted at once to the royal bed-chamber, where he found the king in the + most unsophisticated of costumes, striding up and down the room, with his + hands clasped together behind his head, and with an expression of agony + upon his face: Many courtiers were assembled there, stuck all of them like + images against the wall, staring before them in helpless perplexity. + </p> + <p> + Henry rushed forward as Rosny entered, and wringing him by the hand, + exclaimed, "Ah, my friend, what a misfortune, Amiens is taken!" + </p> + <p> + "Very well," replied the financier, with unperturbed visage; "I have just + completed a plan which will restore to your Majesty not only Amiens but + many other places." + </p> + <p> + The king drew a great sigh of relief and asked for his project. Rosny, + saying that he would instantly go and fetch his papers, left the apartment + for an interval, in order to give vent to the horrible agitation which he + had been enduring and so bravely concealing ever since the fatal words had + been spoken. That a city so important, the key to Paris, without a + moment's warning, without the semblance of a siege, should thus fall into + the hands of the enemy, was a blow as directly to the heart of De Bethune + as it could have been to any other of Henry's adherents. But while they + had been distracting the king by unavailing curses or wailings, Henry, who + had received the intelligence just as he was getting into bed, had sent + for support and consolation to the tried friend of years, and he now + reproachfully contrasted their pusillanimity with De Rosny's fortitude. + </p> + <p> + A great plan for reorganising the finances of the kingdom was that very + night submitted by Rosny to the king, and it was wrought upon day by day + thereafter until it was carried into effect. + </p> + <p> + It must be confessed that the crudities and immoralities which the project + revealed do not inspire the political student of modern days with so high + a conception of the financial genius of the great minister as his calm and + heroic deportment on trying occasions, whether on the battle-field or in + the council-chamber, does of his natural authority over his fellow-men. + The scheme was devised to put money in the king's coffers, which at that + moment were completely empty. Its chief features were to create a great + many new offices in the various courts of justice and tribunals of + administration, all to be disposed of by sale to the highest bidder; to + extort a considerable loan from the chief courtiers and from the richest + burghers in the principal towns; to compel all the leading peculators—whose + name in the public service was legion—to disgorge a portion of their + ill-gotten gains, on being released from prosecution; and to increase the + tax upon salt. + </p> + <p> + Such a project hardly seems a masterpiece of ethics or political economy, + but it was hailed with rapture by the needy monarch. At once there was a + wild excitement amongst the jobbers and speculators in places. The + creation of an indefinite number of new judgeships and magistracies, to be + disposed of at auction, was a tempting opportunity even in that age of + corruption. One of the most notorious traders in the judicial ermine, + limping Robin de Tours by name, at once made a private visit to Madame de + Rosny and offered seventy-two thousand crowns for the exclusive right to + distribute these new offices. If this could be managed to his + satisfaction, he promised to give her a diamond worth two thousand crowns, + and another, worth six thousand, to her husband. The wife of the great + minister, who did not comprehend the whole amount of the insult, presented + Robin to her husband. She was enlightened, however, as to the barefaced + iniquity of the offer, when she heard De Bethune's indignant. reply, and + saw the jobber limp away, crest-fallen and amazed. That a financier or a + magistrate should decline a bribe or interfere with the private sale of + places, which were after all objects of merchandise, was to him + incomprehensible. The industrious Robin, accordingly, recovering from his + discomfiture, went straightway to the chancellor, and concluded the same + bargain in the council chamber which had been rejected by De Bethune, with + the slight difference that the distribution of the places. was assigned to + the speculator for seventy-five thousand instead of seventy-two thousand + crowns. It was with great difficulty that De Bethune, who went at once to + the king with complaints and insinuations as to the cleanness of the + chancellor's hands, was able to cancel the operation. The day was fast + approaching when the universal impoverishment of the great nobles and + landholders—the result of the long, hideous, senseless massacres + called the wars of religion—was to open the way for the labouring + classes to acquire a property in the soil. Thus that famous fowl in every + pot was to make its appearance, which vulgar tradition ascribes to the + bounty of a king who hated everything like popular rights, and loved + nothing but his own glory and his own amusement. It was not until the days + of his grandchildren and great-grandchildren that Privilege could renew + those horrible outrages on the People, which were to be avenged by a dread + series of wars, massacres, and crimes, compared to which even the + religious conflicts of the sixteenth century grow pale. + </p> + <p> + Meantime De Bethune comforted his master with these financial plans, and + assured him in the spirit of prophecy that the King of Spain, now + tottering as it was thought to his grave, would soon be glad to make a + favourable peace with France even if he felt obliged to restore not only + Amiens but every other city or stronghold that he had ever conquered in + that kingdom. Time would soon show whether this prediction were correct or + delusive; but while the secret negotiations between Henry and the Pope + were vigorously proceeding for that peace with Spain which the world in + general and the commonwealth of the Netherlands in particular thought to + be farthest from the warlike king's wishes, it was necessary to set about + the siege of Amiens. + </p> + <p> + Henry assembled a force of some twelve or fifteen thousand men for that + purpose, while the cardinal-archduke, upon his part, did his best to put + an army in the field in order to relieve the threatened city so recently + acquired by a coarse but successful artifice. + </p> + <p> + But Albert was in even a worse plight than that in which his great + antagonist found himself. When he had first arrived in the provinces, his + exchequer was overflowing, and he was even supposed to devote a + considerable portion of the military funds to defray the expenses of his + magnificent housekeeping at Brussels. But those halcyon days were over. A + gigantic fraud, just perpetrated by Philip; had descended like a + thunderbolt upon the provinces and upon all commercial Europe, and had + utterly blasted the unfortunate viceroy. In the latter days of the + preceding year the king had issued a general repudiation of his debts. + </p> + <p> + He did it solemnly, too, and with great religious unction, for it was a + peculiarity of this remarkable sovereign that he was ever wont to + accomplish his darkest crimes, whether murders or stratagems, as if they + were acts of virtue. Perhaps he really believed them to be such, for a + man, before whom so many millions of his fellow worms had been writhing + for half a century in the dust, might well imagine himself a deity. + </p> + <p> + So the king, on the 20th November, 1596, had publicly revoked all the + assignments, mortgages, and other deeds by which the royal domains; + revenues, taxes, and other public property had been transferred or pledged + for moneys already advanced to merchants, banker, and other companies or + individuals, and formally took them again into his own possession, on the + ground that his exertions in carrying on this long war to save + Christianity from destruction had reduced him to beggary, while the + money-lenders, by charging him exorbitant interest, had all grown rich at + his expense. + </p> + <p> + This was perfectly simple. There was no attempt to disguise the villany of + the transaction. The massacre of so many millions of Protestants, the + gigantic but puerile attempts to subjugate the Dutch republic, and to + annex France, England, and the German empire to his hereditary dominions, + had been attended with more expense than Philip had calculated upon. The + enormous wealth which a long series of marriages, inheritances, conquests, + and maritime discoveries had heaped upon Spain had been exhausted by the + insane ambition of the king to exterminate heresy throughout the world, + and to make himself the sovereign of one undivided, universal, catholic + monarchy. All the gold and silver of America had not sufficed for this + purpose, and he had seen, with an ever rising indignation, those very + precious metals which, in his ignorance of the laws of trade, he + considered his exclusive property flowing speedily into the coffers of the + merchants of Europe, especially those of the hated commonwealth of the + rebellious Netherlands. + </p> + <p> + Therefore he solemnly renounced all his contracts, and took God to witness + that it was to serve His Divine will. How else could he hope to continue + his massacre of the Protestants? + </p> + <p> + The effect of the promulgation of this measure was instantaneous. Two + millions and a half of bills of exchange sold by the Cardinal Albert came + back in one day protested. The chief merchants and bankers of Europe + suspended payment. Their creditors became bankrupt. At the Frankfort fair + there were more failures in one day than there had ever been in all the + years since Frankfort existed. In Genoa alone a million dollars of + interest were confiscated. It was no better in Antwerp; but Antwerp was + already ruined. There was a general howl of indignation and despair upon + every exchange, in every counting-room, in every palace, in every cottage + of Christendom. Such a tremendous repudiation of national debts was never + heard of before. There had been debasements of the currency, petty frauds + by kings upon their unfortunate peoples, but such a crime as this had + never been conceived by human heart before. + </p> + <p> + The archduke was fain to pawn his jewelry, his plate, his furniture, to + support the daily expenses of his household. Meantime he was to set an + army in the field to relieve a city, beleaguered by the most warlike + monarch in Christendom. Fortunately for him, that prince was in very + similar straits, for the pressure upon the public swindlers and the + auction sales of judicial ermine throughout his kingdom were not as + rapidly productive as had been hoped. + </p> + <p> + It was precisely at this moment, too, that an incident of another nature + occurred in Antwerp, which did not tend to make the believers in the + possibility of religious or political freedom more in love with the system + of Spain and Rome. Those blood-dripping edicts against heresy in the + Netherlands, of which enough has been said in previous volumes of this + history, and which had caused the deaths, by axe, faggot, halter, or + burial alive, of at least fifty thousand human creatures—however + historical scepticism may shut its eyes to evidence—had now been, + dormant for twenty years. Their activity had ceased with the pacification + of Ghent; but the devilish spirit which had inspired them still lived in + the persons of the Jesuits, and there were now more Jesuits in the + obedient provinces than there had been for years. We have seen that + Champagny's remedy for the ills the country was enduring was "more + Jesuits." And this, too, was Albert's recipe. Always "more Jesuits." And + now the time had come when the Jesuits thought that they might step openly + with their works into the daylight again. Of late years they had shrouded + themselves in comparative mystery, but from their seminaries and colleges + had gone forth a plentiful company of assassins against Elizabeth and + Henry, Nassau, Barneveld, and others who, whether avowedly or + involuntarily, were prominent in the party of human progress. Some + important murders had already been accomplished, and the prospect was fair + that still others might follow, if the Jesuits persevered. Meantime those + ecclesiastics thought that a wholesome example might be by the spectacle + of a public execution. + </p> + <p> + Two maiden ladies lived on the north rampart of Antwerp. They had formerly + professed the Protestant religion, and had been thrown into prison for + that crime; but the fear of further persecution, human weakness, or + perhaps sincere conviction, had caused them to renounce the error of their + ways, and they now went to mass. But they had a maidservant, forty years + of age, Anna van den Hove by name, who was staunch in that reformed faith + in which she had been born and bred. The Jesuits denounced this + maid-servant to the civil authority, and claimed her condemnation and + execution under the edicts of 1540, decrees which every one had supposed + as obsolete as the statutes of Draco, which they had so entirely put to + shame. + </p> + <p> + The sentence having been obtained from the docile and priest-ridden + magistrates, Anna van den Hove was brought to Brussels and informed that + she was at once to be buried alive. At the same time, the Jesuits told her + that by converting herself to the Church she might escape punishment. + </p> + <p> + When King Henry IV. was summoned to renounce that same Huguenot faith, of + which he was the political embodiment and the military champion, the + candid man answered by the simple demand to be instructed. When the proper + moment came, the instruction was accomplished by an archbishop with the + rapidity of magic. Half an hour undid the work of half a life-time. Thus + expeditiously could religious conversion be effected when an earthly crown + was its guerdon. The poor serving-maid was less open to conviction. In her + simple fanaticism she too talked of a crown, and saw it descending from + Heaven on her poor forlorn head as the reward, not of apostasy, but of + steadfastness. She asked her tormentors how they could expect her to + abandon her religion for fear of death. She had read her Bible every day, + she said, and had found nothing there of the pope or purgatory, masses, + invocation of saints, or the absolution of sins except through the blood + of the blessed Redeemer. She interfered with no one who thought + differently; she quarrelled with no one's religious belief. She had prayed + for enlightenment from Him, if she were in error, and the result was that + she felt strengthened in her simplicity, and resolved to do nothing + against her conscience. Rather than add this sin to the manifold ones + committed by her, she preferred, she said, to die the death. So Anna van + den Hove was led, one fine midsummer morning, to the hayfield outside of + Brussels, between two Jesuits, followed by a number of a peculiar kind of + monks called love-brothers. Those holy men goaded her as she went, telling + her that she was the devil's carrion, and calling on her to repent at the + last moment, and thus save her life and escape eternal damnation beside. + But the poor soul had no ear for them, and cried out that, like Stephen, + she saw the heavens opening, and the angels stooping down to conduct her + far away from the power of the evil one. When they came to the hay-field + they found the pit already dug, and the maid-servant was ordered to + descend into it. The executioner then covered her with earth up to the + waist, and a last summons was made to her to renounce her errors. She + refused, and then the earth was piled upon her, and the hangman jumped + upon the grave till it was flattened and firm. + </p> + <p> + Of all the religious murders done in that hideous sixteenth century in the + Netherlands; the burial of the Antwerp servantmaid was the last and the + worst. The worst, because it was a cynical and deliberate attempt to + revive the demon whose thirst for blood had been at last allayed, and who + had sunk into repose. And it was a spasmodic revival only, for, in the + provinces at least, that demon had finished his work. + </p> + <p> + Still, on the eastern borders of what was called civilization, Turk and + Christian were contending for the mastery. The great battle of Koveso had + decided nothing, and the crescent still shone over the fortified and most + important Hungarian stronghold of Raab, within arm's length of Vienna. How + rapidly might that fatal and menacing emblem fill its horns, should it + once be planted on the walls of the Imperial capital! It was not wonderful + that a sincere impatience should be felt by all the frontier States for + the termination of the insurrection of the Netherlands. Would that + rebellious and heretical republic only consent to go out of existence, + again bow its stubborn knee to Philip and the Pope, what a magnificent + campaign might be made against Mahomet! The King of Spain was the only + potentate at all comparable in power to the grand Turk. The King of + France, most warlike of men, desired nothing better, as he avowed, than to + lead his brave nobles into Hungary to smite the unbelievers. Even Prince + Maurice, it was fondly hoped, might be induced to accept a high command in + the united armies of Christendom, and seek for glory by campaigning, in + alliance with Philip; Rudolph, and Henry, against the Ottoman, rather than + against his natural sovereign. Such were the sagacity, the insight, the + power of forecasting the future possessed in those days by monarchs, + statesmen, and diplomatists who were imagining that they held the world's + destiny in their hands. + </p> + <p> + There was this summer a solemn embassy from the emperor to the + States-General proposing mediation referring in the usual conventional + phraseology to the right of kings to command, and to the duty of the + people to submit, and urging the gentle-mindedness and readiness to + forgive which characterised the sovereign of the Netherlands and of Spain. + </p> + <p> + And the statesmen of the republic had answered as they always did, showing + with courteous language, irresistible logic, and at, unmerciful length, + that there never had been kings in the Netherlands at all, and that the + gentle-mindedness of Philip had been exhibited in the massacre of a + hundred thousand Netherlanders in various sieges and battles, and in the + murder, under the Duke of Alva alone, of twenty thousand human beings by + the hangman. + </p> + <p> + They liked not such divine right nor such gentle-mindedness. They + recognised no duty on their part to consent to such a system. Even the + friendly King of Denmark sent a legation for a similar purpose, which was + respectfully but very decidedly allowed to return as it came; but the most + persistent in schemes of interference for the purpose of putting an end to + the effusion of blood in the Netherlands was Sigismund of Poland. This + monarch, who occupied two very incompatible positions, being sovereign at + once of fanatically Protestant Sweden and of orthodox Poland, and who was, + moreover, son-in-law of Archduke Charles of Styria whose other daughter + was soon to be espoused by the Prince of Spain—was personally and + geographically interested in liberating Philip from the inconvenience of + his Netherland war. Only thus could he hope to bring the Spanish power to + the rescue of Christendom against the Turk. Troubles enough were in store + for Sigismund in his hereditary northern realms, and he was to learn that + his intermarriage with the great Catholic and Imperial house did not + enable him to trample out Protestantism in those hardy Scandinavian and + Flemish regions where it had taken secure root. Meantime he despatched, in + solemn mission to the republic and to the heretic queen, a diplomatist + whose name and whose oratorical efforts have by a caprice of history been + allowed to endure to our times. + </p> + <p> + Paul Dialyn was solemnly received at the Hague on the 21st July. A + pragmatical fop, attired in a long, magnificent Polish robe, covered with + diamonds and other jewels, he was yet recognised by some of those present + as having been several years before a student at Leyden under a different + name, and with far less gorgeous surroundings. He took up his position in + the council-chamber, in the presence of the stadholder and the leading + members of the States-General, and pronounced a long Latin oration, in the + manner, as it was said, of a monk delivering a sermon from the pulpit. He + kept his eyes steadily fixed on the ceiling, never once looking at the men + whom he was addressing, and speaking in a loud, nasal, dictatorial tone, + not at all agreeable to the audience. He dwelt in terms of extravagant + eulogy on the benignity and gentleness of the King of Spain—qualities + in which he asserted that no prince on earth could be compared to him—and + he said this to the very face of Maurice of Nassau. That the benignant and + gentle king had caused the stadholder's father to be assassinated, and + that he had rewarded the murderer's family with a patent of nobility, and + with an ample revenue taken from the murdered man's property, appeared of + no account to the envoy in the full sweep of his rhetoric. Yet the + reminiscence caused a shudder of disgust in all who heard him. + </p> + <p> + He then stated the wish of his master the Polish king to be that, in + regard to the Turk, the provinces might reconcile themselves to their + natural master, who was the most powerful monarch in Christendom, and the + only one able to make head against the common foe. They were solemnly + warned of the enormous power and resources of the great king, with whom it + was hopeless for them to protract a struggle sure to end at last in their + uttermost destruction. It was for kings to issue commands; he said, and + for the people to obey; but Philip was full of sweetness, and would accord + them full forgiveness for their manifold sins against him. The wish to + come to the rescue of Christendom, in this extreme peril from the Turk, + was with him paramount to all other considerations. + </p> + <p> + Such; in brief, was the substance of the long Latin harangue by which it + was thought possible to induce those sturdy republicans and Calvinists to + renounce their vigorous national existence and to fall on their knees + before the most Catholic king. This was understood to be mediation, + statesmanship, diplomacy, in deference to which the world was to pause and + the course of events to flow backwards. Truly, despots and their lackeys + were destined to learn some rude lessons from that vigorous little + commonwealth in the North Sea, before it should have accomplished its + mission on earth. + </p> + <p> + The States-General dissembled their disgust, however, for it was not + desirable to make open enemies of Sigismund or Rudolph. They refused to + accept a copy of the oration, but they promised to send him a categorical + answer to it in writing. Meantime the envoy had the honour of walking + about the castle with the stadholder, and, in the course of their + promenade, Maurice pointed to the thirty-eight standards taken at the + battle of Turnhout, which hung from the cedarn rafters of the ancient + banquetting hall. The mute eloquence of those tattered banners seemed a + not illogical reply to the diplomatic Paul's rhetoric in regard to the + hopelessness of a contest with Spanish armies. + </p> + <p> + Next, Van der Werken—pensionary of Leyden, and a classical scholar—waited + upon the envoy with a Latin reply to his harangue, together with a + courteous letter for Sigismund. Both documents were scathing denunciations + of the policy pursued by the King of Spain and by all his aiders and + abettors, and a distinct but polished refusal to listen to a single word + in favour of mediation or of peace. + </p> + <p> + Paul Dialyn then received a courteous permission to leave the territory of + the republic, and was subsequently forwarded in a States' vessel of war to + England. + </p> + <p> + His reception, about a month later, by Queen Elizabeth is an event on + which all English historians are fond of dwelling. The pedant, on being + presented to that imperious and accomplished sovereign, deported himself + with the same ludicrous arrogance which had characterised him at the + Hague. His Latin oration, which had been duly drawn up for him by the + Chancellor of Sweden, was quite as impertinent as his harangue to the + States-General had been, and was delivered with the same conceited air. + The queen replied on the instant in the same tongue. She was somewhat in a + passion, but spoke with majestic moderation? + </p> + <p> + "Oh, how I have been deceived!" she exclaimed. "I expected an ambassador, + and behold a herald! In all my life I never heard of such an oration. Your + boldness and unadvised temerity I cannot sufficiently admire. But if the + king your master has given you any such thing in charge—which I much + doubt—I believe it is because, being but a young man, and lately + advanced to the crown, not by ordinary succession of blood, but by + election, he understandeth not yet the way of such affairs." And so on—for + several minutes longer. + </p> + <p> + Never did envoy receive such a setting down from sovereign. + </p> + <p> + "God's death, my lords!" said the queen to her ministers; as she + concluded, "I have been enforced this day to scour up my old Latin that + hath lain long in rusting." + </p> + <p> + This combination of ready wit, high spirit, and good Latin, justly excited + the enthusiasm of the queen's subjects, and endeared her still more to + every English heart. It may, however, be doubted whether the famous reply + was in reality so entirely extemporaneous as it has usually been + considered. The States-General had lost no time in forwarding to England a + minute account of the proceedings of Paul Dialyn at the Hague, together + with a sketch of his harangue and of the reply on behalf of the States. + Her Majesty and her counsellors therefore, knowing that the same envoy was + on his way to England with a similar errand, may be supposed to have had + leisure to prepare the famous impromptu. Moreover, it is difficult to + understand, on the presumption that these classic utterances were purely + extemporaneous, how they have kept their place in all chronicles and + histories from that day to the present, without change of a word in the + text. Surely there was no stenographer present to take down the queen's + words as they fell from her lips. + </p> + <p> + The military events of the year did not testify to a much more successful + activity on the part of the new league in the field than it had displayed + in the sphere of diplomacy. In vain did the envoy of the republic urge + Henry and his counsellors to follow up the crushing blow dealt to the + cardinal at Turnhout by vigorous operations in conjunction with the + States' forces in Artois and Hainault. For Amiens had meantime been taken, + and it was now necessary for the king to employ all his energy and all his + resources to recover that important city. So much damage to the cause of + the republic and of the new league had the little yellow Spanish captain + inflicted in an hour, with his bags of chestnuts and walnuts. The siege of + Amiens lasted nearly six months, and was the main event of the campaign, + so far as Henry was concerned. It is true—as the reader has already + seen, and as will soon be more clearly developed—that Henry's heart + had been fixed on peace from the moment that he consented in conjunction + with the republic to declare war, and that he had entered into secret and + separate negotiations for that purpose with the agents of Philip so soon + as he had bound himself by solemn covenant with Elizabeth to have no + negotiations whatever with him except with her full knowledge and consent. + </p> + <p> + The siege of Amiens, however, was considered a military masterpiece, and + its whole progress showed the revolution which the stadholder of Holland + had already effected in European warfare. Henry IV. beleaguered Amiens as + if he were a pupil of Maurice, and contemporaries were enthusiastic over + the science, the patience, the inventive ingenuity which were at last + crowned with success. The heroic Hernan Tello de Porto Carrero was killed + in a sortie during the defence of the place which he had so gallantly won, + and when the city was surrendered to the king on the 19th of September it + was stipulated in the first article of the capitulation that the tomb, + epitaph, and trophies, by which his memory was honoured in the principal + church, should not be disturbed, and that his body might be removed + whenever and whither it seemed good to his sovereign. In vain the cardinal + had taken the field with an army of eighteen thousand foot and fifteen + hundred light cavalry. The king had learned so well to entrench himself + and to moderate his ardour for inopportune pitched battles, that the + relieving force could find, no occasion to effect its purpose. The + archduke retired. He came to Amiens like a soldier, said Henry, but he + went back like a priest. Moreover, he was obliged to renounce, besides the + city, a most tempting prize which he thought that he had secured within + the city. Alexander Farnese, in his last French campaign, had procured and + sent to his uncle the foot of St. Philip and the head of St. Lawrence; but + what was Albert's delight when he learned that in Amiens cathedral there + was a large piece of the head of John the Baptist! "There will be a great + scandal about it in this kingdom," he wrote to Philip, "if I undertake to + transport it out of the country, but I will try to contrive it as your + Majesty desires." + </p> + <p> + But the military events of the year prevented the cardinal from gratifying + the king in regard to these choice curiosities. + </p> + <p> + After the reduction of the city Henry went a considerable distance with + his army towards the frontier of Flanders, in order to return, as he said, + "his cousin's visit." But the recovery of Amiens had placed too winning a + card in the secret game which he was then playing to allow him to push his + nominal adversary to extremities. + </p> + <p> + The result, suspected very early in the year by the statesmen of the + republic, was already very plainly foreshadowing itself as the winter + advanced. + </p> + <p> + Nor had the other two members of the league affected much in the field. + Again an expedition had been fitted forth under Essex against the Spanish + coast to return the compliment which Philip had intended with the unlucky + armada under Santa Gadea; and again Sir Francis Vere, with two thousand + veterans from the Netherlands, and the Dutch admirals, with ten ships of + war and a large number of tenders and transports, had faithfully taken + part in the adventure. + </p> + <p> + The fleet was tempest-tossed for ten days, during which it reached the + threatened coast and was blown off again. It returned at last into the + English ports, having accomplished nothing, and having expended + superfluously a considerable amount of money and trouble. Essex, with a + few of the vessels, subsequently made a cruise towards the Azores, but, + beyond the capture of a Spanish merchantman or two, gained no glory and + inflicted no damage. + </p> + <p> + Nothing could be feebler than the military operations of the three + confederated powers ever since they had so solemnly confederated + themselves. + </p> + <p> + Sick at heart with the political intrigues of his allies which had—brought + a paralysis upon his arms which the blows of the enemy could hardly have + effected, Maurice took the field in August: for an autumnal campaign on + the eastern frontier of the republic. Foiled in his efforts for a combined + attack by the whole force of the league upon Philip's power in the west, + he thought it at least expedient to liberate the Rhine, to secure the + important provinces of Zutphen, Gelderland, and Overyssel from attack, and + to provide against the dangerous intrigues and concealed warfare carried + on by Spain in the territories of the mad Duke of Juliers, Clever and + Berg. For the seeds of the Thirty Years' War of Germany were already sown + broadcast in those fatal duchies, and it was the determination of the + agents of Spain to acquire the mastery of that most eligible military + position, that excellent 'sedes belli,' whenever Protestantism was to be + assailed in England, the Netherlands, or Germany. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the Hispaniolated counsellors of Duke John had strangled—as + it was strongly suspected—his duchess, who having gone to bed in + perfect health one evening was found dead in her bed next morning, with an + ugly mark on her throat; and it was now the purpose of these statesmen to + find a new bride for their insane sovereign in the ever ready and ever + orthodox house of Lorrain. And the Protestant brothers-in-law and nephews + and nieces were making every possible combination in order to check such + dark designs, and to save these important territories from the ubiquitous + power of Spain. + </p> + <p> + The stadholder had also family troubles at this period. His sister Emilia + had conceived a desperate passion for Don Emmanuel, the pauper son of the + forlorn pretender to Portugal, Don Antonio, who had at last departed this + life. Maurice was indignant that a Catholic, an outcast, and, as it was + supposed, a bastard, should dare to mate with the daughter of William of + Orange-Nassau; and there were many scenes of tenderness, reproaches, + recriminations, and 'hysterica passio,' in which not only the lovers, the + stadholder and his family, but also the high and mighty States-General, + were obliged to enact their parts. The chronicles are filled with the + incidents, which, however, never turned to tragedy, nor even to romance, + but ended, without a catastrophe, in a rather insipid marriage. The + Princess Emilia remained true both to her religion and her husband during + a somewhat obscure wedded life, and after her death Don Emmanuel found + means to reconcile himself with the King of Spain and to espouse, in + second nuptials, a Spanish lady. On the 4th of August, Maurice arrived at + Arnhem with a force of seven thousand foot and twelve hundred horse. + Hohenlo was with him, and William Lewis, and there was yet another of the + illustrious house of Nassau in the camp, Frederick Henry, a boy in his + thirteenth year, the youngest born of William the Silent, the grandson of + Admiral de Coligny, now about; in this his first campaign, to take the + first step in a long and noble career. + </p> + <p> + Having reduced the town and castle of Alphen, the stadholder came before + Rheinberg, which he very expeditiously invested. During a preliminary + skirmish William Lewis received a wound in the leg, while during the brief + siege Maurice had a narrow escape from death, a cannon-ball passing + through his tent and over his head as he lay taking a brief repose upon + his couch. + </p> + <p> + On the 19th, Rheinberg, the key to that portion of the river, surrendered. + On the 31st the stadholder opened his batteries upon the city of Meurs, + which capitulated on the 2nd of September; the commandant, Andrew Miranda, + stipulating that he should carry off an old fifty-pounder, the only piece + of cannon in the place. Maurice gave his permission with a laugh, begging + Miranda not to batter down any cities with his big gun. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th September the stadholdet threw a bridge over the Rhine, and + crossing that river and the Lippe, came on the 11th before Grol. There was + no Christopher Mondragon now in his path to check his progress and spoil + his campaign, so that in seventeen days the city, being completely + surrounded with galleries and covered ways up to its walls, surrendered. + Count van Stirum, royal governor of the place, dined with the stadholder + on that day, and the garrison, from twelve hundred to fifteen hundred + strong; together with such of the townsfolk as chose to be subjects of + Philip rather than citizens of the republic, were permitted to depart in + peace. + </p> + <p> + On the 9th October the town and castle of Brevoort were taken by storm and + the town was burned. + </p> + <p> + On the 18th October, Maurice having summoned Enschede, the commandant + requested permission to examine the artillery by which it was proposed to + reduce the city. Leave being granted, two captains were deputed + accordingly as inspectors, who reported that resistance was useless. The + place accordingly capitulated at once. + </p> + <p> + Here, again, was an improvement on the heroic practice of Alva and Romero. + </p> + <p> + On the 21st and 22nd October, Ootmarsum and Oldenzaal were taken, and on + the 28th the little army came before Lingen. This important city + surrendered after a fortnight's siege. + </p> + <p> + Thus closed a sagacious, business-like, three-months' campaign, in the + course of which the stadholder, although with a slender force, had by + means of his excellent organization and his profound practical science, + achieved very considerable results. He had taken nine strongly-fortified + cities and five castles, opened the navigation of the Rhine, and + strengthened the whole eastern bulwarks of the republic. He was censured + by the superficial critics of the old school for his humanity towards the + conquered garrisons. At least it was thought quite superfluous to let + these Spanish soldiers go scot free. Five thousand veterans had thus been + liberated to swell the ranks of the cardinal's army, but the result soon + proved the policy of Maurice to be, in many ways, wholesome. The great + repudiation by Philip, and the consequent bankruptcy of Alberta converted + large numbers of the royal troops into mutineers, and these garrisons from + the eastern frontier were glad to join in the game. + </p> + <p> + After the successful siege of Hulst in the previous year the cardinal had + reduced the formidable mutiny which had organized itself at Tirlemont and + Chapelle in the days of his luckless predecessor. Those rebels had been + paid off and had mainly returned to Italy and other lands to spend their + money. But soon a new rebellion in all the customary form's established + itself in Antwerp citadel during the temporary absence of Mexia, the + governor, and great was the misery of the unhappy burghers thus placed at + the mercy of the guns of that famous pentagon. They were obliged to + furnish large sums to the whole garrison, paying every common foot-soldier + twelve stivers a day and the officers in proportion, while the great + Eletto demanded, beside his salary, a coach and six, a state bed with + satin curtains and fine linen, and the materials for banquetting + sumptuously every day. At the slightest demur to these demands the + bombardment from the citadel would begin, and the accurate artillery + practice of those experienced cannoneers soon convinced the loyal citizens + of the propriety of the arrangement. The example spread. The garrison of + Ghent broke into open revolt, and a general military rebellion lasted for + more than a year. + </p> + <p> + While the loyal cities of the obedient provinces were thus enjoying the + fruits of their loyalty and obedience, the rebellious capital of the + republic was receiving its stadholder with exuberant demonstrations of + gratitude. The year, begun with the signal victory of Turnhout, had + worthily terminated, so far as military events were concerned, with the + autumnal campaign on the Rhine, and great were the rejoicings throughout + the little commonwealth. + </p> + <p> + Thus, with diminished resources, had the republic been doing its share of + the work which the anti-Spanish league had been called into existence to + accomplish. But, as already intimated, this league was a mere fraud upon + the Netherlands, which their statesmen were not slow in discovering. Of + course it was the object of Philip and of the pope to destroy this + formidable triple alliance as soon as formed, and they found potent + assistance, not only in Henry's counsellors, but in the bosom of that + crafty monarch himself. Clement hated Philip as much as he feared him, so + that the prospect both of obtaining Henry as a counterpoise to his own + most oppressive and most Catholic protector, and of breaking up the great + convert's alliance with the heretic queen and the rebellious republic, was + a most tempting one to his Holiness. Therefore he employed, indefatigably, + the matchless powers of intrigue possessed by Rome to effect this great + purpose. As for Elizabeth, she was weary of the war, most anxious to be + reimbursed her advances to the States, and profoundly jealous of the + rising commercial and naval greatness of the new commonwealth. If the + league therefore proved impotent from the beginning, certainly it was not + the fault of the United Netherlands. We have seen how much the king + deplored, in intimate conversation with De Bethune, his formal declaration + of war against Spain which the Dutch diplomatists had induced him to make; + and indeed nothing can be more certain than that this public declaration + of war, and this solemn formation of the triple alliance against Philip, + were instantly accompanied on Henry's part by secret peace negotiations + with Philip's agents. Villeroy, told Envoy Calvaert that as for himself he + always trembled when he thought on what he had done, in seconding the will + of his Majesty in that declaration at the instance of the States-General, + of which measure so many losses and such bitter fruits had been the + result. He complained, too, of the little assistance or co-operation + yielded by England. Calvaert replied that he had nothing to say in defence + of England, but that certainly the king could have no cause to censure the + States. The republic, however, had good ground, he said, to complain that + nothing had been done by France, that all favourable occasions had been + neglected, and that there was a perpetual change of counsels. The envoy, + especially, and justly, reproached the royal government for having taken + no advantage of the opportunity offered by the victory of Turnhout, in + which the republic had utterly defeated the principal forces of the common + enemy. He bluntly remarked, too, that the mysterious comings and goings of + Balvena had naturally excited suspicions in the Netherlands, and that it + would be better that all such practices should be at once abandoned. They + did his Majesty no service, and it was no wonder that they caused + uneasiness to his allies. Villeroy replied that the king had good reasons + to give satisfaction to those who were yearning for peace. + </p> + <p> + As Henry himself was yearning in this regard as much as any of his + subjects, it was natural enough that he should listen to Balvena and all + other informal negotiators whom Cardinal Ilbert might send from Brussels + or Clement from Rome. It will be recollected that Henry's parting words to + Balvena at Rouen had been: "Tell the archduke that I am very much his + friend. Let him arrange a peace. Begone. Be diligent." + </p> + <p> + But the king's reply to Calvaert, when, after the interview with Villeroy, + that envoy was admitted to the royal dressing room for private + conversation and took the occasion to remonstrate with his Majesty on + these intrigues with the Spanish agent, was that he should send off + Balvena in such fashion that it would take from the cardinal-archduke all + hope of troubling him with any further propositions. + </p> + <p> + It has been seen, too, with what an outbreak of wrath the proposition, + made by Elizabeth through Robert Sydney, that she should succour Calais on + condition of keeping it for herself, had been received by Henry. At a + somewhat later moment, when Calais had passed entirely into the possession + of Spain, the queen offered to lay siege to that city with twelve thousand + men, but with the understanding that the success was to be entirely for + her own profit. Again the king bad expressed great astonishment and + indignation at the proposition. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, after Amiens had been lost, Henry had sent Fonquerolles on a + special mission to England, asking Elizabeth's assistance in the siege for + its recovery, and offering that she should keep Calais as a pledge for + expenses thus incurred, on the same terms as those on which she held the + Brill and Flushing in the Netherlands. This proposal, however, to make a + considerable campaign in Picardy, and to be indemnified by Henry for her + trouble with the pledge of a city which was not his property, did not seem + tempting to Elizabeth: The mission of Fonquerolles was fruitless, as might + have been supposed. Nothing certainly in the queen's attitude, up to that + moment, could induce the supposition that she would help to reduce Amiens + for the sake of the privilege of conquering Calais if she could. + </p> + <p> + So soon as her refusal was made certain, Henry dropped the mask. Buzanval, + the regular French envoy at the Hague—even while amazing the States + by rebukes for their short-comings in the field and by demands for + immediate co-operation in the king's campaign, when the king was doing + nothing but besiege Amiens—astonished the republican statesmen still + further by telling them—that his master was listening seriously to + the pope's secret offers. + </p> + <p> + His Holiness had assured the king, through the legate at Paris, that he + could easily bring about a peace between him and Philip, if Henry would + agree to make it alone, and he would so manage it that the king's name + should not be mixed up with the negotiations, and that he should not + appear as seeking for peace. It was to be considered however—so + Henry's envoy intimated both at Greenwich and the Hague—that if the + king should accept the pope's intervention he would be obliged to exclude + from a share in it the queen and all others not of the Catholic religion, + and it was feared that the same necessity which had compelled him to + listen to these overtures would force him still further in the same path. + He dreaded lest, between peace and war, he might fall into a position in + which the law would be dictated to him either by the enemy or by those who + had undertaken to help him out of danger. + </p> + <p> + Much more information to this effect did Buzanval communicate to the + States on the authority of a private letter from the king, telling him of + the ill-success of the mission of Fonquerolles. That diplomatist had + brought back nothing from England, it appeared, save excuses, general + phrases, and many references to the troubles in Ireland and to the danger + of a new Spanish Armada. + </p> + <p> + It was now for the first time, moreover, that the States learned how they + had been duped both by England and France in the matter of the League. To + their surprise they were informed that while they were themselves + furnishing four thousand men, according to the contract signed by the + three powers, the queen had in reality only agreed to contribute two + thousand soldiers, and these only for four months' service, within a very + strict territorial limit, and under promise of immediate reimbursement of + the expenses thus incurred. + </p> + <p> + These facts, together with the avowal that their magnanimous ally had all + along been secretly treating for peace with the common enemy, did not make + a cheerful impression upon those plain-spoken republicans, nor was it much + consolation to them to receive the assurance that "after the king's death + his affection and gratitude towards the States would be found deeply + engraved upon his heart." + </p> + <p> + The result of such a future autopsy might seem a matter of comparative + indifference, since meantime the present effect to the republic of those + deep emotions was a treacherous desertion. Calvaert, too, who had so long + haunted the king like his perpetual shadow, and who had believed him—at + least so far as the Netherlands were concerned—to be almost without + guile, had been destined after all to a rude awakening. Sick and + suffering, he did not cease, so long as life was in him, to warn the + States-General of the dangers impending over them from the secret + negotiations which their royal ally was doing his best to conceal from + them, and as to which he had for a time succeeded so dexterously in + hoodwinking their envoy himself. But the honest and energetic agent of the + republic did not live to see the consummation of these manoeuvres of Henry + and the pope. He died in Paris during the month of June of this year. + </p> + <p> + Certainly the efforts of Spanish and Papal diplomacy had not been + unsuccessful in bringing about a dissolution of the bonds of amity by + which the three powers seemed so lately to be drawing themselves very + closely together. The republic and Henry IV. were now on a most + uncomfortable footing towards each other. On the other hand, the queen was + in a very ill humour with the States and very angry with Henry. Especially + the persistent manner in which the Hollanders carried on trade with Spain + and were at the same time making fortunes for themselves and feeding the + enemy, while Englishmen, on pain of death, were debarred from + participation in such traffic, excited great and general indignation in + England. In vain was it represented that this trade, if prohibited to the + commonwealth would fall into the hands of neutral powers, and that Spain + would derive her supplies from the Baltic and other regions as regularly + as ever, while the republic, whose whole life was in her foreign commerce, + would not only become incapable of carrying on the war but would perish of + inanition. The English statesmen threatened to declare all such trade + contraband, and vessels engaging in it lawful prize to English cruisers. + </p> + <p> + Burghley declared, with much excitement, to Canon, that he, as well as all + the council, considered the conduct of the Hollanders so unjustifiable as + to make them regret that their princess had ever embarked with a State + which chose to aid its own enemies in the destruction of itself and its + allies. Such conduct was so monstrous that those who were told of it would + hardly believe it. + </p> + <p> + The Dutch envoy observed that there were thirty thousand sailors engaged + in this trade, and he asked the Lord Treasurer whether he proposed that + these people should all starve or be driven into the service of the enemy. + Burghley rejoined that the Hollanders had the whole world beside to pursue + their traffic in, that they did indeed trade over the whole world, and had + thereby become so extraordinarily, monstrously rich that there was no + believing it. + </p> + <p> + Caron declared his sincere wish that this was true, but said, on the + contrary, that he knew too well what extreme trouble and labour the + States-General had in providing for the expenses of the war and in + extracting the necessary funds from the various communities. This would + hardly be the case were such great wealth in the land as was imagined. But + still the English counsellors protested that they would stop this trading + with the enemy at every hazard. + </p> + <p> + On the question of peace or war itself the republican diplomatists were + often baffled as to the true intentions of the English Government. "As the + queen is fine and false," said Marquis Havre, observing and aiding in the + various intrigues which were weaving at Brussels, "and her council much + the same, she is practising towards the Hollanders a double stratagem. On + the one hand she induces them to incline to a general peace. On the other, + her adherents, ten or twelve in number of those who govern Holland and + have credit with the people, insist that the true. interest of the State + is in a continuation of the war." + </p> + <p> + But Havre, adept in diplomatic chicane as he undoubtedly was, would have + found it difficult to find any man of intelligence or influence in that + rebellious commonwealth, of which he was once a servant, who had any doubt + on that subject. It needed no English argument to persuade + Olden-Barneveld, and the other statesmen who guided the destiny of the + republic, that peace would be destruction. Moreover, there is no question + that both the queen and Burghley would have been truly grateful had the + States-General been willing to make peace and return to the allegiance + which they had long since spurned. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless it is difficult to say whether there were at this moment more + of animosity in Elizabeth's mind towards her backsliding ally, with whom + she had so recently and so pompously sworn an eternal friendship, or + towards her ancient enemy. Although she longed for peace, she hardly saw + her way to it, for she felt that the secret movements of Henry had in a + manner barred the path. She confessed to the States' envoy that it was as + easy for her to make black white as to make peace with Spain. To this + Caron cordially assented, saying with much energy, "There is as much + chance for your Majesty and for us to make peace, during the life of the + present King of Spain, as to find redemption in hell." + </p> + <p> + To the Danish ambassadors, who had come to England with proposals of + mediation, the queen had replied that the King of Spain had attacked her + dominions many times, and had very often attempted her assassination, that + after long patience she had begun to defend herself, and had been willing + to show him that she had the courage and the means, not only to maintain + herself against his assaults, but also to invade his realms; that, + therefore, she was not disposed to speak first; nor to lay down any + conditions. Yet, if she saw that the King of Spain had any remorse for his + former offences against her, and wished to make atonement for them, she + was willing to declare that her heart was not so alienated from peace; but + that she could listen to propositions on the subject. + </p> + <p> + She said, too, that such a peace must be a general one, including both the + King of France and the States of the Netherlands, for with these powers + she had but lately made an offensive and defensive league against the King + of Spain, from which she protested that for no consideration in the world + would she ever swerve one jot. + </p> + <p> + Certainly these were words of Christian charity and good faith, but such + professions are the common staple of orations and documents for public + consumption. As the accounts became more and more minute, however, of + Henry's intrigues with Albert, Philip, and Clement, the queen grew more + angry. + </p> + <p> + She told Caron that she was quite aware that the king had long been in + communication with the cardinal's emissaries, and that he had even sent + some of his principal counsellors to confer with the cardinal himself at + Arras, in direct violation of the stipulations of the league. She + expressed her amazement at the king's conduct; for she knew very well, she + said, that the league had hardly been confirmed and sworn to, before he + was treating with secret agents sent to him by the cardinal. "And now," + she continued, "they propose to send an ambassador to inform me of the + whole proceeding, and to ask my advice and consent in regard to + negotiations which they have, perchance, entirely concluded." + </p> + <p> + She further informed the republican envoy that the king had recently been + taking the ground in these dealings with the common enemy; that the two + kingdoms of France and England must first be provided for; that when the + basis between these powers and Spain had been arranged, it would be time + to make arrangements for the States, and that it would probably be found + advisable to obtain a truce of three or four years between them and Spain, + in which interval the government of the provinces might remain on its + actual footing. During this armistice the King of Spain was to withdraw + all Spanish troops from the Netherlands, in consequence of which measure + all distrust would by degrees vanish, and the community, becoming more and + more encouraged, would in time recognise the king for their sovereign once + more. + </p> + <p> + This, according to the information received by Elizabeth from her resident + minister in France, was Henry's scheme for carrying out the principles of + the offensive and defensive league, which only the year before he had so + solemnly concluded with the Dutch republic. Instead of assisting that + commonwealth in waging her war of independence against Spain, he would + endeavour to make it easy for her to return peacefully to her ancient + thraldom. + </p> + <p> + The queen asked Caron what he thought of the project. How could that + diplomatist reply but with polite scorn? Not a year of such an armistice + would elapse, he said, before the Spanish partisans would have it all + their own way in the Netherlands, and the King of Spain would be master of + the whole country. Again and again he repeated that peace, so long as + Philip lived, was an impossibility for the States. No doubt that monarch + would gladly consent to the proposed truce, for it, would be indeed + strange if by means of it he could not so establish himself in the + provinces as to easily overthrow the sovereigns who were thus helping him + to so advantageous a position. + </p> + <p> + The queen listened patiently to a long and earnest remonstrance in this + vein made by the envoy, and assured him that not even to gain another + kingdom would she be the cause of a return of the provinces to the + dominion of Spain. She would do her best to dissuade the king from his + peace negotiations; but she would listen to De Maisae, the new special + envoy from Henry, and would then faithfully report to Caron, by word of + mouth, the substance of the conversation. The States-General did not + deserve to be deceived, nor would she be a party to any deception, unless + she were first cheated herself. "I feel indeed," she added, "that matters + are not always managed as they should be by your Government, and that you + have not always treated princes, especially myself, as we deserve to be + treated. Nevertheless, your State is not a monarchy, and so we must take + all things into consideration, and weigh its faults against its many + perfections." + </p> + <p> + With this philosophical—and in the mouth of Elizabeth Tudor, surely + very liberal—reflection, the queen terminated the interview with the + republican envoy. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the conferences with the special ambassador of France proceeded. + For, so soon as Henry had completed all his arrangements, and taken his + decision to accept the very profitable peace offered to him by Spain, he + assumed that air of frankness which so well became him, and candidly + avowed his intention of doing what he had already done. Hurault de Maisse + arrived in England not long before the time when the peace-commissioners + were about assembling at Vervins. He was instructed to inform her Majesty + that he had done his best to bring about a general alliance of the + European powers from which alone the league concluded between England, + France, and the Netherlands would have derived substantial strength. + </p> + <p> + But as nothing was to be hoped for from Germany, as England offered but + little assistance, and as France was exhausted by her perpetual conflicts, + it had become necessary for the king to negotiate for a peace. He now + wished to prove, therefore, to the queen, as to a sister to whom he was + under such obligations, that the interests of England were as dear to him + as those of France. + </p> + <p> + The proof of these generous sentiments did not, however, seem so clear as + could be wished, and there were very stormy debates, so soon as the + ambassador found himself in conference with her Majesty's counsellors. The + English statesmen bitterly reproached the French for having thus lightly + thrown away the alliance between the two countries, and they insisted upon + the duty of the king to fulfil his solemn engagements. + </p> + <p> + The reply was very frank and very decided. Kings, said De Maisse, never + make treaties except with the tacit condition to embrace every thing that + may be useful to them, and carefully to avoid every thing prejudicial to + their interests. + </p> + <p> + The corollary from this convenient and sweeping maxim was simple enough. + The king could not be expected, by his allies to reject an offered peace + which was very profitable, nor to continue a war which, was very + detrimental. All that they could expect was that he should communicate his + intentions to them, and this he was now very cheerfully doing. Such in + brief were the statements of De Maisse. + </p> + <p> + The English were indignant. They also said a stout word for the provinces, + although it has been made sufficiently clear that they did not love that + upstart republic. But the French ambassador replied that his, master + really meant secretly to assist the States in carrying on the war until + they should make an arrangement. He should send them very powerful + succours for this purpose, and he expected confidently that England would + assist him in this line of conduct. Thus Henry was secretly pledging + himself, to make underhand but substantial war against Spain, with which + power he was at that instant concluding peace, while at the same time he + was abandoning his warlike league with the queen and the republic, in + order to affect that very pacification. Truly the morality of the + governing powers of the earth was not entirely according to the apostolic + standard. + </p> + <p> + The interviews between the queen and the new ambassador were, of course, + on his part, more courteous in tone than those with the counsellors, but + mainly to the same effect. De Maisse stated that the Spanish king had + offered to restore every place that he held in France, including Calais, + Brittany, and the Marquisate of Saluces, and as he likewise manifested a + willingness to come to favourable terms with her Majesty and with the + States, it was obviously the duty of Henry to make these matters known to + her Majesty, in whose hands was thus placed the decision between peace or + continuation of the war. The queen asked what was the authority for the + supposition that England was to be included by Spain in the pacification. + De Maisse quoted President Richardot. In that case, the queen remarked, it + was time for her to prepare for a third Spanish armada. When a former + envoy from France had alluded to Richardot as expressing the same friendly + sentiments on the part of his sovereign and himself, she had replied by + referring to the sham negotiations of Bourbourg, by which the famous + invasion of 1588 had been veiled, and she had intimated her expectation + that another Spanish fleet would soon be at her throat. And within three + weeks of the utterance of her prophecy the second armada, under Santa + Gadea, had issued from Spain to assail her realms. Now then, as Richardot + was again cited as a peace negotiator, it was time to look for a third + invasion. It was an impertinence for Secretary of State Villeroy to send + her word about Richardot. It was not an impertinence in King Henry, who + understood war-matters better than he did affairs of state, in which kings + were generally governed by their counsellors and secretaries, but it was + very strange that Villeroy should be made quiet with a simple declaration + of Richardot. + </p> + <p> + The queen protested that she would never consent to a peace with Spain, + except with the knowledge and consent of the States. De Maisse replied + that the king was of the same mind, upon which her Majesty remarked that + in that case he had better have apprised her and the States of his + intentions before treating alone and secretly with the enemy. The envoy + denied that the king had been treating. He had only been listening to what + the King of Spain had to propose, and suggesting his own wishes and + intentions. The queen rejoined that this was treating if anything was, and + certainly her Majesty was in the right if the term has any meaning at all. + </p> + <p> + Elizabeth further reproachfully observed, that although the king talked + about continuing the war, he seemed really tired of that dangerous + pursuit, in which he had exercised himself so many long years, and that he + was probably beginning to find a quiet and agreeable life more to his + taste. She expressed the hope, however, that he would acquit himself + honourably towards herself and her allies, and keep the oaths which he had + so solemnly sworn before God. + </p> + <p> + Such was the substance of the queen's conversations with De Maisse, as she + herself subsequently reported them to the States' envoy. + </p> + <p> + The republican statesmen had certainly cause enough to suspect Henry's + intentions, but they did not implicitly trust Elizabeth. They feared that + both king and queen were heartily sick of the war, and disposed to abandon + the league, while each was bent on securing better terms than the other in + any negotiations for peace. Barneveld—on the whole the most + sagacious of the men then guiding the affairs of Europe, although he could + dispose of but comparatively slender resources, and was merely the chief + minister of a scarcely-born little commonwealth of some three million + souls—was doing his best to save the league and to divert Henry from + thoughts of peace. Feeling that the queen, notwithstanding her professions + to Caron and others, would have gladly entered into negotiations with + Philip, had she found the door as wide open as Henry had found it, he did + his best to prevent both his allies from proceeding farther in that + direction. He promised the French envoy at the Hague that not only would + the republic continue to furnish the four thousand soldiers as stipulated + in the league, but that if Henry would recommence active operations, a + States' army of nine thousand foot and two thousand horse should at once + take the field on the Flemish frontier of France, and aid in the campaign + to the full extent of their resources. If the king were disposed to + undertake the siege of Calais, the Advocate engaged that he should be + likewise energetically assisted in that enterprise. + </p> + <p> + Nor was it suggested in case the important maritime stronghold were + recovered that it should be transferred, not to the sovereign of France, + but to the dominions of the republic. That was the queen's method of + assisting an ally, but it was not the practice of the States. Buzanval, + who was quite aware of his master's decision to conclude peace, suggested + Henry's notion of a preliminary and general truce for six months. But of + course Barneveld rejected the idea with horror. He felt, as every + intelligent statesman of the commonwealth could not but feel, that an + armistice would be a death-blow. It would be better, he said, for the + States to lose one or two towns than to make a truce, for there were so + many people in the commonwealth sure to be dazzled by the false show of a + pacification, that they would be likely, after getting into the suburbs, + to wish to enter the heart of the city. "If," said the Advocate, "the + French and the English know what they are doing when they are, + facilitating the Spanish dominion in the provinces, they would prefer to + lose a third of their own kingdoms to seeing the Spaniard absolute master + here." + </p> + <p> + It was determined, in this grave position of affairs, to send a special + mission both to France and to England with the Advocate as its chief. + Henry made no objections to this step, but, on the contrary, affected much + impatience for the arrival of the envoys, and ascribed the delay to the + intrigues of Elizabeth. He sent word to Prince Maurice and to Barneveld + that he suspected the queen of endeavouring to get before him in + negotiating with Spain in order to obtain Calais for herself. And, in + truth, Elizabeth very soon afterwards informed Barneveld that she might + really have had Calais, and have got the better of the king in these + secret transactions. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, while the special mission to France and England was getting + ready to depart, an amateur diplomatist appeared in Brussels, and made a + feeble effort to effect a reconciliation between the republic and the + cardinal. + </p> + <p> + This was a certain Van der Meulen, an Antwerp merchant who, for religious + reasons, had emigrated to Leyden, and who was now invited by the cardinal + archduke to Brussels to confer with his counsellors as to the possibility + of the rebellious States accepting his authority. For, as will soon be + indicated, Philip had recently resolved on a most important step. He was + about to transfer the sovereignty of all the Netherlands to his daughter + Isabella and her destined husband, Cardinal Albert. It would, obviously, + therefore, be an excessively advantageous arrangement for those new + sovereigns if the rebellious States would join hands with the obedient + provinces, accept the dominion of Albert and Isabella and give up their + attempt to establish a republican government. Accordingly the cardinal had + intimated that the States would be allowed the practice of their religion, + while the military and civil functionaries might retain office. He even + suggested that he would appoint Maurice of Nassau his stadholder for the + northern provinces, unless he should prefer a high position in the + Imperial armies. Such was the general admiration felt in Spain and + elsewhere for the military talents of the prince, that he would probably + be appointed commander-in-chief of the forces against Mahomet. Van der + Meulen duly reported all these ingenious schemes to the States, but the + sturdy republicans only laughed at them. They saw clearly enough through + such slight attempts to sow discord in their commonwealth, and to send + their great chieftain to Turkey. + </p> + <p> + A most affectionate letter, written by the cardinal-archduke to the + States-General, inviting them to accept his sovereignty, and another from + the obedient provinces to the united States of the same purport, remained + unanswered. + </p> + <p> + But the Antwerp merchant, in his interviews with the crafty politicians + who surrounded the cardinal, was able at least to obtain some insight into + the opinions prevalent at Brussels; and these were undoubtedly to the + effect that both England and France were willing enough to abandon the + cause of the Netherlands, provided only that they could obtain + satisfactory arrangements for themselves. + </p> + <p> + Van der Meulen remarked to Richardot that in all their talk about a + general peace nothing had been said of the Queen of England, to whom the + States were under so great obligations, and without whom they would never + enter into any negotiations. + </p> + <p> + Richardot replied that the queen had very sagaciously provided for the + safety of her own kingdom, and had kept up the fire everywhere else in + order to shelter herself. There was more difficulty for this lady, he + said, than for any of the rest. She had shown herself very obstinate, and + had done them a great deal of mischief. They knew very well that the King + of France did not love her. Nevertheless, as they had resolved upon a + general peace, they were willing to treat with her as well as with the + others. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Auction sales of judicial ermine + Decline a bribe or interfere with the private sale of places + Famous fowl in every pot + Fellow worms had been writhing for half a century in the dust + For his humanity towards the conquered garrisons (censured) + Historical scepticism may shut its eyes to evidence + Imagining that they held the world's destiny in their hands + King had issued a general repudiation of his debts + Loud, nasal, dictatorial tone, not at all agreeable + Peace would be destruction + Repudiation of national debts was never heard of before + Some rude lessons from that vigorous little commonwealth + Such a crime as this had never been conceived (bankruptcy) + They liked not such divine right nor such gentle-mindedness + Whether murders or stratagems, as if they were acts of virtue +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIV. 1598 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Mission of the States to Henry to prevent the consummation of peace + with Spain—Proposal of Henry to elevate Prince Maurice to the + sovereignty, of the States—Embarkation of the States' envoys for + England—Their interview with Queen Elizabeth—Return of the envoys + from England—Demand of Elizabeth for repayment of her advances to + the republic—Second embassy to England—Final arrangement between + the Queen and the States. +</pre> + <p> + The great Advocate was now to start on his journey in order to make a + supreme effort both with Henry and with Elizabeth to prevent the + consummation of this fatal peace. Admiral Justinus of Nassau, natural son + of William the Silent, was associated with Barneveld in the mission, a + brave fighting man, a staunch patriot, and a sagacious counsellor; but the + Advocate on this occasion, as in other vital emergencies of the + commonwealth, was all in all. + </p> + <p> + The instructions of the envoys were simple. They were to summon the king + to fulfil his solemnly sworn covenants with the league. The States-General + had never doubted, they said, that so soon as the enemy had begun to feel + the effects, of that league he would endeavour to make a composition with + one or other of the parties in order to separate them, and to break up + that united strength which otherwise he could never resist. The king was + accordingly called upon to continue the war against the common enemy, and + the States-General offered, over and above the four hundred and fifty + thousand florins promised by them for the support of the four thousand + infantry for the year 1598, to bring their whole military power, horse and + foot, into the field to sustain his Majesty in the war, whether separately + or in conjunction, whether in the siege of cities or in open campaigns. + Certainly they could hardly offer fairer terms than these. + </p> + <p> + Henry had complained, and not unreasonably, that Elizabeth had made no + offers of assistance for carrying on the war either to Fonquerolles or to + Hurault de Maisse; but he certainly could make no reproach of that nature + against the republic, nor assign their lukewarmness as an excuse for his + desertion. + </p> + <p> + The envoys were ready to take their departure for France on the last day + of January. + </p> + <p> + It might be a curious subject to consider how far historical events are + modified and the world's destiny affected by the different material + agencies which man at various epochs has had at his disposal. The human + creature in his passions and ambitions, his sensual or sordid desires, his + emotional and moral nature, undergoes less change than might be hoped from + age to age. The tyrant; the patriot, the demagogue, the voluptuary, the + peasant, the trader, the intriguing politician, the hair-splitting + diplomatist, the self-sacrificing martyr, the self-seeking courtier, + present essentially one type in the twelfth, the sixteenth, the + nineteenth, or any other century. The human tragi-comedy seems ever to + repeat itself with the same bustle, with the same excitement for immediate + interests, for the development of the instant plot or passing episode, as + if the universe began and ended with each generation—as in reality + it would appear to do for the great multitude of the actors. There seems + but a change of masks, of costume, of phraseology, combined with a noisy + but eternal monotony. Yet while men are produced and are whirled away + again in endless succession, Man remains, and to all appearance is + perpetual and immortal even on this earth. Whatever science acquires man + inherits. Whatever steadfastness is gained for great moral truths which + change not through the ages—however they may be thought, in dark or + falsely brilliant epochs, to resolve themselves into elemental vapour—gives + man a securer foothold in his onward and upward progress. The great, + continuous history of that progress is not made up of the reigns of kings + or the lives of politicians, with whose names history has often found it + convenient to mark its epochs. These are but milestones on the turnpike. + Human progress is over a vast field, and it is only at considerable + intervals that a retrospective view enables us to discern whether the + movement has been slow or rapid, onward or retrograde. + </p> + <p> + The record of our race is essentially unwritten. What we call history is + but made up of a few scattered fragments, while it is scarcely given to + human intelligence to comprehend the great whole. Yet it is strange to + reflect upon the leisurely manner in which great affairs were conducted in + the period with which we are now occupied, as compared with the fever and + whirl of our own times, in which the stupendous powers of steam and + electricity are ever-ready to serve the most sublime or the most vulgar + purposes of mankind. Whether there were ever a critical moment in which a + rapid change might have been effected in royal or national councils, had + telegraphic wires and express trains been at the command of Henry, or + Burghley, or Barneveld, or the Cardinal Albert, need not and cannot be + decided. It is almost diverting, however, to see how closely the intrigues + of cabinets, the movements of armies, the plans of patriots, were once + dependent on those natural elements over which man has now gained almost + despotic control. + </p> + <p> + Here was the republic intensely eager to prevent, with all speed, the + consummation of a treaty between its ally and its enemy—a step which + it was feared might be fatal to its national existence, and concerning + which there seemed a momentary hesitation. Yet Barneveld and Justinus of + Nassau, although ready on the last day of January, were not able to sail + from the Brill to Dieppe until the 18th March, on account of a persistent + south-west wind. + </p> + <p> + After forty-six days of waiting, the envoys, accompanied by Buzanval, + Henry's resident at the Hague, were at last, on the 18th March, enabled to + set sail with a favourable breeze. As it was necessary for travellers in + that day to provide themselves with every possible material for their + journey—carriages, horses, hosts of servants, and beds, fortunate + enough if they found roads and occasionally food—Barneveld and + Nassau were furnished with three ships of war, while another legation on + its way to England had embarked in two other vessels of the same class. A + fleet of forty or fifty merchantmen sailed under their convoy. Departing + from the Brill in this imposing manner, they sailed by Calais, varying the + monotony of the voyage by a trifling sea-fight with some cruisers from + that Spanish port, neither side receiving any damage. + </p> + <p> + Landing at Dieppe on the morning of the 20th, the envoys were received + with much ceremony at the city gates by the governor of the place, who + conducted them in a stately manner to a house called the king's mansion, + which he politely placed at their disposal. "As we learned, however," says + Barneveld, with grave simplicity; "that there was no furniture whatever in + that royal abode, we thanked his Excellency, and declared that we would + rather go to a tavern." + </p> + <p> + After three days of repose and preparation in Dieppe, they started at dawn + on their journey to Rouen, where they arrived at sundown. + </p> + <p> + On the next morning but one they set off again on their travels, and slept + that night at Louviers. Another long day's journey brought them to Evreux. + On the 27th they came to Dreux, on the 28th to Chartres, and on the 29th + to Chateaudun. On the 30th, having started an hour before sunrise, they + were enabled after a toilsome journey to reach Blois at an hour after + dark. Exhausted with fatigue, they reposed in that city for a day, and on + the 1st April proceeded, partly by the river Loire and partly by the road, + as far as Tours. Here they were visited by nobody, said Barneveld, but + fiddlers and drummers, and were execrably lodged. Nevertheless they + thought the town in other respects agreeable, and apparently beginning to + struggle out of the general desolation of, France. On the end April they + slept at Langeais, and on the night of the 3rd reached Saumur, where they + were disappointed at the absence of the illustrious Duplessis Mornay, then + governor of that city. A glance at any map of France will show the course + of the journey taken by the travellers, which, after very hard work and + great fatigue, had thus brought them from Dieppe to Saumur in about as + much time as is now consumed by an average voyage from Europe to America. + In their whole journey from Holland to Saumur, inclusive of the waiting + upon the wind and other enforced delays, more than two months had been + consumed. Twenty-four hours would suffice at present for the excursion. + </p> + <p> + At Saumur they received letters informing them that the king was + "expecting them with great devotion at Angiers." A despatch from Cecil, + who was already with Henry, also apprised them that he found "matters + entirely arranged for a peace." This would be very easily accomplished, he + said, for France and England, but the great difficulty was for the + Netherlands. He had come to France principally for the sake of managing + affairs for the advantage of the States, but he begged the envoys not to + demean themselves as if entirely bent on war. + </p> + <p> + They arrived at Angiers next day before dark, and were met at a league's + distance from the gates by the governor of the castle, attended by young + Prince Frederic Henry of Nassau; followed by a long train of nobles and + mounted troops. Welcomed in this stately manner on behalf of the king, the + envoys were escorted to the lodgings provided for them in the city. The + same evening they waited on the widowed princess of Orange, Louisa of + Coligny, then residing temporarily with her son in Angiera, and were + informed by her that the king's mind was irrevocably fixed on peace. She + communicated, however, the advice of her step-son in law, the Duke of + Bouillon, that they should openly express their determination to continue + the war, notwithstanding that both their Majesties of England and France + wished to negotiate. Thus the counsels of Bouillon to the envoys were + distinctly opposed to those of Cecil, and it was well known to them that + the duke was himself sincerely anxious that the king should refuse the + pacific offers of Spain. + </p> + <p> + Next morning, 5th April, they were received at the gates of the castle by + the governor of Anjou and the commandant of the citadel of Angiers, + attended by a splendid retinue, and were conducted to the king, who was + walking in the garden of the fortress. Henry received them with great + demonstrations of respect, assuring them that he considered the + States-General the best and most faithful friends that he possessed in the + world, and that he had always been assisted by them in time of his utmost + need with resoluteness and affection. + </p> + <p> + The approach of the English ambassador, accompanied by the Chancellor of + France and several other persons, soon brought the interview to a + termination. Barneveld then presented several gentlemen attached to the + mission, especially his son and Hugo Grotius, then a lad of fifteen, but + who had already gained such distinction at Leyden that Scaliger, Pontanus; + Heinsius, Dousa, and other professors, foretold that he would become more + famous than Erasmus. They were all very cordially received by the king, + who subsequently bestowed especial marks of his consideration upon the + youthful Grotius. + </p> + <p> + The same day the betrothal of Monsieur Caesar with the daughter of the + Duke of Mercoeur was celebrated, and there was afterwards much dancing and + banqueting at the castle. It was obvious enough to the envoys that the + matter of peace and war was decided. The general of the Franciscans, sent + by the pope, had been flitting very busily for many months between Rome, + Madrid, Brussels, and Paris, and there could be little doubt that every + detail of the negotiations between France and Spain had been arranged + while Olden-Barneveld and his colleague had been waiting for the head-wind + to blow itself out at the Brill. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless no treaty had as yet been signed, and it was the business of + the republican diplomatists to prevent the signature if possible. They + felt, however, that they were endeavouring to cause water to run up hill. + Villeroy, De Maisse, and Buzanval came to them to recount, by the king's + order, everything that had taken place. This favour was, however, the less + highly appreciated by them, as they felt that the whole world was in a + very short time to be taken as well into the royal confidence. + </p> + <p> + These French politicians stated that the king, after receiving the most + liberal offers of peace on the part of Spain, had communicated all the + facts to the queen, and had proposed, notwithstanding these most + profitable overtures, to continue the war as long as her Majesty and the + States-General would assist him in it. De Maisse had been informed, + however, by the queen that she had no means to assist the king withal, and + was, on the contrary, very well disposed to make peace. The lord treasurer + had avowed the same opinions as his sovereign, had declared himself to be + a man of peace, and had exclaimed that peace once made he would sing "Nunc + dimitte servum tuum Domine." Thereupon, at the suggestion of the legate, + negotiations had begun at Vervins, and although nothing was absolutely + concluded, yet Sir Robert Cecil, having just been sent as special + ambassador from the queen, had brought no propositions whatever of + assistance in carrying on the war, but plenty of excuses about armadas, + Irish rebellions, and the want of funds. There was nothing in all this, + they said, but want of good will. The queen had done nothing and would do + nothing for the league herself, nor would she solicit for it the adherence + of other kings and princes. The king, by making peace, could restore his + kingdom to prosperity, relieve the distress of his subjects, and get back + all his lost cities—Calais, Ardres, Dourlens, Blavet, and many more—without + any expense of treasure or of blood. + </p> + <p> + Certainly there was cogency in this reasoning from the point of view of + the French king, but it would have been as well to state, when he was so + pompously making a league for offensive and defensive war, that his real + interests and his real purposes were peace. Much excellent diplomacy, much + ringing of bells, firing of artillery, and singing of anthems in royal + chapels, and much disappointment to honest Dutchmen, might have thus been + saved. It is also instructive to observe the difference between the + accounts of De Maisse's negotiations in England given by that diplomatist + himself, and those rendered by the queen to the States' envoy. + </p> + <p> + Of course the objurgations of the Hollanders that the king, in a very + fallacious hope of temporary gain to himself, was about to break his + solemn promises to his allies and leave them to their fate, drew but few + tears down the iron cheeks of such practised diplomatists as Villeroy and + his friends. + </p> + <p> + The envoys visited De Rosuy, who assured them that he was very much their + friend, but gave them to understand that there was not the slightest + possibility of inducing the king to break off the negotiations. + </p> + <p> + Before taking final leave of his Majesty they concluded, by advice of the + Princess of Orange and of Buzanval, to make the presents which they had + brought with them from the States-General. Accordingly they sent, through + the hands of the princess, four pieces of damask linen and two pieces of + fine linen to the king's sister, Madame Catherine, two pieces of linen to + Villeroy, and two to the beautiful Gabrielle. The two remaining pieces + were bestowed upon Buzanval for his pains in accompanying them on the + journey and on their arrival at court. + </p> + <p> + The incident shows the high esteem in which the Netherland fabrics were + held at that period. + </p> + <p> + There was a solemn conference at last between the leading counsellors of + the king, the chancellor, the Dukes of Espernon and Bouillon, Count + Schomberg, and De Sancy, Plessis, Buzanval, Maisse, the Dutch envoys, and + the English ambassador and commissioner Herbert. Cecil presided, and + Barneveld once more went over the whole ground, resuming with his usual + vigour all the arguments by which the king's interest and honour were + proved to require him to desist from the peace negotiations. And the + orator had as much success as is usual with those who argue against a + foregone conclusion. Everyone had made up his mind. Everyone knew that + peace was made. It is unnecessary, therefore, to repeat the familiar train + of reasoning. It is superfluous to say that the conference was barren. On + the same evening Villeroy called on the States' envoys, and informed them + plainly, on the part of the king, that his Majesty had fully made up his + mind. + </p> + <p> + On the 23rd April—three mortal weeks having thus been wasted in + diplomatic trilling—Barneveld was admitted to his Majesty's + dressing-room. The Advocate at the king's request came without his + colleague, and was attended only by his son. No other persons were present + in the chamber save Buzanval and Beringen. The king on this occasion + confirmed what had so recently been stated by Villeroy. He had thoroughly + pondered, he said, all the arguments used by the States to dissuade him + from the negotiation, and had found them of much weight. The necessities + of his kingdom, however, compelled him to accept a period of repose. He + would not, however, in the slightest degree urge the States to join in the + treaty. He desired their security, and would aid in maintaining it. What + had most vexed him was that the Protestants with great injustice accused + him of intending to make war upon them. But innumerable and amazing + reports were flying abroad, both among his own subjects, the English, and + the enemies' spies, as to these secret conferences. He then said that he + would tell the Duke of Bouillon to speak with Sir Robert Cecil concerning + a subject which now for the first time he would mention privately to + Olden-Barneveld. + </p> + <p> + The king then made a remarkable and unexpected suggestion. Alluding to the + constitution of the Netherlands, he remarked that a popular government in + such emergencies as those then existing was subject to more danger than + monarchies were, and he asked the Advocate if he thought there was no + disposition to elect a prince. Barneveld replied that the general + inclination was rather for a good republic. The government, however, he + said, was not of the people, but aristocratic, and the state was + administered according to laws and charters by the principal inhabitants, + whether nobles or magistrates of cities. Since the death of the late + Prince of Orange, and the offer made to the King of France, and + subsequently to the Queen of England, of the sovereignty, there had been + no more talk on that subject, and to discuss again so delicate a matter + might cause divisions and other difficulties in the State. + </p> + <p> + Henry then spoke of Prince Maurice, and asked whether, if he should be + supported by the Queen of England and the King of France, it would not be + possible to confer the sovereignty upon him. + </p> + <p> + Here certainly was an astounding question to be discharged like a + pistol-shot full in the face of a republican minister. + </p> + <p> + The answer of the Advocate was sufficiently adroit if not excessively + sincere. + </p> + <p> + If your Majesty, said he, together with her Majesty the queen, think the + plan expedient, and are both willing on this footing to continue the war, + to rescue all the Netherlands from the hands of the Spaniards and their + adherents, and thus render the States eternally obliged to the sovereigns + and kingdoms of France and England, my lords the States-General would + probably be willing to accept this advice. + </p> + <p> + But the king replied by repeating that repose was indispensable to him. + </p> + <p> + Without inquiring for the present whether the project of elevating Maurice + to the sovereignty of the Netherlands, at the expense of the republican + constitution, was in harmony or not with the private opinions of Barneveld + at that period, it must be admitted that the condition he thus suggested + was a very safe one to offer. He had thoroughly satisfied himself during + the period in which he had been baffled by the southwest gales at the + Brill and by the still more persistent head-winds which he had found + prevailing at the French court, that it was hopeless to strive for that + much-desired haven, a general war. The admiral and himself might as well + have endeavoured to persuade Mahomet III. and Sigismund of Poland to join + the States in a campaign against Cardinal Albert, as to hope for the same + good offices from Elizabeth and Henry. + </p> + <p> + Having received exactly the answer which he expected, he secretly + communicated, next day, to Cecil the proposition thus made by the king. + Subsequently he narrated the whole conversation to the Queen of England. + </p> + <p> + On the 27th April both Barneveld and Nassau were admitted to the royal + dressing-room in Nantes citadel for a final audience. Here, after the + usual common places concerning his affection for the Netherlands, and the + bitter necessity which compelled him to desert the alliance, Henry again + referred to his suggestion in regard to Prince Maurice; urging a change + from a republican to a monarchical form of government as the best means of + preserving the State. + </p> + <p> + The envoys thanked the king for all the honours conferred upon them, but + declared themselves grieved to the heart by his refusal to grant their + request. The course pursued by his Majesty, they said, would be found very + hard of digestion by the States, both in regard to the whole force of the + enemy which would now come upon their throats, and because of the bad + example thus set for other powers. + </p> + <p> + They then took leave, with the usual exchange of compliments. At their + departure his Majesty personally conducted them through various apartments + until they came to the chamber of his mistress, the Duchess of Beaufort, + then lying in childbed. Here he drew wide open the bed-curtains, and bade + them kiss the lady. They complied, and begging the duchess to use her + influence in their behalf, respectfully bade her farewell. She promised + not to forget their request, and thanked them for the presents of damask + and fine linen. + </p> + <p> + Such was the result of the mission of the great Advocate and his colleague + to Henry IV., from which so much had been hoped; and for anything useful + accomplished, after such an expenditure of time, money, and eloquence, the + whole transaction might have begun and ended in this touching interview + with the beautiful Gabrielle. + </p> + <p> + On the 19th of May the envoys embarked at Dieppe for England, and on the + 25th were safely lodged with the resident minister of the republic, Noel + de Caron, at the village of Clapham. + </p> + <p> + Having so ill-succeeded in their attempts to prevent the treaty between + France and Spain, they were now engaged in what seemed also a forlorn + hope, the preservation of their offensive and defensive alliance with + England. They were well aware that many of the leading counsellors of + Elizabeth, especially Burghley and Buckhurst, were determined upon peace. + They knew that the queen was also heartily weary of the war and of the + pugnacious little commonwealth which had caused her so much expense. But + they knew, too, that Henry, having now secured the repose of his own + kingdom, was anything but desirous that his deserted allies should enjoy + the same advantage. The king did not cease to assure the States that he + would secretly give them assistance in their warfare against his new ally, + while Secretary of State Villeroy, as they knew, would place every + possible impediment in the way of the queen's negotiations with Spain. + </p> + <p> + Elizabeth, on her part, was vexed with everybody. What the States most + feared was that she might, in her anger or her avarice, make use of the + cautionary towns in her negotiations with Philip. At any rate, said + Francis Aerssens, then States' minister in France, she will bring us to + the brink of the precipice, that we may then throw ourselves into her arms + in despair. + </p> + <p> + The queen was in truth resolved to conclude a peace if a peace could be + made. If not, she was determined to make as good a bargain with the States + as possible, in regard to the long outstanding account of her advances. + Certainly it was not unreasonable that she should wish to see her + exchequer reimbursed by people who, as she believed, were rolling in + wealth, the fruit of a contraband commerce which she denied to her own + subjects, and who were in honour bound to pay their debts to her now, if + they wished her aid to be continued. Her subjects were impoverished and + panting for peace, and although, as she remarked, "their sense of duty + restrained them from the slightest disobedience to her absolute commands," + still she could not forgive herself for thus exposing them to perpetual + danger. + </p> + <p> + She preferred on the whole, however, that the commonwealth should consent + to its own dissolution; for she thought it unreasonable that—after + this war of thirty years, during fifteen of which she had herself actively + assisted them—these republican Calvinists should, refuse to return + to the dominion of their old tyrant and the pope. To Barneveld, Maurice of + Nassau, and the States-General this did not seem a very logical + termination to so much hard fighting. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, when on the 26th of May the two envoys fell on their knees—as + the custom was—before the great queen, and had been raised by her to + their feet again, they found her Majesty in marvellously ill-humour. + Olden-Barneveld recounted to her the results of their mission to France, + and said that from beginning to end it had been obvious that there could + be no other issue. The king was indifferent, he had said, whether the + States preferred peace or war, but in making his treaty he knew that he + had secured a profit for himself, inflicted damage on his enemy, and done + no harm to his friends. + </p> + <p> + Her Majesty then interrupted the speaker by violent invectives against the + French king for his treachery. She had written with her own hand, she + said, to tell him that she never had believed him capable of doing what + secretaries and other servants had reported concerning him, but which had + now proved true. + </p> + <p> + Then she became very abusive to the Dutch envoys, telling them that they + were quite unjustifiable in not following Sir Robert Cecil's advice, and + in not engaging with him at once in peace negotiations; at least so far as + to discover what the enemy's intentions might be. She added, pettishly, + that if Prince Maurice and other functionaries were left in the enjoyment + of their offices, and if the Spaniards were sent out of the country, there + seemed no reason why such terms should not be accepted. + </p> + <p> + Barneveld replied that such accommodation was of course impossible, unless + they accepted their ancient sovereign as prince. Then came the eternal two + points—obedience to God, which meant submission to the pope; and + obedience to the king, that was to say, subjection to his despotic + authority. Thus the Christian religion would be ruined throughout the + provinces, and the whole land be made a bridge and a ladder for Spanish + ambition. + </p> + <p> + The queen here broke forth into mighty oaths, interrupting the envoy's + discourse, protesting over and over again by the living God that she would + not and could not give the States any further assistance; that she would + leave them to their fate; that her aid rendered in their war had lasted + much longer than the siege of Troy did, and swearing that she had been a + fool to help them and the king of France as she had done, for it was + nothing but evil passions that kept the States so obstinate. + </p> + <p> + The envoy endeavoured to soothe her, urging that as she had gained the + reputation over the whole world of administering her affairs with + admirable, yea with almost divine wisdom, she should now make use of that + sagacity in the present very difficult matter. She ought to believe that + it was not evil passion, nor ambition, nor obstinacy that prevented the + States from joining in these negotiations, but the determination to + maintain their national existence, the Christian religion, and their + ancient liberties and laws. They did not pretend, he said, to be wiser + than great monarch or their counsellors, but the difference between their + form of government and a monarchy must be their excuse. + </p> + <p> + Monarchs, when they made treaties, remained masters, and could protect + their realms and their subjects from danger. The States-General could not + accept a prince without placing themselves under his absolute authority, + and the Netherlanders would never subject themselves to their deadly + enemy, whom they had long ago solemnly renounced. + </p> + <p> + Surely these remarks of the Advocate should have seemed entirely + unanswerable. Surely there was no politician in Europe so ignorant as not + to know that any treaty of peace between Philip and the States meant their + unconditional subjugation and the complete abolition of the Protestant + religion. Least of all did the Queen of England require information on + this great matter of state. It was cruel trifling therefore, it was + inhuman insolence on her part, to suggest anything like a return of the + States to the dominion of Spain. + </p> + <p> + But her desire for peace and her determination to get back her money + overpowered at that time all other considerations. + </p> + <p> + The States wished to govern themselves, she said; why then could they not + make arrangements against all dangers, and why could they not lay down + conditions under which the king would not really be their master; + especially if France and England should guarantee them against any + infraction of their rights. By the living God! by the living God! by the + living God! she swore over and over again as her anger rose, she would + never more have anything to do with such people; and she deeply regretted + having thrown away her money and the lives of her subjects in so stupid a + manner. + </p> + <p> + Again the grave and experienced envoy of the republic strove with calm and + earnest words to stay the torrent of her wrath; representing that her + money and her pains had by no means been wasted, that the enemy had been + brought to shame and his finances to confusion; and urging her, without + paying any heed to the course pursued by the King of France, to allow the + republic to make levies of troops, at its own expense, within her kingdom. + </p> + <p> + But her Majesty was obdurate. "How am I to defend myself?" she cried; "how + are the affairs of Ireland to be provided for? how am I ever to get back + my money? who is to pay the garrisons of Brill and Flushing?" And with + this she left the apartment, saying that her counsellors would confer with + the envoys.' + </p> + <p> + From the beginning to the end of the interview the queen was in a very + evil temper, and took no pains to conceal her dissatisfaction with all the + world. + </p> + <p> + Now there is no doubt whatever that the subsidies furnished by England to + the common cause were very considerable, amounting in fourteen years, + according to the queen's calculation, to nearly fourteen hundred thousand + pounds sterling. But in her interviews with the republican statesmen she + was too prone to forget that it was a common cause, to forget that the man + who had over and over again attempted her assassination, who had + repeatedly attempted the invasion of her realms with the whole strength of + the most powerful military organization in the world, whose dearest wish + on earth was still to accomplish her dethronement and murder, to extirpate + from England the religion professed by the majority of living Englishmen, + and to place upon her vacant throne a Spanish, German, or Italian prince, + was as much her enemy as he was the foe of his ancient subjects in the + Netherlands. At that very epoch Philip was occupied in reminding the pope + that the two had always agreed as to the justice of the claims of the + Infanta Isabella to the English crown, and calling on his Holiness to + sustain those pretensions, now that she had been obliged, in consequence + of the treaty with the Prince of Bearne, to renounce her right to reign + over France. + </p> + <p> + Certainly it was fair enough for the queen and her, counsellors to stand + out for an equitable arrangement of the debt; but there was much to + dispute in the figures. When was ever an account of fifteen years' + standing adjusted, whether between nations or individuals, without much + wrangling? Meantime her Majesty held excellent security in two thriving + and most important Netherland cities. But had the States consented to + re-establish the Spanish authority over the whole of their little + Protestant republic, was there an English child so ignorant of arithmetic + or of history as not to see how vast would be the peril, and how + incalculable the expense, thus caused to England? + </p> + <p> + Yet besides the Cecils and the lord high admiral, other less influential + counsellors of the crown—even the upright and accomplished + Buckhurst, who had so often proved his friendship for the States—were + in favour of negotiation. There were many conferences with meagre results. + The Englishmen urged that the time had come for the States to repay the + queen's advances, to relieve her from future subsidies, to assume the + payment of the garrisons in the cautionary towns, and to furnish a force + in defence of England when attacked. Such was the condition of the + kingdom, they said—being, as it was, entirely without fortified + cities—that a single battle would imperil the whole realm, so that + it was necessary to keep the enemy out of it altogether. + </p> + <p> + These arguments were not unreasonable, but the inference was surely + illogical. The special envoys from the republic had not been instructed to + treat about the debt. This had been the subject of perpetual negotiation. + It was discussed almost every day by the queen's commissioners at the + Hague and by the States' resident minister at London. Olden-Barneveld and + the admiral had been sent forth by the Staten in what in those days was + considered great haste to prevent a conclusion of a treaty between their + two allies and the common enemy. They had been too late in France, and + now, on arriving in England, they found that government steadily drifting + towards what seemed the hopeless shipwreck of a general peace. + </p> + <p> + What must have been the grief of Olden-Barneveld when he heard from the + lips of the enlightened Buckhurst that the treaty of 1585 had been + arranged to expire—according to the original limitation—with a + peace, and that as the States could now make peace and did not choose to + do so, her Majesty must be considered as relieved from her contract of + alliance, and as justified in demanding repayment of her advances! + </p> + <p> + To this perfidious suggestion what could the States' envoy reply but that + as a peace such as the treaty of 1585 presupposed—to wit, with + security for the Protestant religion and for the laws and liberties of the + provinces—was impossible, should the States now treat with the king + or the cardinal? + </p> + <p> + The envoys had but one more interview with, the queen, in which she was + more benignant in manner but quite as peremptory in her demands. Let the + States either thoroughly satisfy her as to past claims and present + necessities, or let them be prepared for her immediate negotiation with + the enemy. Should she decide to treat, she would not be unmindful of their + interests, she said, nor deliver them over into the enemy's hands. She + repeated, however, the absurd opinion that there were means enough of + making Philip nominal sovereign of all the Netherlands, without allowing + him to exercise any authority over them. As if the most Catholic and most + absolute monarch that ever breathed could be tied down by the cobwebs of + constitutional or treaty stipulations; as if the previous forty years + could be effaced from the record of history. + </p> + <p> + She asked, too, in case the rumours of the intended transfer of the + Netherlands to the cardinal or the Infanta should prove true, which she + doubted, whether this arrangement would make any difference in the + sentiments of the States. + </p> + <p> + Barneveld replied that the transfer was still uncertain, but that they had + no more confidence in the cardinal or the Infants than in the King of + Spain himself. + </p> + <p> + On taking leave of the queen the envoys waited upon Lord Burghley, whom + they found sitting in an arm-chair in his bedchamber, suffering from the + gout and with a very fierce countenance. He made no secret of his opinions + in favour of negotiation, said that the contracts made by monarchs should + always be interpreted reasonably, and pronounced a warm eulogy on the + course pursued by the King of France. It was his Majesty's duty, he said, + to seize the best opportunity for restoring repose to his subjects and his + realms, and it was the duty of other sovereigns to do the same. + </p> + <p> + The envoys replied that they were not disposed at that moment to sit in + judgment upon the king's actions. They would content themselves with + remarking that in their opinion even kings and princes were bound by their + contracts, oaths, and pledges before God and man; and with this wholesome + sentiment they took leave of the lord high treasurer. + </p> + <p> + They left London immediately, on the last day of May, without, passports. + or despatches of recal, and embarked at Gravesend in the midst of a gale + of wind. + </p> + <p> + Lord Essex, the sincere friend of the republic, was both surprised and + disturbed at their sudden departure, and sent a special courier, after + them to express his regrets at the unsatisfactory termination to their + mission: "My mistress knows very well," said he, "that she is an absolute + princess, and that, when her ministers have done their extreme duty, she + wills what she wills." + </p> + <p> + The negotiations between England and Spain were deferred, however, for a + brief space, and a special message was despatched to the Hague as to the + arrangement of the debt. "Peace at once with Philip," said the queen, "or + else full satisfaction of my demands." + </p> + <p> + Now it was close dealing between such very thrifty and acute bargainers as + the queen and the Netherland republic. + </p> + <p> + Two years before, the States had offered to pay twenty thousand pounds a + year on her Majesty's birthday so long as the war should last, and after a + peace, eighty thousand pounds annually for four years. The queen, on her + part, fixed the sum total of the debt at nearly a million and a half + sterling, and required instant payment of at least one hundred thousand + pounds on account, besides provision for a considerable annual refunding, + assumption by the States of the whole cost of the garrisons in the + cautionary towns, and assurance of assistance in case of an attack upon + England. Thus there was a whole ocean between the disputants. + </p> + <p> + Vere and Gilpin were protocolling and marshalling accounts at the Hague, + and conducting themselves with much arrogance and bitterness, while, + meantime, Barneveld had hardly had time to set his foot on his native + shores before he was sent back again to England at the head of another + solemn legation. One more effort was to be made to arrange this financial + problem and to defeat the English peace party. + </p> + <p> + The offer of the year 1596 just alluded to was renewed and instantly + rejected. Naturally enough, the Dutch envoys were disposed, in the + exhausting warfare which was so steadily draining their finances, to pay + down as little as possible on the nail, while providing for what they + considered a liberal annual sinking fund. + </p> + <p> + The English, on the contrary, were for a good round sum in actual cash, + and held the threatened negotiation with Spain over the heads of the + unfortunate envoys like a whip. + </p> + <p> + So the queen's counsellors and the republican envoys travelled again and + again over the well-worn path. + </p> + <p> + On the 29th June, Buckhurst took Olden-Barneveld into his cabinet, and + opened his heart to him, not as a servant of her Majesty, he said, but as + a private Englishman. He was entirely for peace. Now that peace was + offered to her Majesty, a continuance of the war was unrighteous, and the + Lord God's blessing could not be upon it. Without God's blessing no + resistance could be made by the queen nor by the States to the enemy, who + was ten times more powerful than her Majesty in kingdoms, provinces, + number of subjects, and money. He had the pope, the emperor, the Dukes of + Savoy and Lorraine, and the republic of Genoa, for his allies. He feared + that the war might come upon England, and that they might be fated on one + single day to win or lose all. The queen possessed no mines, and was + obliged to carry on the war by taxing her people. The king had + ever-flowing fountains in his mines; the queen nothing but a stagnant + pool, which, when all the water was pumped out, must in the end be dry. He + concluded, therefore, that as her Majesty had no allies but the + Netherlands, peace was best for England, and advisable for the provinces. + Arrangements could easily be made to limit the absolute authority of + Spain. + </p> + <p> + This highly figurative view of the subject—more becoming to the + author of Ferrex and Porrex than to so, experienced a statesman as + Sackville had become since his dramatic days—did not much impress + Barneveld. He answered that, although the King of Spain was unquestionably + very powerful, the Lord God was still stronger; that England and the + Netherlands together could maintain the empire of the seas, which was of + the utmost importance, especially for England; but that if the republic + were to make her submission to Spain, and become incorporate with that + power, the control of the seas was lost for ever to England. + </p> + <p> + The Advocate added the unanswerable argument that to admit Philip as + sovereign, and then to attempt a limitation of his despotism was a foolish + dream. + </p> + <p> + Buckhurst repeated that the republic was the only ally of England, that + there was no confidence to be placed by her in any other power, and that + for himself, he was, as always, very much the friend of the States. + </p> + <p> + Olden-Barneveld might well have prayed, however, to be delivered from such + friends. To thrust one's head into the lion's mouth, while one's friends + urge moderation on the noble animal, can never be considered a cheerful or + prudent proceeding. + </p> + <p> + At last, after all offers had been rejected which the envoys had ventured + to make, Elizabeth sent for Olden-Barneveld and Caron and demanded their + ultimatum within twenty-four hours. Should it prove unsatisfactory, she + would at once make peace with Spain. + </p> + <p> + On the 1st August the envoys accordingly proposed to Cecil and the other + ministers to pay thirty thousand pounds a year, instead of twenty + thousand, so long as the war should last, but they claimed the right of + redeeming the cautionary towns at one hundred thousand pounds each. This + seemed admissible, and Cecil and his colleagues pronounced the affair + arranged. But they had reckoned without the queen after all. + </p> + <p> + Elizabeth sent for Caron as soon as she heard of the agreement, flew into + a great rage, refused the terms, swore that she would instantly make peace + with Spain, and thundered loudly against her ministers. + </p> + <p> + "They were great beasts," she said, "if they had stated that she would not + treat with the enemy. She had merely intended to defer the negotiations." + </p> + <p> + So the whole business was to be done over again. At last the sum claimed + by the queen, fourteen hundred thousand pounds, was reduced by agreement + to eight hundred thousand, and one-half of this the envoys undertook on + the part of the States to refund in annual payments of thirty thousand + pounds, while the remaining four hundred thousand should be provided for + by some subsequent arrangement. All attempts, however, to obtain a promise + from the queen to restore the cautionary towns to the republic in case of + a peace between Spain and England remained futile. + </p> + <p> + That was to be a bone of contention for many years. + </p> + <p> + It was further agreed by the treaty, which was definitely signed on the + 16th August, that, in case England were invaded by the common enemy, the + States should send to the queen's assistance at least thirty ships of war, + besides five thousand infantry and five squadrons of horse. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXV. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Negotiations between France and Spain—Conclusion of the treaty of + peace—Purchase of the allegiance of the French nobles—Transfer of + the Netherlands to Albert and Isabella—Marriage of the Infante and + the Infanta—Illness of Philip II.—Horrible nature of his malady— + His last hours and death—Review of his reign—Extent of the Spanish + dominions—Causes of the greatness of Spain, and of its downfall— + Philip's wars and their expenses—The Crown revenues of Spain— + Character of the people—Their inordinate self-esteem—Consequent + deficiency of labour—Ecclesiastical Government—Revenues of the + Church—Characteristics of the Spanish clergy—Foreign commerce of + Spain—Governmental system of Philip II.—Founded on the popular + ignorance and superstition—Extinction of liberty in Spain—The Holy + Inquisition—The work and character of Philip. +</pre> + <p> + While the utterly barren conferences had been going on at Angiers and + Nantes between Henry IV. and the republican envoys, the negotiations had + been proceeding at Vervins. + </p> + <p> + President Richardot on behalf of Spain, and Secretary of State Villeroy as + commissioner of Henry, were the chief negotiators. + </p> + <p> + Two old acquaintances, two ancient Leaguers, two bitter haters of + Protestants and rebels, two thorough adepts in diplomatic chicane, they + went into this contest like gladiators who thoroughly understood and + respected each other's skill. + </p> + <p> + Richardot was recognized by all as the sharpest and most unscrupulous + politician in the obedient Netherlands. Villeroy had conducted every + intrigue of France during a whole generation of mankind. They scarcely did + more than measure swords and test each other's objects, before arriving at + a conviction as to the inevitable result of the encounter. + </p> + <p> + It was obvious at once to Villeroy that Philip was determined to make + peace with France in order that the triple alliance might be broken up. It + was also known to the French diplomatist that the Spanish king was ready + for, almost every concession to Henry, in order that this object might be + accomplished. + </p> + <p> + All that Richardot hoped to save out of the various conquests made by + Spain over France was Calais. + </p> + <p> + But Villeroy told him that it was useless to say a word on that subject. + His king insisted on the restoration of the place. Otherwise he would make + no peace. It was enough, he said, that his Majesty said nothing about + Navarre. + </p> + <p> + Richardot urged that at the time when the English had conquered Calais it + had belonged to Artois, not to France. It was no more than equitable, + then, that it should be retained by its original proprietor. + </p> + <p> + The general of the Franciscans, who acted as a kind of umpire in the + transactions, then took each negotiator separately aside and whispered in + his ear. + </p> + <p> + Villeroy shook his head, and said he had given his ultimatum. Richardot + acknowledged that he had something in reserve, upon which the monk said + that it was time to make it known. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly—the two being all ears—Richardot observed that + what he was about to state he said with fear and trembling. He knew not + what the King of Spain would think of his proposition, but he would, + nevertheless, utter the suggestion that Calais should be handed over to + the pope. + </p> + <p> + His Holiness would keep the city in pledge until the war with the rebels + was over, and then there would be leisure enough to make definite + arrangements on the subject. + </p> + <p> + Now Villeroy was too experienced a practitioner to be imposed upon, by + this ingenious artifice. Moreover, he happened to have an intercepted + letter in his possession in which Philip told the cardinal that Calais was + to be given up if the French made its restitution a sine qua non. So + Villeroy did make it a sine qua non, and the conferences soon after + terminated in an agreement on the part of Spain to surrender all its + conquests in France. + </p> + <p> + Certainly no more profitable peace than this could have been made by the + French king under such circumstances, and Philip at the last moment had + consented to pay a heavy price for bringing discord between the three + friends. The treaty was signed at Vervins on the 2nd May, and contained + thirty-five articles. Its basis was that of the treaty of Cateau Cambresis + of 1559. Restitution of all places conquered by either party within the + dominions of the other since the day of that treaty was stipulated. Henry + recovered Calais, Ardres, Dourlens, Blavet, and many other places, and + gave up the country of Charolois. Prisoners were to be surrendered on both + sides without ransom, and such of those captives of war as had been + enslaved at the galleys should be set free. + </p> + <p> + The pope, the emperor, all states, and cities under their obedience or + control, the Duke of Savoy, the King of Poland and Sweden, the Kings of + Denmark and Scotland, the Dukes of Lorraine and Tuscany, the Doge of + Venice, the republic of Genoa, and many lesser states and potentates, were + included in the treaty. The famous Edict of Nantes in favour of the + Protestant subjects of the French king was drawn up and signed in the city + of which it bears the name at about the same time with these negotiations. + Its publication was, however, deferred until after the departure of the + legate from France in the following year. + </p> + <p> + The treaty of Cateau Cambresis had been pronounced the most disgraceful + and disastrous one that had ever been ratified by a French monarch; and + surely Henry had now wiped away that disgrace and repaired that disaster. + It was natural enough that he should congratulate himself on the rewards + which he had gathered by deserting his allies. + </p> + <p> + He had now sufficient occupation for a time in devising ways and means, + with the aid of the indefatigable Bethune, to pay the prodigious sums with + which he had purchased the allegiance of the great nobles and lesser + gentlemen of France. Thirty-two millions of livres were not sufficient to + satisfy the claims of these patriots, most of whom had been drawing + enormous pensions from the King of Spain up to the very moment, or beyond + it, when they consented to acknowledge the sovereign of their own country. + Scarcely a great name in the golden book of France but was recorded among + these bills of sale. + </p> + <p> + Mayenne, Lorraine, Guise, Nemours, Mercoeur, Montpensier, Joyeuse, + Epernon, Brissac, D'Arlincourt, Balagny, Rochefort, Villeroy, Villars, + Montespan, Leviston, Beauvillars, and countless others, figured in the + great financier's terrible account-book, from Mayenne, set down at the + cool amount of three and a half millions, to Beauvoir or Beauvillars at + the more modest price of a hundred and sixty thousand livres. "I should + appal my readers," said De Bethune, "if I should show to them that this + sum makes but a very small part of the amounts demanded from the royal + treasury, either by Frenchmen or by strangers, as pay and pension, and yet + the total was thirty-two millions's." + </p> + <p> + And now the most Catholic king, having brought himself at last to exchange + the grasp of friendship with the great ex-heretic, and to recognize the + Prince of Bearne as the legitimate successor of St. Louis, to prevent + which consummation he had squandered so many thousands of lives, so many + millions of treasure, and brought ruin to so many prosperous countries, + prepared himself for another step which he had long hesitated to take. + </p> + <p> + He resolved to transfer the Netherlands to his daughter Isabella and to + the Cardinal Archduke Albert, who, as the king had now decided, was to + espouse the Infanta. + </p> + <p> + The deed of cession was signed at Madrid on the 6th May, 1598. It was + accompanied by a letter of the same date from the Prince Philip, heir + apparent to the crown. + </p> + <p> + On the 30th May the Infanta executed a procuration by which she gave + absolute authority to her future husband to rule over the provinces of the + Netherlands, Burgundy, and Charolois, and to receive the oaths of the + estates and of public functionaries. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [See all the deeds and documents in Bor, IV. 461-466. Compare + Herrera, iii. 766-770. Very elaborate provisions were made in + regard to the children and grand-children to spring from this + marriage, but it was generally understood at the time that no issue + was to be expected. The incapacity of the cardinal seems to have + been revealed by an indiscretion of the General of Franciscans— + diplomatist and father confessor—and was supported by much + collateral evidence. Hence all these careful stipulations were a + solemn jest, like much of the diplomatic work of this reign.] +</pre> + <p> + It was all very systematically done. No transfer of real estate, no + 'donatio inter vivos' of mansions and messuages, parks and farms, herds + and flocks, could have been effected in a more business-like manner than + the gift thus made by the most prudent king to his beloved daughter. + </p> + <p> + The quit-claim of the brother was perfectly regular. + </p> + <p> + So also was the power of attorney, by which the Infanta authorised the + middle-aged ecclesiastic whom she was about to espouse to take possession + in her name of the very desirable property which she had thus acquired. + </p> + <p> + It certainly never occurred, either to the giver or the receivers, that + the few millions of Netherlanders, male and female, inhabiting these + provinces in the North Sea, were entitled to any voice or opinion as to + the transfer of themselves and their native land to a young lady living in + a remote country. For such was the blasphemous system of Europe at that + day. Property had rights. Kings, from whom all property emanated, were + enfeoffed directly from the Almighty; they bestowed certain privileges on + their vassals, but man had no rights at all. He was property, like the ox + or the ass, like the glebe which he watered with the sweat of his brow. + </p> + <p> + The obedient Netherlands acquiesced obediently in these new arrangements. + They wondered only that the king should be willing thus to take from his + crown its choicest jewels—for it is often the vanity of colonies and + dependencies to consider themselves gems. + </p> + <p> + The republican Netherlanders only laughed at these arrangements, and + treated the invitation to transfer themselves to the new sovereigns of the + provinces with silent contempt. + </p> + <p> + The cardinal-archduke left Brussels in September, having accomplished the + work committed to him by the power of attorney, and having left Cardinal + Andrew of Austria, bishop of Constantia, son of the Archduke Ferdinand, to + administer affairs during his absence. Francis de Mendoza, Admiral of + Arragon, was entrusted with the supreme military command for the same + interval. + </p> + <p> + The double marriage of the Infante of Spain with the Archduchess Margaret + of Austria, and of the unfrocked Cardinal Albert of Austria with the + Infanta Clara Eugenia Isabella, was celebrated by proxy, with immense + pomp, at Ferrara, the pope himself officiating with the triple crown upon + his head. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, Philip II., who had been of delicate constitution all his life, + and who had of late years been a confirmed valetudinarian, had been + rapidly failing ever since the transfer of the Netherlands in May. Longing + to be once more in his favourite retirement of the Escorial, he undertook + the journey towards the beginning of June, and was carried thither from + Madrid in a litter borne by servants, accomplishing the journey of seven + leagues in six days. + </p> + <p> + When he reached the palace cloister, he was unable to stand. The gout, his + life-long companion, had of late so tortured him in the hands and feet + that the mere touch of a linen sheet was painful to him. By the middle of + July a low fever had attacked him, which rapidly reduced his strength. + Moreover, a new and terrible symptom of the utter disintegration of his + physical constitution had presented itself. Imposthumes, from which he had + suffered on the breast and at the joints, had been opened after the usual + ripening applications, and the result was not the hoped relief, but swarms + of vermin, innumerable in quantities, and impossible to extirpate, which + were thus generated and reproduced in the monarch's blood and flesh. + </p> + <p> + The details of the fearful disorder may have attraction for the + pathologist, but have no especial interest for the general reader. Let it + suffice, that no torture ever invented by Torquemada or Peter Titelman to + serve the vengeance of Philip and his ancestors or the pope against the + heretics of Italy or Flanders, could exceed in acuteness the agonies which + the most Catholic king was now called upon to endure. And not one of the + long line of martyrs, who by decree of Charles or Philip had been + strangled, beheaded, burned, or buried alive, ever faced a death of + lingering torments with more perfect fortitude, or was sustained by more + ecstatic visions of heavenly mercy, than was now the case with the great + monarch of Spain. + </p> + <p> + That the grave-worms should do their office before soul and body were + parted, was a torment such as the imagination of Dante might have invented + for the lowest depths of his "Inferno." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [A great English poet has indeed expressed the horrible thought:— + + "It is as if the dead could feel + The icy worm about them steal:"—BYRON.] +</pre> + <p> + On the 22nd July, the king asked Dr. Mercado if his sickness was likely to + have a fatal termination. The physician, not having the courage at once to + give the only possible reply, found means to evade the question. On the + 1st August his Majesty's confessor, father Diego de Yepes, after + consultation with Mercado, announced to Philip that the only issue to his + malady was death. Already he had been lying for ten days on his back, a + mass of sores and corruption, scarcely able to move, and requiring four + men to turn him in his bed. + </p> + <p> + He expressed the greatest satisfaction at the sincerity which had now been + used, and in the gentlest and most benignant manner signified his thanks + to them for thus removing all doubts from his mind, and for giving him + information which it was of so much importance for his eternal welfare to + possess. + </p> + <p> + His first thought was to request the papal nuncio, Gaetano, to despatch a + special courier to Rome to request the pope's benediction. This was done, + and it was destined that the blessing of his Holiness should arrive in + time. + </p> + <p> + He next prepared himself to make a general confession, which lasted three + days, father Diego having drawn up at his request a full and searching + interrogatory. The confession may have been made the more simple, however, + by the statement which he made to the priest, and subsequently repeated to + the Infante his son, that in all his life he had never consciously done + wrong to any one. If he had ever committed an act of injustice, it was + unwittingly, or because he had been deceived in the circumstances. This + internal conviction of general righteousness was of great advantage to him + in the midst of his terrible sufferings, and accounted in great degree for + the gentleness, thoughtfulness for others, and perfect benignity, which, + according to the unanimous testimony of many witnesses, characterised his + conduct during this whole sickness. + </p> + <p> + After he had completed his long general confession, the sacrament of the + Lord's Supper was administered to him. Subsequently, the same rites were + more briefly performed every few days. + </p> + <p> + His sufferings were horrible, but no saint could have manifested in them + more gentle resignation or angelic patience. He moralized on the condition + to which the greatest princes might thus be brought at last by the hand of + God, and bade the prince observe well his father's present condition, in + order that, when he too should be laid thus low, he might likewise be + sustained by a conscience void of offence. He constantly thanked his + assistants and nurses for their care, insisted upon their reposing + themselves after their daily fatigues, and ordered others to relieve them + in their task. + </p> + <p> + He derived infinite consolation from the many relics of saints, of which, + as has been seen, he had made plentiful prevision during his long reign. + Especially a bone of St. Alban, presented to him by Clement VIII., in view + of his present straits, was of great service. With this relic, and with + the arm of St. Vincent of Ferrara, and the knee-bone of St. Sebastian, he + daily rubbed his sores, keeping the sacred talismans ever in his sight on + the altar, which was not far from his bed. He was much pleased when the + priests and other bystanders assured him that the remains of these holy + men would be of special efficacy to him, because he had cherished and + worshipped them in times when misbelievers and heretics had treated them + with disrespect. + </p> + <p> + On a sideboard in his chamber a human skull was placed, and upon this + skull—in ghastly mockery of royalty, in truth, yet doubtless in the + conviction that such an exhibition showed the superiority of anointed + kings even over death—he ordered his servants to place a golden + crown. And thus, during the whole of his long illness, the Antic held his + state, while the poor mortal representative of absolute power lay living + still, but slowly mouldering away. + </p> + <p> + With perfect composure, and with that minute attention to details which + had characterised the king all his lifetime, and was now more evident than + ever, he caused the provisions for his funeral obsequies to be read aloud + one day by Juan Ruys de Velasco, in order that his children, his + ministers, and the great officers of state who were daily in attendance + upon him, might thoroughly learn their lesson before the time came for + performing the ceremony. + </p> + <p> + "Having governed my kingdom for forty years," said he, "I now give it + back, in the seventy-first year of my age, to God Almighty, to whom it + belongs, recommending my soul into His blessed hands, that His Divine + Majesty may do what He pleases therewith." + </p> + <p> + He then directed that after his body should have been kept as long as the + laws prescribed, it should be buried thus:— + </p> + <p> + The officiating bishop was to head the procession, bearing the crucifix, + and followed by the clergy. + </p> + <p> + The Adelantado was to come next, trailing the royal standard along the + ground. Then the Duke of Novara was to appear, bearing the crown on an + open salver, covered with a black cloth, while the Marquis of Avillaer + carried the sword of state. + </p> + <p> + The coffin was to be borne by eight principal grandees, clad in mourning + habiliments, and holding lighted torches. + </p> + <p> + The heir apparent was to follow, attended by Don Garcia de Loyasa, who had + just been consecrated, in the place of Cardinal Albert, as Archbishop of + Toledo. + </p> + <p> + The body was to be brought to the church, and placed in the stately tomb + already prepared for its reception. "Mass being performed," said the king, + "the prelate shall place me in the grave which shall be my last house + until I go to my eternal dwelling. Then the prince, third king of my name, + shall go into the cloister of St. Jerome at Madrid, where he shall keep + nine days mourning. My daughter, and her aunt—my sister, the + ex-empress—shall for the same purpose go to the convent of the grey + sisters." + </p> + <p> + The king then charged his successor to hold the Infanta in especial + affection and consideration; "for," said he, "she has been my mirror, yea; + the light of my eyes." He also ordered that the Marquis of Mondejar be + taken from prison and set free, on condition never to show himself at + Court. The wife of Antonio Perez was also to be released from prison, in + order that she might be immured in a cloister, her property being bestowed + upon her daughters. + </p> + <p> + As this unfortunate lady's only crime consisted in her husband's intrigue + with the king's mistress, Princess Eboli, in which she could scarcely be + considered an accomplice, this permission to exchange one form of + incarceration for another did not seem an act of very great benignity. + </p> + <p> + Philip further provided that thirty thousand masses should be said for his + soul, five hundred slaves liberated from the galleys, and five hundred + maidens provided with marriage portions. + </p> + <p> + After these elaborate instructions had been read, the king ordered a + certain casket to be brought to him and opened in his presence. From this + he took forth a diamond of great price and gave it to the Infanta, saying + that it had belonged to her mother, Isabella of France. He asked the + prince if he consented to the gift. The prince answered in the + affirmative. + </p> + <p> + He next took from the coffer a written document, which he handed to his + son, saying, "Herein you will learn how to govern your kingdoms." + </p> + <p> + Then he produced a scourge, which he said was the instrument with which + his father, the emperor, had been in the habit of chastising himself + during his retreat at the monastery of Juste. He told the by-standers to + observe the imperial blood by which the lash was still slightly stained. + </p> + <p> + As the days wore on he felt himself steadily sinking, and asked to receive + extreme unction. As he had never seen that rite performed he chose to + rehearse it beforehand, and told Ruys Velasco; who was in constant + attendance upon him, to go for minute instructions on the subject to the + Archbishop of Toledo. The sacrament having been duly. administered; the + king subsequently, on the 1st September, desired to receive it once more. + The archbishop, fearing that the dying monarch's strength would be + insufficient for the repetition of the function, informed him that the + regulations of the Church required in such cases only a compliance with + certain trifling forms, as the ceremony had been already once thoroughly + carried out. But the king expressed himself as quite determined that the + sacrament should be repeated in all its parts; that he should once more—be + anointed—to use the phrase of brother Francis Neyen—with the + oil which holy athletes require in their wrestle with death. + </p> + <p> + This was accordingly done in the presence of his son and daughter, and, of + his chief secretaries, Christopher de Moura and John de Idiaquez, besides + the Counts Chinchon, Fuensalido, and several other conspicuous personages. + He was especially desirous that his son should be present, in order that; + when he too should come to die, he might not find himself, like his + father, in ignorance of the manner in which this last sacrament was to be + performed. + </p> + <p> + When it was finished he described himself as infinitely consoled, and as + having derived even more happiness from the rite than he had dared to + anticipate. + </p> + <p> + Thenceforth he protested that he would talk no more of the world's + affairs. He had finished with all things below, and for the days or hours + still remaining to him he would keep his heart exclusively fixed upon + Heaven. Day by day as he lay on his couch of unutterable and almost + unexampled misery, his confessors and others read to him from religious + works, while with perfect gentleness he would insist that one reader + should relieve another, that none might be fatigued. + </p> + <p> + On the 11th September he dictated these words to Christopher de Moura, who + was to take them to Diego de Yepes, the confessor:— + </p> + <p> + "Father Confessor, you are in the place of God, and I protest thus before + His presence that I will do all that you declare necessary for my + salvation. Thus upon you will be the responsibility for my omissions, + because I am ready to do all." + </p> + <p> + Finding that the last hour was approaching, he informed Don Fernando de + Toledo where: he could find some candles of our lady of Montserrat, one of + which he desired to keep in his hand at the supreme moment. He also + directed Ruys de Velasco to take from a special shrine—which he had + indicated to him six years before—a crucifix which the emperor his + father had held upon his death-bed. All this was accomplished according to + his wish. + </p> + <p> + He had already made arrangements for his funeral procession, and had + subsequently provided all the details of his agony. It was now necessary + to give orders as to the particulars of his burial. + </p> + <p> + He knew that decomposition had made such progress even while he was still + living as to render embalming impossible: He accordingly instructed Don + Christopher to see his body wrapped in a shroud just as it lay, and to + cause it to be placed in a well-soldered metallic coffin already provided. + The coffin of state, in which the leaden one was to be enclosed, was then + brought into the chamber by his command, that he might see if it was + entirely to his taste. Having examined it, he ordered that it should be + lined with white satin and ornamented with gold nails and lace-work. He + also described a particular brocade of black and gold, to be found in the + jewelroom, which he desired for the pall. + </p> + <p> + Next morning he complained to Don Christopher that the Sacrament of the + Lord's Supper had not been administered to him for several days. It was + urged that his strength was deemed insufficient, and that, as he had + received that rite already four times during his illness, and extreme + unction twice, it was thought that the additional fatigue might be spared + him. But as the king insisted, the sacrament was once more performed and + prayers were read. He said with great fervour many times, "Pater, non mea + voluntas, sed tux fiat." He listened, too, with much devotion to the + Psalm, "As the hart panteth for the water-brooks;" and he spoke faintly at + long intervals of the Magdalen, of the prodigal son, and of the paralytic. + </p> + <p> + When these devotional exercises had been concluded, father Diego expressed + the hope to him that he might then pass away, for it would be a misfortune + by temporary convalescence to fall from the exaltation of piety which he + had then reached. The remark was heard by Philip with an expression of + entire satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + That day both the Infanta and the prince came for the last time to his + bedside to receive his blessing. He tenderly expressed his regret to his + daughter that he had not been permitted to witness her marriage, but + charged her never to omit any exertion to augment and sustain the holy + Roman Catholic religion in the Netherlands. It was in the interest of that + holy Church alone that he had endowed her with those provinces, and he now + urged it upon her with his dying breath to impress upon her future husband + these his commands to both. + </p> + <p> + His two children took leave of him with tears and sobs: As the prince left + the chamber he asked Don Christopher who it was that held the key to the + treasury. + </p> + <p> + The secretary replied, "It is I, Sir." The prince demanded that he should + give it into his hands. But Don Christopher excused himself, saying that + it had been entrusted to him by the king, and that without his consent he + could not part with it. Then the prince returned to the king's chamber, + followed by the secretary, who narrated to the dying monarch what had + taken place. + </p> + <p> + "You have done wrong," said Philip; whereupon Don Christopher, bowing to + the earth, presented the key to the prince. + </p> + <p> + The king then feebly begged those about his bedside to repeat the dying + words of our Saviour on the cross, in order that he might hear them and + repeat them in his heart as his soul was taking flight. + </p> + <p> + His father's crucifix was placed in his hands, and he said distinctly, "I + die like a good Catholic, in faith and obedience to the holy Roman + Church." Soon after these last words had been spoken, a paroxysm, followed + by faintness, came over him, and he lay entirely still. + </p> + <p> + They had covered his face with a cloth, thinking that he had already + expired, when he suddenly started, with great energy, opened his eyes, + seized the crucifix again from the hand of Don Fernando de Toledo, kissed + it, and fell back again into agony. + </p> + <p> + The archbishop and the other priests expressed the opinion that he must + have had, not a paroxysm, but a celestial vision, for human powers would + not have enabled him to arouse himself so quickly and so vigorously as he + had done at that crisis. + </p> + <p> + He did not speak again, but lay unconsciously dying for some hours, and + breathed his last at five in the morning of Sunday the 13th September. + </p> + <p> + His obsequies were celebrated according to the directions which he had so + minutely given. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —————————————————— +</pre> + <p> + These volumes will have been written in vain if it be now necessary to + recal to my readers the leading events in the history of the man who had + thus left the world where, almost invisible himself, he had so long played + a leading part. It may not be entirely useless, however, to throw a + parting glance at a character which it has been one of the main objects of + this work, throughout its whole course, to portray. My theme has been the + reign of Philip II., because, as the less is included in the greater, the + whole of that reign, with the exception of a few episodes, is included in + the vast movement out of which the Republic of the United Netherlands was + born and the assailed independence of France and England consolidated. The + result of Philip's efforts to establish a universal monarchy was to hasten + the decline of the empire which he had inherited, by aggravating the evils + which had long made that downfall inevitable. + </p> + <p> + It is from no abstract hatred to monarchy that I have dwelt with emphasis + upon the crimes of this king, and upon the vices of the despotic system, + as illustrated during his lifetime. It is not probable that the military, + monarchical system—founded upon conquests achieved by barbarians and + pirates of a distant epoch over an effete civilization and over antique + institutions of intolerable profligacy—will soon come to an end in + the older world. And it is the business of Europeans so to deal with the + institutions of their inheritance or their choice as to ensure their + steady melioration and to provide for the highest interests of the people. + It matters comparatively little by what name a government is called, so + long as the intellectual and moral development of mankind, and the + maintenance of justice among individuals, are its leading principles. A + government, like an individual, may remain far below its ideal; but, + without an ideal, governments and individuals are alike contemptible. It + is tyranny only—whether individual or popular—that utters its + feeble sneers at the ideologists, as if mankind were brutes to whom + instincts were all in all and ideas nothing. Where intellect and justice + are enslaved by that unholy trinity—Force; Dogma, and Ignorance—the + tendency of governments, and of those subjected to them, must of necessity + be retrograde and downward. + </p> + <p> + There can be little doubt to those who observe the movements of mankind + during the course of the fourteen centuries since the fall of the Roman + Empire—a mere fragment of human history—that its progress, + however concealed or impeded, and whether for weal or woe, is towards + democracy; for it is the tendency of science to liberate and to equalize + the physical and even the intellectual forces of humanity. A horse and a + suit of armour would now hardly enable the fortunate possessor of such + advantages to conquer a kingdom, nor can wealth and learning be + monopolised in these latter days by a favoured few. Yet veneration for a + crown and a privileged church—as if without them and without their + close connection with each other law and religion were impossible—makes + hereditary authority sacred to great masses of mankind in the old world. + The obligation is the more stringent, therefore, on men thus set apart as + it were by primordial selection for ruling and instructing their + fellow-creatures, to keep their edicts and their practice in harmony with + divine justice. For these rules cannot be violated with impunity during + along succession of years, and it is usually left for a comparatively + innocent generation, to atone for the sins of their forefathers. If + history does not teach this it teaches nothing, and as the rules of + morality; whether for individuals or for nations, are simple and devoid of + mystery; there is the less excuse for governments which habitually and + cynically violate the eternal law. + </p> + <p> + Among self-evident truths not one is more indisputable than that which, in + the immortal words of our Declaration of Independence, asserts the right + of every human being to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; but + the only happiness that can be recognised by a true statesman as the + birthright of mankind is that which comes from intellectual and moral + development, and from the subjugation of the brutal instincts. + </p> + <p> + A system according to which clowns remain clowns through all the ages, + unless when extraordinary genius or fortunate accident enables an + exceptional individual to overleap the barrier of caste, necessarily + retards the result to which the philosopher looks forward with perfect + faith. + </p> + <p> + For us, whose business it is to deal with, and, so far as human + fallibility will permit, to improve our inevitable form of + government-which may degenerate into the most intolerable of polities + unless we are ever mindful that it is yet in its rudimental condition; + that, although an immense step has been taken in the right direction by + the abolition of caste, the divorce of Church and State, and the + limitation of intrusion by either on the domain of the individual, it is + yet only a step from which, without eternal vigilance, a falling back is + very easy; and that here, more than in other lands, ignorance of the + scientific and moral truths on—which national happiness and + prosperity depend, deserves bitter denunciation—for us it is + wholesome to confirm our faith in democracy, and to justify our hope that + the People will prove itself equal to the awful responsibility of + self-government by an occasional study of the miseries which the opposite + system is capable of producing. It is for this reason that the reign of + the sovereign whose closing moments have just been recorded is especially + worthy of a minute examination, and I still invite a parting glance at the + spectacle thus presented, before the curtain falls. + </p> + <p> + The Spanish monarchy in the reign of Philip II. was not only the most + considerable empire then existing, but probably the most powerful and + extensive empire that had ever been known. Certainly never before had so + great an agglomeration of distinct and separate sovereignties been the + result of accident. For it was owing to a series of accidents—in the + common acceptation of that term—that Philip governed so mighty a + realm. According to the principle that vast tracts: of the earth's + surface, with the human beings feeding upon: them, were transferable in + fee-simple from one man or woman to another by marriage, inheritance, or + gift, a heterogeneous collection of kingdoms, principalities, provinces, + and: wildernesses had been consolidated, without geographical continuity, + into an artificial union—the populations differing from each other + as much as human beings can differ, in race, language, institutions, and + historical traditions, and resembling each other in little, save in being + the property alike of the same fortunate individual. + </p> + <p> + Thus the dozen kingdoms of Spain, the seventeen provinces of the + Netherlands, the kingdoms of the Two Sicilies, the duchy of Milan, and + certain fortresses and districts of Tuscany, in Europe; the kingdom of + Barbary, the coast of Guinea, and an indefinite and unmeasured expanse. of + other territory, in Africa; the controlling outposts and cities all along + the coast of the two Indian peninsulas, with as much of the country as it + seemed good to occupy, the straits and the great archipelagoes, so far as + they had—been visited by Europeans, in Asia; Peru, Brazil, Mexico, + the Antilles—the whole recently discovered fourth quarter of the + world in short, from the "Land of Fire" in the South to the frozen regions + of the North—as much territory as the Spanish and Portuguese + sea-captains could circumnavigate and the pope in the plentitude of his + power and his generosity could bestow on his fortunate son, in America; + all this enormous proportion of the habitable globe was the private + property, of Philip; who was the son of Charles, who was the son of + Joanna, who was the daughter of Isabella, whose husband was Ferdinand. By + what seems to us the most whimsical of political arrangements, the Papuan + islander, the Calabrian peasant, the Amsterdam merchant, the + semi-civilized Aztec, the Moor of Barbary, the Castilian grandee, the + roving Camanche, the Guinea negro, the Indian Brahmin, found themselves—could + they but have known it—fellow-citizens of one commonwealth. Statutes + of family descent, aided by fraud, force, and chicane, had annexed the + various European sovereignties to the crown of Spain; the genius of a + Genoese sailor had given to it the New World, and more recently the + conquest of Portugal, torn from hands not strong enough to defend the + national independence, had vested in the same sovereignty those Oriental + possessions which were due to the enterprise of Vasco de Gama, his + comrades and successors. The voyager, setting forth from the straits of + Gibraltar, circumnavigating the African headlands and Cape Comorin, and + sailing through the Molucca channel and past the isles which bore the name + of Philip in the Eastern sea, gave the hand at last to his adventurous + comrade, who, starting from the same point, and following westward in the + track of Magellaens and under the Southern Cross, coasted the shore of + Patagonia, and threaded his path through unmapped and unnumbered clusters + of islands in the Western Pacific; and during this spanning of the earth's + whole circumference not an inch of land or water was traversed that was + not the domain of Philip. + </p> + <p> + For the sea, too, was his as well as the dry land. + </p> + <p> + From Borneo to California the great ocean was but a Spanish lake, as much + the king's private property as his fish-ponds at the Escorial with their + carp and perch. No subjects but his dared to navigate those sacred waters. + Not a common highway of the world's commerce, but a private path for the + gratification of one human being's vanity, had thus been laid out by the + bold navigators of the sixteenth century. + </p> + <p> + It was for the Dutch rebels to try conclusions upon this point, as they + had done upon so many others, with the master of the land and sea. The + opening scenes therefore in the great career of maritime adventure and + discovery by which these republicans were to make themselves famous will + soon engage the reader's attention. + </p> + <p> + Thus the causes of what is called the greatness of Spain are not far to + seek. Spain was not a nation, but a temporary and factitious conjunction + of several nations, which it was impossible to fuse into a permanent + whole, but over whose united resources a single monarch for a time + disposed. And the very concentration of these vast and unlimited, powers, + fortuitous as it was, in this single hand, inspiring the individual, not + unnaturally, with a consciousness of superhuman grandeur; impelled him to + those frantic and puerile efforts to achieve the impossible which + resulted, in the downfall of Spain. The man who inherited so much material + greatness believed himself capable of destroying the invisible but + omnipotent spirit of religious and political liberty in the Netherlands, + of trampling out the national existence of France and of England, and of + annexing those realms to his empire: It has been my task to relate, with + much minuteness, how miserably his efforts failed. + </p> + <p> + But his resources were great. All Italy was in his hands, with the single + exception of the Venetian republic; for the Grand Duke of Florence and the + so-called republic of Genoa were little more than his vassals, the pope + was generally his other self, and the Duke of Savoy was his son-in-law. + Thus his armies, numbering usually a hundred thousand men, were supplied + from the best possible sources. The Italians were esteemed the best + soldiers for siege; assault, light skirmishing. The German heavy troopers + and arquebuseers were the most effective for open field-work, and these + were to be purchased at reasonable prices and to indefinite amount from + any of the three or four hundred petty sovereigns to whom what was called + Germany belonged. The Sicilian and Neapolitan pikemen, the Milanese + light-horse, belonged exclusively to Philip, and were used, year after + year, for more than a generation of mankind, to fight battles in which + they had no more interest than had their follow-subjects in the Moluccas + or in Mexico, but which constituted for them personally as lucrative a + trade on the whole as was afforded them at that day by any branch of + industry. + </p> + <p> + Silk, corn, wine, and oil were furnished in profusion from these favoured + regions, not that the inhabitants might enjoy life, and, by accumulating + wealth, increase the stock of human comforts and contribute to + intellectual and scientific advancement, but in order that the proprietor + of the soil might feed those eternal armies ever swarming from the south + to scatter desolation over the plains of France, Burgundy, Flanders, and + Holland, and to make the crown of Spain and the office of the Holy + Inquisition supreme over the world. From Naples and Sicily were derived in + great plenty the best materials and conveniences for ship-building and + marine equipment. The galleys and the galley-slaves furnished by these + subject realms formed the principal part of the royal navy. From distant + regions, a commerce which in Philip's days had become oceanic supplied the + crown with as much revenue as could be expected in a period of gross + ignorance as to the causes of the true grandeur and the true wealth of + nations. Especially from the mines of Mexico came an annual average of ten + or twelve millions of precious metals, of which the king took twenty-five + per cent. for himself. + </p> + <p> + It would be difficult and almost superfluous to indicate the various + resources placed in the hands of this one personage, who thus controlled + so large a portion of the earth. All that breathed or grew belonged to + him, and most steadily was the stream of blood and treasure poured through + the sieve of his perpetual war. His system was essentially a gigantic and + perpetual levy of contributions in kind, and it is only in this vague and + unsatisfactory manner that the revenues of his empire can be stated. A + despot really keeps no accounts, nor need to do so, for he is responsible + to no man for the way in which he husbands or squanders his own. Moreover, + the science of statistics had not a beginning of existence in those days, + and the most common facts can hardly be obtained, even by approximation. + The usual standard of value, the commodity which we call money—gold + or silver—is well known to be at best a fallacious guide for + estimating the comparative wealth—of individuals or of nations at + widely different epochs. The dollar of Philip's day was essentially the + same bit of silver that it is in our time in Spain, Naples, Rome, or + America, but even should an elaborate calculation be made as to the + quantity of beef, or bread or broadcloth to be obtained for that bit of + silver in this or that place in the middle of the sixteenth century, the + result, as compared with prices now prevalent, would show many remarkable + discrepancies. Thus a bushel of wheat at Antwerp during Philip's reign + might cost a quarter of a dollar, in average years, and there have been + seasons in our own time when two bushels of wheat could have been bought + for a quarter of a dollar in Illinois. Yet if, notwithstanding this, we + should allow a tenfold value in exchange to the dollar of Philip's day, we + should be surprised at the meagreness of his revenues, of his + expenditures, and of the debts which at the close of his career brought + him to bankruptcy; were the sums estimated in coin. + </p> + <p> + Thus his income was estimated by careful contemporary statesmen at what + seemed to them the prodigious annual amount of sixteen millions of + dollars. He carried on a vast war without interruption during the whole of + his forty-three years' reign against the most wealthy and military nations + of Christendom not recognising his authority, and in so doing he is said + to have expended a sum total of seven hundred millions of dollars—a + statement which made men's hair stand on their heads. Yet the American + republic, during its civil war to repress the insurrection of the + slaveholders, has spent nominally as large a sum as this every year; and + the British Empire in time of profound peace spends half as much annually. + And even if we should allow sixteen millions to have represented the value + of a hundred and sixty millions—a purely arbitrary supposition—as + compared with our times, what are a hundred and sixty, millions of + dollars, or thirty-three millions of pounds sterling—as the whole + net revenue of the greatest empire that had ever existed in the world, + when compared with the accumulated treasures over which civilized and + industrious countries can now dispose? Thus the power of levying men and + materials in kind constituted the chief part of the royal power, and, in + truth, very little revenue in money was obtained from Milan or Naples, or + from any of the outlying European possessions of the crown. + </p> + <p> + Eight millions a year were estimated as the revenue from the eight + kingdoms incorporated under the general name of Castile, while not more + than six hundred thousand came from the three kingdoms which constituted + Arragon. The chief sources of money receipts were a tax of ten per cent. + upon sales, paid by the seller, called Alcavala, and the Almoxarifalgo or + tariff upon both imports and exports. Besides these imposts he obtained + about eight hundred thousand dollars a year by selling to his subjects the + privilege of eating eggs upon fast-days, according to the permission + granted him by the pope, in the bull called the Cruzada. He received + another annual million from the Sussidio and the Excusado. The first was a + permission originally given by the popes to levy six hundred thousand + dollars a year upon ecclesiastical property for equipment of a hundred + war-galleys against the Saracens, but which had more recently established + itself as a regular tax to pay for naval hostilities against Dutch and + English heretics—a still more malignant species of unbelievers in + the orthodox eyes of the period. The Excusado was the right accorded to + the king always to select from the Church possessions a single benefice + and to appropriate its fruit—a levy commuted generally for four + hundred thousand dollars a year. Besides these regular sources of income, + large but irregular amounts of money were picked up by his Majesty in + small sums, through monks sent about the country simply as beggars, under + no special license, to collect alms from rich and poor for sustaining the + war against the infidels of England and Holland. A certain Jesuit, father + Sicily by name, had been industrious enough at one period in preaching + this crusade to accumulate more than a million and a half, so that a + facetious courtier advised his sovereign to style himself thenceforth + king, not of the two, but of the three Sicilies, in honour of the + industrious priest. + </p> + <p> + It is worthy of remark that at different periods during Philip's reign, + and especially towards its close, the whole of his regular revenue was + pledged to pay the interest, on his debts, save only the Sussidio and the + Cruzada. Thus the master of the greatest empire of the earth had at times + no income at his disposal except the alma he could solicit from his + poorest subjects to maintain his warfare against foreign miscreants, the + levy on the Church for war-galleys; and the proceeds of his permission to + eat meat on Fridays. This sounds like an epigram, but it is a plain, + incontestable fact. + </p> + <p> + Thus the revenues of his foreign dominions being nearly consumed by their + necessary expenses, the measure of his positive wealth was to be found in + the riches of Spain. But Spain at that day was not an opulent country. It + was impossible that it should be rich, for nearly every law, according to + which the prosperity of a country becomes progressive; was habitually + violated. It is difficult to state even by approximation the amount of its + population, but the kingdoms united under the crown of Castile were + estimated by contemporaries to contain eight millions, while the kingdom + of Portugal, together with those annexed to Arragon and the other + provinces of the realm, must have numbered half as many. Here was a + populous nation in a favoured land, but the foundation of all wealth was + sapped by a perverted moral sentiment. + </p> + <p> + Labour was esteemed dishonourable. The Spaniard, from highest to lowest, + was proud, ignorant, and lazy. For a people endowed by nature with many + noble qualities—courage, temperance, frugality, endurance, quickness + of perception; a high sense of honour, a reverence for law—the + course of the national history had proved as ingeniously bad a system of + general education as could well be invented. + </p> + <p> + The eternal contests, century after century, upon the soil of Spain + between the crescent and the cross, and the remembrance of the ancient + days in which Oriental valour and genius had almost extirpated Germanic + institutions and Christian faith from the peninsula, had inspired one + great portion of the masses with a hatred, amounting almost to insanity, + towards every form of religion except the Church of Rome, towards every + race of mankind except the Goths and Vandals. Innate reverence for + established authority had expanded into an intensity of religious emotion + and into a fanaticism of loyalty which caused the anointed monarch leading + true believers against infidels to be accepted as a god. The highest + industrial and scientific civilization that had been exhibited upon + Spanish territory was that of Moors and Jews. When in the course of time + those races had been subjugated, massacred, or driven into exile, not only + was Spain deprived of its highest intellectual culture and its most + productive labour, but intelligence, science, and industry were accounted + degrading, because the mark of inferior and detested peoples. + </p> + <p> + The sentiment of self-esteem, always a national characteristic, assumed an + almost ludicrous shape. Not a ragged Biscayan muleteer, not a swineherd of + Estremadura, that did not imagine himself a nobleman because he was not of + African descent. Not a half-starved, ignorant brigand, gaining his living + on the highways and byways by pilfering or assassination, that did not + kneel on the church pavement and listen to orisons in an ancient tongue, + of which he understood not a syllable, with a sentiment of Christian + self-complacency to which Godfrey of Bouillon might have been a stranger. + Especially those born towards the northern frontier, and therefore + farthest removed from Moorish contamination, were proudest of the purity + of their race. To be an Asturian or a Gallician, however bronzed by sun + and wind, was to be furnished with positive proof against suspicion of + Moorish blood; but the sentiment was universal throughout the peninsula. + </p> + <p> + It followed as a matter of course that labour of any kind was an + impeachment against this gentility of descent. To work was the province of + Moors, Jews, and other heretics; of the Marani or accursed, miscreants and + descendants of miscreants; of the Sanbeniti or infamous, wretches whose + ancestors had been convicted by the Holy Inquisition of listening, however + secretly, to the Holy Scriptures as expounded by other lips than those of + Roman priests. And it is a remarkable illustration of this degradation of + labour and of its results, that in the reign of Philip twenty-five + thousand individuals of these dishonoured and comparatively industrious + classes, then computed at four millions in number in the Castilian + kingdoms alone, had united in a society which made a formal offer to the + king to pay him two thousand dollars a head if the name and privileges of + hidalgo could be conferred upon them. Thus an inconsiderable number of + this vilest and most abject of the population—oppressed by taxation + which was levied exclusively upon the low, and from which not only the + great nobles but mechanics and other hidalgos were, exempt—had been + able to earn and to lay by enough to offer the monarch fifty millions of + dollars to purchase themselves out of semi-slavery into manhood, and yet + found their offer rejected by an almost insolvent king. Nothing could + exceed the idleness and the frivolity of the upper classes, as depicted by + contemporary and not unfriendly observers. The nobles were as idle and as + ignorant as their inferiors. They were not given to tournays nor to the + delights of the chase and table, but were fond of brilliant festivities, + dancing, gambling, masquerading, love-making, and pompous exhibitions of + equipage, furniture, and dress. These diversions—together with the + baiting of bulls and the burning of Protestants—made up their simple + round of pleasures. When they went to the wars they scorned all positions + but that of general, whether by land or sea, and as war is a trade which + requires an apprenticeship; it is unnecessary to observe that these + grandees were rarely able to command, having never learned to obey. The + poorer Spaniards were most honourably employed perhaps—so far as + their own mental development was concerned—when they were sent with + pike and arquebus to fight heretics in France and Flanders. They became + brave and indomitable soldiers when exported to the seat of war, and thus + afforded proof—by strenuously doing the hardest physical work that + human beings can be called upon to perform, campaigning year after year + amid the ineffable deprivations, dangers, and sufferings which are the + soldier's lot—that it was from no want of industry or capacity that + the lower masses of Spaniards in that age were the idle, listless, + dice-playing, begging, filching vagabonds into which cruel history and + horrible institutions had converted them at home. + </p> + <p> + It is only necessary to recal these well-known facts to understand why one + great element of production—human labour—was but meagrely + supplied. It had been the deliberate policy of the Government for ages to + extirpate the industrious classes, and now that a great portion of Moors + and Jews were exiles and outcasts, it was impossible to supply their place + by native workmen. Even the mechanics, who condescended to work with their + hands in the towns, looked down alike upon those who toiled in the field + and upon those who, attempted to grow rich by traffic. A locksmith or a + wheelwright who could prove four descents of western, blood called himself + a son of somebody—a hidalgo—and despised the farmer and the + merchant. And those very artisans were careful not to injure themselves by + excessive industry, although not reluctant by exorbitant prices to acquire + in one or-two days what might seem a fair remuneration for a week, and to + impress upon their customers that it was rather by way of favour that they + were willing to serve them at all. + </p> + <p> + Labour being thus deficient, it is obvious that there could hardly have + been a great accumulation, according to modern ideas, of capital. That + other chief element of national wealth, which is the result of generations + of labour and of abstinence, was accordingly not abundant. And even those + accretions of capital, which in the course of centuries had been + inevitable, were as clumsily and inadequately diffused as the most + exquisite human perverseness could desire. If the object of civil and + political institutions had been to produce the greatest ill to the + greatest number, that object had been as nearly attained at last in Spain + as human imperfection permits; the efforts of government and of custom + coming powerfully to the aid of the historical evils already indicated. + </p> + <p> + It is superfluous to say that the land belonged not to those who lived + upon it—but subject to the pre-eminent right of the crown—to a + small selection of the human species. Moderate holdings, small farms, + peasant proprietorship's, were unknown. Any kind of terrestrial + possession; in short, was as far beyond the reach of those men who held + themselves so haughtily and esteemed themselves so inordinately, as were + the mountains in the moon. + </p> + <p> + The great nobles—and of real grandees of Spain there were but + forty-nine, although the number of titled families was much larger—owned + all the country, except that vast portion of it which had reposed for ages + in the dead-hand of the Church. The law of primogeniture, strictly + enforced, tended with every generation to narrow the basis of society. + Nearly every great estate was an entail, passing from eldest son to eldest + son, until these were exhausted, in which case a daughter transferred the + family possessions to a new house. Thus the capital of the country—meagre + at best in comparison with what it might have been, had industry been + honoured instead of being despised, had the most intelligent and most + diligent classes been cherished rather than hunted to death or into + obscure dens like vermin—was concentrated in very few hands. Not + only was the accumulation less than it should have been, but the + slenderness of its diffusion had nearly amounted to absolute stagnation. + The few possessors of capital wasted their revenues in unproductive + consumption. The millions of the needy never dreamed of the possibility of + deriving benefit from the capital of the rich, nor would have condescended + to employ it, nor known how to employ it, had its use in any form been + vouchsafed to them. The surface of Spain, save only around the few royal + residences, exhibited no splendour of architecture, whether in town or + country, no wonders of agricultural or horticultural skill, no monuments + of engineering and constructive genius in roads, bridges, docks, + warehouses, and other ornamental and useful fabrics, or in any of the + thousand ways in which man facilitates intercourse among his kind and + subdues nature to his will. + </p> + <p> + Yet it can never be too often repeated that it, is only the Spaniard of + the sixteenth century, such as extraneous circumstances had made him, that + is here depicted; that he, even like his posterity and his ancestors, had + been endowed by Nature with some of her noblest gifts. Acuteness of + intellect, wealth of imagination, heroic qualities of heart, and hand, and + brain, rarely surpassed in any race, and manifested on a thousand + battle-fields, and in the triumphs of a magnificent and most original + literature, had not been able to save a whole nation from the disasters + and the degradation which the mere words Philip II, and the Holy + Inquisition suggest to every educated mind. + </p> + <p> + Nor is it necessary for my purpose to measure exactly the space which + separated Spain from the other leading monarchies of the day. That the + standard of civilization was a vastly higher one in England, Holland, or + even France—torn as they all were with perpetual civil war—no + thinker will probably deny; but as it is rather my purpose at this moment + to exhibit the evils which may spring from a perfectly bad monarchical + system, as administered by a perfectly bad king, I prefer not to wander at + present from the country which was ruled for almost half a century by + Philip II. + </p> + <p> + Besides the concentration of a great part of the capital of the country in + a very small number of titled families, still another immense portion of + the national wealth belonged, as already intimated, to the Church. + </p> + <p> + There were eleven archbishops, at the head of whom stood the Archbishop of + Toledo, with the enormous annual revenue of three hundred thousand + dollars. Next to him came the Archbishop of Seville, with one hundred and + fifty thousand dollars yearly, while the income of the others varied from + fifty thousand to twenty thousand dollars respectively. + </p> + <p> + There were sixty-two bishops, with annual incomes ranging from fifty + thousand to six thousand dollars. The churches, also, of these various + episcopates were as richly endowed as the great hierarchs themselves. But + without fatiguing the reader with minute details, it is sufficient to say + that one-third of the whole annual income of Spain and Portugal belonged + to the ecclesiastical body. In return for this enormous proportion of the + earth's fruits, thus placed by the caprice of destiny at their disposal, + these holy men did very little work in the world. They fed their flocks + neither with bread nor with spiritual food. They taught little, preached + little, dispensed little in charity. Very few of the swarming millions of + naked and hungry throughout the land were clothed or nourished out of + these prodigious revenues of the Church. The constant and avowed care of + those prelates was to increase their worldly, possessions, to build up the + fortunes of their respective families, to grow richer and richer at the + expense of the people whom for centuries they had fleeced. Of gross crime, + of public ostentatious immorality, such as had made the Roman priesthood + of that and preceding ages loathsome in the sight of man and God, the + Spanish Church-dignitaries were innocent. Avarice; greediness, and + laziness were their characteristics. It is almost superfluous to say that, + while the ecclesiastical princes were rolling in this almost fabulous + wealth, the subordinate clergy, the mob of working priests, were needy, + half-starved mendicants. + </p> + <p> + From this rapid survey of the condition of the peninsula it will seem less + surprising than it might do at first glance that the revenue of the + greatest monarch of the world was rated at the small amount—even + after due allowance for the difference of general values between the + sixteenth and nineteenth centuries—of sixteen millions of dollars. + The King of Spain was powerful and redoubtable at home and abroad, because + accident had placed the control of a variety of separate realms in his + single hand. At the same time Spain was poor and weak, because she had + lived for centuries in violation of the principles on which the wealth and + strength of nations depend. Moreover, every one of those subject and + violently annexed nations hated Spain with undying fervour, while an + infernal policy—the leading characteristics of which were to sow + dissensions among the nobles, to confiscate their property on all + convenient occasions, and to bestow it upon Spaniards and other + foreigners; to keep the discontented masses in poverty, but to deprive + them of the power or disposition to unite with their superiors in rank in + demonstrations against the crown—had sufficed to suppress any + extensive revolt in the various Italian states united under Philip's + sceptre. Still more intense than the hatred of the Italians was the + animosity which was glowing in every Portuguese breast against the Spanish + sway; while even the Arragonese were only held in subjection by terror, + which, indeed, in one form or another, was the leading instrument of + Philip's government. + </p> + <p> + It is hardly necessary to enlarge upon the regulations of Spain's foreign + commerce; for it will be enough to repeat the phrase that in her eyes the + great ocean from east to west was a Spanish lake, sacred to the ships of + the king's subjects alone. With such a simple code of navigation coming in + aid of the other causes which impoverished the land, it may be believed + that the maritime traffic of the country would dwindle into the same + exiguous proportions which characterised her general industry. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, it should never be forgotten that, although the various kingdoms + of Spain were politically conjoined by their personal union under one + despot, they were commercially distinct. A line of custom-houses separated + each province from the rest, and made the various inhabitants of the + peninsula practically strangers to each other. Thus there was less traffic + between Castile, Biscay, and Arragon than there was between any one of + them and remote foreign nations. The Biscayans, for example, could even + import and export commodities to and from remote countries by sea, free of + duty, while their merchandize to and from Castile was crushed by imposts. + As this ingenious perversity of positive arrangements came to increase the + negative inconveniences caused by the almost total absence of tolerable + roads, canals, bridges, and other means of intercommunication, it may be + imagined that internal traffic—the very life-blood of every + prosperous nation—was very nearly stagnant in Spain. As an + inevitable result, the most thriving branch of national industry was that + of the professional smuggler, who, in the pursuit of his vocation, did his + best to aid Government in sapping the wealth of the nation. + </p> + <p> + The whole accumulated capital of Spain, together with the land—in + the general sense which includes not only the soil but the immovable + property of a country being thus exclusively owned by the crown, the + church, and a very small number of patrician families, while the supply of + labour owing to the special causes which had converted the masses of the + people into paupers ashamed to work but not unwilling to beg or to rob—was + incredibly small, it is obvious that, so long as the same causes continued + in operation, the downfall of the country was a logical result from which + there was no escape. Nothing but a general revolution of mind and hand + against the prevalent system, nothing but some great destructive but + regenerating catastrophe, could redeem the people. + </p> + <p> + And it is the condition of the people which ought always to be the + prominent subject of interest to those who study the records of the Past. + It is only by such study that we can derive instruction from history, and + enable ourselves, however dimly and feebly, to cast the horoscope of + younger nations. Human history, so far as it has been written, is at best + a mere fragment; for the few centuries or year-thousands of which there is + definite record are as nothing compared to the millions of unnumbered + years during which man has perhaps walked the earth. It may be as + practicable therefore to derive instruction from a minute examination in + detail of a very limited period of time and space, and thus to deduce + general rules for the infinite future, during which our species may be + destined to inhabit this planet, as by a more extensive survey, which must + however be at best a limited one. Men die, but Man is immortal, and it + would be a sufficiently forlorn prospect for humanity if we were not able + to discover causes in operation which would ultimately render the system + of Philip II. impossible in any part of the globe. Certainly, were it + otherwise, the study of human history would be the most wearisome and + unprofitable of all conceivable occupations. The festivities of courts, + the magnificence of an aristocracy, the sayings and doings of monarchs and + their servants, the dynastic wars, the solemn treaties; the Ossa upon + Pelion of diplomatic and legislative rubbish by which, in the course of + centuries, a few individuals or combinations of individuals have been able + to obstruct the march of humanity, and have essayed to suspend the + operation of elemental laws—all this contains but little solid food + for grown human beings. The condition of the brave and quickwitted Spanish + people in the latter half of the sixteenth century gives more matter for + reflection and possible instruction. + </p> + <p> + That science is the hope of the world, that ignorance is the real enslaver + of mankind, and therefore the natural ally of every form of despotism, may + be assumed as an axiom, and it was certainly the ignorance and + superstition of the people upon which the Philippian policy was founded. + </p> + <p> + A vast mass, entirely uneducated, half fed, half clothed, unemployed; and + reposing upon a still lower and denser stratum—the millions namely + of the "Accursed," of the Africans, and last and vilest of all, the + "blessed" descendants of Spanish protestants whom the Holy Office had + branded with perpetual infamy because it had burned their progenitors—this + was the People; and it was these paupers and outcasts, nearly the whole + nation, that paid all the imposts of which the public revenue was + composed. The great nobles, priests, and even the hidalgos, were exempt + from taxation. Need more be said to indicate the inevitable ruin of both + government and people? + </p> + <p> + And it was over such a people, and with institutions like these, that + Philip II. was permitted to rule during forty-three years. His power was + absolute. With this single phrase one might as well dismiss any attempt at + specification. He made war or peace at will with foreign nations. He had + power of life and death over all his subjects. He had unlimited control of + their worldly goods. As he claimed supreme jurisdiction over their + religious opinions also, he was master of their minds, bodies, and + estates. As a matter of course, he nominated and removed at will every + executive functionary, every judge, every magistrate, every military or + civil officer; and moreover, he not only selected, according to the + license tacitly conceded to him by the pontiff, every archbishop, bishop, + and other Church dignitary, but, through his great influence at Rome, he + named most of the cardinals, and thus controlled the election of the + popes. The whole machinery of society, political, ecclesiastical, + military, was in his single hand. There was a show of provincial privilege + here and there in different parts of Spain, but it was but the phantom of + that ancient municipal liberty which it had been the especial care of his + father and his great-grandfather to destroy. Most patiently did Philip, by + his steady inactivity, bring about the decay of the last ruins of free + institutions in the peninsula. The councils and legislative assemblies + were convoked and then wearied out in waiting for that royal assent to + their propositions and transactions, which was deferred intentionally, + year after year, and never given. Thus the time of the deputies was + consumed in accomplishing infinite nothing, until the moment arrived when + the monarch, without any violent stroke of state, could feel safe in + issuing decrees and pragmatic edicts; thus reducing the ancient + legislative and consultative bodies to nullity, and substituting the will + of an individual for a constitutional fabric. To criticise the expenses of + government or to attempt interference with the increase of taxation became + a sorry farce. The forms remained in certain provinces after the life had + long since fled. Only in Arragon had the ancient privileges seemed to defy + the absolute authority of the monarch; and it was reserved for Antonio + Perez to be the cause of their final extirpation. The grinning skulls of + the Chief Justice of that kingdom and of the boldest and noblest advocates + and defenders of the national liberties, exposed for years in the + market-place, with the record of their death-sentence attached, informed + the Spaniards, in language which the most ignorant could read, that the + crime of defending a remnant of human freedom and constitutional law was + sure to draw down condign punishment. It was the last time in that age + that even the ghost of extinct liberty was destined to revisit the soil of + Spain. It mattered not that the immediate cause for pursuing Perez was his + successful amour with the king's Mistress, nor that the crime of which he + was formally accused was the deadly offence of Calvinism, rather than his + intrigue with the Eboli and his assassination of Escovedo; for it was in + the natural and simple sequence of events that the last vestige of law or + freedom should be obliterated wherever Philip could vindicate his sway. It + must be admitted, too, that the king seized this occasion to strike a + decisive blow with a promptness very different from his usual artistic + sluggishness. Rarely has a more terrible epigram been spoken by man than + the royal words which constituted the whole trial and sentence of the + Chief Justice of Arragon, for the crime of defending the law of his + country: "You will take John of Lanuza, and you will have his head cut + off." This was the end of the magistrate and of the constitution which he + had defended. + </p> + <p> + His power, was unlimited. A man endowed with genius and virtue, and + possessing the advantages of a consummate education, could have perhaps + done little more than attempt to mitigate the general misery, and to + remove some of its causes. For it is one of the most pernicious dogmas of + the despotic system, and the one which the candid student of history + soonest discovers to be false, that the masses of mankind are to look to + any individual, however exalted by birth or intellect, for their + redemption. Woe to the world if the nations are never to learn that their + fate is and ought to be in their own hands; that their institutions, + whether liberal or despotic, are the result of the national biography and + of the national character, not the work of a few individuals whose names + have been preserved by capricious Accident as heroes and legislators. Yet + there is no doubt that, while comparatively powerless for good, the + individual despot is capable of almost infinite mischief. There have been + few men known to history who have been able to accomplish by their own + exertions so vast an amount of evil as the king who had just died. If + Philip possessed a single virtue it has eluded the conscientious research + of the writer of these pages. If there are vices—as possibly there + are from which he was exempt, it is because it is not permitted to human + nature to attain perfection even in evil. The only plausible explanation—for + palliation there is none—of his infamous career is that the man + really believed himself not a king but a god. He was placed so high above + his fellow-creatures as, in good faith perhaps, to believe himself + incapable of doing wrong; so that, whether indulging his passions or + enforcing throughout the world his religious and political dogmas, he was + ever conscious of embodying divine inspirations and elemental laws. When + providing for the assassination of a monarch, or commanding the massacre + of a townfull of Protestants; when trampling on every oath by which a + human being can bind himself; when laying desolate with fire and sword, + during more than a generation, the provinces which he had inherited as his + private property, or in carefully maintaining the flames of civil war in + foreign kingdoms which he hoped to acquire; while maintaining over all + Christendom a gigantic system of bribery, corruption, and espionage, + keeping the noblest names of England and Scotland on his pension-lists of + traitors, and impoverishing his exchequer with the wages of iniquity paid + in France to men of all degrees, from princes of blood like Guise and + Mayenne down to the obscurest of country squires, he ever felt that these + base or bloody deeds were not crimes, but the simple will of the godhead + of which he was a portion. He never doubted that the extraordinary + theological system which he spent his life in enforcing with fire and + sword was right, for it was a part of himself. The Holy Inquisition, + thoroughly established as it was in his ancestral Spain, was a portion of + the regular working machinery by which his absolute kingship and his + superhuman will expressed themselves. A tribunal which performed its + functions with a celerity, certainty, and invisibility resembling the + attributes of Omnipotence; which, like the pestilence, entered palace or + hovel at will, and which smote the wretch guilty or suspected of heresy + with a precision against which no human ingenuity or sympathy could guard—such + an institution could not but be dear to his heart. It was inevitable that + the extension and perpetuation of what he deemed its blessings throughout + his dominions should be his settled purpose. Spain was governed by an + established terrorism. It is a mistake to suppose that Philip was + essentially beloved in his native land, or that his religious and + political system was heartily accepted because consonant to the national + character. On the contrary, as has been shown, a very large proportion of + the inhabitants were either secretly false to the Catholic faith, or + descended at least from those who had expiated their hostility to it with + their lives. But the Grand Inquisitor was almost as awful a personage; as + the king or the pope. His familiars were in every village and at every + fireside, and from their fangs there was no escape. Millions of Spaniards + would have rebelled against the crown or accepted the reformed religion, + had they not been perfectly certain of being burned or hanged at the + slightest movement in such a direction. The popular force in the course of + the political combinations of centuries seemed at last to have been + eliminated. The nobles, exempt from taxation, which crushed the people to + the earth, were the enemies rather than the chieftains and champions of + the lower classes in any possible struggle with a crown to which they were + united by ties of interest as well as of affection, while the great + churchmen, too, were the immediate dependants and of course the firm + supporters of the king. Thus the people, without natural leaders, without + organisation, and themselves divided into two mutually hostile sections, + were opposed by every force in the State. Crown, nobility, and clergy; all + the wealth and all that there was of learning, were banded together to + suppress the democratic principle. But even this would hardly have + sufficed to extinguish every spark of liberty, had it not been for the + potent machinery of the Inquisition; nor could that perfection of + terrorism have become an established institution but for the extraordinary + mixture of pride and superstition of which the national character had + been, in the course of the national history, compounded. The Spanish + portion of the people hated the nobles, whose petty exactions and + oppressions were always visible; but they had a reverential fear of the + unseen monarch, as the representative both of the great unsullied + Christian nation to which the meanest individual was proud to belong, and + of the God of wrath who had decreed the extermination of all unbelievers. + The "accursed" portion of the people were sufficiently disloyal at heart, + but were too much crushed by oppression and contempt to imagine themselves + men. As to the Netherlanders, they did not fight originally for + independence. It was not until after a quarter of a century of fighting + that they ever thought of renouncing their allegiance to Philip. They + fought to protect themselves against being taxed by the king without the + consent of those constitutional assemblies which he had sworn to maintain, + and to save themselves and their children from being burned alive if they + dared to read the Bible. Independence followed after nearly a half-century + of fighting, but it would never have been obtained, or perhaps demanded, + had those grievances of the people been redressed. + </p> + <p> + Of this perfect despotism Philip was thus the sole administrator. + Certainly he looked upon his mission with seriousness, and was industrious + in performing his royal functions. But this earnestness and seriousness + were, in truth, his darkest vices; for the most frivolous voluptuary that + ever wore a crown would never have compassed a thousandth part of the evil + which was Philip's life-work. It was because he was a believer in himself, + and in what he called his religion, that he was enabled to perpetrate such + a long catalogue of crimes. When an humble malefactor is brought before an + ordinary court of justice, it is not often, in any age or country, that he + escapes the pillory or the gallows because, from his own point of view, + his actions, instead of being criminal, have been commendable, and because + the multitude and continuity of his offences prove him to have been + sincere. And because anointed monarchs are amenable to no human tribunal, + save to that terrible assize which the People, bursting its chain from + time to time in the course of the ages, sets up for the trial of its + oppressors, and which is called Revolution, it is the more important for + the great interests of humanity that before the judgment-seat of History a + crown should be no protection to its wearer. There is no plea to the + jurisdiction of history, if history be true to itself. + </p> + <p> + As for the royal criminal called Philip II., his life is his arraignment, + and these volumes will have been written in vain if a specification is now + required. + </p> + <p> + Homicide such as was hardly ever compassed before by one human being was + committed by Philip when in the famous edict of 1568 he sentenced every + man, woman, and child in the Netherlands to death. That the whole of this + population, three millions or more, were not positively destroyed was + because no human energy could suffice to execute the diabolical decree. + But Alva, toiling hard, accomplished much of this murderous work. By the + aid of the "Council of Blood," and of the sheriffs and executioners of the + Holy Inquisition, he was able sometimes to put eight hundred human beings + to death in a single week for the crimes of Protestantism or of opulence, + and at the end of half a dozen years he could boast of having strangled, + drowned, burned, or beheaded somewhat more than eighteen thousand of his + fellow-creatures. These were some of the non-combatant victims; for of the + tens of thousands who perished during his administration alone, in siege + and battle, no statistical record has been preserved. + </p> + <p> + In face of such wholesale crimes, of these forty years of bloodshed, it is + superfluous to refer to such isolated misdeeds as his repeated attempts to + procure the assassination of the Prince of Orange, crowned at last by the + success of Balthazar Gerard, nor to his persistent efforts to poison the + Queen of England; for the enunciation of all these murders or attempts at + murder would require a repetition of the story which it has been one of + the main purposes of these volumes to recite. + </p> + <p> + For indeed it seems like mere railing to specify his crimes. Their very + magnitude and unbroken continuity, together with their impunity, give them + almost the appearance of inevitable phenomena. The horrible monotony of + his career stupefies the mind until it is ready to accept the principle of + evil as the fundamental law of the world. + </p> + <p> + His robberies, like his murders, were colossal. The vast, system of + confiscation set up in the Netherlands was sufficient to reduce unnumbered + innocent families to beggary, although powerless to break the spirit of + civil and religious liberty or to pay the expenses of subjugating a + people. Not often in the world's history have so many thousand individual + been plundered by a foreign tyrant for no crime, save that they were rich + enough to be worth robbing. For it can never be too often repeated that + those confiscations and extortions were perpetrated upon Catholics as well + as Protestants, monarchists as well as rebels; the possession of property + making proof of orthodoxy or of loyalty well-nigh impossible. + </p> + <p> + Falsehood was the great basis of the king's character, which perhaps + derives its chief importance, as a political and psychological study, from + this very fact. It has been shown throughout the whole course of this + history, by the evidence of his most secret correspondence, that he was + false, most of all, to those to whom he gave what he called his heart. + Granvelle, Alva, Don John, Alexander Farnese, all those, in short, who + were deepest in his confidence experienced in succession his entire + perfidy, while each in turn was sacrificed to his master's sleepless + suspicion. The pope himself was often as much the dupe of the Catholic + monarch's faithlessness as the vilest heretic had ever been. Could the + great schoolmaster of iniquity for the sovereigns and politicians of the + south have lived to witness the practice of the monarch who had most laid + to heart the precepts of the "Prince," he would have felt that he had not + written in vain, and that his great paragon of successful falsehood, + Ferdinand of Arragon, had been surpassed by the great grandson. For the + ideal perfection of perfidy, foreshadowed by the philosopher who died in + the year of Philip's birth, was thoroughly embodied at last by this + potentate. Certainly Nicholas Macchiavelli could have hoped for no more + docile pupil. That all men are vile, that they are liars; scoundrels, + poltroons, and idiots alike—ever ready to deceive and yet easily to + be duped, and that he only is fit to be king who excels his kind in the + arts of deception; by this great maxim of the Florentine, Philip was ever + guided. And those well-known texts of hypocrisy, strewn by the same hand, + had surely not fallen on stony ground when received into Philip's royal + soul. + </p> + <p> + "Often it is necessary, in order to maintain power, to act contrary to + faith, contrary to charity, contrary to humanity, contrary to religion. . + . . A prince ought therefore to have great care that from his mouth + nothing should ever come that is not filled with those five qualities, and + that to see and hear him he should appear all piety, all faith, all + integrity, all humanity, all religion. And nothing is more necessary than + to seem to have this last-mentioned quality. Every one sees what you seem, + few perceive what you are." + </p> + <p> + Surely this hand-book of cant had been Philip's 'vade mecum' through his + life's pilgrimage. + </p> + <p> + It is at least a consolation to reflect that a career controlled by such + principles came to an ignominious close. Had the mental capacity of this + sovereign been equal to his criminal intent, even greater woe might have + befallen the world. But his intellect was less than mediocre. His passion + for the bureau, his slavery to routine, his puerile ambition personally to + superintend details which could have been a thousand times better + administered by subordinates, proclaimed every day the narrowness of his + mind. His diligence in reading, writing, and commenting upon despatches + may excite admiration only where there has been no opportunity of judging + of his labours by personal inspection. Those familiar with the dreary + displays of his penmanship must admit that such work could have been at + least as well done by a copying clerk of average capacity. His ministers + were men of respectable ability, but he imagined himself, as he advanced + in life, far superior to any counsellor that he could possibly select, and + was accustomed to consider himself the first statesman in the world. + </p> + <p> + His reign was a thorough and disgraceful failure. Its opening scene was + the treaty of Catean Cambresis, by which a triumph over France had been + achieved for him by the able generals and statesmen of his father, so + humiliating and complete as to make every French soldier or politician + gnash his teeth. Its conclusion was the treaty of Vervins with the same + power, by which the tables were completely turned, and which was as + utterly disgraceful to Spain as that of Cateau Cambresis had been to + France. He had spent his life in fighting with the spirit of the age—that + invincible power of which he had not the faintest conception—while + the utter want of adaptation of his means to his ends often bordered, not + on the ludicrous, but the insane. + </p> + <p> + He attempted to reduce the free Netherlands to slavery and to papacy. + Before his death they had expanded into an independent republic, with a + policy founded upon religious toleration and the rights of man. He had + endeavoured all his life to exclude the Bearnese from his heritage and to + place himself or his daughter on the vacant throne; before his death Henry + IV. was the most powerful and popular sovereign that had ever reigned in + France. He had sought to invade and to conquer England, and to dethrone + and assassinate its queen. But the queen outwitted, outgeneralled, and + outlived, him; English soldiers and sailors, assisted. by their Dutch + comrades in arms, accomplished on the shores of Spain what the Invincible + Armada had in vain essayed against England and Holland; while England, + following thenceforth the opposite system to that of absolutism and the + Inquisition, became, after centuries of struggles towards the right, the + most powerful, prosperous, and enlightened kingdom in the world. + </p> + <p> + His exchequer, so full when he ascended the throne as to excite the awe of + contemporary financiers, was reduced before his death to a net income of + some four millions of dollars. His armies; which had been the wonder of + the age in the earlier period of his reign for discipline, courage, and + every quality on which military efficiency depends, were in his later + years a horde of starving, rebellious brigands, more formidable to their + commanders than to the foe. Mutiny was the only organised military + institution that was left in his dominions, while the Spanish Inquisition, + which it was the fell purpose of his life from youth upwards to establish + over the world, became a loathsome and impossible nuisance everywhere but + in its natal soil. + </p> + <p> + If there be such a thing as historical evidence, then is Philip II., + convicted before the tribunal of impartial posterity of every crime + charged in his indictment. He lived seventy-one years and three months, he + reigned forty-three years. He endured the martyrdom of his last illness + with the heroism of a saint, and died in the certainty of immortal bliss + as the reward of his life of evil. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + A despot really keeps no accounts, nor need to do so + All Italy was in his hands + Every one sees what you seem, few perceive what you are + God of wrath who had decreed the extermination of all unbeliever + Had industry been honoured instead of being despised + History is but made up of a few scattered fragments + Hugo Grotius + Idle, listless, dice-playing, begging, filching vagabonds + Ignorance is the real enslaver of mankind + Innocent generation, to atone for the sins of their forefathers + Intelligence, science, and industry were accounted degrading + Labour was esteemed dishonourable + Man had no rights at all He was property + Matters little by what name a government is called + Moral nature, undergoes less change than might be hoped + Names history has often found it convenient to mark its epochs + National character, not the work of a few individuals + Proceeds of his permission to eat meat on Fridays + Rarely able to command, having never learned to obey + Rich enough to be worth robbing + Seems but a change of masks, of costume, of phraseology + Selling the privilege of eating eggs upon fast-days + Sentiment of Christian self-complacency + Spain was governed by an established terrorism + That unholy trinity—Force; Dogma, and Ignorance + The great ocean was but a Spanish lake + The most thriving branch of national industry (Smuggler) + The record of our race is essentially unwritten + Thirty thousand masses should be said for his soul + Those who argue against a foregone conclusion + Three or four hundred petty sovereigns (of Germany) + Utter want of adaptation of his means to his ends + While one's friends urge moderation + Whole revenue was pledged to pay the interest, on his debts +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVI. 1598-1599 + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Commercial prospects of Holland—Travels of John Huygen van + Linschoten Their effect on the trade and prosperity of the + Netherlands—Progress of nautical and geographical science—Maritime + exploration—Fantastic notions respecting the polar regions—State + of nautical science—First arctic expedition—Success of the + voyagers—Failure of the second expedition—Third attempt to + discover the north-east passage—Discovery of Spitzbergen— + Scientific results of the voyage—Adventures in the frozen regions— + Death of William Barendz—Return of the voyagers to Amsterdam— + Southern expedition against the Spanish power—Disasters attendant + upon it—Extent of Dutch discovery. +</pre> + <p> + During a great portion of Philip's reign the Netherlanders, despite their + rebellion, had been permitted to trade with Spain. A spectacle had thus + been presented of a vigorous traffic between two mighty belligerents, who + derived from their intercourse with each other the means of more + thoroughly carrying on their mutual hostilities. The war fed their + commerce, and commerce fed their war. The great maritime discoveries at + the close of the fifteenth century had enured quite as much to the benefit + of the Flemings and Hollanders as to that of the Spaniards and Portuguese, + to whom they were originally due. Antwerp and subsequently Amsterdam had + thriven on the great revolution of the Indian trade which Vasco de Gama's + voyage around the Cape had effected. The nations of the Baltic and of + farthest Ind now exchanged their products on a more extensive scale and + with a wider sweep across the earth than when the mistress of the Adriatic + alone held the keys of Asiatic commerce. The haughty but intelligent + oligarchy of shopkeepers, which had grown so rich and attained so eminent + a political position from its magnificent monopoly, already saw the + sources of its grandeur drying up before its eyes, now that the world's + trade—for the first time in human history—had become oceanic. + </p> + <p> + In Holland, long since denuded of forests, were great markets of timber, + whither shipbuilders and architects came from all parts of the world to + gather the utensils for their craft. There, too, where scarcely a pebble + had been deposited in the course of the geological transformations of our + planet, were great artificial quarries of granite, and marble, and basalt. + Wheat was almost as rare a product of the soil as cinnamon, yet the + granaries of Christendom, and the Oriental magazines of spices and drugs, + were found chiefly on that barren spot of earth. There was the great + international mart where the Osterling, the Turk, the Hindoo, the Atlantic + and the Mediterranean traders stored their wares and negotiated their + exchanges; while the curious and highly-prized products of Netherland + skill—broadcloths, tapestries, brocades, laces, substantial + fustians, magnificent damasks, finest linens—increased the mass of + visible wealth piled mountains high upon that extraordinary soil which + produced nothing and teemed with everything. + </p> + <p> + After the incorporation of Portugal with Spain however many obstacles were + thrown in the way of the trade from the Netherlands to Lisbon and the + Spanish ports. Loud and bitter were the railings uttered, as we know, by + the English sovereign and her statesmen against the nefarious traffic + which the Dutch republic persisted in carrying on with the common enemy. + But it is very certain that although the Spanish armadas would have found + it comparatively difficult to equip themselves without the tar and the + timber, the cordage, the stores, and the biscuits furnished by the + Hollanders, the rebellious commonwealth, if excluded from the world's + commerce, in which it had learned to play so controlling a part, must have + ceased to exist. For without foreign navigation the independent republic + was an inconceivable idea. Not only would it have been incapable of + continuing the struggle with the greatest monarch in the world, but it + might as well have buried itself once and for ever beneath the waves from + which it had scarcely emerged. Commerce and Holland were simply synonymous + terms. Its morsel of territory was but the wharf to which the republic was + occasionally moored; its home was in every ocean and over all the world. + Nowhere had there ever existed before so large a proportion of population + that was essentially maritime. They were born sailors—men and women + alike—and numerous were the children who had never set foot on the + shore. At the period now treated of the republic had three times as many + ships and sailors as any one nation in the world. Compared with modern + times, and especially with the gigantic commercial strides of the two + great Anglo-Saxon families, the statistics both of population and of + maritime commerce in that famous and most vigorous epoch would seem + sufficiently meagre. Yet there is no doubt that in the relative estimate + of forces then in activity it would be difficult to exaggerate the naval + power of the young commonwealth. When therefore, towards the close of + Philip II.'s reign, it became necessary to renounce the carrying trade + with Spain and Portugal, by which the communication with India and China + was effected, or else to submit to the confiscation of Dutch ships in + Spanish ports, and the confinement of Dutch sailors in the dungeons of the + Inquisition, a more serious dilemma was presented to the statesmen of the + Netherlands than they had ever been called upon to solve. + </p> + <p> + For the splendid fiction of the Spanish lake was still a formidable fact. + Not only were the Portuguese and Spaniards almost the only direct traders + to the distant East, but even had no obstacles been interposed by + Government, the exclusive possession of information as to the course of + trade, the pre-eminent practical knowledge acquired by long experience of + that dangerous highway around the world at a time when oceanic navigation + was still in its infancy, would have given a monopoly of the traffic to + the descendants of the bold discoverers who first opened the great path to + the world's commerce. + </p> + <p> + The Hollanders as a nation had never been engaged in the direct trade + around the Cape of Good Hope. Fortunately however at this crisis in their + commercial destiny there was a single Hollander who had thoroughly learned + the lesson which it was so necessary that all his countrymen should now be + taught. Few men of that period deserve a more kindly and more honourable + remembrance by posterity for their contributions to science and the + progress of civilization than John Huygen van Linschoten, son of a plain + burgher of West Friesland. Having always felt a strong impulse to study + foreign history and distant nations and customs; he resolved at the early + age of seventeen "to absent himself from his fatherland, and from the + conversation of friends and relatives," in order to gratify this + inclination for self-improvement. After a residence of two years in Lisbon + he departed for India in the suite of the Archbishop of Goa, and remained + in the East for nearly thirteen years. Diligently examining all the + strange phenomena which came under his observation and patiently recording + the results of his researches day by day and year by year, he amassed a + fund of information which he modestly intended for the entertainment of + his friends when he should return to his native country. It was his wish + that "without stirring from their firesides or counting-houses" they might + participate with him in the gratification and instruction to be derived + from looking upon a world then so strange, and for Europeans still so new. + He described the manners and customs, the laws, the religions, the social + and political institutions, of the ancient races who dwelt in either + peninsula of India. He studied the natural history, the botany, the + geography of all the regions which he visited. Especially the products + which formed the material of a great traffic; the system of culture, the + means of transportation, and the course of commerce, were examined by him + with minuteness, accuracy, and breadth of vision. He was neither a trader + nor a sailor, but a man of letters, a scientific and professional + traveller. But it was obvious when he returned, rich with the spoils of + oriental study during thirteen years of life, that the results of his + researches were worthy of a wider circulation than that which he had + originally contemplated. His work was given to the public in the year + 1596, and was studied with avidity not only by men of science but by + merchants and seafarers. He also added to the record of his Indian + experiences a practical manual for navigators. He described the course of + the voyage from Lisbon to the East, the currents, the trade-winds and + monsoons, the harbours, the islands, the shoals, the sunken rocks and + dangerous quicksands, and he accompanied his work with various maps and + charts, both general and special, of land and water, rarely delineated + before his day, as well as by various astronomical and mathematical + calculations. Already a countryman of his own, Wagenaar of Zeeland, had + laid the mariners of the world under special obligation by a manual which + came into such universal use that for centuries afterwards the sailors of + England and of other countries called their indispensable 'vade-mecum' a + Wagenaar. But in that text-book but little information was afforded to + eastern voyagers, because, before the enterprise of Linschoten, little was + known of the Orient except to the Portuguese and Spaniards, by whom + nothing was communicated. + </p> + <p> + The work of Linschoten was a source of wealth, both from the scientific + treasures which it diffused among an active and intelligent people, and + the impulse which it gave to that direct trade between the Netherlands and + the East which had been so long deferred, and which now came to relieve + the commerce of the republic, and therefore the republic itself, from the + danger of positive annihilation. + </p> + <p> + It is not necessary for my purpose to describe in detail the series of + voyages by way of the Cape of Good Hope which, beginning with the + adventures of the brothers Houtmann at this period, and with the + circumnavigation of the world by Olivier van Noord, made the Dutch for a + long time the leading Christian nation in those golden regions, and which + carried the United Netherlands to the highest point of prosperity and + power. The Spanish monopoly of the Indian and the Pacific Ocean was + effectually disposed of, but the road was not a new road, nor did any + striking discoveries at this immediate epoch illustrate the enterprise of + Holland in the East. In the age just opening the homely names most dear to + the young republic were to be inscribed on capes, islands, and + promontories, seas, bays, and continents. There was soon to be a "Staten + Island" both in the frozen circles of the northern and of the southern + pole, as well as in that favoured region where now the mighty current of a + worldwide commerce flows through the gates of that great metropolis of the + western world, once called New Amsterdam. Those well-beloved words, Orange + and Nassau, Maurice and William, intermingled with the names of many an + ancient town and village, or with the simple patronymics of hardy + navigators or honoured statesmen, were to make the vernacular of the new + commonwealth a familiar sound in the remotest corners of the earth; while + a fifth continent, discovered by the enterprise of Hollanders, was soon to + be fitly baptized with the name of the fatherland. Posterity has been + neither just nor grateful, and those early names which Dutch genius and + enterprise wrote upon so many prominent points of the earth's surface, + then seen for the first time by European eyes, are no longer known. + </p> + <p> + The impulse given to the foreign trade of the Netherlands by the + publication of Linschoten's work was destined to be a lasting one. + Meantime this most indefatigable and enterprising voyager—one of + those men who had done nothing in his own estimation so long as aught + remained to do—was deeply pondering the possibility of a shorter + road to the opulent kingdoms of Cathay and of China than the one which the + genius of De Gama had opened to his sovereigns. Geography as a science was + manifesting the highest activity at that period, but was still in a + rudimentary state. To the Hollanders especially much of the progress + already made by it was owing. The maps of the world by Mercator of Leyden, + published on a large scale, together with many astronomical and + geographical charts, delineations of exploration, and other scientific + works, at the magnificent printing establishment of William Blaeuw, in + Amsterdam, the friend and pupil of Tycho Brahe, and the first in that line + of typographers who made the name famous, constituted an epoch in + cosmography. Another ardent student of geography lived in Amsterdam, Peter + Plancius by name, a Calvinist preacher, and one of the most zealous and + intolerant of his cloth. In an age and a country which had not yet + thoroughly learned the lesson taught by hundreds of thousands of murders + committed by an orthodox church, he was one of those who considered the + substitution of a new dogma and a new hierarchy, a new orthodoxy and a new + church, in place of the old ones, a satisfactory result for fifty, years + of perpetual bloodshed. Nether Torquemada nor Peter Titelmann could have + more thoroughly abhorred a Jew or a Calvinist than Peter Plancius detested + a Lutheran, or any other of the unclean tribe of remonstranta. That the + intolerance of himself and his comrades was confined to fiery words, and + was not manifested in the actual burning alive of the heterodox, was a + mark of the advance made by the mass of mankind in despite of bigotry. It + was at any rate a solace to those who believed in human progress; even in + matters of conscience, that no other ecclesiastical establishment was ever + likely to imitate the matchless machinery for the extermination of + heretical vermin which the Church of Rome had found in the Spanish + Inquisition. The blasts of denunciation from the pulpit of Plancius have + long since mingled with empty air and been forgotten, but his services in + the cause of nautical enterprise and geographical science, which formed, + as it were, a relaxation to what he deemed the more serious pursuits of + theology, will endear his name for ever to the lovers of civilization. + </p> + <p> + Plancius and Dr. Francis Maalzoon—the enlightened pensionary of + Enkhuizen—had studied long and earnestly the history and aspects of + the oceanic trade, which had been unfolding itself then for a whole + century, but was still comparatively new, while Barneveld, ever ready to + assist in the advancement of science, and to foster that commerce which + was the life of the commonwealth, was most favourably disposed towards + projects of maritime exploration. For hitherto, although the Hollanders + had been among the hardiest and the foremost in the art of navigation they + had contributed but little to actual discovery. A Genoese had led the way + to America, while one Portuguese mariner had been the first to double the + southern cape of Africa, and another, at the opposite side of the world, + had opened what was then supposed the only passage through the vast + continent which, according to ideas then prevalent, extended from the + Southern Pole to Greenland, and from Java to Patagonia. But it was easier + to follow in the wake of Columbus, Gama, or Magellan, than to strike out + new pathways by the aid of scientific deduction and audacious enterprise. + At a not distant day many errors, disseminated by the boldest of + Portuguese navigators, were to be corrected by the splendid discoveries of + sailors sent forth by the Dutch republic, and a rich harvest in + consequence was to be reaped both by science and commerce. It is true, + too, that the Netherlanders claimed to have led the way to the great + voyages of Columbus by their discovery of the Azores. Joshua van den Berg, + a merchant of Bruges, it was vigorously maintained, had landed in that + archipelago in the year 1445. He had found there, however, no vestiges of + the human race, save that upon the principal island, in the midst of the + solitude, was seen—so ran the tale—a colossal statue of a man + on horseback, wrapped in a cloak, holding the reins of his steed in his + left hand, and solemnly extending his right arm to the west. This gigantic + and solitary apparition on a rock in the ocean was supposed to indicate + the existence of a new world, and the direction in which it was to be + sought, but it is probable that the shipwrecked Fleeting was quite + innocent of any such magnificent visions. The original designation of the + Flemish Islands, derived from their first colonization by Netherlanders, + was changed to Azores by Portuguese mariners, amazed at the myriads of + hawks which they found there. But if the Netherlanders had never been able + to make higher claims as discoverers than the accidental and dubious + landing upon an unknown shore of a tempest-tost mariner, their position in + the records of geographical exploration would not be so eminent as it + certainly is. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the eyes of Linschoten, Plancius, Maalzoon, Barneveld, and of + many other ardent philosophers and patriots, were turned anxiously towards + the regions of the North Pole. Two centuries later—and still more + recently in our own day and generation—what heart has not thrilled + with sympathy and with pride at the story of the magnificent exploits, the + heroism, the contempt of danger and of suffering which have characterized + the great navigators whose names are so familiar to the world; especially + the arctic explorers of England and of our own country? The true chivalry + of an advanced epoch—recognizing that there can be no sublimer + vocation for men of action than to extend the boundary of human knowledge + in the face of perils and obstacles more formidable and more mysterious + than those encountered by the knights of old in the cause of the Lord's + sepulchre or the holy grail—they have thus embodied in a form which + will ever awaken enthusiasm in imaginative natures, the noble impulses of + our latter civilization. To win the favour of that noblest of mistresses, + Science; to take authoritative possession, in her name, of the whole + domain of humanity; to open new pathways to commerce; to elevate and + enlarge the human intellect, and to multiply indefinitely the sum of human + enjoyments; to bring the inhabitants of the earth into closer and more + friendly communication, so that, after some yet unimagined inventions and + discoveries, and after the lapse of many years, which in the sight of the + Omnipotent are but as one day, the human race may form one pacific family, + instead of being broken up, as are the most enlightened of peoples now, + into warring tribes of internecine savages, prating of the advancement of + civilization while coveting each other's possessions, intriguing against + each other's interests, and thoroughly in earnest when cutting each + other's throats; this is truly to be the pioneers of a possible + civilization, compared to which our present culture may seem but a poor + barbarism. If the triumphs and joys of the battle-field have been esteemed + among the noblest themes for poet, painter, or chronicler, alike in the + mists of antiquity and in the full glare of later days, surely a still + more encouraging spectacle for those who believe in the world's progress + is the exhibition of almost infinite valour, skill, and endurance in the + cause of science and humanity. + </p> + <p> + It was believed by the Dutch cosmographers that some ten thousand miles of + voyaging might be saved, could the passage to what was then called the + kingdoms of Cathay be effected by way of the north. It must be remembered + that there were no maps of the unknown regions lying beyond the northern + headlands of Sweden. Delineations of continents, islands, straits, rivers, + and seas, over which every modern schoolboy pores, were not attempted even + by the hand of fancy. It was perhaps easier at the end of the sixteenth + century than it is now, to admit the possibility of a practical path to + China and India across the pole; for delusions as to climate and + geographical configuration then prevalent have long since been dispelled. + While, therefore, at least as much heroism was required then as now to + launch into those unknown seas, in hope to solve the dread mystery of the + North; there was even a firmer hope than can ever be cherished again of + deriving an immediate and tangible benefit from the enterprise. Plancius + and Maalzoon, the States-General and Prince Maurice, were convinced that + the true road to Cathay would be found by sailing north-east. Linschoten, + the man who knew India and the beaten paths to India better than any other + living Christian, was so firmly convinced of the truth of this theory, + that he volunteered to take the lead in the first expedition. Many were + the fantastic dreams in which even the wisest thinkers of the age indulged + as to the polar regions. Four straits or channels, pierced by a magic + hand, led, it was thought, from the interior of Muscovy towards the arctic + seas. According to some speculators, however, those seas enclosed a polar + continent where perpetual summer and unbroken daylight reigned, and whose + inhabitants, having obtained a high degree of culture; lived in the + practice of every virtue and in the enjoyment of every blessing. Others + peopled these mysterious regions with horrible savages, having hoofs of + horses and heads of dogs, and with no clothing save their own long ears + coiled closely around their limbs and bodies; while it was deemed almost + certain that a race of headless men, with eyes in their breasts, were the + most enlightened among those distant tribes. Instead of constant sunshine, + it was believed by such theorists that the wretched inhabitants of that + accursed zone were immersed in almost incessant fogs or tempests, that the + whole population died every winter and were only recalled to temporary + existence by the advent of a tardy and evanescent spring. No doubt was + felt that the voyager in those latitudes would have to encounter volcanoes + of fire and mountains of ice, together with land and sea monsters more + ferocious than the eye of man had ever beheld; but it was universally + admitted that an opening, either by strait or sea, into the desired Indian + haven would reveal itself at last. + </p> + <p> + The instruments of navigation too were but rude and defective compared to + the beautiful machinery with which modern art and science now assist their + votaries along the dangerous path of discovery. The small yet unwieldy, + awkward, and, to the modern mind, most grotesque vessels in which such + audacious deeds were performed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries + awaken perpetual astonishment. A ship of a hundred tons burden, built up + like a tower, both at stem and stern, and presenting in its broad bulbous + prow, its width of beam in proportion to its length, its depression + amidships, and in other sins against symmetry, as much opposition to + progress over the waves as could well be imagined, was the vehicle in + which those indomitable Dutchmen circumnavigated the globe and confronted + the arctic terrors of either pole. An astrolabe—such as Martin + Beheim had invented for the Portuguese, a clumsy astronomical ring of + three feet in circumference—was still the chief machine used for + ascertaining the latitude, and on shipboard a most defective one. There + were no logarithms, no means of determining at sea the variations of the + magnetic needle, no system of dead reckoning by throwing the log and + chronicling the courses traversed. The firearms with which the sailors + were to do battle with the unknown enemies that might beset their path + were rude and clumsy to handle. The art of compressing and condensing + provisions was unknown. They had no tea nor coffee to refresh the nervous + system in its terrible trials; but there was one deficiency which perhaps + supplied the place of many positive luxuries. Those Hollanders drank no + ardent spirits. They had beer and wine in reasonable quantities, but no + mention is ever made in the journals of their famous voyages of any more + potent liquor; and to this circumstance doubtless the absence of mutinous + or disorderly demonstrations, under the most trying circumstances, may in + a great degree be attributed. + </p> + <p> + Thus, these navigators were but slenderly provided with the appliances + with which hazardous voyages have been smoothed by modern art; but they + had iron hearts, faith in themselves, in their commanders, in their + republic, and in the Omnipotent; perfect discipline and unbroken + cheerfulness amid toil, suffering, and danger. No chapter of history + utters a more beautiful homily an devotion to duty as the true guiding + principle of human conduct than the artless narratives which have been + preserved of many of these maritime enterprises. It is for these noble + lessons that they deserve to be kept in perpetual memory. + </p> + <p> + And in no individual of that day were those excellent qualities more + thoroughly embodied than in William Barendz, pilot and burgher of + Amsterdam. It was partly under his charge that the first little expedition + set forth on the 5th of June, 1594, towards those unknown arctic seas, + which no keel from Christendom had ever ploughed, and to those fabulous + regions where the foot of civilized men had never trod. Maalzoon, + Plancius, and Balthaser Moucheron, merchant of Middelburg, were the chief + directors of the enterprise; but there was a difference of opinion between + them. + </p> + <p> + The pensionary was firm in the faith that the true path to China would be + found by steering through the passage which was known to exist between the + land of Nova Zembla and the northern coasts of Muscovy, inhabited by the + savage tribes called Samoyedes. It was believed that, after passing those + straits, the shores of the great continent would be found to trend in a + south-easterly direction, and that along that coast it would accordingly + be easy to make the desired voyage to the eastern ports of China. + Plancius, on the contrary, indicated as the most promising passage the + outside course, between the northern coast of Nova Zembla and the pole. + Three ships and a fishing yacht were provided by the cities of Enkhuizen, + Amsterdam, and by the province of Zeeland respectively. Linschoten was + principal commissioner on board the Enkhuizen vessel, having with him an + experienced mariner, Brandt Ijsbrantz by name, as skipper. Barendz, with + the Amsterdam ship and the yacht, soon parted company with the others, and + steered, according to the counsels of Plancius and his own convictions; + for the open seas of the north. And in that memorable summer, for the + first time in the world's history, the whole desolate region of Nova + Zembla was visited, investigated, and thoroughly mapped out. Barendz + sailed as far as latitude 77 deg. and to the extreme north-eastern point + of the island. In a tremendous storm off a cape, which he ironically + christened Consolationhook (Troost-hoek), his ship, drifting under bare + poles amid ice and mist and tempest, was nearly dashed to pieces; but he + reached at last the cluster of barren islets beyond the utmost verge of + Nova Zembla, to which he hastened to affix the cherished appellation of + Orange. This, however, was the limit of his voyage. His ship was + ill-provisioned, and the weather had been severe beyond expectation. He + turned back on the 1st of August, resolving to repeat his experiment early + in the following year. + </p> + <p> + Meantime Linschoten, with the ships Swan and Mercury, had entered the + passage which they called the Straits of Nassau, but which are now known + to all the world as the Waigats. They were informed by the Samoyedes of + the coast that, after penetrating the narrow channel, they would find + themselves in a broad and open sea. Subsequent discoveries showed the + correctness of the statement, but it was not permitted to the adventurers + on this occasion to proceed so far. The strait was already filled with + ice-drift, and their vessels were brought to a standstill, after about a + hundred and fifty English miles of progress beyond the Waigats; for the + whole sea of Tartary, converted into a mass of ice-mountains and islands, + and lashed into violent agitation by a north easterly storm, seemed + driving down upon the doomed voyagers. It was obvious that the sunny clime + of Cathay was not thus to be reached, at least upon that occasion. With + difficulty they succeeded in extricating themselves from the dangers + surrounding them, and emerged at last from the Waigats. + </p> + <p> + On the 15th of August, in latitude 69 deg. 15', they met the ship of + Barendz and returned in company to Holland, reaching Amsterdam on the 16th + of September. Barendz had found the seas and coasts visited by him + destitute of human inhabitants, but swarming with polar bears, with seals, + with a terrible kind of monsters, then seen for the first time, as large + as oxen, with almost human faces and with two long tusks protruding from + each grim and grotesque visage. These mighty beasts, subsequently known as + walrusses or sea-horses, were found sometimes in swarms of two hundred at + a time, basking in the arctic sun, and seemed equally at home on land, in + the sea, and on icebergs. When aware of the approach of their human + visitors, they would slide off an iceblock into the water, holding their + cubs in their arms, and ducking up and down in the sea as if in sport. + Then tossing the young ones away, they would rush upon the boats, and + endeavour to sink the strangers, whom they instinctively recognised as + their natural enemies. Many were the severe combats recorded by the + diarist of that voyage of Barendz with the walrusses and the bears. + </p> + <p> + The chief result of this first expedition was the geographical + investigation made, and, with unquestionable right; these earliest arctic + pilgrims bestowed the names of their choice upon the regions first visited + by themselves. According to the unfailing and universal impulse on such + occasions, the names dear to the fatherland were naturally selected. The + straits were called Nassau, the island at its mouth became States or + Staten Island; the northern coasts of Tartary received the familiar + appellations of New Holland, New Friesland, New Walcheren; while the two + rivers, beyond which Linschoten did not advance, were designated Swan and + Mercury respectively, after his two ships. Barendz, on his part, had duly + baptized every creek, bay, islet, and headland of Nova Zembla, and + assuredly Christian mariner had never taken the latitude of 77 deg. + before. Yet the antiquary, who compares the maps soon afterwards published + by William Blaeuw with the charts now in familiar use, will observe with + indignation the injustice with which the early geographical records have + been defaced, and the names rightfully bestowed upon those terrible + deserts by their earliest discoverers rudely torn away. The islands of + Orange can still be recognized, and this is almost the only vestige left + of the whole nomenclature. But where are Cape Nassau, William's Island, + Admiralty Island, Cape Plancius, Black-hook, Cross-hook, Bear's-hook, + Ice-hook, Consolation-hook, Cape Desire, the Straits of Nassau, Maurice + Island, Staten Island, Enkhuizen Island, and many other similar + appellations. + </p> + <p> + The sanguine Linschoten, on his return, gave so glowing an account of the + expedition that Prince Maurice and Olden-Barneveld, and prominent members + of the States-General, were infected with his enthusiasm. He considered + the north-east passage to China discovered and the problem solved. It + would only be necessary to fit out another expedition on a larger scale + the next year, provide it with a cargo of merchandize suitable for the + China market, and initiate the direct polar-oriental trade without further + delay. It seems amazing that so incomplete an attempt to overcome such + formidable obstacles should have been considered a decided success. Yet + there is no doubt of the genuineness of the conviction by which Linschoten + was actuated. The calmer Barendz, and his friend and comrade Gerrit de + Veer, were of opinion that the philosopher had made "rather a free + representation" of the enterprise of 1594 and of the prospects for the + future. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, the general Government, acting on Linschoten's suggestion, + furnished a fleet of seven ships: two from Enkhuizen, two from Zeeland, + two from Amsterdam; and a yacht which was to be despatched homeward with + the news, so soon as the expedition should have passed through the straits + of Nassau, forced its way through the frozen gulf of Tartary, doubled Cape + Tabin, and turned southward on its direct course to China. The sublime + credulity which accepted Linschoten's hasty solution of the polar enigma + as conclusive was fairly matched by the sedateness with which the + authorities made the preparations for the new voyage. So deliberately were + the broadcloths, linens, tapestries, and other assorted articles for this + first great speculation to Cathay, via the North Pole, stowed on board the + fleet, that nearly half the summer had passed before anchor was weighed in + the Meuse. The pompous expedition was thus predestined to an almost + ridiculous failure. Yet it was in the hands of great men, both on shore + and sea. Maurice, Barneveld, and Maalzoon had personally interested + themselves in the details of its outfitting, Linschoten sailed as chief + commissioner, the calm and intrepid Barendz was upper pilot of the whole + fleet, and a man who was afterwards destined to achieve an immortal name + in the naval history of his country, Jacob Heemskerk, was supercargo of + the Amsterdam ship. In obedience to the plans of Linschoten and of + Maalzoon, the passage by way of the Waigats was of course attempted. A + landing was effected on the coast of Tartary. Whatever geographical + information could be obtained from such a source was imparted by the + wandering Samoyedes. On the 2nd of September a party went ashore on Staten + Island and occupied themselves in gathering some glistening pebbles which + the journalist of the expedition describes with much gravity as a "kind of + diamonds, very plentiful upon the island." While two of the men were thus + especially engaged in a deep hollow, one of them found himself suddenly + twitched from behind. "What are you pulling at me for, mate?" he said, + impatiently to his comrade as he supposed. But his companion was a large, + long, lean white bear, and in another instant the head of the unfortunate + diamond-gatherer was off and the bear was sucking his blood. The other man + escaped to his friends, and together a party of twenty charged upon the + beast. Another of the combatants was killed and half devoured by the + hungry monster before a fortunate bullet struck him in the head. But even + then the bear maintained his grip upon his two victims, and it was not + until his brains were fairly beaten out with the butt end of a snaphance + by the boldest of the party that they were enabled to secure the bodies of + their comrades and give them a hurried kind of Christian burial. They + flayed the bear and took away his hide with them, and this, together with + an ample supply of the diamonds of Staten Island, was the only merchandize + obtained upon the voyage for which such magnificent preparations had been + made. For, by the middle of September, it had become obviously hopeless to + attempt the passage of the frozen sea that season, and the expedition + returned, having accomplished nothing. It reached Amsterdam upon the 18th + of November, 1595. + </p> + <p> + The authorities, intensely disappointed at this almost ridiculous result, + refused to furnish direct assistance to any farther attempts at arctic + explorations. The States-General however offered a reward of twenty-five + thousand florins to any navigators who might succeed in discovering the + northern passage, with a proportionate sum to those whose efforts in that + direction might be deemed commendable, even if not crowned with success. + </p> + <p> + Stimulated by the spirit of adventure and the love of science far more + than by the hope of gaining a pecuniary prize, the undaunted Barendz, who + was firm in the faith that a pathway existed by the north of Nova Zembla + and across the pole to farthest Ind, determined to renew the attempt the + following summer. The city of Amsterdam accordingly, early in the year + 1596, fitted out two ships. Select crews of entirely unmarried men + volunteered for the enterprise. John Cornelisz van der Ryp, an experienced + sea-captain, was placed in charge of one of the vessels, William Barendz + was upper pilot of the other, and Heemskerk, "the man who ever steered his + way through ice or iron," was skipper and supercargo. + </p> + <p> + The ships sailed from the Vlie on the 18th May. The opinions of Peter + Plancius prevailed in this expedition at last; the main object of both Ryp + and Barendz being to avoid the fatal, narrow, ice-clogged Waigats. + Although identical in this determination, their views as to the + configuration of the land and sea, and as to the proper course to be + steered, were conflicting. They however sailed in company mainly in a N.E. + by N. direction, although Barendz would have steered much more to the + east. + </p> + <p> + On the 5th June the watch on deck saw, as they supposed, immense flocks of + white swans swimming towards the ships, and covering the sea as far as the + eye could reach. All hands came up to look at the amazing spectacle, but + the more experienced soon perceived that the myriads of swans were simply + infinite fields of ice, through which however they were able to steer + their course without much impediment, getting into clear sea beyond about + midnight, at which hour the sun was one degree above the horizon. + </p> + <p> + Proceeding northwards two days more they were again surrounded by ice, + and, finding the "water green as grass, they believed themselves to be + near Greenland." On the 9th June they discovered an island in latitude, + according to their observation, 74 deg. 30', which seemed about five miles + long. In this neighbourhood they remained four days, having on one + occasion a "great fight which lasted four glasses" with a polar bear, and + making a desperate attempt to capture him in order to bring him as a show + to Holland. The effort not being successful, they were obliged to take his + life to save their own; but in what manner they intended, had they secured + him alive, to provide for such a passenger in the long voyage across the + North Pole to China, and thence back to Amsterdam, did not appear. The + attempt illustrated the calmness, however, of those hardy navigators. They + left the island on the 13th June, having baptised it Bear Island in memory + of their vanquished foe, a name which was subsequently exchanged for the + insipid appellation of Cherry Island, in honour of a comfortable London + merchant who seven years afterwards sent a ship to those arctic regions. + </p> + <p> + Six days later they saw land again, took the sun, and found their latitude + 80 deg. 11'. Certainly no men had ever been within less than ten degrees + of the pole before. On the longest day of the year they landed on this + newly discovered country, which they at first fancied to be a part of + Greenland. They found its surface covered with eternal snow, broken into + mighty glaciers, jagged with precipitous ice-peaks; and to this land of + almost perpetual winter, where the mercury freezes during ten months in + the year, and where the sun remains four months beneath the horizon, they + subsequently gave the appropriate and vernacular name of Spitzbergen. + Combats with the sole denizens of these hideous abodes, the polar bears, + on the floating ice, on the water, or on land, were constantly occurring, + and were the only events to disturb the monotony of that perpetual icy + sunshine, where no night came to relieve the almost maddening glare. They + rowed up a wide inlet on the western coast, and came upon great numbers of + wild-geese sitting on their eggs. They proved to be the same geese that + were in the habit of visiting Holland in vast flocks every summer, and it + had never before been discovered where they laid and hatched their eggs. + "Therefore," says the diarist of the expedition, "some voyagers have not + scrupled to state that the eggs grow on trees in Scotland, and that such + of the fruits of those trees as fall into the water become goslings, while + those which drop on the ground burst in pieces and come to nothing. We now + see that quite the contrary is the case," continues De Veer, with perfect + seriousness, "nor is it to be wondered at, for nobody has ever been until + now where those birds lay their eggs. No man, so far as known, ever + reached the latitude of eighty degrees before. This land was hitherto + unknown." + </p> + <p> + The scientific results of this ever-memorable voyage might be deemed + sufficiently meagre were the fact that the eggs of wild geese did not grow + on trees its only recorded discovery. But the investigations made into the + dread mysteries of the north, and the actual problems solved, were many, + while the simplicity of the narrator marks the infantine character of the + epoch in regard to natural history. When so illustrious a mind as Grotius + was inclined to believe in a race of arctic men whose heads grew beneath + their shoulders; the ingenuous mariner of Amsterdam may be forgiven for + his earnestness in combating the popular theory concerning goslings. + </p> + <p> + On the 23rd June they went ashore again, and occupied themselves, as well + as the constant attacks of the bears would permit, in observing the + variation of the needle, which they ascertained to be sixteen degrees. On + the same day, the ice closing around in almost infinite masses, they made + haste to extricate themselves from the land and bore southwards again, + making Bear Island once more on the 1st July. Here Cornelius Ryp parted + company with Heemskerk and Barendz, having announced his intention to sail + northward again beyond latitude 80 deg. in search of the coveted passage. + Barendz, retaining his opinion that the true inlet to the circumpolar sea, + if it existed, would be found N.E. of Nova Zembla, steered in that + direction. On the 13th July they found themselves by observation in + latitude 73 deg., and considered themselves in the neighbourhood of Sir + Hugh Willoughby's land. Four days later they were in Lomms' Bay, a harbour + of Nova Zembla, so called by them from the multitude of lomms frequenting + it, a bird to which they gave the whimsical name of arctic parrots. On the + 20th July the ice obstructed their voyage; covering the sea in all + directions with floating mountains and valleys, so that they came to an + anchor off an islet where on a former voyage the Hollanders had erected + the precious emblem of Christian faith, and baptised the dreary solitude + Cross Island. But these pilgrims, as they now approached the spot, found + no worshippers there, while, as if in horrible mockery of their piety, two + enormous white bears had reared themselves in an erect posture, in order + the better to survey their visitors, directly at the foot of the cross. + The party which had just landed were unarmed, and were for making off as + fast as possible to their boats. But Skipper Heemskerk, feeling that this + would be death to all of them, said simply, "The first man that runs shall + have this boat-hook of mine in his hide. Let us remain together and face + them off." It was done. The party moved slowly towards their boats, + Heemskerlk bringing up the rear, and fairly staring the polar monsters out + of countenance, who remained grimly regarding them, and ramping about the + cross. + </p> + <p> + The sailors got into their boat with much deliberation, and escaped to the + ship, "glad enough," said De Veer, "that they were alive to tell the + story, and that they had got out of the cat-dance so fortunately." + </p> + <p> + Next day they took the sun, and found their latitude 76 deg. 15', and the + variation of the needle twenty-six degrees. + </p> + <p> + For seventeen days more they were tossing about in mist and raging + snow-storms, and amidst tremendous icebergs, some of them rising in + steeples and pinnacles to a hundred feet above the sea, some grounded and + stationary, others drifting fearfully around in all directions, + threatening to crush them at any moment or close in about them and + imprison them for ever. They made fast by their bower anchor on the + evening of 7th August to a vast iceberg which was aground, but just as + they had eaten their supper there was a horrible groaning, bursting, and + shrieking all around them, an indefinite succession of awful, sounds which + made their hair stand on end, and then the iceberg split beneath the water + into more than four hundred pieces with a crash "such as no words could + describe." They escaped any serious damage, and made their way to a vast + steepled and towered block like a floating cathedral, where they again + came to anchor. + </p> + <p> + On the 15th August they reached the isles of Orange, on the extreme + north-eastern verge of Nova Zembla. Here a party going ashore climbed to + the top of a rising ground, and to their infinite delight beheld an open + sea entirely free from ice, stretching to the S. E. and E.S.E. as far as + eye could reach. At last the game was won, the passage to Cathay was + discovered. Full of joy, they pulled back in their boat to the ship, "not + knowing how to get there quick enough to tell William Barendz." Alas! they + were not aware of the action of that mighty ocean river, the Gulf-stream, + which was sweeping around those regions with its warm dissolving current. + </p> + <p> + Three days later they returned baffled in their sanguine efforts to sail + through the open sea. The ice had returned upon them, setting southwardly + in obedience to the same impulse which for a moment had driven it away, + and they found themselves imprisoned again near the "Hook of Desire." + </p> + <p> + On the 25th August they had given up all the high hopes by which they had + been so lately inspired, and, as the stream was again driving the ice from + the land, they trusted to sail southward and westward back towards the + Waigats. Having passed by Nova Zembla, and found no opening into the seas + beyond, they were disposed in the rapidly waning summer to effect their + retreat by the south side of the island, and so through the Straits of + Nassau home. In vain. The catastrophe was upon them. As they struggled + slowly past the "Ice-haven," the floating mountains and glaciers, impelled + by the mighty current, once more gathered around and forced them back to + that horrible harbour. During the remaining days of August the ship + struggled, almost like a living creature, with the perils that, beset her; + now rearing in the air, her bows propped upon mighty blocks, till she + absolutely sat erect upon her stern, now lying prostrate on her side, and + anon righting again as the ice-masses would for a moment float away and + leave her breathing space and room to move in. A blinding snow-storm was + raging the while, the ice was cracking and groaning in all directions, and + the ship was shrieking, so that the medley of awful sights and sounds was + beyond the power of language. "'Twas enough to make the hair stand on + end," said Gerrit de Veer, "to witness the hideous spectacle." + </p> + <p> + But the agony was soon over. By the 1st September the ship was hard and + fast. The ice was as immoveable as the dry land, and she would not move + again that year even if she ever floated. Those pilgrims from the little + republic were to spend the winter in their arctic harbour. Resigning + themselves without a murmur to their inevitable fate, they set about their + arrangements with perfect good humour and discipline. Most fortunately a + great quantity of drift wood, masses of timber, and great trees torn away + with their roots from distant shores, lay strewn along the coast, swept + thither by the wandering currents. At once they resolved to build a house + in which they might shelter themselves from the wild beasts, and from + their still more cruel enemy, the cold. So thanking God for the + providential and unexpected supply of building material and fuel, they + lost no time in making sheds, in hauling timber, and in dragging supplies + from the ship before the dayless winter should descend upon them. + </p> + <p> + Six weeks of steady cheerful labour succeeded. Tremendous snow-storms, + accompanied by hurricanes of wind, often filled the atmosphere to + suffocation, so that no human being could move a ship's length without + perishing; while, did any of their number venture forth, as the tempest + subsided, it was often to find himself almost in the arms of a polar bear + before the dangerous snow-white form could be distinguished moving + sluggishly through the white chaos. + </p> + <p> + For those hungry companions never left them so long as the sun remained + above the horizon, swarming like insects and birds in tropical lands. When + the sailors put their meat-tubs for a moment out upon the ice a bear's + intrusive muzzle would forthwith be inserted to inspect the contents. + Maddened by hunger, and their keen scent excited by the salted provisions, + and by the living flesh and blood of these intruders upon their ancient + solitary domains, they would often attempt to effect their entrance into + the ship. + </p> + <p> + On one such occasion, when Heemskerk and two companions were the whole + garrison, the rest being at a distance sledding wood, the future hero of + Gibraltar was near furnishing a meal to his Nova Zembla enemies. It was + only by tossing sticks and stones and marling-spikes across the ice, which + the bears would instantly turn and pursue, like dogs at play with + children, that the assault could be diverted until a fortunate shot was + made. + </p> + <p> + Several were thus killed in the course of the winter, and one in + particular was disembowelled and set frozen upon his legs near their + house, where he remained month after month with a mass of snow and ice + accumulated upon him, until he had grown into a fantastic and gigantic + apparition, still wearing the semblance of their mortal foe. + </p> + <p> + By the beginning of October the weather became so intensely cold that it + was almost impossible to work. The carpenter died before the house was + half completed. To dig a grave was impossible, but they laid him in a + cleft of the ice, and he was soon covered with the snow. Meantime the + sixteen that were left went on as they best might with their task, and on + October 2nd they had a house-raising. The frame-work was set up, and in + order to comply with the national usage in such cases, they planted, + instead of the May-pole with its fluttering streamers, a gigantic icicle + before their new residence. Ten days later they moved into the house and + slept there for the first time, while a bear, profiting by their absence, + passed the night in the deserted ship. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th November the sun rose no more, but the moon at first shone day + and night, until they were once in great perplexity to know whether it + were midday or midnight. It proved to be exactly noon. The bears + disappeared with the sun, but white foxes swarmed in their stead, and all + day and night were heard scrambling over their roof. These were caught + daily in traps and furnished them food, besides furs for raiment. The cold + became appalling, and they looked in each other's faces sometimes in + speechless amazement. It was obvious that the extreme limit of human + endurance had been reached. Their clothes were frozen stiff. Their shoes + were like iron, so that they were obliged to array themselves from head to + foot in the skins of the wild foxes. The clocks stopped. The beer became + solid. The Spanish wine froze and had to be melted in saucepans. The smoke + in the house blinded them. Fire did not warm them, and their garments were + often in a blaze while their bodies were half frozen. All through the + month of December an almost perpetual snow-deluge fell from the clouds. + For days together they were unable to emerge, and it was then only by most + vigorous labour that they could succeed in digging a passage out of their + buried house. On the night of the 7th December sudden death had nearly put + an end to the sufferings of the whole party. Having brought a quantity of + seacoal from the ship, they had made a great fire, and after the smoke was + exhausted, they had stopped up the chimney and every crevice of the house. + Each man then turned into his bunk for the night, "all rejoicing much in + the warmth and prattling a long time with each other." At last an + unaccustomed giddiness and faintness came over them, of which they could + not guess the cause, but fortunately one of the party had the instinct, + before he lost consciousness, to open the chimney, while another forced + open the door and fell in a swoon upon the snow. Their dread enemy thus + came to their relief, and saved their lives. + </p> + <p> + As the year drew to a close, the frost and the perpetual snow-tempest + became, if that were possible, still more frightful. Their Christmas was + not a merry one, and for the first few days of the new year, it was + impossible for them to move from the house. On the 25th January, the + snow-storms having somewhat abated, they once more dug themselves as it + were out of their living grave, and spent the whole day in hauling wood + from the shore. As their hour-glasses informed them that night was + approaching, they bethought themselves that it was Twelfth Night, or Three + Kings' Eve. So they all respectfully proposed to Skipper Heemskerk, that, + in the midst of their sorrow they might for once have a little diversion. + A twelfth-night feast was forthwith ordained. A scanty portion of the wine + yet remaining to them was produced. Two pounds weight of flour, which they + had brought to make paste with for cartridges, was baked into pancakes + with a little oil, and a single hard biscuit was served out to each man to + be sopped in his meagre allowance of wine. "We were as happy," said Gerrit + de veer, with simple pathos, "as if we were having a splendid banquet at + home. We imagined ourselves in the fatherland with all our friends, so + much did we enjoy our repast." + </p> + <p> + That nothing might be omitted, lots were drawn for king, and the choice + fell on the gunner, who was forthwith proclaimed monarch of Nova Zembla. + Certainly no men, could have exhibited more undaunted cheerfulness amid + bears and foxes, icebergs and cold—such as Christians had never + conceived of before—than did these early arctic pilgrims. Nor did + Barendz neglect any opportunity of studying the heavens. A meridian was + drawn near the house, on which the compass was placed, and observations of + various stars were constantly made, despite the cold, with extraordinary + minuteness. The latitude, from concurrent measurement of the Giant, the + Bull, Orion, Aldebaran, and other constellations—in the absence of + the sun—was ascertained to be a little above seventy-six degrees, + and the variations of the needle were accurately noted. + </p> + <p> + On the 24th January it was clear weather and comparatively mild, so that + Heemskerk, with De Veer and another, walked to the strand. To their + infinite delight and surprise they again saw the disk of the sun on the + edge of the horizon, and they all hastened back with the glad tidings. But + Barendz shook his head. Many days must elapse, he said, before the + declination of the sun should be once more 14 deg., at which point in the + latitude of 76 deg. they had lost sight of the luminary on the 4th + November, and at which only it could again be visible. This, according to + his calculations, would be on the 10th February. Two days of mirky and + stormy atmosphere succeeded, and those who had wagered in support of the + opinion of Barendz were inclined to triumph over those who believed in the + observation of Heemskerk. On the 27th January there was, however, no + mistake. The sky was bright, and the whole disk of the sun was most + distinctly seen by all, although none were able to explain the phenomenon, + and Barendz least of all. They had kept accurate diaries ever since their + imprisonment, and although the clocks sometimes had stopped, the + hour-glasses had regularly noted the lapse of time. Moreover, Barendz knew + from the Ephemerides for 1589 to 1600, published by Dr. Joseph Scala in + Venice, a copy of which work he had brought with him, that on the 24th + January, 1597, the moon would be seen at one o'clock A.M. at Venice, in + conjunction with Jupiter. He accordingly took as good an observation as + could be done with the naked eye and found that conjunction at six o'clock + A.M. Of the same day, the two bodies appearing in the same vertical line + in the sign of Taurus. The date was thus satisfactorily established, and a + calculation of the longitude of the house was deduced with an accuracy + which in those circumstances was certainly commendable. Nevertheless, as + the facts and the theory of refraction were not thoroughly understood, nor + Tycho Brahe's tables of refraction generally known, pilot Barendz could + not be expected to be wiser than his generation. + </p> + <p> + The startling discovery that in the latitude of 76 deg. the sun reappeared + on the 24th January, instead of the 10th February, was destined to awaken + commotion throughout the whole scientific world, and has perhaps hardly + yet been completely explained. + </p> + <p> + But the daylight brought no mitigation of their sufferings. The merciless + cold continued without abatement, and the sun seemed to mock their misery. + The foxes disappeared, and the ice-bears in their stead swarmed around the + house, and clambered at night over the roof. Again they constantly fought + with them for their lives. Daily the grave question was renewed whether + the men should feed on the bears or the bears on the men. On one occasion + their dead enemy proved more dangerous to them than in life, for three of + their number, who had fed on bear's liver, were nearly poisoned to death. + Had they perished, none of the whole party would have ever left Nova + Zembla. "It seemed," said the diarist, "that the beasts had smelt out that + we meant to go away, and had just begin to have a taste for us." + </p> + <p> + And thus the days wore on. The hour-glass and the almanac told them that + winter had given place to spring, but nature still lay in cold + obstruction. One of their number, who had long been ill, died. They + hollowed a grave for him in the frozen snow, performing a rude burial + service, and singing a psalm; but the cold had nearly made them all + corpses before the ceremony was done. + </p> + <p> + At last, on the 17th April, some of them climbing over the icebergs to the + shore found much open sea. They also saw a small bird diving in the water, + and looked upon it as a halcyon and harbinger of better fortunes. The open + weather continuing, they began to hanker for the fatherland. So they + brought the matter, "not mutinously but modestly and reasonably, before + William Barendz; that he might suggest it to Heemskerk, for they were all + willing to submit to his better judgment." It was determined to wait + through the month of May. Should they then be obliged to abandon the ship + they were to make the voyage in the two open boats, which had been + carefully stowed away beneath the snow. It was soon obvious that the ship + was hard and fast, and that she would never float again, except perhaps as + a portion of the icebergs in which she had so long been imbedded, when + they should be swept off from the shore. + </p> + <p> + As they now set to work repairing and making ready the frail skiffs which + were now their only hope, and supplying them with provisions and even with + merchandize from the ship, the ravages made by the terrible winter upon + the strength of the men became painfully apparent. But Heemskerk + encouraged them to persevere; "for," said he, "if the boats are not got + soon under way we must be content to make our graves here as burghers of + Nova Zembla." + </p> + <p> + On the 14th June they launched the boats, and "trusting themselves to + God," embarked once more upon the arctic sea. Barendz, who was too ill to + walk, together with Claas Anderson, also sick unto death, were dragged to + the strand in sleds, and tenderly placed on board. + </p> + <p> + Barendz had, however, despite his illness, drawn up a triple record of + their voyage; one copy being fastened to the chimney of their deserted + house, and one being placed in each of the boats. Their voyage was full of + danger as they slowly retraced their way along the track by which they + reached the memorable Ice Haven, once more doubling the Cape of Desire and + heading for the Point of Consolation—landmarks on their desolate + progress, whose nomenclature suggests the immortal apologue so familiar to + Anglo-Saxon ears. + </p> + <p> + Off the Ice-hook, both boats came alongside each other, and Skipper + Heemskerk called out to William Barendz to ask how it was with him. + </p> + <p> + "All right, mate," replied Barendz, cheerfully; "I hope to be on my legs + again before we reach the Ward-huis." Then' he begged De Veer to lift him + up, that he might look upon the Ice-hook once more. The icebergs crowded + around them, drifting this way and that, impelled by mighty currents and + tossing on an agitated sea. There was "a hideous groaning and bursting and + driving of the ice, and it seemed every moment as if the boats were to be + dashed into a hundred pieces." It was plain that their voyage would now be + finished for ever, were it not possible for some one of their number to + get upon the solid ice beyond and make fast a line. "But who is to bell + the cat?" said Gerrit de Veer, who soon, however, volunteered himself, + being the lightest of all. Leaping from one floating block to another at + the imminent risk of being swept off into space, he at last reached a + stationary island, and fastened his rope. Thus they warped themselves once + more into the open sea. + </p> + <p> + On the 20th June William Barendz lay in the boat studying carefully the + charts which they had made of the land and ocean discovered in their + voyage. Tossing about in an open skiff upon a polar sea, too weak to sit + upright, reduced by the unexampled sufferings of that horrible winter + almost to a shadow, he still preserved his cheerfulness, and maintained + that he would yet, with God's help, perform his destined task. In his next + attempt he would steer north-east from the North Cape, he said, and so + discover the passage. + </p> + <p> + While he was "thus prattling," the boatswain of the other boat came on + board, and said that Claas Anderson would hold out but little longer. + </p> + <p> + "Then," said William Barendz, "methinks I too shall last but a little + while. Gerrit, give me to drink." When he had drunk, he turned his eyes on + De Veer and suddenly breathed his last. + </p> + <p> + Great was the dismay of his companions, for they had been deceived by the + dauntless energy of the man, thus holding tenaciously to his great + purpose, unbaffled by danger and disappointment, even to the last instant + of life. He was their chief pilot and guide, "in whom next to God they + trusted." + </p> + <p> + And thus the hero, who for vivid intelligence, courage, and perseverance + amid every obstacle, is fit to be classed among the noblest of maritime + adventurers, had ended his career. Nor was it unmeet that the man who had + led those three great although unsuccessful enterprises towards the North + Pole, should be laid at last to rest—like the soldier dying in a + lost battle—upon the field of his glorious labours. + </p> + <p> + Nearly six weeks longer they struggled amid tempestuous seas. Hugging the + shore, ever in danger of being dashed to atoms by the ice, pursued by + their never-failing enemies the bears, and often sailing through enormous + herds of walrusses, which at times gave chase to the boats, they at last + reached the Schanshoek on the 28th July. + </p> + <p> + Here they met with some Russian fishermen, who recognised Heemskerk and De + Veer, having seen them on their previous voyage. Most refreshing it was to + see other human faces again, after thirteen months' separation from + mankind, while the honest Muscovites expressed compassion for the forlorn + and emaciated condition of their former acquaintance. Furnished by them + with food and wine, the Hollanders sailed in company with the Russians as + far as the Waigats. + </p> + <p> + On the 18th August they made Candenoes, at the mouth of the White Sea, and + doubling that cape stood boldly across the gulf for Kildin. Landing on the + coast they were informed by the Laps that there were vessels from Holland + at Kola. + </p> + <p> + On the 25th August one of the party, guided by a Lap, set forth on foot + for that place. Four days later the guide was seen returning without their + comrade; but their natural suspicion was at once disarmed as the + good-humoured savage straightway produced a letter which he handed to + Heemakerk. + </p> + <p> + Breaking the seal, the skipper found that his correspondent expressed + great surprise at the arrival of the voyagers, as he he had supposed them + all to be long since dead. Therefore he was the more delighted with their + coming, and promised to be with them soon, bringing with him plenty of + food and drink. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The letter was signed— + "By me, JAN CORNELISZ RYP." +</pre> + <p> + The occurrence was certainly dramatic, but, as one might think, + sufficiently void of mystery. Yet, astonishing to relate, they all fell to + pondering who this John Ryp might be who seemed so friendly and + sympathetic. It was shrewdly suggested by some that it might perhaps be + the sea-captain who had parted company with them off Bear Island fourteen + months before in order to sail north by way of Spitzbergen. As his + Christian name and surname were signed in full to the letter, the + conception did not seem entirely unnatural, yet it was rejected on the + ground that they had far more reasons to believe that he had perished than + he for accepting their deaths as certain. One might imagine it to have + been an every day occurrence for Hollanders to receive letters by a + Lapland penny postman in those, desolate regions. At last Heemskerk + bethought himself that among his papers were several letters from their + old comrade, and, on comparison, the handwriting was found the same as + that of the epistle just received. This deliberate avoidance of any hasty + jumping at conclusions certainly inspires confidence in the general right + accuracy of the adventurers, and we have the better right to believe that + on the 24th January the sun's disk was really seen by them in the ice + harbour—a fact long disputed by the learned world—when the + careful weighing of evidence on the less important matter of Ryp's letter + is taken into account. + </p> + <p> + Meantime while they were slowly admitting the identity of their friend and + correspondent, honest John Cornelius Ryp himself arrived—no + fantastic fly-away Hollander, but in full flesh and blood, laden with + provisions, and greeting them heartily. + </p> + <p> + He had not pursued his Spitzbergen researches of the previous year, but he + was now on a trading voyage in a stout vessel, and he conveyed them all by + way of the Ward-huis, where he took in a cargo, back to the fatherland. + </p> + <p> + They dropped anchor in the Meuse on the 29th October, and on the 1st + November arrived at Amsterdam. Here, attired in their robes and caps of + white fox-skin which they had worn while citizens of Nova Zembla, they + were straightway brought before the magistrates to give an account of + their adventures. + </p> + <p> + They had been absent seventeen months, they had spent a whole autumn, + winter, and spring—nearly ten months—under the latitude of 76 + deg. in a frozen desert, where no human beings had ever dwelt before, and + they had penetrated beyond 80 deg. north—a farther stride towards + the pole than had ever been hazarded. They had made accurate geographical, + astronomical, and meteorological observations of the regions visited. They + had carefully measured latitudes and longitudes and noted the variations + of the magnet. They had thoroughly mapped out, described, and designated + every cape, island, hook, and inlet of those undiscovered countries, and + more than all, they had given a living example of courage, endurance, + patience under hardship, perfect discipline, fidelity, to duty, and trust + in God, sufficient to inspire noble natures with emulation so long as + history can read moral lessons to mankind. + </p> + <p> + No farther attempt was made to discover the north-eastern passage. The + enthusiasm of Barendz had died with him, and it may be said that the stern + negation by which this supreme attempt to solve the mystery of the pole + was met was its best practical result. Certainly all visions of a + circumpolar sea blessed with a gentle atmosphere and eternal tranquillity, + and offering a smooth and easy passage for the world's commerce between + Europe and Asia, had been for ever dispelled. + </p> + <p> + The memorable enterprise of Barendz and Heemskerk has been thought worthy + of a minute description because it was a voyage of discovery, and because, + however barren of immediate practical results it may, seem to superficial + eyes, it forms a great landmark in the history of human progress and the + advancement of science. + </p> + <p> + Contemporaneously with these voyages towards the North Pole, the + enlightened magistrates of the Netherland municipalities, aided by eminent + private citizens, fitted out expeditions in the opposite direction. It was + determined to measure strength with the lord of the land and seas, the + great potentate against whom these republicans had been so long in + rebellion, in every known region of the globe. Both from the newly + discovered western world, and from the ancient abodes of oriental + civilization, Spanish monopoly had long been furnishing the treasure to + support Spanish tyranny, and it was the dearest object of Netherland + ambition to confront their enemy in both those regions, and to clip both + those overshadowing wings of his commerce at once. + </p> + <p> + The intelligence, enthusiasm, and tenacity in wrestling against immense + obstacles manifested by the young republic at this great expanding era of + the world's history can hardly be exaggerated. It was fitting that the + little commonwealth, which was foremost among the nations in its hatred of + tyranny, its love of maritime adventure, and its aptitude for foreign + trade, should take the lead in the great commercial movements which + characterized the close of the sixteenth and the commencement of the + seventeenth centuries. + </p> + <p> + While Barendz and Heemskerk were attempting to force the frozen gates + which were then supposed to guard the northern highway of commerce, fleets + were fitting out in Holland to storm the Southern Pole, or at least to + take advantage of the pathways already opened by the genius and enterprise + of the earlier navigators of the century. Linschoten had taught his + countrymen the value of the technical details of the Indian trade as then + understood. The voyages of the brothers Houtmann, 1595-1600, the first + Dutch expeditions to reach the East by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, + were undertaken according to his precepts, and directed by the practical + knowledge obtained by the Houtmanns during a residence in Portugal, but + were not signalized by important discoveries. They are chiefly memorable + as having laid the foundation of the vast trade out of which the republic + was to derive so much material power, while at the same time they mark the + slight beginnings of that mighty monopoly, the Dutch East India Company, + which was to teach such tremendous lessons in commercial restriction to a + still more colossal English corporation, that mercantile tyrant only in + our own days overthrown. + </p> + <p> + At the same time and at the other side of the world seven ships, fitted + out from Holland by private enterprise, were forcing their way to the + South Sea through the terrible strait between Patagonia and Fire Land; + then supposed the only path around the globe. For the tortuous mountain + channel, filled with whirlpools and reefs, and the home of perpetual + tempest, which had been discovered in the early part of the century by + Magellan, was deemed the sole opening pierced by nature through the mighty + southern circumpolar continent. A few years later a daring Hollander was + to demonstrate the futility of this theory, and to give his own name to a + broader pathway, while the stormy headland of South America, around which + the great current of universal commerce was thenceforth to sweep, was + baptized by the name of the tranquil town in West Friesland where most of + his ship's company were born. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the seven ships under command of Jacob Mahu, Simon de Cordes, and + Sebald de Weerdt; were contending with the dangers of the older route. The + expedition sailed from Holland in June, 1598, but already the custom was + forming itself of directing those navigators of almost unknown seas by + explicit instructions from those who remained on shore, and who had never + navigated the ocean at all. The consequence on this occasion was that the + voyagers towards the Straits of Magellan spent a whole summer on the coast + of Africa, amid pestiferous heats and distracting calms, and reached the + straits only in April of the following year. Admiral Mahu and a large + proportion of the crew had meantime perished of fevers contracted by + following the course marked out for them by their employers, and thus + diminished in numbers, half-stripped of provisions, and enfeebled by the + exhausting atmosphere of the tropics, the survivors were ill prepared to + confront the antarctic ordeal which they were approaching. Five months + longer the fleet, under command of Admiral de Cordes, who had succeeded to + the command, struggled in those straits, where, as if in the home of + Eolus, all the winds of heaven seemed holding revel; but indifference to + danger, discipline, and devotion to duty marked the conduct of the + adventurers, even as those qualities had just been distinguishing their + countrymen at the other pole. They gathered no gold, they conquered no + kingdoms, they made few discoveries, they destroyed no fleets, yet they + were the first pioneers on a path on which thereafter were to be many such + achievements by the republic. + </p> + <p> + At least one heroic incident, which marked their departure from the + straits, deserves to be held in perpetual remembrance. Admiral de Cordes + raised on the shore, at the western mouth of the channel, a rude memorial + with an inscription that the Netherlanders were the first to effect this + dangerous passage with a fleet of heavy ships. On the following day, in + commemoration of the event, he founded an order of knighthood. The chief + officers of the squadron were the knights-commanders, and the most + deserving of the crew were the knights-brethren. The members of the + fraternity made solemn oath to De Cordes, as general, and to each other, + that "by no danger, no necessity, nor by the fear of death, would they + ever be moved to undertake anything prejudicial to their honour, to, the + welfare of the fatherland, or to the success of the enterprise in which + they were engaged; pledging themselves to stake their lives in order, + consistently with honour, to inflict every possible damage on the + hereditary enemy, and to plant the banner of Holland in all those + territories whence the King of Spain gathered the treasures with which he + had carried on this perpetual war against the Netherlands." + </p> + <p> + Thus was instituted on the desolate shores of Fire Land the order of + Knights of the Unchained Lion, with such rude solemnities as were possible + in those solitudes. The harbour where the fleet was anchored was called + the Chevaliers' Bay, but it would be in vain to look on modern maps for + that heroic appellation. Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego know the honest + knights of the Unchained Lion no more; yet to an unsophisticated mind no + stately brotherhood of sovereigns and patricians seems more thoroughly + inspired with the spirit of Christian chivalry than were those + weather-beaten adventurers. The reefs and whirlwinds of unknown seas, + polar cold, Patagonian giants, Spanish cruisers, a thousand real or + fabulous dangers environed them. Their provisions were already running + near exhaustion; and they were feeding on raw seal-flesh, on snails and + mussels, and on whatever the barren rocks and niggard seas would supply, + to save them from absolutely perishing, but they held their resolve to + maintain their honour unsullied, to be true to each other and to the + republic, and to circumnavigate the globe to seek the proud enemy of their + fatherland on every sea, and to do battle with him in every corner of the + earth. The world had already seen, and was still to see, how nobly + Netherlanders could keep their own. Meantime disaster on disaster + descended on this unfortunate expedition. One ship after another melted + away and was seen no more. Of all the seven, only one, that of Sebald de + Weerdt, ever returned to the shores of Holland. Another reached Japan, and + although the crew fell into hostile hands, the great trade with that + Oriental empire was begun. In a third—the Blyde Boodachaft, or Good + News—Dirk Gerrits sailed nearer the South Pole than man had ever + been before, and discovered, as he believed, a portion of the southern + continent, which he called, with reason good, Gerrit's Land. The name in + course of time faded from maps and charts, the existence of the country + was disputed, until more than two centuries later the accuracy of the + Dutch commander was recognised. The rediscovered land however no longer + bears his name, but has been baptized South Shetland. + </p> + <p> + Thus before the sixteenth century had closed, the navigators of Holland + had reached almost the extreme verge of human discovery at either pole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Military Operations in the Netherlands—Designs of the Spanish + Commander—Siege of Orsoy—Advance upon Rheinberg—Murder of the + Count of Broeck and his garrison—Capture of Rees and Emmerich— + Outrages of the Spanish soldiers in the peaceful provinces— + Inglorious attempt to avenge the hostilities—State of trade in the + Provinces—Naval expedition under van der Does—Arrival of Albert + and Isabella at Brussels—Military operations of Prince Maurice— + Negotiation between London and Brussels—Henry's determination to + enact the Council of Trent—His projected marriage—Queen Elizabeth + and Envoy Caron—Peace proposals of Spain to Elizabeth—Conferences + at Gertruydenberg—Uncertain state of affairs. +</pre> + <p> + The military operations in the Netherlands during the whole year 1598 were + on a comparatively small scale and languidly conducted. The States were + exhausted by the demands made upon the treasury, and baffled by the + disingenuous policy of their allies. The cardinal-archduke, on the other + hand, was occupied with the great events of his marriage, of his + father-in-law's death, and of his own succession in conjunction with his + wife to the sovereignty of the provinces. + </p> + <p> + In the autumn, however, the Admiral of Arragon, who, as has been stated, + was chief military commander during the absence of Albert, collected an + army of twenty-five thousand foot and two thousand cavalry, crossed the + Meuse at Roermond, and made his appearance before a small town called + Orsoy, on the Rhine. It was his intention to invade the duchies of Clever, + Juliers, and Berg, taking advantage of the supposed madness of the duke, + and of the Spanish inclinations of his chief counsellors, who constituted + a kind of regency. By obtaining possession of these important provinces—wedged + as they were between the territory of the republic, the obedient + Netherlands, and Germany—an excellent military position would be + gained for making war upon the rebellious districts from the east, for + crushing Protestantism in the duchies, for holding important passages of + the Rhine, and for circumventing the designs of the Protestant sons-in-law + and daughters of the old Duke of Cleves. Of course, it was the + determination of Maurice and the States-General to frustrate these + operations. German and Dutch Protestantism gave battle on this neutral + ground to the omnipotent tyranny of the papacy and Spain. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, Maurice had but a very slender force that autumn at his + command. Fifteen hundred horse and six thousand infantry were all his + effective troops, and with these he took the field to defend the borders + of the republic, and to out-manoeuvre, so far as it might lie in his + power, the admiral with his far-reaching and entirely unscrupulous + designs. + </p> + <p> + With six thousand Spanish veterans, two thousand Italians, and many + Walloon and German regiments under Bucquoy, Hachincourt, La Bourlotte, + Stanley, and Frederic van den Berg, the admiral had reached the frontiers + of the mad duke's territory. Orsoy was garrisoned by a small company of + "cocks' feathers," or country squires, and their followers. + </p> + <p> + Presenting himself in person before the walls of the town, with a priest + at his right hand and a hangman holding a bundle of halters at the other, + he desired to be informed whether the governor would prefer to surrender + or to hang with his whole garrison. The cock feathers surrendered. The + admiral garrisoned and fortified Orsoy as a basis and advanced upon + Rheinberg, first surprising the Count of Broeck in his castle, who was at + once murdered in cold blood with his little garrison. + </p> + <p> + He took Burik on the 11th October, Rheinberg on the 15th of the same + month, and compounded with Wesel for a hundred and twenty thousand + florins. Leaving garrisons in these and a few other captured places, he + crossed the Lippe, came to Borhold, and ravaged the whole country side. + His troops being clamorous for pay were only too eager to levy black-mail + on this neutral territory. The submission of the authorities to this + treatment brought upon them a reproach of violation of neutrality by the + States-General; the Governments of Munster and of the duchies being + informed that, if they aided and abetted the one belligerent, they must + expect to be treated as enemies by the other. + </p> + <p> + The admiral took Rees on the 30th October, and Emmerich on the 2nd + November—two principal cities of Cleves. On the 8th November he + crossed into the territory of the republic and captured Deutekom, after a + very short siege. Maurice, by precaution, occupied Sevenaer in Cleves. The + prince—whose difficult task was to follow up and observe an enemy by + whom he was outnumbered nearly four to one, to harass him by skirmishes, + to make forays on his communications, to seize important points before he + could reach them, to impose upon him by an appearance of far greater force + than the republican army could actually boast, to protect the cities of + the frontier like Zutphen, Lochem, and Doesburg, and to prevent him from + attempting an invasion of the United Provinces in force, by crossing any + of the rivers, either in the autumn or after the winter's ice had made + them passable for the Spanish army-succeeded admirably in all his + strategy. The admiral never ventured to attack him, for fear of risking a + defeat of his whole army by an antagonist whom he ought to have swallowed + at a mouthful, relinquished all designs upon the republic, passed into + Munster, Cleves, and Berg, and during the whole horrible winter converted + those peaceful provinces into a hell. No outrage which even a Spanish army + could inflict was spared the miserable inhabitants. Cities and villages + were sacked and burned, the whole country was placed under the law of + black-mail. The places of worship, mainly Protestant, were all converted + at a blow of the sword into Catholic churches. Men were hanged, butchered, + tossed in sport from the tops of steeples, burned, and buried alive. Women + of every rank were subjected by thousands to outrage too foul and too + cruel for any but fiends or Spanish soldiers to imagine. + </p> + <p> + Such was the lot of thousands of innocent men and women at the hands of + Philip's soldiers in a country at peace with Philip, at the very moment + when that monarch was protesting with a seraphic smile on his expiring + lips that he had never in his whole life done injury to a single human + being. + </p> + <p> + In vain did the victims call aloud upon their sovereign, the Emperor + Rudolph. The Spaniards laughed the feeble imperial mandates to scorn, and + spurned the word neutrality. "Oh, poor Roman Empire!" cried John Fontanus, + "how art thou fallen! Thy protector has become thy despoiler, and, + although thy members see this and know it, they sleep through it all. One + day they may have a terrible awakening from their slumbers . . . . . . . + The Admiral of Arragon has entirely changed the character of the war, + recognizes no neutrality, saying that there must be but one God, one pope, + and one king, and that they who object to this arrangement must be + extirpated with fire and sword, let them be where they may." + </p> + <p> + The admiral, at least, thoroughly respected the claims of the dead Philip + to universal monarchy. + </p> + <p> + Maurice gained as much credit by the defensive strategy through which he + saved the republic from the horrors thus afflicting its neighbours, as he + had ever done by his most brilliant victories. Queen Elizabeth was + enchanted with the prowess of the prince, and with the sagacious + administration of those republican magistrates whom she never failed to + respect, even when most inclined to quarrel with them. "Never before was + it written or heard of," said the queen, "that so great an extent of + country could be defended with so few troops, that an invasion of so + superior a hostile force could be prevented, especially as it appeared + that all the streams and rivers were frozen." This, she added, was owing + to the wise and far-seeing counsels of the States-General, and to the + faithful diligence of their military commander, who now, as she declared, + deserved the title of the first captain of all Christendom. + </p> + <p> + A period of languor and exhaustion succeeded. The armies of the States had + dwindled to an effective force of scarcely four or five thousand men, + while the new levies came in but slowly. The taxation, on the other hand, + was very severe. The quotas for the provinces had risen to the amount of + five million eight hundred thousand florins for the year 1599, against an + income of four millions six hundred thousand, and this deficit went on + increasing, notwithstanding a new tax of one-half per cent. on the capital + of all estates above three thousand florins in value, and another of two + and a half per cent. on all sales of real property. The finances of the + obedient provinces were in a still worse condition, and during the absence + of the cardinal-archduke an almost universal mutiny, occasioned by the + inability of the exchequer to provide payment for the troops, established + itself throughout Flanders and Brabant. There was much recrimination on + the subject of the invasion of the Rhenish duchies, and a war of pamphlets + and manifestos between the archduke's Government and the States-General + succeeded to those active military operations by which so much misery had + been inflicted on the unfortunate inhabitants of that border land. There + was a slight attempt on the part of the Princes of Brunswick, Hesse, and + Brandenburg to counteract and to punish the hostilities of the Spanish + troops committed upon German soil. An army—very slowly organized, + against the wishes of the emperor, the bishops, and the Catholic party—took + the field, and made a feeble demonstration upon Rheinberg and upon Rees + entirely without result and then disbanded itself ingloriously. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the admiral had withdrawn from German territory, and was amusing + himself with a variety of blows aimed at vital points of the republic. An + excursion into the Isle of Bommel was not crowned with much success. The + assault on the city was repulsed. The fortress of Crevecoeur was, however, + taken, and the fort of St. Andrew constructed—in spite of the + attempts of the States to frustrate the design—at a point commanding + the course of both the Waal and the Meuse. Having placed a considerable + garrison in each of those strongholds, the admiral discontinued his + labours and went into winter-quarters. + </p> + <p> + The States-General for political reasons were urgent that Prince Maurice + should undertake some important enterprise, but the stadholder, sustained + by the opinion of his cousin Lewis William, resisted the pressure. The + armies of the Commonwealth were still too slender in numbers and too + widely scattered for active service on a large scale, and the season for + active campaigning was wisely suffered to pass without making any attempt + of magnitude during the year. + </p> + <p> + The trade of the provinces, moreover, was very much hampered, and their + revenues sadly diminished by the severe prohibitions which had succeeded + to the remarkable indulgence hitherto accorded to foreign commerce. Edicts + in the name of the King of Spain and of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella, + forbidding all intercourse between the rebellious provinces and the + obedient Netherlands or any of the Spanish possessions, were met by + countervailing decrees of the States-General. Free trade with its enemies + and with all the world, by means of which the commonwealth had prospered + in spite of perpetual war, was now for a season destroyed, and the + immediate results were at once visible in its diminished resources. To + employ a portion of the maritime energies of the Hollanders and + Zeelanders, thus temporarily deprived of a sufficient field, a naval + expedition of seventy-five war vessels under Admiral van der Does was + fitted out, but met with very trifling success. They attacked and + plundered the settlements and forts of the Canary Islands, inflicted much + damage on the inhabitants, sailed thence to the Isle of St. Thomas, near + the equator, where the towns and villages were sacked and burned, and + where a contagious sickness broke out in the fleet, sweeping off in a very + brief period a large proportion of the crew. The admiral himself fell a + victim to the disease and was buried on the island. The fleet put to sea + again under Admiral Storm van Wena, but the sickness pursued the + adventurers on their voyage towards Brazil, one thousand of them dying at + sea in fifteen days. At Brazil they accomplished nothing, and, on their + homeward voyage, not only the new commander succumbed to the same + contagion, but the mortality continued to so extraordinary an extent that, + on the arrival of the expedition late in the winter in Holland, there were + but two captains left alive, and, in many of the vessels, not more than + six sound men to each. Nothing could be more wretched than this + termination of a great and expensive voyage, which had occasioned such + high hopes throughout the provinces; nothing more dismal than the + political atmosphere which surrounded the republic during the months which + immediately ensued. It was obvious to Barneveld and the other leading + personages, in whose hands was the administration of affairs, that a great + military success was absolutely indispensable, if the treacherous cry of + peace, when peace was really impossible, should not become universal and + fatal. + </p> + <p> + Meantime affairs were not much more cheerful in the obedient provinces. + Archduke Albert arrived with his bride in the early days of September, + 1599, at Brussels, and was received with great pomp and enthusiastic + rejoicings. When are pomp and enthusiasm not to be obtained by imperial + personages, at brief notice and in vast quantities, if managers understand + their business? After all, it may be doubted whether the theatrical + display was as splendid as that which marked the beginning of the + Ernestian era. Schoolmaster Houwaerts had surpassed himself on that + occasion, and was no longer capable of deifying the new sovereign as + thoroughly as he had deified his brother. + </p> + <p> + Much real discontent followed close upon the fictitious enthusiasm. The + obedient provinces were poor and forlorn, and men murmured loudly at the + enormous extravagance of their new master's housekeeping. There were one + hundred and fifty mules, and as many horses in their sovereign's stables, + while the expense of feeding the cooks; lackeys, pages, and fine gentlemen + who swelled the retinue of the great household, was estimated, without, + wages or salaries, at two thousand florins a day. Albert had wished to be + called a king, but had been unable to obtain the gratification of his + wish. He had aspired to be emperor, and he was at least sufficiently + imperial in his ideas of expense. The murmurers were loftily rebuked for + their complaints, and reminded of the duty of obedient provinces to + contribute at least as much for the defence of their masters as the rebels + did in maintenance of their rebellion. The provincial estates were + summoned accordingly to pay roundly for the expenses of the war as well as + of the court, and to enable the new sovereigns to suppress the military + mutiny, which amid the enthusiasm greeting their arrival was the one + prominent and formidable fact. + </p> + <p> + The archduke was now thirty-nine years of age, the Infanta Isabella six + years younger. She was esteemed majestically beautiful by her courtiers, + and Cardinal Bentivoglio, himself a man of splendid intellect, pronounced + her a woman of genius, who had grown to be a prodigy of wisdom, under the + tuition of her father, the most sagacious statesman of the age. In + attachment to the Roman faith and ritual, in superhuman loftiness of + demeanour, and in hatred of heretics, she was at least a worthy child of + that sainted sovereign. In a moral point of view she was his superior. The + archdukes—so Albert and Isabella were always designated—were a + singularly attached couple, and their household, if extravagant and + imperial, was harmonious. They loved each other—so it was believed—as + sincerely as they abhorred heretics and rebels, but it does not appear + that they had a very warm affection for their Flemish subjects. Every + characteristic of their court was Spanish. Spanish costume, Spanish + manners, the Spanish tongue, were almost exclusively predominant, and + although the festivals, dances, banquets, and tourneys, were all very + magnificent, the prevailing expression of the Brabantine capital resembled + that of a Spanish convent, so severely correct, so stately, and so grim, + was the demeanour of the court. + </p> + <p> + The earliest military operations of the stadholder in the first year of + the new century were successful. Partly by menace; but more effectually by + judicious negotiation. Maurice recovered Crevecoeur, and obtained the + surrender of St. Andrew, the fort which the admiral had built the + preceding year in honour of Albert's uncle. That ecclesiastic, with whom + Mendoza had wrangled most bitterly during the whole interval of Albert's + absence, had already taken his departure for Rome, where he soon + afterwards died. The garrisons of the forts, being mostly Walloon + soldiers, forsook the Spanish service for that of the States, and were + banded together in a legion some twelve hundred strong, which became known + as the "New Beggars," and were placed under the nominal command of + Frederick Henry of Nassau, youngest child of William the Silent. The next + military event of the year was a mad combat, undertaken by formal cartel, + between Breaute, a young Norman noble in the service of the republic, and + twenty comrades, with an equal number of Flemish warriors from the + obedient provinces, under Grobbendonck. About one half of the whole number + were killed, including the leaders, but the encounter, although exciting + much interest at the time, had of course no permanent importance. + </p> + <p> + There was much negotiation, informal and secret, between Brussels and + London during this and a portion of the following year. Elizabeth, + naturally enough, was weary of the war, but she felt, after all, as did + the Government of France, that a peace between the United Netherlands and + Spain would have for its result the restoration of the authority of his + most Catholic Majesty over all the provinces. The statesmen of France and + England, like most of the politicians of Europe, had but slender belief in + the possibility of a popular government, and doubted therefore the + continued existence of the newly-organized republic. Therefore they really + deprecated the idea of a peace which should include the States, + notwithstanding that from time to time the queen or some of her + counsellors had so vehemently reproached the Netherlanders with their + unwillingness to negotiate. "At the first recognition that these people + should make of the mere shadow of a prince," said Buzanval, the keenly + observing and experienced French envoy at the Hague, "they lose the form + they have. All the blood of the body would flow to the head, and the game + would be who should best play the valet. . . . The house of Nassau would + lose its credit within a month in case of peace." As such statesmen could + not imagine a republic, they ever dreaded the restoration in the United + Provinces of the subverted authority of Spain. + </p> + <p> + France and England were jealous of each other, and both were jealous of + Spain. Therefore even if the republican element, the strength and + endurance of which was so little suspected, had been as trifling a factor + in the problem, as was supposed, still it would have been difficult for + any one of these powers to absorb the United Netherlands. As for France, + she hardly coveted their possession. "We ought not to flatter ourselves," + said Buzanval, "that these maritime peoples will cast themselves one day + into our nets, nor do I know that it would be advisable to pull in the net + if they should throw themselves in." + </p> + <p> + Henry was full of political schemes and dreams at this moment—as + much as his passion for Mademoiselle d'Entraigues, who had so soon + supplanted the image of the dead Gabrielle in his heart, would permit. He + was very well disposed to obtain possession of the Spanish Netherlands, + whenever he should see his way to such an acquisition, and was even + indulging in visions of the imperial crown. + </p> + <p> + He was therefore already, and for the time at least, the most intense of + papists. He was determined to sacrifice the Huguenot chiefs, and introduce + the Council of Trent, in order, as he told Du Plessis, that all might be + Christians. If he still retained any remembrance of the ancient friendship + between himself and the heretic republic, it was not likely to exhibit + itself, notwithstanding his promises and his pecuniary liabilities to her, + in anything more solid than words. "I repeat it," said the Dutch envoy at + Paris; "this court cares nothing for us, for all its cabals tend to close + union with Rome, whence we can expect nothing but foul weather. The king + alone has any memory of our past services." But imperturbable and + self-confident as ever, Henry troubled himself little with fears in regard + to the papal supremacy, even when his Parliament professed great anxiety + in regard to the consequences of the Council of Trent, if not under him + yet under his successors. "I will so bridle the popes," said he, + cheerfully, "that they will never pass my restrictions. My children will + be still more virtuous and valiant than I. If I have none, then the devil + take the hindmost. Nevertheless I choose that the council shall be + enacted. I desire it more ardently than I pressed the edict for the + Protestants." Such being the royal humour at the moment, it may well be + believed that Duplessis Mornay would find but little sunshine from on high + on the occasion of his famous but forgotten conferences with Du Perron, + now archbishop of Evreux, before the king and all the court at + Fontainebleau. It was natural enough that to please the king the king's + old Huguenot friend should be convicted of false citations from the + fathers; but it would seem strange, were the motives unknown, that Henry + should have been so intensely interested in this most arid and dismal of + theological controversies. Yet those who had known and observed the king + closely for thirty years, declared that he had never manifested so much + passion, neither on the eve of battles nor of amorous assignations, as he + then did for the demolition of Duplessis and his deductions. He had + promised the Nuncius that the Huguenot should be utterly confounded, and + with him the whole fraternity, "for," said the king, "he has wickedly and + impudently written against the pope, to whom I owe as much as I do to + God." + </p> + <p> + These were not times in which the Hollanders, battling as stoutly against + Spain and the pope as they had done during the years when the republic + stood shoulder to shoulder with Henry the Huguenot, could hope for aid and + comfort from their ancient ally. + </p> + <p> + It is very characteristic of that age of dissimulation and of reckless + political gambling, that at the very moment when Henry's marriage with + Marie de Medicis was already arranged, and when that princess was soon + expected in Lyons, a cabal at the king's court was busy with absurd + projects to marry their sovereign to the Infanta of Spain. It is true that + the Infanta was already the wife of the cardinal-archduke, but it was + thought possible—for reasons divulged through the indiscretions or + inventions of the father confessor—to obtain the pope's dispensation + on the ground of the nullity of the marriage. Thus there were politicians + at the French court seriously occupied in an attempt to deprive the + archduke of his wife, of his Netherland provinces, and of the crown of, + the holy Roman empire, which he still hoped to inherit. Yet the ink was + scarcely dry with which Henry had signed the treaty of amity with Madrid + and Brussels. + </p> + <p> + The Queen of England, on the other hand—although often listening to + secret agents from Brussels and Madrid who offered peace, and although + perfectly aware that the great abject of Spain in securing peace with + England was to be able to swoop down at once upon the republic, thus + deprived of any allies was beside herself with rage, whenever she + suspected, with or without reason, that Brussels or Madrid had been + sending peace emissaries to the republic. + </p> + <p> + "Before I could get into the room," said Caron, on one such occasion, "she + called out, 'Have you not always told me that the States never could, + would, or should treat for peace with the enemy? Yet now it is plain + enough that they have proceeded only too far in negotiations.' And she + then swore a big oath that if the States were to deceive her she meant to + take such vengeance that men should talk of it for ever and ever." It was + a long time before the envoy could induce her to listen to a single word, + although the perfect sincerity of the States in their attitude to the + queen and to Spain was unquestionable, and her ill-humour on the subject + continued long after it had been demonstrated how much she had been + deceived. + </p> + <p> + Yet it was impossible in the nature of things for the States to play her + false, even if no reliance were to be placed on their sagacity and their + honour. Even the recent naval expedition of the republic against the + distant possessions of Spain—which in its result had caused so much + disappointment to the States, and cost them so many lives, including that + of the noble admiral whom every sailor in the Netherlands adored had been + of immense advantage to England. The queen acknowledged that the Dutch + Navy had averted the storm which threatened to descend upon her kingdom + out of Spain, the Spanish ships destined for the coast of Ireland having + been dispersed and drawn to the other aide of the world by these + demonstrations of her ally. For this she vowed that she would be eternally + grateful, and she said as much in "letters full of sugar and honey"—according + to the French envoy—which she sent to the States by Sir Francis + Vere. She protested, in short, that she had been better and more promptly + served in her necessities by the Netherlands than by her own subjects. + </p> + <p> + All this sugar and honey however did not make the mission of Envoy Edmonds + less bitter to the States. They heard that he was going about through half + the cities of the obedient Netherlands in a sort of triumphal procession, + and it was the general opinion of the politicians and financiers of the + continent that peace between Spain and England was as good as made. + Naturally therefore, notwithstanding the exuberant expressions of + gratitude on the part of Elizabeth, the republican Government were anxious + to know what all this parleying meant. They could not believe that people + would make a raree-show of the English envoy except for sufficient reason. + Caron accordingly presented himself before the queen, with respectful + inquiries on the subject. He found her in appearance very angry, not with + him, but with Edmonds, from whom she had received no advices. "I don't + know what they are doing with him," said her Majesty, "I hear from others + that they are ringing the church bells wherever he goes, and that they + have carried him through a great many more places than was necessary. I + suppose that they think him a monster, and they are carrying him about to + exhibit him. All this is done," she continued, "to throw dust in the eyes + of the poor people, and to put it into their heads that the Queen of + England is suing for peace, which is very wide of the mark." + </p> + <p> + She further observed that, as the agents of the Spanish Government had + been perpetually sending to her, she had been inclined once for all to + learn what they had to say. Thus she should make manifest to all the world + that she was not averse to a treaty such as might prove a secure peace for + herself and for Christendom; otherwise not. + </p> + <p> + It subsequently appeared that what they had to say was that if the queen + would give up to the Spanish Government the cautionary towns which she + held as a pledge for her advances to the republic, forbid all traffic and + intercourse between her subjects and the Netherlanders, and thenceforth + never allow an Englishman to serve in or with the armies of the States, a + peace might be made. + </p> + <p> + Surely it needed no great magnanimity on the queen's part to spurn such + insulting proposals, the offer of which showed her capable, in the opinion + of Verreycken, the man who made them, of sinking into the very depths of + dishonour. And she did spurn them. Surely, for the ally, the protrectress, + the grateful friend of the republic, to give its chief seaports to its + arch-enemy, to shut the narrow seas against its ships, so that they never + more could sail westward, and to abandon its whole population to their + fate, would be a deed of treachery such as history, full of human baseness + as it is, has rarely been obliged to record. + </p> + <p> + Before these propositions had been made by Verreycken Elizabeth protested + that, should he offer them, she would send him home with such an answer + that people should talk of it for some time to come. "Before I consent to + a single one of those points," said the queen, "I wish myself taken from + this world. Until now I have been a princess of my word, who would rather + die than so falsely deceive such good people as the States." And she made + those protestations with such expression and attitude that the Dutch envoy + believed her incapable at that moment of dissimulation. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless her indignation did not carry her so far as to induce her to + break off the negotiations. The answer of which mankind was to talk in + time to come was simply that she would not send her commissioners to treat + for peace unless the Spanish Government should recede from the three + points thus offered by Verreycken. This certainly was not a very blasting + reply, and the Spanish agents were so far from losing heart in consequence + that the informal conferences continued for a long time, much to the + discomfort of the Netherlanders. + </p> + <p> + For more than an hour and a half on one occasion of an uncommonly hot + afternoon in April did Noel de Caron argue with her Majesty against these + ill-boding negotiations, and ever and anon, oppressed by the heat of the + weather and the argument, did the queen wander from one room of the palace + to the other in search of cool air, still bidding the envoy follow her + footsteps. "We are travelling about like pilgrims," said Elizabeth, "but + what is life but a pilgrimage?" + </p> + <p> + Yet, notwithstanding this long promenade and these moral reflections, + Caron could really not make out at the end of the interview whether or no + she intended to send her commissioners. At last he asked her the question + bluntly. + </p> + <p> + "Hallo! Hallo!" she replied. "I have only spoken to my servant once, and I + must obtain more information and think over the matter before I decide. Be + assured however that I shall always keep you informed of the progress of + the negotiations, and do you inform the States that they may build upon me + as upon a rock." + </p> + <p> + After the envoy had taken his leave, the queen said to him in Latin, + "Modicae fidei quare dubitasti?" Caron had however so nearly got out of + the door that he did not hear this admonition. + </p> + <p> + This the queen perceived, and calling him by name repeated, "O Caron! + modicae fidei quare dubitasti?" adding the injunction that he should + remember this dictum, for he well knew what she meant by it. + </p> + <p> + Thus terminated the interview, while the negotiations with Spain, not for + lack of good-will on her part, and despite the positive assertions to the + contrary of Buzanval and other foreign agents, were destined to come to + nothing. + </p> + <p> + At a little later period, at the time of certain informal and secret + conferences at Gertruydenberg, the queen threatened the envoy with her + severest displeasure, should the States dare to treat with Spain without + her permission. "Her Majesty called out to me," said Caron, "as soon as I + entered the room, that I had always assured her that the States neither + would nor could make peace with the enemy. Yet it was now looking very + differently, she continued, swearing with a mighty oath that if the States + should cheat her in that way she meant to revenge herself in such a + fashion that men would talk of it through all eternity." + </p> + <p> + The French Government was in a similar state of alarm in consequence of + the Gertruydenberg conferences. + </p> + <p> + The envoy of the archdukes, Marquis d'Havre, reported on the other hand + that all attempts to negotiate had proved fruitless, that Olden-Barneveld, + who spoke for all his colleagues, was swollen with pride, and made it but + too manifest that the States had no intention to submit to any foreign + jurisdiction, but were resolved to maintain themselves in the form of a + republic. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <table summary="" border="3" cellpadding="4"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <a + href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4884/4884-h/4884-h.htm"><b>Volume + IV. </b></a> + </td> + <td> + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + + Children who had never set foot on the shore + Done nothing so long as aught remained to do + Fed on bear's liver, were nearly poisoned to death + Inhabited by the savage tribes called Samoyedes + + ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS, ENTIRE 1590-99 UNITED NETHERLANDS: + + A pusillanimous peace, always possible at any period + A despot really keeps no accounts, nor need to do so + Accustomed to the faded gallantries + Alexander's exuberant discretion + All Italy was in his hands + All fellow-worms together + Allow her to seek a profit from his misfortune + Anatomical study of what has ceased to exist + Artillery + At length the twig was becoming the tree + Auction sales of judicial ermine + Being the true religion, proved by so many testimonies + Beneficent and charitable purposes (War) + Bomb-shells were not often used although known for a century + Burning of Servetus at Geneva + Certainly it was worth an eighty years' war + Chief seafaring nations of the world were already protestant + Children who had never set foot on the shore + Chronicle of events must not be anticipated + Conceding it subsequently, after much contestation + Conformity of Governments to the principles of justice + Considerable reason, even if there were but little justice + Constant vigilance is the price of liberty + Continuing to believe himself invincible and infallible + Court fatigue, to scorn pleasure + Deal with his enemy as if sure to become his friend + Decline a bribe or interfere with the private sale of places + Disciple of Simon Stevinus + Divine right of kings + Done nothing so long as aught remained to do + Eat their own children than to forego one high mass + Ever met disaster with so cheerful a smile + Every one sees what you seem, few perceive what you are + Evil has the advantage of rapidly assuming many shapes + Famous fowl in every pot + Fed on bear's liver, were nearly poisoned to death + Fellow worms had been writhing for half a century in the dust + Fled from the land of oppression to the land of liberty + For his humanity towards the conquered garrisons (censured) + For us, looking back upon the Past, which was then the Future + French seem madmen, and are wise + Future world as laid down by rival priesthoods + German Highland and the German Netherland + God of wrath who had decreed the extermination of all unbeliever + Had industry been honoured instead of being despised + Hanging of Mary Dyer at Boston + Hardly an inch of French soil that had not two possessors + He spent more time at table than the Bearnese in sleep + Henry the Huguenot as the champion of the Council of Trent + Highest were not necessarily the least slimy + His invectives were, however, much stronger than his arguments + Historical scepticism may shut its eyes to evidence + History is but made up of a few scattered fragments + History is a continuous whole of which we see only fragments + Holy institution called the Inquisition + Hugo Grotius + Humanizing effect of science upon the barbarism of war + Idle, listless, dice-playing, begging, filching vagabonds + Ignorance is the real enslaver of mankind + Imagining that they held the world's destiny in their hands + Imposed upon the multitudes, with whom words were things + Impossible it was to invent terms of adulation too gross + In times of civil war, to be neutral is to be nothing + Inevitable fate of talking castles and listening ladies + Infinite capacity for pecuniary absorption + Inhabited by the savage tribes called Samoyedes + Innocent generation, to atone for the sins of their forefathers + Intelligence, science, and industry were accounted degrading + Invaluable gift which no human being can acquire, authority + King was often to be something much less or much worse + King had issued a general repudiation of his debts + Labour was esteemed dishonourable + Leading motive with all was supposed to be religion + Life of nations and which we call the Past + Little army of Maurice was becoming the model for Europe + Loud, nasal, dictatorial tone, not at all agreeable + Luxury had blunted the fine instincts of patriotism + Magnificent hopefulness + Man had no rights at all He was property + Maritime heretics + Matters little by what name a government is called + Meet around a green table except as fencers in the field + Mondragon was now ninety-two years old + Moral nature, undergoes less change than might be hoped + More catholic than the pope + Myself seeing of it methinketh that I dream + Names history has often found it convenient to mark its epochs + National character, not the work of a few individuals + Nothing cheap, said a citizen bitterly, but sermons + Obscure were thought capable of dying natural deaths + Octogenarian was past work and past mischief + Often necessary to be blind and deaf + One-third of Philip's effective navy was thus destroyed + Past was once the Present, and once the Future + Patriotism seemed an unimaginable idea + Peace would be destruction + Philip II. gave the world work enough + Picturesqueness of crime + Placid unconsciousness on his part of defeat + Plea of infallibility and of authority soon becomes ridiculous + Portion of these revenues savoured much of black-mail + Proceeds of his permission to eat meat on Fridays + Rarely able to command, having never learned to obey + Religion was rapidly ceasing to be the line of demarcation + Repudiation of national debts was never heard of before + Rich enough to be worth robbing + Righteous to kill their own children + Road to Paris lay through the gates of Rome + Royal plans should be enforced adequately or abandoned entirely + Sacked and drowned ten infant princes + Sages of every generation, read the future like a printed scroll + Seems but a change of masks, of costume, of phraseology + Self-assertion—the healthful but not engaging attribute + Selling the privilege of eating eggs upon fast-days + Sentiment of Christian self-complacency + Sewers which have ever run beneath decorous Christendom + Shift the mantle of religion from one shoulder to the other + Slain four hundred and ten men with his own hand + So often degenerated into tyranny (Calvinism) + Some rude lessons from that vigorous little commonwealth + Spain was governed by an established terrorism + Spaniards seem wise, and are madmen + Strangled his nineteen brothers on his accession + Such a crime as this had never been conceived (bankruptcy) + That unholy trinity—Force; Dogma, and Ignorance + The history of the Netherlands is history of liberty + The great ocean was but a Spanish lake + The divine speciality of a few transitory mortals + The Alcoran was less cruel than the Inquisition + The nation which deliberately carves itself in pieces + The most thriving branch of national industry (Smuggler) + The record of our race is essentially unwritten + There are few inventions in morals + They liked not such divine right nor such gentle-mindedness + They had come to disbelieve in the mystery of kingcraft + Thirty thousand masses should be said for his soul + Thirty-three per cent. interest was paid (per month) + Those who argue against a foregone conclusion + Three or four hundred petty sovereigns (of Germany) + To attack England it was necessary to take the road of Ireland + Toil and sacrifices of those who have preceded us + Tranquil insolence + Under the name of religion (so many crimes) + Unproductive consumption was alarmingly increasing + Upon their knees, served the queen with wine + Use of the spade + Utter want of adaptation of his means to his ends + Utter disproportions between the king's means and aims + Valour on the one side and discretion on the other + Walk up and down the earth and destroy his fellow-creatures + We have the reputation of being a good housewife + Weapons + Whether murders or stratagems, as if they were acts of virtue + While one's friends urge moderation + Whole revenue was pledged to pay the interest, on his debts + Wish to sell us the bear-skin before they have killed the bear + Worn nor caused to be worn the collar of the serf + Wrath of that injured personage as he read such libellous truths +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United Netherlands, +1590-1599, Vol. III. Complete, by John Lothrop Motley + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK UNITED NETHERLANDS, III. *** + +***** This file should be named 4872-h.htm or 4872-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/4/8/7/4872/ + +Produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. 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