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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4868.txt b/4868.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b6fe05 --- /dev/null +++ b/4868.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2612 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook History of United Netherlands, 1595-96 +#68 in our series by John Lothrop Motley + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**EBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These EBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers***** + + +Title: History of the United Netherlands, 1595-96 + +Author: John Lothrop Motley + +Release Date: January, 2004 [EBook #4868] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on April 9, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + + + + + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1595-96 *** + + + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + + + +[NOTE: There is a short list of bookmarks, or pointers, at the end of the +file for those who may wish to sample the author's ideas before making an +entire meal of them. D.W.] + + + + + +HISTORY OF THE UNITED NETHERLANDS +From the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Year's Truce--1609 + +By John Lothrop Motley + + + +MOTLEY'S HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, Project Gutenberg Edition, Vol. 68 + +History of the United Netherlands, 1595-1596 + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. + + Archduke Cardinal Albert appointed governor of the Netherlands-- + Return of Philip William from captivity--His adherence to the King + of Spain--Notice of the Marquis of Varambon, Count Varax, and other + new officers--Henry's communications with Queen Elizabeth--Madame de + Monceaux--Conversation of Henry with the English ambassador-- + Marseilles secured by the Duke of Guise--The fort of Rysbank taken + by De Roane Calais in the hands of the Spanish--Assistance from + England solicited by Henry--Unhandsome conditions proposed by + Elizabeth--Annexation of Calais to the obedient provinces--Pirates + of Dunkirk--Uneasiness of the Netherlanders with regard to the + designs of Elizabeth--Her protestations of sincerity--Expedition of + Dutch and English forces to Spain--Attack on the Spanish war-ships-- + Victory of the allies--Flag of the Republic planted on the fortress + of Cadiz--Capitulation of the city--Letter of Elizabeth to the Dutch + Admirals--State of affairs in France--Proposition of the Duke of + Montpensier for the division of the kingdom--Successes of the + Cardinal Archduke in Normandy--He proceeds to Flanders--Siege and + capture of Hulat--Projected alliance against Spain--Interview of De + Sancy with Lord Burghley--Diplomatic conference at Greenwich-- + Formation of a league against Spain--Duplicity of the treaty-- + Affairs in Germany--Battle between the Emperor and the Grand Turk-- + Endeavours of Philip to counteract the influence of the league--His + interference in the affairs of Germany--Secret intrigue of Henry + with Spain--Philip's second attempt at the conquest of England. + +Another governor-general arrived in the early days of the year 1596, to +take charge of the obedient provinces. It had been rumoured for many +months that Philip's choice was at last fixed upon the Archduke Cardinal +Albert, Archbishop of Toledo, youngest of the three surviving brothers, +of the Emperor Rudolph, as the candidate for many honours. He was to +espouse the Infanta, he was to govern the Netherlands, and, as it was +supposed, there were wider and wilder schemes for the aggrandizement of +this fortunate ecclesiastic brooding in the mind of Philip than yet had +seen the light. + +Meantime the cardinal's first care was to unfrock himself. He had also +been obliged to lay down the most lucrative episcopate in Christendom, +that of Toledo, the revenues of which amounted to the enormous sum of +three hundred thousand dollars a year. Of this annual income, however, +he prudently reserved to himself fifty thousand dollars, by contract with +his destined successor. + +The cardinal reached the Netherlands before the end of January. He +brought with him three thousand Spanish infantry, and some companies of +cavalry, while his personal baggage was transported on three hundred and +fifty mules. Of course there was a triumphal procession when, on the +11th February, the new satrap entered the obedient Netherlands, and there +was the usual amount of bell-ringing, cannon-firing, trumpet-blowing, +with torch-light processions, blazing tar-barrels, and bedizened +platforms, where Allegory, in an advanced state of lunacy, performed its +wonderful antics. It was scarcely possible for human creatures to bestow +more adulation, or to abase themselves more thoroughly, than the honest +citizens of Brussels had so recently done in honour of the gentle, gouty +Ernest, but they did their best. That mythological conqueror and demigod +had sunk into an unhonoured grave, despite the loud hosannaha sung to him +on his arrival in Belgica, and the same nobles, pedants, and burghers +were now ready and happy to grovel at the feet of Albert. But as it +proved as impossible to surpass the glories of the holiday which had been +culled out for his brother, so it would be superfluous now to recall the +pageant which thus again delighted the capital. + +But there was one personage who graced this joyous entrance whose +presence excited perhaps more interest than did that of the archduke +himself. The procession was headed by three grandees riding abreast. +There was the Duke of Aumale, pensionary of Philip, and one of the last +of the Leaguers, who had just been condemned to death and executed in +effigy at Paris, as a traitor to his king and country; there was the +Prince of Chimay, now since the recent death of his father at Venice +become Duke of Arschot; and between the two rode a gentleman forty-two +years of age, whose grave; melancholy features--although wearing a +painful expression of habitual restraint and distrust suggested, more +than did those of the rest of his family, the physiognomy of William +the Silent to all who remembered that illustrious rebel. + +It was the eldest son of the great founder of the Dutch republic. Philip +William, Prince of Orange, had at last, after twenty-eight years of +captivity in Spain, returned to the Netherlands, whence he had been +kidnapped while a school boy at Louvain, by order of the Duke of Alva. +Rarely has there been a more dreary fate, a more broken existence than +his. His almost life-long confinement, not close nor cruel, but strict +and inexorable, together with the devilish arts of the Jesuits, had +produced nearly as blighting an effect upon his moral nature as a closer +dungeon might have done on his physical constitution. Although under +perpetual arrest in Madrid, he had been allowed to ride and to hunt, to +go to mass, and to enjoy many of the pleasures of youth. But he had been +always a prisoner, and his soul--a hopeless captive--could no longer be +liberated now that the tyrant, in order to further his own secret +purposes; had at last released his body from gaol. Although the eldest- +born of his father, and the inheritor of the great estates of Orange and +of Buren, he was no longer a Nassau except in name. The change wrought +by the pressure of the Spanish atmosphere was complete. All that was +left of his youthful self was a passionate reverence for his father's +memory, strangely combined with a total indifference to all that his +father held dear, all for which his father had laboured his whole +lifetime, and for which his heart's blood had been shed. On being at +last set free from bondage he had been taken to the Escorial, and +permitted to kiss the hand of the king--that hand still reeking with his +father's murder. He had been well received by the Infante and the +Infanta, and by the empress-mother, daughter of Charles V., while the +artistic treasures of the palace and cloister were benignantly pointed +out to him. It was also signified to him that he was to receive the +order of the Golden Fleece, and to enter into possession of his paternal +and maternal estates. And Philip William had accepted these conditions +as if a born loyal subject of his Most Catholic Majesty. + +Could better proof be wanting that in that age religion was the only +fatherland, and that a true papist could sustain no injury at the hands +of his Most Catholic Majesty. If to be kidnapped in boyhood, to be +imprisoned during a whole generation of mankind, to be deprived of vast +estates, and to be made orphan by the foulest of assassinations, could +not engender resentment against, the royal, perpetrator of these crimes +in the bosom of his victim, was it strange that Philip should deem +himself, something far, more than man, and should placidly accept the +worship rendered to him by inferior beings, as to the holy impersonation +of Almighty Wrath? + +Yet there is no doubt that the prince had a sincere respect for his +father, and had bitterly sorrowed at his death. When a Spanish officer, +playing chess with him, in prison, had ventured to speak lightly of that +father, Philip William had seized him bodily, thrown him from the window, +and thus killed him on the spot. And when on his arrival in Brussels it +was suggested to him by President Riehardat that it was the king's +intention to reinstate him in the possession of his estates, but that a +rent-charge of eighteen thousand florins a year was still to be paid from +them; to the heirs of Balthazar Gerard, his father's assassin, he flamed +into a violent rage, drew his poniard, and would have stabbed the +president; had not the bystanders forcibly inteferred. In consequence of +this refusal--called magnanimous by contemporary writers--to accept his +property under such conditions, the estates were detained from him for a +considerable time longer. During the period of his captivity he had been +allowed an income of fifteen thousand livres; but after his restoration +his household, gentlemen, and servants alone cost him eighty thousand +livres annually. It was supposed that the name of Orange-Nassau might +now be of service to the king's designs in the Netherlands. Philip +William had come by way of Rome, where he had been allowed to kiss the +pope's feet and had received many demonstrations of favour, and it was +fondly thought that he would now prove an instrument with which king and +pontiff might pipe back the rebellious republic to its ancient +allegiance. But the Dutchmen and Frisians were deaf. They had tasted +liberty too long, they had dealt too many hard blows on the head of regal +and sacerdotal despotism, to be deceived by coarse artifices. Especially +the king thought that something might be done with Count Hohenlo. That +turbulent personage having recently married the full sister of Philip +William, and being already at variance with Count Maurice, both for +military and political causes, and on account of family and pecuniary +disputes, might, it was thought, be purchased by the king, and perhaps +a few towns and castles in the united Netherlands might be thrown into +the bargain. In that huckstering age, when the loftiest and most valiant +nobles of Europe were the most shameless sellers of themselves, the most +cynical mendicants for alms and the most infinite absorbers of bribes in +exchange for their temporary fealty; when Mayenne, Mercoeur, Guise, +Pillars, Egmont, and innumerable other possessors of ancient and +illustrious names alternately and even simultaneously drew pensions from +both sides in the great European conflict, it was not wonderful that +Philip should think that the boisterous Hohenlo might be bought as well +as another. The prudent king, however, gave his usual order that nothing +was to be paid beforehand, but that the service was to be rendered first; +and the price received afterwards. + +The cardinal applied himself to the task on his first arrival, but was +soon obliged to report that he could make but little progress in the +negotiation. + +The king thought, too, that Heraugiere, who had commanded the memorable +expedition against Breda, and who was now governor of that stronghold, +might be purchased, and he accordingly instructed the cardinal to make +use of the Prince of Orange in the negotiations to be made for that +purpose. The cardinal, in effect, received an offer from Heraugiere in +the course of a few months not only to surrender Breda, without previous +recompense, but likewise to place Gertruydenberg, the governor of which +city was his relative, in the king's possession. But the cardinal was +afraid of a trick, for Heraugiere was known to be as artful as he was +brave, and there can be little doubt that the Netherlander was only +disposed to lay an ambush for the governor-general. + +And thus the son of William the Silent made his reappearance in the +streets of Brussels, after twenty-eight years of imprisonment, riding in +the procession of the new viceroy. The cardinal-archduke came next, with +Fuentes riding at his left hand. That vigorous soldier and politician +soon afterwards left the Netherlands to assume the government of Milan. + +There was a correspondence between the Prince of Orange and the States- +General, in which the republican authorities after expressing themselves +towards him with great propriety, and affectionate respect, gave him +plainly but delicately to understand that his presence at that time in +the United Provinces would neither be desirable, nor, without their +passports, possible. They were quite aware of the uses to which the king +was hoping to turn their reverence for the memory and the family of the +great martyr, and were determined to foil such idle projects on the +threshold. + +The Archduke Albert, born on 3rd of November, 1560, was now in his +thirty-sixth year. A small, thin, pale-faced man, with fair hair, and +beard, commonplace features, and the hereditary underhanging Burgundian +jaw prominently developed, he was not without a certain nobility of +presence. His manners were distant to haughtiness and grave to +solemnity. He spoke very little and very slowly. He had resided long in +Spain, where he had been a favourite with his uncle--as much as any man +could be a favourite with Philip--and he had carefully formed himself on +that royal model. He looked upon the King of Spain as the greatest, +wisest, and best of created beings, as the most illustrious specimen of +kingcraft ever yet vouchsafed to the world. He did his best to look +sombre and Spanish, to turn his visage into a mask; to conceal his +thoughts and emotions, not only by the expression of his features but by +direct misstatements of his tongue, and in all things to present to the +obedient Flemings as elaborate a reproduction of his great prototype as +copy can ever recall inimitable original. Old men in the Netherlands; +who remembered in how short a time Philip had succeeded, by the baleful +effect of his personal presence, in lighting up a hatred which not the +previous twenty years of his father's burnings, hangings, and butcherings +in those provinces had been able to excite, and which forty subsequent +years of bloodshed had not begun to allay, might well shake their heads +when they saw this new representative of Spanish authority. It would +have been wiser--so many astute politicians thought--for Albert to take +the Emperor Charles for his model, who had always the power of making his +tyranny acceptable to the Flemings, through the adroitness with which he +seemed to be entirely a Fleming himself. + +But Albert, although a German, valued himself on appearing like a +Spaniard. He was industrious, regular in his habits, moderate in eating +and drinking, fond of giving audiences on business. He spoke German, +Spanish, and Latin, and understood French and Italian. He had at times +been a student, and, especially, had some knowledge of mathematics. He +was disposed to do his duty--so far as a man can do his duty, who +imagines himself so entirely lifted above his fellow creatures as to owe +no obligation except to exact their obedience and to personify to them +the will of the Almighty. To Philip and the Pope he was ever faithful. +He was not without pretensions to military talents, but his gravity, +slowness, and silence made him fitter to shine in the cabinet than in the +field. Henry IV., who loved his jests whether at his own expense or that +of friend or foe, was wont to observe that there were three things which +nobody would ever believe, and which yet were very true; that Queen +Elizabeth deserved her title of the, throned vestal, that he was himself +a good Catholic, and that Cardinal Albert was a good general. It is +probable that the assertions were all equally accurate. + +The new governor did not find a very able group of generals or statesmen +assembled about him to assist in the difficult task which he had +undertaken. There were plenty of fine gentlemen, with ancient names and +lofty pretensions, but the working men in field or council had mostly +disappeared. Mondragon, La Motte, Charles Mansfeld, Frank Verdugo were +all dead. Fuentes was just taking his departure for Italy. Old Peter +Ernest was a cipher; and his son's place was filled by the Marquis of +Varambon; as principal commander in active military operations. This was +a Burgundian of considerable military ability, but with an inordinate +opinion of himself and of his family. "Accept the fact that his lineage +is the highest possible, and that he has better connections than those of +anybody else in the whole world, and he will be perfectly contented," +said a sharp, splenetic Spaniard in the cardinal's confidence. "'Tis a +faithful and loyal cavalier, but full of impertinences." The brother of +Varambon, Count Varax, had succeeded la Motte as general of artillery, +and of his doings there was a, tale ere long to be told. On the whole, +the best soldier in the archduke's service for the moment was the +Frenchman Savigny de Rosne, an ancient Leaguer, and a passionate hater of +the Bearnese, of heretics, and of France as then constituted. He had +once made a contract with Henry by which he bound himself to his service; +but after occasioning a good deal of injury by his deceitful attitude, +he had accepted a large amount of Spanish dollars, and had then thrown +off the mask and proclaimed himself the deadliest foe of his lawful +sovereign. "He was foremost," said Carlos Coloma, "among those who were +successfully angled for by the Commander Moreo with golden hooks." +Although prodigiously fat, this renegade was an active and experienced +campaigner; while his personal knowledge of his own country made his +assistance of much value to those who were attempting its destruction. + +The other great nobles, who were pressing themselves about the new +viceroy with enthusiastic words of welcome, were as like to give him +embarrassment as support. All wanted office, emoluments, distinctions, +nor could, much dependence be placed on the ability or the character of +any of them. The new duke of Arschot had in times past, as prince of +Chimay, fought against the king, and had even imagined himself a +Calvinist, while his wife was still a determined heretic. It is true +that she was separated from her husband. He was a man of more quickness +and acuteness than his father had been, but if possible more mischievous +both to friend and foe; being subtle, restless, intriguing, fickle; +ambitious, and deceitful. The Prince of Orange was considered a man of +very ordinary intelligence, not more than half witted, according to Queen +Elizabeth, and it was probable that the peculiar circumstances of his +life would extinguish any influence that he might otherwise have attained +with either party. He was likely to affect a neutral position and, in +times of civil war, to be neutral is to be nothing. + +Arenberg, unlike the great general on the Catholic side who had made +the name illustrious in the opening scenes of the mighty contest, was +disposed to quiet obscurity so far as was compatible with his rank. +Having inherited neither fortune nor talent with his ancient name, he +was chiefly occupied with providing for the wants of his numerous family. +A good papist, well-inclined and docile, he was strongly recommended for +the post of admiral, not because he had naval acquirements, but because +he had a great many children. The Marquis of Havre, uncle to the Duke of +Arschot, had played in his time many prominent parts in the long +Netherland tragedy. Although older than he was when Requesens and Don +John of Austria had been governors, he was not much wiser, being to the +full as vociferous, as false, as insolent, as self-seeking, and as +mischievous as in his youth. Alternately making appeals to popular +passions in his capacity of high-born demagogue, or seeking crumbs of +bounty as the supple slave of his sovereign, he was not more likely to +acquire the confidence of the cardinal than he had done that of his +predecessors. + +The most important and opulent grandee of all the provinces was the Count +de Ligne, who had become by marriage or inheritance Prince of Espinay, +Seneschal of Hainault, and Viscount of Ghent. But it was only his +enormous estates that gave him consideration, for he was not thought +capable of either good or bad intentions. He had, however, in times +past, succeeded in the chief object of his ambition, which was to keep +out of trouble, and to preserve his estates from confiscation. His wife, +who governed him, and had thus far guided him safely, hoped to do so to +the end. The cardinal was informed that the Golden Fleece would be all- +sufficient to keep him upon the right track. + +Of the Egmonts, one had died on the famous field of Ivry, another was an +outlaw, and had been accused of participation in plots of assassination +against William of Orange; the third was now about the archduke's court, +and was supposed, to be as dull a man--as Ligne, but likely to be +serviceable so long as he could keep his elder brother out of his +inheritance. Thus devoted to Church and King were the sons of the man +whose head Philip had taken off on a senseless charge of treason. The +two Counts Van den Berg--Frederic and Herman--sons of the sister of +William the Silent, were, on the whole, as brave, efficient, and +trustworthy servants of the king and cardinal as were to be found in the +obedient, provinces. + +The new governor had come well provided with funds, being supplied for +the first three-quarters of the year with a monthly: allowance of +1,100,000 florins. For reasons soon to appear, it was not probable that +the States-General would be able very, soon to make a vigorous campaign, +and it was thought best for the cardinal to turn his immediate attention +to France. + +The negotiations for, effecting an alliance offensive and defensive, +between the three powers most interested in opposing the projects of +Spain for universal empire, were not yet begun, and will be reserved for +a subsequent chapter. Meantime there had been much informal discussion +and diplomatic trifling between France and England for the purpose of +bringing about a sincere co-operation of the two crowns against the Fifth +Monarchy--as it was much the fashion to denominate Philip's proposed +dominion. + +Henry had suggested at different times to Sir Robert Sidney, during his +frequent presence in France as special envoy for the queen, the necessity +of such a step, but had not always found a hearty sympathy. But as the +king began to cool in his hatred to Spain, after his declaration of war +against that power, it seemed desirable to Elizabeth to fan his +resentment afresh, and to revert to those propositions which had been so +coolly received when made. Sir Harry Umton, ambassador from her Majesty, +was accordingly provided with especial letters on the subject from the +queen's own hand, and presented them early in the year at Coucy (Feb. +13, 1596). No man in the world knew better the tone to adopt in his +communications with Elizabeth than did the chivalrous king. No man knew +better than he how impossible it was to invent terms of adulation too +gross for her to accept as spontaneous and natural effusions, of the +heart. He received the letters from the hands of Sir Henry, read them +with rapture, heaved a deep sigh, and exclaimed. "Ah! Mr. Ambassador, +what shall I say to you? This letter of the queen, my sister, is full of +sweetness and affection. I see that she loves me, while that I love her +is not to be doubted. Yet your commission shows me the contrary, and +this proceeds from her, ministers. How else can these obliquities stand +with her professions of love? I am forced, as a king, to take a course +which, as Henry, her loving brother, I could never adopt." + +They then walked out into the park, and the king fell into frivolous +discourse, on purpose to keep the envoy from the important subject which +had been discussed in the cabinet. Sir Henry brought him back to +business, and insisted that there was no disagreement between her Majesty +and her counsellors, all being anxious to do what she wished. The envoy, +who shared in the prevailing suspicions that Henry was about to make a +truce with Spain, vehemently protested against such a step, complaining +that his ministers, whose minds were distempered with jealousy, +were inducing him to sacrifice her friendship to a false and hollow +reconciliation with Spain. Henry protested that his preference would be +for England's amity, but regretted that the English delays were so great, +and that such dangers were ever impending over his head, as to make it +impossible for him, as a king, to follow the inclinations of his heart. + +They then met Madame de Monceaux, the beautiful Gabrielle, who was +invited to join in the walk, the king saying that she was no meddler in +politics, but of a tractable spirit. + +This remark, in Sir Henry's opinion, was just, for, said he to Burghley, +she is thought incapable of affairs, and, very simple. + +The duchess unmasked very graciously as the ambassador was presented; +but, said the splenetic diplomatist, "I took no pleasure in it, nor held +it any grace at all." "She was attired in a plain satin gown," he +continued, "with a velvet hood to keep her from the weather, which became +her very ill. In my opinion, she is altered very much for the worse, and +was very grossly painted." The three walked together discoursing of +trifles, much to the annoyance of Umton. At last, a shower forced the +lady into the house, and the king soon afterwards took the ambassador to +his cabinet. "He asked me how I liked his mistress," wrote Sir Henry to +Burghley, "and I answered sparingly in her praise, and told him that if +without offence I might speak it, I had the picture of a far more +excellent mistress, and yet did her picture come far from the perfection +of her beauty." + +"As you love me," cried the king, "show it me, if you have it about you!" + +"I made some difficulty," continued Sir Henry, "yet upon his importunity +I offered it to his view very secretly, still holding it in my hand. He +beheld it with passion and admiration, saying that I was in the right." +"I give in," said the king, "Je me rends." + +Then, protesting that he had never seen such beauty all his life, he +kissed it reverently twice or thrice, Sir Henry still holding the +miniature firmly in his hand. + +The king then insisted upon seizing the picture, and there was a charming +struggle between the two, ending in his Majesty's triumph. He then told +Sir Henry that he might take his leave of the portrait, for he would +never give it up again for any treasure, and that to possess the favour +of the original he would forsake all the world. He fell into many more +such passionate and incoherent expressions of rhapsody, as of one +suddenly smitten and spell-bound with hapless love, bitterly reproaching +the ambassador for never having brought him any answers to the many +affectionate letters which he had written to the queen, whose silence had +made him so wretched. Sir Henry, perhaps somewhat confounded at being +beaten at his own fantastic game, answered as well as he could, "but I +found," said he, "that the dumb picture did draw on more speech and +affection from him than all my best arguments and eloquence. This was +the effect of our conference, and, if infiniteness of vows and outward +professions be a strong argument of inward affection, there is good +likelihood of the king's continuance of amity with her Majesty; only I +fear lest his necessities may inconsiderately draw him into some +hazardous treaty with Spain, which I hope confidently it is yet in the +power of her Majesty to prevent." + +The king, while performing these apish tricks about the picture of a lady +with beady black eyes, a hooked nose, black teeth, and a red wig, who was +now in the sixty-fourth year of her age, knew very well that the whole +scene would be at once repeated to the fair object of his passion by her +faithful envoy; but what must have been the opinion entertained of +Elizabeth by contemporary sovereigns and statesmen when such fantastic +folly could be rehearsed and related every day in the year! + +And the king knew, after all, and was destined very soon to acquire proof +of it which there was no gainsaying, that the beautiful Elizabeth had +exactly as much affection for him as he had for her, and was as capable +of sacrificing his interests for her own, or of taking advantage of his +direct necessities as cynically and as remorselessly, as the King of +Spain, or the Duke of Mayenne, or the Pope had ever done. + +Henry had made considerable progress in re-establishing his authority +over a large portion of the howling wilderness to which forty years of +civil war had reduced his hereditary kingdom. There was still great +danger, however, at its two opposite extremities. Calais, key to the +Norman gate of France, was feebly held; while Marseilles, seated in such +dangerous proximity to Spain on the one side, and to the Republic of +Genoa, that alert vassal of Spain, on the other, was still in the +possession of the League. A concerted action was undertaken by means of +John Andrew Doria, with a Spanish fleet from Genoa on the outside and a +well-organised conspiracy from within, to carry the city bodily over to +Philip. Had it succeeded, this great Mediterranean seaport would have +become as much a Spanish 'possession as Barcelona or Naples, and infinite +might have been the damage to Henry's future prospects in consequence. +But there was a man in Marseilles; Petrus Libertas by name, whose +ancestors had gained this wholesome family appellation by a successful +effort once made by them to rescue the little town of Calvi, in Corsica, +from the tyranny of Genoa. Peter Liberty needed no prompting to +vindicate, on a fitting occasion, his right to his patronymic. In +conjunction with men in Marseilles who hated oppression, whether of +kings, priests, or renegade republics, as much as he did, and with a +secret and well-arranged understanding with the Duke of Guise, who was +burning with ambition to render a signal benefit to the cause which he +had just espoused, this bold tribune of the people succeeded in stirring +the population to mutiny at exactly the right moment, and in opening the +gates of Marseilles to the Duke of Guise and his forces before it was +possible for the Leaguers to admit the fleet of Doria into its harbour. +Thus was the capital of Mediterranean France lost and won. Guise gained +great favour in Henry's eyes; and with reason; for the son of the great +Balafre, who was himself the League, had now given the League the stroke +of mercy. Peter Liberty became consul of Marseilles, and received a +patent of nobility. It was difficult, however, for any diploma to confer +anything more noble upon him than the name which he hade inherited, and +to which he had so well established his right. + +But while Henry's cause had thus been so well served in the south, +there was danger impending in the north. The king had been besieging, +since autumn, the town of La Fere, an important military and strategic +position, which had been Farnese's basis of operations during his +memorable campaigns in France, and which had ever since remained in +the hands of the League. + +The cardinal had taken the field with an army of fifteen thousand foot +and three thousand horse, assembled at Valenciennes, and after hesitating +some time whether, or not he should attempt to relieve La Fere, he +decided instead on a diversion. In the second week of April; De Rosne +was detached at the head of four thousand men, and suddenly appeared +before Calais. The city had been long governed by De Gordan, but this +wary and experienced commander had unfortunately been for two years dead. +Still more unfortunately, it had been in his power to bequeath, not +only his fortune, which was very large, but the government of Calais, +considered the most valuable command in France, to his nephew, +De Vidosan. He had, however, not bequeathed to him his administrative +and military genius. + +The fortress called the Risban, or Rysbank, which entirely governed the +harbour, and the possession of which made Calais nearly impregnable, as +inexhaustible supplies could thus be poured into it by sea, had fallen +into comparative decay. De Gordan had been occupied in strengthening +the work, but since his death the nephew had entirely neglected the task. +On the land side, the bridge of Nivelet was the key to the place. The +faubourg was held by two Dutch companies, under Captains Le Gros and +Dominique, who undertook to prevent the entrance of the archduke's +forces. Vidosan, however; ordered these faithful auxiliaries into the +citadel. + +De Rosne, acting with great promptness; seized both the bridge of Nivelet +and the fort of Rysbank by a sudden and well-concerted movement. This +having been accomplished, the city was in his power, and, after +sustaining a brief cannonade, it surrendered. Vidosan, with his +garrison, however, retired into the citadel, and it was agreed between, +himself and De Rosne that unless succour should be received from the +French king before the expiration of six days; the citadel should also +be-evacuated. + +Meantime Henry, who was at Boulogne, much disgusted at this unexpected +disaster, had sent couriers to the Netherlands, demanding assistance of +the States-General and of the stadholder. Maurice had speedily responded +to the appeal. Proceeding himself to Zeeland, he had shipped fifteen +companies of picked troops from Middelburg, together with a flotilla +laden with munitions and provisions enough to withstand a siege of +several weeks. When the arrangements were completed, he went himself on +board of a ship of war to take command of the expedition in person. On +the 17th of April he arrived with his succours off the harbour of Calais, +and found to his infinite disappointment that the Rysbank fort was in the +hands of the enemy. As not a vessel could pass the bar without almost +touching that fortress, the entrance to Calais was now impossible. Had +the incompetent Vidosan heeded the advice of his brave Dutch officers; +the place might still have been saved, for it had surrendered in a panic +on the very day when the fleet of Maurice arrived off the port. + +Henry had lost no time in sending, also, to his English allies for +succour. The possession of Calais by the Spaniards might well seem +alarming to Elizabeth, who could not well forget that up to the time of +her sister this important position had been for two centuries an English +stronghold. The defeat of the Spanish husband of an English queen had +torn from England the last trophies of the Black Prince, and now the +prize had again fallen into the hands of Spain; but of Spain no longer +in alliance, but at war, with England. Obviously it was most dangerous +to the interests and to the safety of the English realm, that this +threatening position, so near the gates of London, should be in the hands +of the most powerful potentate in the world and the dire enemy of +England. In response to Henry's appeal, the Earl of Essex was despatched +with a force of six thousand men--raised by express command of the queen +on Sunday when the people were all at church--to Dover, where shipping +was in readiness to transport the troops at once across the Channel. At +the same time, the politic queen and some of her counsellors thought the +opening a good one to profit by the calamity of their dear ally, +Certainly it was desirable to prevent Calais from falling into the grasp +of Philip. But it was perhaps equally desirable, now that the place +without the assistance of Elizabeth could no longer be preserved by +Henry, that Elizabeth, and not Henry, should henceforth be its possessor. +To make this proposition as clear to the French king as it seemed to the +English queen, Sir Robert Sidney was despatched in all haste to Boulogne, +even while the guns of De Rosne were pointed at Calais citadel, and while +Maurice's fleet, baffled by the cowardly surrender of the Risban, was on +its retreat from the harbour. + +At two o'clock in the afternoon of the 21st of April, Sidney landed at +Boulogne. Henry, who had been intensely impatient to hear from England, +and who suspected that the delay was boding no good to his cause, went +down to the strand to meet the envoy, with whom then and there he engaged +instantly in the most animated discourse. + +As there was little time to be lost, and as Sidney on getting out of the +vessel found himself thus confronted with the soldier-king in person, he +at once made the demand which he had been sent across the Channel to +make. He requested the king to deliver up the town and citadel of Calais +to the Queen of England as soon as, with her assistance, he should +succeed in recovering the place. He assigned as her Majesty's reasons +for this peremptory summons that she would on no other terms find it in +her power to furnish the required succour. Her subjects, she said, would +never consent to it except on these conditions. It was perhaps not very +common with the queen to exhibit so much deference to the popular will, +but on this occasion the supposed inclinations of the nation furnished +her with an excellent pretext for carrying out her own. Sidney urged +moreover that her Majesty felt certain of being obliged--in case she did +not take Calais into her own safe-keeping and protection--to come to the +rescue again within four or six months to prevent it once more from being +besieged, conquered, and sacked by the enemy. + +The king had feared some such proposition as this, and had intimated as +much to the States' envoy, Calvaert, who had walked with him down to the +strand, and had left him when the conference began. Henry was not easily +thrown from his equanimity nor wont to exhibit passion on any occasion, +least of all in his discussions with the ambassadors of England, but the +cool and insolent egotism of this communication was too much for him. + +He could never have believed, he said in reply, that after the repeated +assurances of her Majesty's affection for him which he had received from +the late Sir Henry Umton in their recent negotiations, her Majesty would +now so discourteously seek to make her profit out of his misery. He had +come to Boulogne, he continued, on the pledge given by the Earl of Essex +to assist him with seven or eight thousand men in the recovery of Calais. +If this after all should fail him--although his own reputation would be +more injured by the capture of the place thus before his eyes than if it +had happened in his absence--he would rather a hundred times endure the +loss of the place than have it succoured with such injurious and +dishonourable conditions. After all, he said, the loss of Calais was +substantially of more importance to the queen than to himself. To him +the chief detriment would be in the breaking up of his easy and regular +communications with his neighbours through this position, and especially +with her Majesty. But as her affection for him was now proved to be so +slender as to allow her to seek a profit from his misfortune and +dishonour, it would be better for him to dispense with her friendship +altogether and to strengthen his connections with truer and more +honourable friends. Should the worst come to the worst, he doubted not +that he should be able, being what he was and much more than he was of +old, to make a satisfactory arrangement with, the King of Spain. He was +ready to save Calais at the peril of his life, to conquer it in person, +and not by the hands of any of his lieutenants; but having done so, he +was not willing--at so great a loss of reputation without and at so much +peril within--to deliver it to her Majesty or to any-one else. He would +far rather see it fall into the hands of the Spaniards. + +Thus warmly and frankly did Henry denounce the unhandsome proposition +made in the name of the queen, while, during his vehement expostulations, +Sidney grew red with shame, and did not venture to look the king for one +moment in the face. He then sought to mitigate the effect of his demand +by intimating, with much embarrassment of demeanour, that perhaps her +Majesty would be satisfied with the possession of Calais for her own +life-time, and--as this was at once plumply refused--by the suggestion of +a pledge of it for the term of one year. But the king only grew the more +indignant as the bargaining became more paltry, and he continued to heap +bitter reproaches upon the queen, who, without having any children or +known inheritor of her possessions, should nevertheless, be so desirous +of compassing his eternal disgrace and of exciting the discontent of his +subjects for the sake of an evanescent gain for herself. At such a +price, he avowed, he had no wish to purchase her Majesty'a friendship. + +After this explosion the conference became more amicable. The English +envoy assured the king that there could be, at all events, no doubt of +the arrival of Essex with eight thousand men on the following Thursday +to assist in the relief of the citadel; notwithstanding the answer which, +he had received to the demand of her Majesty. + +He furthermore expressed the strong desire which he felt that the king +might be induced to make a personal visit to the queen at Dover, whither +she would gladly come to receive him, so soon as Calais should have been +saved. To this the king replied with gallantry, that it was one of the +things in the world that he had most at heart. The envoy rejoined that +her Majesty would consider such a visit a special honour and favour. She +had said that she could leave this world more cheerfully, when God should +ordain, after she had enjoyed two hours' conversation with his Majesty. + +Sidney on taking his departure repeated the assurance that the troops +under Essex would arrive before Calais by Thursday, and that they were +fast marching to the English coast; forgetting, apparently, that, at the +beginning of the interview, he had stated, according to the queen's +instructions, that the troops had been forbidden to march until a +favourable answer had been returned by the king to her proposal. + +Henry then retired to his headquarters for the purpose of drawing up +information for his minister in England, De Saucy, who had not yet been +received by the queen, and who had been kept in complete ignorance of +this mission of Sidney and of its purport. + +While the king was thus occupied, the English envoy was left in the +company of Calvaert, who endeavoured, without much success, to obtain +from him the result of the conference which had just taken place. +Sidney was not to be pumped by the Dutch diplomatist, adroit as he +unquestionably was, but, so soon as the queen's ambassador was fairly +afloat again on his homeward track--which was the case within three hours +after his arrival at Boulogne--Calvaert received from the king a minute +account of the whole conversation. + +Henry expressed unbounded gratitude to the States-General of the republic +for their prompt and liberal assistance, and he eagerly contrasted the +conduct of Prince Maurice--sailing forth in person so chivalrously to +his rescue--with the sharp bargainings and shortcomings of the queen. +He despatched a special messenger to convey his thanks to the prince, +and he expressed his hope to Calvaert that the States might be willing +that their troops should return to the besieged place under the command +of Maurice, whose, presence alone, as he loudly and publicly protested, +was worth four thousand men. + +But it was too late. The six days were rapidly passing, away. The +governor of Boulogne, Campagnolo, succeeded, by Henry's command, in +bringing a small reinforcement of two or three hundred men into the +citadel of Calais during the night of the 22nd of April. This devoted +little band made their way, when the tide was low, along the flats which +stretched between the fort of Rysbank and the sea. Sometimes wading up +to the neck in water, sometimes swimming for their lives, and during a +greater part of their perilous, march clinging so close to the hostile +fortress as almost to touch its guns, the gallant adventurers succeeded +in getting into the citadel in time to be butchered with the rest of the +garrison on the following day. For so soon as the handful of men had +gained admittance to the gates--although otherwise the aspect of affairs +was quite unchanged--the rash and weak De Vidosan proclaimed that the +reinforcements stipulated in his conditional capitulation having arrived, +he should now resume hostilities. Whereupon he opened fire, upon the +town, and a sentry was killed. De Rosne, furious, at what he considered +a breach of faith, directed a severe cannonade against the not very +formidable walls of the castle. During the artillery engagement which +ensued the Prince of Orange, who had accompanied De Rosne to the siege, +had a very narrow escape. A cannon-ball from the town took off the heads +of two Spaniards standing near him, bespattering him with their blood and +brains. He was urged to retire, but assured those about him that he came +of too good a house to be afraid. His courage was commendable, but it +seems not to have occurred to him that the place for his father's son was +not by the aide of the general who was doing the work of his father's +murderer. While his brother Maurice with a fleet of twenty Dutch war- +ships was attempting in vain to rescue Calais from the grasp of the +Spanish king, Philip William of Nassau was looking on, a pleased and +passive spectator of the desperate and unsuccessful efforts at defence. +The assault was then ordered? The-first storm was repulsed, mainly by +the Dutch companies, who fought in the breach until most of their numbers +were killed or wounded, their captains Dominique and Le Gros having both +fallen. The next attack was successful, the citadel was carried; and the +whole garrison, with exception of what remained of the Hollanders and +Zeelanders, put to the sword. De Vidosan himself perished. Thus Calais +was once more a Spanish city, and was re-annexed to the obedient +provinces of Flanders. Of five thousand persons, soldiers and citizens, +who had taken refuge in the castle, all were killed or reduced to +captivity.' + +The conversion of this important naval position into a Spanish-Flemish +station was almost as disastrous to the republic as it was mortifying to +France and dangerous to England. The neighbouring Dunkirk had long been +a nest of pirates, whence small, fast-sailing vessels issued, daily and +nightly, to prey indiscriminately upon the commerce of all nations. +These corsairs neither gave nor took quarter, and were in the habit, +after they had plundered their prizes, of setting them adrift, with the +sailors nailed to the deck or chained to the rigging; while the dfficers +were held for ransom. In case the vessels themselves were wanted, the +crews were indiscriminately tossed overboard; while, on the ether hand, +the buccaneers rarely hesitated to blow up their own ships, when unable +to escape from superior force. Capture was followed by speedy execution, +and it was but recently that one of these freebooters having been brought +into Rotterdam, the whole crew, forty-four in number, were hanged on the +day of their arrival, while some five and twenty merchant-captains held +for ransom by the pirates thus obtained their liberty. + +And now Calais was likely to become a second and more dangerous sea- +robbers' cave than even Dunkirk had been. + +Notwithstanding this unlucky beginning of the campaign for the three +allies, it was determined to proceed with a considerable undertaking +which had been arranged between England and the republic. For the time, +therefore, the importunate demands of the queen for repayments by the +States of her disbursements during the past ten years were suspended. +It had, indeed, never been more difficult than at that moment for the +republic to furnish extraordinary sums of money. The year 1595 had not +been prosperous. Although the general advance in commerce, manufactures, +and in every department of national development had been very remark +able, yet there had recently been, for exceptional causes, an apparent +falling off; while, on the other hand, there had been a bad harvest in +the north of Europe. In Holland, where no grain was grown, and which yet +was the granary of the world, the prices were trebled. One hundred and +eight bushels (a last) of rye, which ordinarily was worth fifty florins, +now sold for one hundred and fifty florins, and other objects of +consumption were equally enhanced in value. On the other hand, the +expenses of the war were steadily increasing, and were fixed for this +year at five millions of florins. The republic, and especially the +States of Holland, never hesitated to tax heroically. The commonwealth +had no income except that which the several provinces chose to impose +upon themselves in order to fill the quota assigned to them by the +States-General; but this defect in their political organization was not +sensibly felt so long as the enthusiasm for the war continued in full +force. The people of the Netherlands knew full well that there was no +liberty for them without fighting, no fighting without an army, no army +without wages, and no wages without taxation; and although by the end of +the century the imposts had become so high that, in the language of that +keen observer, Cardinal Bentivoglio; nuncio at Brussels, they could +scarcely be imagined higher, yet, according to the same authority, they +were laid unflinchingly and paid by the people without a murmur. During +this year and the next the States of Holland, whose proportion often +amounted to fifty per cent. of the whole contribution of the United +Provinces, and who ever set a wholesome example in taxation, raised the +duty on imports and all internal taxes by one-eighth, and laid a fresh +impost on such articles of luxury as velvets and satins, pleas and +processes. Starch, too, became a source of considerable revenue. +With the fast-rising prosperity of the country luxury had risen likewise, +and, as in all ages and countries of the world of which there is record, +woman's dress signalized itself by extravagant and very often tasteless +conceptions. In a country where, before the doctrine of popular +sovereignty had been broached in any part of the world by the most +speculative theorists, very vigorous and practical examples of democracy +had been afforded to Europe; in a country where, ages before the science +of political economy had been dreamed of, lessons of free trade on the +largest scale had been taught to mankind by republican traders +instinctively breaking in many directions through the nets by which +monarchs and oligarchs, guilds and corporations, had hampered the +movements of commerce; it was natural that fashion should instinctively +rebel against restraint. The honest burgher's vrow of Middelburg or +Enkhuyzen claimed the right to make herself as grotesque as Queen +Elizabeth in all her glory. Sumptuary laws were an unwholesome part of +feudal tyranny, and, as such, were naturally dropping into oblivion on +the free soil of the Netherlands. It was the complaint therefore of +moralists that unproductive consumption was alarmingly increasing. +Formerly starch had been made of the refuse parts of corn, but now the +manufacturers of that article made use of the bloom of the wheat and +consumed as much of it as would have fed great cities. In the little +village of Wormer the starch-makers used between three and four thousand +bushels a week. Thus a substantial gentlewoman in fashionable array +might bear the food of a parish upon her ample bosom. A single +manufacturer in Amsterdam required four hundred weekly bushels. Such was +the demand for the stiffening of the vast ruffs, the wonderful head-gear, +the elaborate lace-work, stomachers and streamers, without which no lady +who respected herself could possibly go abroad to make her daily +purchases of eggs and poultry in the market-place. + +"May God preserve us," exclaimed a contemporary chronicler, unreasonably +excited on the starch question, "from farther luxury and wantonness, and +abuse of His blessings and good gifts, that the punishment of Jeroboam, +which followed upon Solomon's fortunate reign and the gold-ships of Ophir +may not come upon us." + +The States of Holland not confounding--as so often has been the case-- +the precepts of moral philosophy with those of political economy, did +not, out of fear for the doom of Jeroboam, forbid the use of starch. +They simply laid a tax of a stiver a pound on the commodity, or about six +per cent, ad valorem; and this was a more wholesome way of serving the +State than by abridging the liberty of the people in the choice of +personal attire. Meantime the preachers were left to thunder from their +pulpits upon the sinfulness of starched rues and ornamental top-knots, +and to threaten their fair hearers with the wrath to come, with as much +success as usually attends such eloquence. + +There had been uneasiness in the provinces in regard to the designs of +the queen, especially since the States had expressed their inability to +comply in full with her demands for repayment. Spanish emissaries had +been busily circulating calumnious reports that her Majesty was on the +eve of concluding a secret peace with Philip, and that it was her +intention to deliver the cautionary towns to the king. The Government +attached little credence to such statements, but it was natural that +Envoy Caron should be anxious at their perpetual recurrence both in +England and in the provinces. So, one day, he had a long conversation +with the Earl of Essex on the subject; for it will be recollected that +Lord Leicester had strenuously attempted at an earlier day to get +complete possession, not only of the pledged cities but of Leyden also, +in order to control the whole country. Essex was aflame with indignation +at once, and, expressed himself with his customary recklessness. +He swore that if her Majesty were so far forsaken of God and so forgetful +of her own glory, as through evil counsel to think of making any treaty +with Spain without the knowledge of the States-General and in order to +cheat them, he would himself make the matter as public as it was possible +to do, and would place himself in direct opposition to such a measure, so +as to show the whole world that his heart and soul were foreign at least +to any vile counsel of the kind that might have been given to his +Sovereign. Caron and Essex conversed much in this vein, and although the +envoy, especially requested him not to do so, the earl, who was not +distinguished, for his powers of dissimulation, and who suspected +Burleigh of again tampering, as he had often before tampered, with secret +agents of Philip, went straight to the queen with the story. Next day, +Essex invited Caron to dine and to go with him after dinner to the queen. +This was done, and, so soon as the States' envoy was admitted to the +royal presence, her Majesty at once opened the subject. She had heard, +she said, that the reports in question had been spread through the +provinces, and she expressed much indignation in regard to them. She +swore very vehemently, as usual, and protested that she had better never +have been born than prove so miserable a princess as these tales would +make her. The histories of England, she said, should never describe her +as guilty of such falsehood. She could find a more honourable and +fitting means of making peace than by delivering up cities and +strongholds so sincerely and confidingly placed in her hands. She hoped +to restore them as faithfully as they had loyally been entrusted to her +keeping. She begged Caron to acquaint the States-General with these +asseverations; declaring that never since she had sent troops to the +Netherlands had she lent her ear to those who had made such underhand +propositions. She was aware that Cardinal Albert had propositions to +make, and that he was desirous of inducing both the French king and, +herself to consent to a peace with Spain: but she promised, the States' +envoy solemnly before God to apprise him of any such overtures, so soon +as they should be made known to herself. + +Much more in this strain, with her usual vehemence and mighty oaths, did +the great queen aver, and the republican envoy, to whom she was on this +occasion very gracious, was fain to believe in her sincerity. Yet the +remembrance of the amazing negotiations between the queen's ministers and +the agents of Alexander Farnese, by which the invasion of the Armada had +been masked; could not but have left an uneasy feeling in the mind of +every Dutch statesman. "I trust in God," said Caron, "that He may never +so abandon her as to permit her to do the reverse of what she now +protests with so much passion. Should it be otherwise--which God forbid +--I should think that He would send such chastisement upon her and her +people that other princes would see their fate therein as in a mirror, +should they make and break such oaths and promises. I tell you these +things as they occur, because, as I often feel uneasiness myself, I +imagine that my friends on the other side the water may be subject to the +same anxiety. Nevertheless, beat the bush as I may, I can obtain no +better information than this which I am now sending you." + +It had been agreed that for a time the queen should desist from her +demands for repayment--which, according to the Treaty of 1585, was to be +made only after conclusion of peace between Spain and the provinces, but +which Elizabeth was frequently urging on the ground that the States could +now make that peace when they chose--and in return for such remission the +republic promised to furnish twenty-four ships of war and four tenders +for a naval expedition which was now projected against the Spanish coast. +These war-ships were to be of four hundred, three hundred, and two +hundred tons-eight of each dimension--and the estimated expense of their +fitting out for five months was 512,796 florins. + +Before the end of April, notwithstanding the disappointment occasioned +in the Netherlands by the loss of Calais, which the States had so +energetically striven to prevent, the fleet under Admiral John of +Duvenwoord, Seigneur of Warmond, and Vice-Admirals Jan Gerbrantz and +Cornelius Leusen, had arrived at Plymouth, ready to sail with their +English allies. There were three thousand sailors of Holland and Zeeland +on board, the best mariners in the world, and two thousand two hundred +picked veterans from the garrisons of the Netherlands. These land-troops +were English, but they belonged to the States' army, which was composed +of Dutch, German, Walloon, Scotch, and Irish soldiers, and it was a +liberal concession on the part of the republican Government to allow them +to serve on the present expedition. By the terms of the treaty the queen +had no more power to send these companies to invade Spain than to +campaign against Tyr Owen in Ireland, while at a moment when the cardinal +archduke had a stronger and better-appointed army in Flanders than had +been seen for many years in the provinces, it was a most hazardous +experiment for the States to send so considerable a portion of their land +and naval forces upon a distant adventure. It was also a serious blow to +them to be deprived for the whole season of that valiant and experienced +commander, Sir Francis Vere, the most valuable lieutenant, save Lewis +William, that Maurice had at his disposition. Yet Vere was to take +command of this contingent thus sent to the coast of Spain, at the very +moment when the republican army ought to issue from their winter quarters +and begin active operations in the field. The consequence of this +diminution of their strength and drain upon their resources was that the +States were unable to put an army in the field during the current year, +or make any attempt at a campaign. + +The queen wrote a warm letter of thanks to Admiral Warmond for the +promptness and efficiency with which he had brought his fleet to the +place of rendezvous, and now all was bustle and preparation in the +English ports for the exciting expedition resolved upon. Never during +Philip's life-time, nor for several years before his birth, had a hostile +foot trod the soil of Spain, except during the brief landing at Corunna +in 1590, and, although the king's beard had been well singed ten years +previously by Sir Francis Drake, and although the coast of Portugal had +still more recently been invaded by Essex and Vere, yet the present +adventure was on a larger scale, and held out brighter prospects of +success than any preceding expedition had done. In an age when the line +between the land and sea service, between regular campaigners and +volunteers, between public and private warfare, between chivalrous +knights-errant and buccaneers, was not very distinctly drawn, there could +be nothing more exciting to adventurous spirits, more tempting to the +imagination of those who hated the Pope and Philip, who loved fighting, +prize-money, and the queen, than a foray into Spain. + +It was time to return the visit of the Armada. Some of the sea-kings +were gone. Those magnificent freebooters, Drake and Hawkins, had just +died in the West Indies, and doughty Sir Roger Williams had left the +world in which he had bustled so effectively, bequeathing to posterity a +classic memorial of near a half century of hard fighting, written, one +might almost imagine, in his demi-pique saddle. But that most genial, +valiant, impracticable, reckless, fascinating hero of romance, the Earl +of Essex--still a youth although a veteran in service--was in the spring- +tide of favour and glory, and was to command the land-forces now +assembled at Plymouth. That other "corsair"--as the Spaniards called +him--that other charming and heroic shape in England's chequered +chronicle of chivalry and crime--famous in arts and arms, politics, +science, literature, endowed with so many of the gifts by which men +confer lustre on their age and country, whose name was already a part of +England's eternal glory, whose tragic destiny was to be her undying +shame--Raleigh, the soldier, sailor, scholar, statesman, poet, historian, +geographical discoverer, planter of empires yet unborn--was also present, +helping to organize the somewhat chaotic elements of which the chief +Anglo-Dutch enterprise for this year against--the Spanish world-dominion +was compounded. + +And, again, it is not superfluous to recal the comparatively slender +materials, both in bulk and numbers, over which the vivid intelligence +and restless energy of the two leading Protestant powers, the Kingdom and +the Republic, disposed. Their contest against the overshadowing empire, +which was so obstinately striving to become the fifth-monarchy of +history, was waged by land: and naval forces, which in their aggregate +numbers would scarce make a startling list of killed and wounded in a +single modern battle; by ships such that a whole fleet of them might be +swept out of existence with half-a-dozen modern broadsides; by weapons +which would seem to modern eyes like clumsy toys for children. Such was +the machinery by which the world was to be lost and won, less than three +centuries ago. Could science; which even in that age had made gigantic +strides out of the preceding darkness, have revealed its later miracles, +and have presented its terrible powers to the despotism which was seeking +to crush all Christendom beneath its feet, the possible result might have +been most tragical to humanity. While there are few inventions in +morals, the demon Intellect is ever at his work, knowing no fatigue and +scorning contentment in his restless demands upon the infinite Unknown. +Yet moral truth remains unchanged, gradually through the ages extending +its influence, and it is only by conformity to its simple and, eternal +dictates that nations, like individuals, can preserve a healthful +existence. In the unending warfare between right and wrong, between +liberty and despotism; Evil has the advantage of rapidly assuming many +shapes. It has been well said that constant vigilance is the price of +liberty. The tendency of our own times, stimulated by scientific +discoveries and their practical application, is to political +consolidation, to the absorption of lesser communities in greater; just +as disintegration was the leading characteristic of the darker ages. The +scheme of Charlemagne to organize Europe into a single despotism was a +brilliant failure because the forces which were driving human society +into local and gradual reconstruction around various centres of +crystallization: were irresistible to any countervailing enginry which +the emperor had at his disposal. The attempt of Philip, eight centuries +later, at universal monarchy, was frivolous, although he could dispose of +material agencies which in the hands of Charlemagne might have made the +dreams of Charlemagne possible. It was frivolous because the rising +instinct of the age was for religious, political, and commercial freedom +in a far intenser degree than those who lived in that age were themselves +aware. A considerable republic had been evolved as it were involuntarily +out of the necessities of the time almost without self-consciousness that +it was a republic, and even against the desire of many who were guiding +its destinies. And it found itself in constant combination with two +monarchs, despotic at heart and of enigmatical or indifferent religious +convictions, who yet reigned over peoples, largely influenced by +enthusiasm for freedom. Thus liberty was preserved for the world; but, +as the law of human progress would seem to be ever by a spiral movement, +it; seems strange to the superficial observer not prone to generalizing, +that Calvinism, which unquestionably was the hard receptacle in which the +germ of human freedom was preserved in various countries and at different +epochs, should have so often degenerated into tyranny. Yet +notwithstanding the burning of Servetus at Geneva, and the hanging of +Mary Dyer at Boston, it is certain that France, England, the Netherlands, +and America, owe a large share of such political liberty as they have +enjoyed to Calvinism. It may be possible for large masses of humanity to +accept for ages the idea of one infallible Church, however tyrannical but +the idea once admitted that there may be many churches; that what is +called the State can be separated from what is called the Church; the +plea of infallibility and of authority soon becomes ridiculous--a mere +fiction of political or fashionable quackery to impose upon the +uneducated or the unreflecting. + +And now Essex, Raleigh and Howard, Vere, Warmond and Nassau were about to +invade the shores of the despot who sat in his study plotting to annex +England, Scotland, Ireland, France, the Dutch republic, and the German +empire to the realms of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Milan, and the Eastern +and Western Indies, over which he already reigned. + +The fleet consisted of fifty-seven ships of war, of which twenty-four +were Dutch vessels under Admiral Warmond, with three thousand sailors of +Holland and Zeeland. Besides the sailors, there was a force of six +thousand foot soldiers, including the English veterans from the +Netherlands under Sir Francis Vere. There were also fifty transports +laden with ammunition and stores. The expedition was under the joint +command of Lord High Admiral Howard and of the Earl of Essex. Many noble +and knightly volunteers, both from England and the republic, were on +board, including, besides those already mentioned, Lord Thomas Howard, +son of the Duke of Norfolk, Sir John Wingfield, who had commanded at +Gertruydenburg, when it had been so treacherously surrendered to Farnese; +Count Lewis Gunther of Nassau, who had so recently escaped from the +disastrous fight with Mondragon in the Lippe, and was now continuing his +education according to the plan laid down for him by his elder brother +Lewis William; Nicolas Meetkerk, Peter Regesmortes, Don Christopher of +Portugal, son of Don Antonio, and a host of other adventurers. + +On the last day of June the expedition arrived off Cadiz. Next morning +they found a splendid Spanish fleet in the harbour of that city, +including four of the famous apostolic great galleons, St. Philip, St. +Matthew, St. Thomas, and St. Andrew, with twenty or thirty great war- +ships besides, and fifty-seven well-armed Indiamen, which were to be +convoyed on their outward voyage, with a cargo estimated at twelve +millions of ducats. + +The St. Philip was the phenomenon of naval architecture of that day, +larger and stronger than any ship before known. She was two thousand +tons burthen, carried eighty-two bronze cannon, and had a crew of twelve +hundred men. The other three apostles carried each fifty guns and four +hundred men. The armament of the other war-ships varied from fifty-two +to eighteen guns each. The presence of such a formidable force might +have seemed a motive for discouragement, or at least of caution. On the +contrary, the adventurers dashed at once upon their prey; thus finding a +larger booty than they had dared to expect. There was but a brief +engagement. At the outset a Dutch ship accidentally blew up, and gave +much encouragement to the Spaniards. Their joy was but short-lived. Two +of the great galleons were soon captured, the other two, the St. Philip +and the St. Thomas, were run aground and burned. The rest of the war- +ships were driven within the harbour, but were unable to prevent a +landing of the enemy's forces. In the eagerness of the allies to seize +the city, they unluckily allowed many of the Indiamen to effect their +escape through the puente del Zuazzo, which had not been supposed a +navigable passage for ships of such burthen. Nine hundred soldiers under +Essex, and four hundred noble volunteers under Lewis Gunther of Nassau, +now sprang on shore, and drove some eleven hundred Spanish skirmishers +back within the gates of the city, or into a bastion recently raised to +fortify the point when the troops had landed. Young Nassau stormed the +bulwark sword in hand, carried it at the first assault, and planted his +colours on its battlement. It was the flag of William the Silent; for +the republican banner was composed of the family colours of the founder +of the new commonwealth. The blazonry of the proscribed and assassinated +rebel waved at last defiantly over one of the chief cities of Spain. +Essex and Nassau and all the rest then entered the city. There was +little fighting. Twenty-five English and Hollanders were killed, and +about as many Spaniards. Essex knighted about fifty gentlemen, +Englishmen and Hollanders, in the square of Cadiz for their gallantry. +Among the number were Lewis Gunther of Nassau, Admiral Warmond, and Peter +Regesmortes. Colonel Nicolas Meetkerke was killed in the brief action, +and Sir John Wingfield, who insisted in prancing about on horseback +without his armour, defying the townspeople and neglecting the urgent +appeal of Sir Francis Vere, was also slain. The Spanish soldiers, +discouraged by the defeat of the ships on which they had relied for +protection of the town, retreated with a great portion of the inhabitants +into the citadel. Next morning the citadel capitulated without striking +a blow, although there, were six thousand able-bodied, well-armed men +within its walls. It was one of the most astonishing panics ever +recorded. The great fleet, making a third of the king's navy, the city +of Cadiz and its fortress, were surrendered to this audacious little +force, which had only arrived off the harbour thirty-six hours before. +The invaders had, however, committed a great mistake. They had routed, +and, as it were, captured the Spanish galleons, but they had not taken +possession of them, such had been their eagerness to enter the city. It +was now agreed that the fleet should be ransomed for two million ducats, +but the proud Duke of Medina Sidonia, who had already witnessed the +destruction of one mighty armada, preferred that these splendid ships +too should perish rather than that they should pay tribute to the enemy. +Scorning the capitulation of the commandant of the citadel, he ordered +the fleet to be set on fire. Thirty-two ships, most of them vessels of +war of the highest class, were burned, with all their equipments. Twelve +hundred cannon sunk at once to the bottom of the Bay of Cadiz, besides +arms for five or six thousand men. At least one-third of Philip's +effective navy was thus destroyed. + +The victors now sacked the city very thoroughly, but the results +were disappointing. A large portion of the portable wealth of the +inhabitants, their gold and their jewelry, had been so cunningly +concealed that, although half a dozen persons were tortured till they +should reveal hidden treasures, not more than five hundred thousand +ducats worth of-plunder was obtained. Another sum of equal amount +having been levied upon the citizens; forty notable personages; among +them eighteen ecclesiastical dignitaries, were carried off as hostages +for its payment. The city was now set on fire by command of Essex in +four different quarters. Especially the cathedral and other churches, +the convents and the hospitals, were burned. It was perhaps not +unnatural: that both Englishmen and Hollanders should be disposed to +wreak a barbarous vengeance on everything representative of the Church +which they abhorred, and from which such endless misery had issued to +the, uttermost corners of their own countries. But it is at any rate +refreshing to record amid these acts of pillage and destruction, in +which, as must ever be the case, the innocent and the lowly were made +to suffer for the crimes of crowned and mitred culprits, that not many +special acts of cruelty were committed upon individuals: + +No man was murdered in cold blood, no woman was outraged. The beautiful +city was left a desolate and blackened ruin, and a general levy of spoil +was made for the benefit of the victors, but there was no infringement +of the theory and practice of the laws of war as understood in that day +or in later ages. It is even recorded that Essex ordered one of his +soldiers, who was found stealing a woman's gown, to be hanged on the +spot, but that, wearied by the intercession of an ecclesiastic of Cadiz, +the canon Quesada, he consented at last to pardon the marauder. + +It was the earnest desire of Essex to hold Cadiz instead of destroying +it. With three thousand men, and with temporary supplies from the fleet, +the place could be maintained against all comers; Holland and England +together commanding the seas. Admiral Warmond and all the Netherlanders +seconded the scheme, and offered at once to put ashore from their vessels +food and munitions enough to serve two thousand men for two months. If +the English admiral would do as much, the place might be afterwards +supplied without limit and held till doomsday, a perpetual thorn in +Philip's side. Sir Francis Vere was likewise warmly in favour of the +project, but he stood alone. All the other Englishmen opposed it as +hazardous, extravagant, and in direct contravention of the minute +instructions of the queen. With a sigh or a curse for what he considered +the superfluous caution of his royal mistress, and the exaggerated +docility of Lord High Admiral Howard, Essex was fain to content himself +with the sack and the conflagration, and the allied fleet sailed away +from Cadiz. + +On their way towards Lisbon they anchored off Faro, and landed a force, +chiefly of Netherlanders, who expeditiously burned and plundered the +place. When they reached the neighbourhood of Lisbon, they received +information that a great fleet of Indiamen, richly laden, were daily +expected from the Flemish islands, as the Azores were then denominated. +Again Essex was vehemently disposed to steer at once for that station, +in order to grasp so tempting a prize; again he was strenuously supported +by the Dutch admiral and Yere, and again Lord Howard peremptorily +interdicted the plan. It was contrary to his instructions and to his +ideas of duty, he said, to risk so valuable a portion of her Majesty's +fleet on so doubtful a venture. His ships were not fitted for a winter's +cruise, he urged. Thus, although it was the very heart of midsummer, +the fleet was ordered to sail homeward. The usual result of a divided +command was made manifest, and it proved in the sequel that, had they +sailed for the islands, they would have pounced at exactly the right +moment upon an unprotected fleet of merchantmen, with cargoes valued at +seven millions of ducats. Essex, not being willing to undertake the +foray to the Azores with the Dutch ships alone, was obliged to digest +his spleen as: best he could. Meantime the English fleet bore away for +England, leaving Essex in his own ship, together with the two captured +Spanish galleons, to his fate. That fate might, have been a disastrous +one, for his prizes were not fully manned, his own vessel was far from +powerful, and there were many rovers and cruisers upon the seas. The +Dutch admiral, with all his ships, however, remained in company, and +safely convoyed him to Plymouth, where they arrived only a day or two +later than Howard and his fleet. Warmond, who had been disposed to sail +up the Thames in order to pay his respects to the queen, was informed +that his presence would not be desirable but rather an embarrassment. +He, however, received the following letter from the hand of Elizabeth. + +MONSIEUR DUYENWOORD,--The report made to me by the generals of our +fleet, just happily arrived from the coast of Spain, of the devoirs of +those who have been partakers in so, famous a victory, ascribes so much +of it to the valour, skill, and readiness exhibited by yourself and our +other friends from the Netherlands under your command, during the whole +course of the expedition, as to fill our mind with special joy and +satisfaction, and, with a desire to impart these feelings to you. No +other means presenting themselves at this moment than that of a letter +(in some sense darkening the picture of the conceptions of our soul), we +are willing to make use of it while waiting for means more effectual. +Wishing thus to disburthen ourselves we find ourselves confused, not- +knowing where to begin, the greatness of each part exceeding the merit +of the other. For, the vigour and promptness with which my lords the +States-General stepped into the enterprise, made us acknowledge that the +good favour, which we have always borne the United Provinces and the +proofs thereof which we have given in the benefits conferred by us upon +them, had not been ill-bestowed. The valour, skill, and discipline +manifested by you in this enterprise show that you and your, whole nation +are worthy the favour and protection of princes against those who wish to +tyrannize over you. But the honourableness and the valour shown by you, +Sir Admiral, towards our cousin the Earl of Essex on his return, when he +unfortunately was cut off from the fleet, and deep in the night was +deprived of all support, when you kept company with him and gave him +escort into the harbour of Plymouth, demonstrate on the one hand your +foresight in providing thus by your pains and patience against all +disasters, which through an accident falling upon one of the chiefs of +our armada might have darkened the great victory; and on the other hand +the fervour and fire of the affection which you bear us, increasing thus, +through a double bond, the obligations we are owing you, which is so +great in our hearts that we have felt bound to discharge a part of it by +means of this writing, which we beg you to communicate to the whole +company of our friends under your command; saying to them besides, that +they may feel assured that even as we have before given proof of our +goodwill to their fatherland, so henceforth--incited by their devoirs and +merits--we are ready to extend our bounty and affection in all ways which +may become a princess recompensing the virtues and gratitude of a nation +so worthy as yours. + "ELIZABETH R. + +"14th August, 1596." + +This letter was transmitted by the admiral to the States-General; who, +furnished him with a copy of it, but enrolled the original in their +archives; recording as it did, in the hand of the great English queen, +so striking a testimony to the valour and the good conduct of +Netherlanders. + +The results of this expedition were considerable, for the king's navy was +crippled, a great city was destroyed, and some millions of plunder had +been obtained. But the permanent possession of Cadiz, which, in such +case, Essex hoped to exchange for Calais, and the destruction of the +fleet at the Azores--possible achievements both, and unwisely neglected +--would have been far more profitable, at least to England. It was also +matter of deep regret that there was much quarrelling between the +Netherlanders and the Englishmen as to their respective share of the +spoils; the Netherlanders complaining loudly that they had been +defrauded. Moreover the merchants of Middelburg, Amsterdam, and other +commercial cities of Holland and Zeeland were, as it proved, the real +owners of a large portion of the property destroyed or pillaged at Cadiz; +so that a loss estimated as high as three hundred thousand florins fell +upon those unfortunate traders through this triumph of the allies. + +The internal consequences of the fall of Calais had threatened at the +first moment to be as disastrous as the international results of that +misfortune had already proved. The hour for the definite dismemberment +and partition of the French kingdom, not by foreign conquerors but among +its own self-seeking and disloyal grandees, seemed to have struck. The +indomitable Henry, ever most buoyant when most pressed by misfortune, was +on the way to his camp at La Fere, encouraging the faint-hearted, and +providing as well as he could for the safety of the places most menaced, +when he was met at St. Quentin by a solemn deputation of the principal +nobles, military commanders, and provincial governors of France. The +Duke of Montpensier was spokesman of the assembly, and, in an harangue +carefully prepared for the occasion, made an elaborate proposition to the +king that the provinces, districts, cities, castles; and other strong- +holds throughout the kingdom should now be formally bestowed upon the +actual governors and commandants thereof in perpetuity, and as hereditary +property, on condition of rendering a certain military service to the +king and his descendants. It seemed so amazing that this temporary +disaster to the national arms should be used as a pretext for parcelling +out France, and converting a great empire into a number of insignificant +duchies and petty principalities; that this movement should be made, not +by the partisans of Spain, but by the adherents of the king; and that its +leader should be his own near relative, a prince of the blood, and a +possible successor to the crown, that Henry was struck absolutely dumb. +Misinterpreting his silence, the duke proceeded very confidently with his +well-conned harangue; and was eloquently demonstrating that, under such a +system, Henry, as principal feudal chief, would have greater military +forces at his disposal whenever he chose to summon his faithful vassals +to the field than could be the case while the mere shadow of royal power +or dignity was allowed to remain; when the king, finding at last a +tongue, rebuked his cousin; not angrily, but with a grave melancholy +which was more impressive than wrath. + +He expressed his pity for the duke that designing intriguers should have +thus taken advantage of his facility of character to cause him to enact +a part so entirely unworthy a Frenchman, a gentleman, and a prince of the +blood. He had himself, at the outset of his career, been much farther +from the throne than Montpensier was at that moment; but at no period of +his life would he have consented to disgrace himself by attempting the +dismemberment of the realm. So far from entering for a moment into the +subject-matter of the duke's discourse, he gave him and all his +colleagues distinctly to understand that he would rather die a thousand +deaths than listen to suggestions which would cover his family and the +royal dignity with infamy. + +Rarely has political cynicism been displayed in more revolting shape than +in this deliberate demonstration by the leading patricians and generals +of France, to whom patriotism seemed an unimaginable idea. Thus signally +was their greediness to convert a national disaster into personal profit +rebuked by the king. Henry was no respecter of the People, which he +regarded as something immeasurably below his feet. On the contrary, he +was the most sublime self-seeker of them all; but his courage, his +intelligent ambition, his breadth and strength of purpose, never +permitted him to doubt that his own greatness was inseparable from the +greatness of France. Thus he represented a distinct and wholesome +principle--the national integrity of a great homogeneous people at a +period when that integrity seemed, through domestic treason and foreign +hatred, to be hopelessly lost. Hence it is not unnatural that he should +hold his place in the national chronicle as Henry the Great. + +Meantime, while the military events just recorded had been occurring in +the southern peninsula, the progress of the archduke and his lieutenants +in the north against the king and against the republic had been +gratifying to the ambition of that martial ecclesiastic. Soon after the +fall of Calais, De Rosne had seized the castles of Guynes and Hames, +while De Mexia laid siege to the important stronghold of Ardres. The +garrison, commanded by Count Belin, was sufficiently numerous and well +supplied to maintain the place until Henry, whose triumph at La Fere +could hardly be much longer delayed, should come to its relief. To the +king's infinite dissatisfaction, however, precisely as Don Alvario de +Osorio was surrendering La Fere to him, after a seven months' siege, +Ardres was capitulating to De Mexia. The reproaches upon Belin for +cowardice, imbecility, and bad faith, were bitter and general. All his +officers had vehemently protested against the surrender, and Henry at +first talked of cutting off his head. It was hardly probable, however-- +had the surrender been really the result of treachery--that the governor +would have put himself, as he did at once in the king's power; for the +garrison marched out of Ardres with the commandant at their head, banners +displayed, drums beating, matches lighted and bullet in mouth, twelve +hundred fighting men strong, besides invalids. Belin was possessed of +too much influence, and had the means of rendering too many pieces of +service to the politic king, whose rancour against Spain was perhaps not +really so intense as was commonly supposed, to meet with the condign +punishment which might have been the fate of humbler knaves. + +These successes having been obtained in Normandy, the cardinal with a +force of nearly fifteen thousand men now took the field in Flanders; +and, after hesitating for a time whether he should attack Breda, Bergen, +Ostend, or Gertruydenburg,--and after making occasional feints in various +directions, came, towards the end of June, before Hulst. This rather +insignificant place, with a population of but one thousand inhabitants, +was defended by a strong garrison under command of that eminent and +experienced officer Count Everard Solms. Its defences were made more +complete by a system of sluices, through which the country around could +be laid under water; and Maurice, whose capture of the town in the year +1591 had been one of his earliest military achievements, was disposed to +hold it at all hazards. He came in person to inspect the fortifications, +and appeared to be so eager on the subject, and so likely to encounter +unnecessary hazards, that the States of Holland passed a resolution +imploring him "that he would not, in his heroic enthusiasm and laudable +personal service, expose a life on which the country so much depended to +manifest dangers." The place was soon thoroughly invested, and the usual +series of minings and counter-minings, assaults, and sorties followed, +in the course of which that courageous and corpulent renegade, De Rosne, +had his head taken off by a cannon-ball, while his son, a lad of sixteen, +was fighting by his side. On the 16th August the cardinal formally +demanded the surrender of the place, and received the magnanimous reply +that Hulst would be defended to the death. This did not, however, +prevent the opening of negotiations the very same day. All the officers, +save one, united in urging Solms to capitulate; and Solms, for somewhat +mysterious reasons, and, as was stated, in much confusion, gave his +consent. The single malcontent was the well-named Matthew Held, whose +family name meant Hero, and who had been one of the chief actors in the +far-famed capture of Breda. He was soon afterwards killed in an +unsuccessful attack made by Maurice upon Venlo. + +Hulst capitulated on the 18th August. The terms were honourable; but the +indignation throughout the country against Count Solms was very great. +The States of Zeeland, of whose regiment he had been commander ever, +since the death of Sir Philip Sidney, dismissed him from their service, +while a torrent of wrath flowed upon him from every part of the country. +Members of the States-General refused to salute him in the streets; +eminent person, ages turned their backs upon him, and for a time there +was no one willing to listen to a word in his defence. The usual +reaction in such cases followed; Maurice sustained the commander, who had +doubtless committed a grave error, but who had often rendered honourable +service to the republic, and the States-General gave him a command as +important as that of which he had been relieved by the Zeeland States. +It was mainly on account of the tempest thus created within the +Netherlands, that an affair of such slight importance came to occupy so +large a space in contemporary history. The defenders of Solmstold wild +stories about the losses of the besieging army. The cardinal, who was +thought prodigal of blood, and who was often quoted as saying "his +soldiers' lives belonged to God and their bodies to the king," had +sacrificed, it, was ridiculously said, according to the statement of the +Spaniards themselves, five thousand soldiers before the walls of Hulst. +It was very logically deduced therefrom that the capture of a few more +towns of a thousand inhabitants each would cost him his whole army. +People told each other, too, that the conqueror had refused a triumph +which the burghers of Brussels wished to prepare for him on his entrance +into the capital, and that he had administered the very proper rebuke +that, if they had more money than they knew what to do with, they should +expend it in aid of the wounded and of the families of the fallen, rather +than in velvets and satins and triumphal arches. The humanity of the +suggestion hardly tallied with the blood-thirstiness of which he was at +the same time so unjustly accused--although it might well be doubted +whether the commander-in-chief, even if he could witness unflinchingly +the destruction of five thousand soldiers on the battle-field, would dare +to confront a new demonstration of schoolmaster Houwaerts and his +fellowpedants. + +The fact was, however, that the list of casualties in the cardinal's camp +during the six weeks' siege amounted to six hundred, while the losses +within the city were at least as many. There was no attempt to relieve +the place; for the States, as before observed, had been too much cramped +by the strain upon their resources and by the removal of so many veterans +for the expedition against Cadiz to be able to muster any considerable +forces in the field during the whole of this year. + +For a vast war in which the four leading powers of the earth were +engaged, the events, to modern eyes, of the campaign of 1596 seem +sufficiently meagre. Meantime, during all this campaigning by land and +sea in the west, there had been great but profitless bloodshed in the +east. With difficulty did the holy Roman Empire withstand the terrible, +ever-renewed assaults of the unholy realm of Ottoman--then in the full +flush of its power--but the two empires still counterbalanced each other, +and contended with each'other at the gates of Vienna. + +As the fighting became more languid, however, in the western part of +Christendom, the negotiations and intrigues grew only the more active. +It was most desirable for the republic to effect, if possible, a formal +alliance offensive and defensive with France and England against Spain. +The diplomacy of the Netherlands had been very efficient in bringing +about the declaration of war by Henry against Philip, by which the +current year had opened, after Henry and Philip had been doing their best +to destroy each other and each other's subjects during the half-dozen +previous years. Elizabeth, too, although she had seen her shores invaded +by Philip with the most tremendous armaments that had ever floated on the +seas, and although she had herself just been sending fire and sword into +the heart of Spain, had very recently made the observation that she and +Philip were not formally at war with each other. It seemed, therefore, +desirable to the States-General that this very practical warfare should +be, as it were, reduced to a theorem. In this case the position of the +republic to both powers and to Spain itself might perhaps be more +accurately defined. + +Calvaert, the States' envoy--to use his own words--haunted Henry like his +perpetual shadow, and was ever doing his best to persuade him of the +necessity of this alliance. De Saucy, as we have seen, had just arrived +in England, when the cool proposition of the queen to rescue Calais from +Philip on condition of keeping it for herself had been brought to +Boulogne by Sidney. Notwithstanding the indignation of the king, he had +been induced directly afterwards to send an additional embassy to +Elizabeth, with the Duke of Bouillon at its head; and he had insisted +upon Calvaert's accompanying the mission. He had, as he frequently +observed, no secrets from the States-General, or from Calvaert, who had +been negotiating upon these affairs for two years past and was so well +acquainted with all their bearings. The Dutch envoy was reluctant to go, +for he was seriously ill and very poor in purse, but Henry urged the +point so vehemently, that Calvaert found himself on board ship within six +hours of the making of the proposition. The incident shows of how much +account the republican diplomatist was held by so keen a judge of mankind +as the Bearnese; but it will subsequently appear that the candour of the +king towards the States-General and their representative was by no means +without certain convenient limitations. + +De Sancy had arrived just as--without his knowledge--Sidney had been +despatched across the channel with the brief mission already mentioned. +When he was presented to the queen, the next day, she excused herself for +the propositions by which Henry had been so much enraged, by assuring the +envoy that it had been her intention only to keep Calais out of the +enemy's hand, so long as the king's forces were too much occupied at a +distance to provide for its safety. As diplomatic conferences were about +to begin in which--even more than in that age, at least, was usually the +case--the object of the two conferring powers was to deceive each other, +and at the same time still more decidedly to defraud other states, Sancy +accepted the royal explanation, although Henry's special messenger, +Lomenie, had just brought him from the camp at Boulogne a minute account +of the propositions of Sidney. + +The envoy had, immediately afterwards, an interview with Lord Burghley, +and at once perceived that he was no friend to his master. Cecil +observed that the queen had formerly been much bound to the king for +religion's sake. As this tie no longer existed, there was nothing now to +unite them save the proximity of the two States to each other and their +ancient alliances, a bond purely of interest which existed only so long +as princes found therein a special advantage. + +De Sancy replied that the safety of the two crowns depended upon their +close alliance against a very powerful foe who was equally menacing to +them both. Cecil rejoined that he considered the Spaniards deserving of +the very highest praise for having been able to plan so important an +enterprise, and to have so well deceived the King of France by the +promptness and the secrecy of their operations as to allow him to +conceive no suspicion as to their designs. + +To this not very friendly sarcasm the envoy, indignant that France should +thus be insulted in her misfortunes, exclaimed that he prayed to God that +the affairs of Englishmen might never be reduced to such a point as to +induce the world to judge by the result merely, as to the sagacity of +their counsels. He added that there were many passages through which to +enter France, and that it was difficult to be present everywhere, in +order to defend them all against the enemy. + +A few days afterwards the Duke of Bouillon arrived in London. He had +seen Lord Essex at Dover as he passed, and had endeavoured without +success to dissuade him from his expedition against the Spanish coast. +The conferences opened on the 7th May, at Greenwich, between Burghley, +Cobham, the Lord Chamberlain, and one or two other commissioners on the +part of the queen, and Bouillon, Sancy, Du Yair, and Ancel, as +plenipotentiaries of Henry. + +There was the usual indispensable series of feints at the outset, as if +it were impossible for statesmen to meet around a green table except as +fencers in the field or pugilists in the ring. + +"We have nothing to do," said Burghley, "except to listen to such +propositions as may be made on the part of the king, and to repeat them +to her Highness the queen." + +"You cannot be ignorant," replied Bouillon, "of the purpose for which we +have been sent hither by his Very Christian Majesty. You know very well +that it is to conclude a league with England. 'Tis necessary, therefore, +for the English to begin by declaring whether they are disposed to enter +into such an alliance. This point once settled, the French can make +their propositions, but it would be idle to dispute about the conditions +of a treaty, if there is after all no treaty to be made." + +To this Cecil rejoined, that, if the king were reduced to the necessity +of asking succour from the queen, and of begging for her alliance, it was +necessary for them, on the other hand, to see what he was ready to do for +the queen in return, and to learn what advantage she could expect from +the league. + +The duke said that the English statesmen were perfectly aware of the +French intention of proposing a league against the common enemy of both +nations, and that it would be unquestionably for the advantage of both +to unite their forces for a vigorous attack upon Spain, in which case it +would be more difficult for the Spanish to resist them than if each were +acting separately. It was no secret that the Spaniards would rather +attack England than France, because their war against England, being +coloured by a religious motive, would be much less odious, and would even +have a specious pretext. Moreover the conquest of England would give +them an excellent vantage ground to recover what they had lost in the +Netherlands. If, on the contrary, the enemy should throw himself with +his whole force upon France, the king, who would perhaps lose many places +at once, and might hardly be able to maintain himself single-handed +against domestic treason and a concentrated effort on the part of Spain, +would probably find it necessary to make a peace with that power. +Nothing could be more desirable for Spain than such a result, for she +would then be free to attack England and Holland, undisturbed by any fear +of France. This was a piece of advice, the duke said, which the king +offered, in the most friendly spirit, and as a proof of his affection, +to her Majesty's earnest consideration. + +Burghley replied that all this seemed to him no reason for making a +league. "What more can the queen do," he observed, "than she is already +doing? She has invaded Spain by land and sea, she has sent troops to +Spain, France, and the Netherlands; she has lent the king fifteen hundred +thousand crowns in gold. In short, the envoys ought rather to be +studying how to repay her Majesty for her former benefits than to be +soliciting fresh assistance." He added that the king was so much +stronger by the recent gain of Marseilles as to be easily able to bear +the loss of places of far less importance, while Ireland, on the +contrary, was a constant danger to the queen. The country was already +in a blaze, on account of the recent landing effected there by the +Spaniards, and it was a very ancient proverb among the English, that to +attack England it was necessary to take the road of Ireland. + +Bouillon replied that in this war there was much difference between the +position of France and that of England. The queen, notwithstanding +hostilities, obtained her annual revenue as usual, while the king was cut +off from his resources and obliged to ruin his kingdom in order to wage +war. Sancy added, that it must be obvious to the English ministers that +the peril of Holland was likewise the peril of England and of France, but +that at the same time they could plainly see that the king, if not +succoured, would be forced to a peace with Spain. All his counsellors +were urging him to this, and it was the interest of all his neighbours +to prevent such a step. Moreover, the proposed league could not but be +advantageous to the English; whether by restraining the Spaniards from +entering England, or by facilitating a combined attack upon the common +enemy. The queen might invade any portion of the Flemish coast at her +pleasure, while the king's fleet could sail with troops from his ports to +prevent any attack upon her realms. + +At this Burghley turned to his colleagues and said, in English, "The +French are acting according to the proverb; they wish to sell us the +bear-skin before they have killed the bear." Sancy, who understood +English, rejoined, "We have no bear-skin to sell, but we are giving you +a very good and salutary piece of advice. It is for you to profit by it +as you may." + +"Where are these ships of war, of which you were speaking?" asked +Burghley. + +"They are at Rochelle, at Bordeaux, and at St. Malo," replied de Sancy. + +"And these ports are not in the king's possession," said the Lord +Treasurer. + +The discussion was growing warm. The Duke of Bouillon, in order to, put +an end to it, said that what England had most to fear was a descent by +Spain upon her coasts, and that the true way to prevent this was to give +occupation to Philip's army in Flanders. The soldiers in the fleet then +preparing were raw levies with which he would not venture to assail her +kingdom. The veterans in Flanders were the men on whom he relied for +that purpose. Moreover the queen, who had great influence with the +States-General, would procure from them a prohibition of all commerce +between the provinces and Spain; all the Netherlands would be lost to +Philip, his armies would disperse of their own accord; the princes of +Italy, to whom the power of Spain was a perpetual menace, would secretly +supply funds to the allied powers, and the Germans, declared enemies of +Philip, would furnish troops. + +Burghley asserted confidently that this could never be obtained from the +Hollanders, who lived by commerce alone. Upon which Saucy, wearied with +all these difficulties, interrupted the Lord Treasurer by exclaiming, +"If the king is to expect neither an alliance nor any succour on your +part, he will be very much obliged to the queen if she will be good +enough to inform him of the decision taken by her, in order that he may, +upon his side, take the steps most suitable to the present position of +his affairs." + +The session then terminated. Two days afterwards, in another conference, +Burghley offered three thousand men on the part of the queen, on +condition that they should be raised at the king's expense, and that +they should not leave England until they had received a month's pay +in advance. + +The Duke of Bouillon said this was far from being what had been expected +of the generosity of her Majesty, that if the king had money he would +find no difficulty in raising troops in Switzerland and Germany, and that +there was a very great difference between hired princes and allies. The +English ministers having answered that this was all the queen could do, +the duke and Saucy rose in much excitement, saying that they had then no +further business than to ask for an audience of leave, and to return to +France as fast as possible. + +Before they bade farewell to the queen, however, the envoys sent a memoir +to her Majesty, in which they set forth that the first proposition as to +a league had been made by Sir Henry Umton, and that now, when the king +had sent commissioners to treat concerning an alliance, already +recommended by the queen's ambassador in France, they had been received +in such a way as to indicate a desire to mock them rather than to treat +with them. They could not believe, they said, that it was her Majesty's +desire to use such language as had been addressed to them, and they +therefore implored her plainly to declare her intentions, in order that +they might waste no more time unnecessarily, especially as the high +offices with which their sovereign had honoured them did not allow them +to remain for a long time absent from France. + +The effect of this memoir upon the queen was, that fresh conferences were +suggested, which took place at intervals between the 11th and the 26th +of May. They were characterized by the same mutual complaints of +overreachings and of shortcomings by which all the previous discussions +had been distinguished. On the 17th May the French envoys even insisted +on taking formal farewell of the queen, and were received by her Majesty +for that purpose at a final audience. After they had left the presence-- +the preparations for their homeward journey being already made--the queen +sent Sir Robert Cecil, Henry Brooke, son of Lord Cobham, and La Fontaine, +minister of a French church in England, to say to them how very much +mortified she was that the state of her affairs did not permit her to +give the king as much assistance as he desired, and to express her wish +to speak to them once more before their departure. + +The result of the audience given accordingly to the envoys, two days +later, was the communication of her decision to enter into the league +proposed, but without definitely concluding the treaty until it should be +ratified by the king. + +On the 26th May articles were finally agreed upon, by which the king and +queen agreed to defend each other's dominions, to unite in attacking the +common enemy, and to invite other princes and states equally interested +with themselves in resisting the ambitious projects of Spain, to join in +the league. It was arranged that an army should be put in the field as +soon as possible, at the expense of the king and queen, and of such other +powers as should associate themselves in the proposed alliance; that this +army should invade the dominions of the Spanish monarch, that the king +and queen were never, without each other's consent, to make peace or +truce with Philip; that the queen should immediately raise four thousand +infantry to serve six months of every year in Picardy and Normandy, with +the condition that they were never to be sent to a distance of more than +fifty leaguas from Boulogna; that when the troubles of Ireland should be +over the queen should be at liberty to add new troops to the four +thousand men thus promised by her to the league; that the queen was to +furnish to these four thousand men six months' pay in advance before they +should leave England, and that the king should agree to repay the amount +six months afterwards, sending meanwhile four nobles to England as +hostages. If the dominions of the queen should be attacked it was +stipulated that, at two months' notice, the king should raise four +thousand men at the expense of the queen and send them to her assistance, +and that they were to serve for six months at her charge, but were not to +be sent to a distance of more than fifty leagues from the coasts of +France. + +The English were not willing that the States-General should be +comprehended among the powers to be invited to join the league, because +being under the protection of the Queen of England they were supposed to +have no will but hers. Burghley insisted accordingly that, in speaking +of those who were thus to be asked, no mention was to be made of peoples +nor of states, for fear lest the States-General might be included under +those terms. The queen was, however, brought at last to yield the point, +and consented, in order to satisfy the French envoys, that to the word +princes should be added the general expression orders or estates. The +obstacle thus interposed to the formation of the league by the hatred of +the queen and of the privileged classes of England to popular liberty, +and by the secret desire entertained of regaining that sovereignty over +the provinces which had been refused ten years before by Elizabeth, was +at length set aside. The republic, which might have been stifled at its +birth, was now a formidable fact, and could neither be annexed to the +English dominions nor deprived of its existence as a new member of the +European family. + +It being no longer possible to gainsay the presence of the young +commonwealth among the nations, the next best thing--so it was thought-- +was to defraud her in the treaty to which she was now invited to accede. +This, as it will presently appear, the King of France and the Queen of +England succeeded in doing very thoroughly, and they accomplished it +notwithstanding the astuteness and the diligence of the States' envoy, +who at Henry's urgent request had accompanied the French mission to +England. Calvaert had been very active in bringing about the +arrangement, to assist in which he had, as we have seen, risen from a +sick bed and made the journey to England: "The proposition for an +offensive and defensive alliance was agreed to by her Majesty's Council, +but under intolerable and impracticable conditions," said he, "and, as +such, rejected by the duke and Sancy, so that they took leave of her +Majesty. At last, after some negotiation in which, without boasting, I +may say that I did some service, it was again taken in hand, and at last, +thank God, although with much difficulty, the league has been concluded." + +When the task was finished the French envoys departed to obtain their +master's ratification of the treaty. Elizabeth expressed herself warmly +in regard to her royal brother, inviting him earnestly to pay her a +visit, in which case she said she would gladly meet him half way; for a +sight of him would be her only consolation in the midst of her adversity +and annoyance. "He may see other princesses of a more lovely +appearance," she added, "but he will never make a visit to a more +faithful friend." + +But the treaty thus concluded was for the public. The real agreement +between France and England was made by a few days later, and reduced the +ostensible arrangement to a sham, a mere decoy to foreign nations, +especially to the Dutch republic, to induce them to imitate England in +joining the league, and to emulate her likewise in affording that +substantial assistance to the league which in reality England was very +far from giving. + +"Two contracts were made," said Secretary of State Villeroy; "the one +public, to give credit and reputation to the said league, the other +secret, which destroyed the effects and the promises of the first. By +the first his Majesty was to be succoured by four thousand infantry, +which number was limited by the second contract to two thousand, who were +to reside and to serve only in the cities of Boulogne and Montreuil, +assisted by an equal number of French, and not otherwise, and on +condition of not being removed from those towns unless his Majesty should +be personally present in Picardy with an army, in which case they might +serve in Picardy, but nowhere else." + +An English garrison in a couple of French seaports, over against the +English coast, would hardly have seemed a sufficient inducement to other +princes and states to put large armies in the field to sustain the +Protestant league, had they known that this was the meagre result of the +protocolling and disputations that had been going on all the summer at +Greenwich. + +Nevertheless the decoy did its work, The envoys returned to France, and +it was not until three months later that the Duke of Bouillon again made +his appearance in England, bringing the treaty duly ratified by Henry. +The league was then solemnized, on, the 26th August, by the queen with +much pomp and ceremony. Three peers of the realm waited upon the French +ambassador at his lodgings, and escorted him and his suite in seventeen +royal coaches to the Tower. Seven splendid barges then conveyed them +along the Thames to Greenwich. On the pier the ambassador was received +by the Earl of Derby at the head of a great suite of nobles and high +functionaries, and conducted to the palace of Nonesuch. + +There was a religious ceremony in the royal chapel, where a special +pavilion had been constructed. Standing, within this sanctuary, the +queen; with her hand on her breast, swore faithfully to maintain the +league just concluded. She then gave her hand to the Duke of Bouillon, +who held it in both his own, while psalms were sung and the organ +resounded through the chapel. Afterwards there was a splendid banquet in +the palace, the duke sitting in solitary grandeur at the royal table, +being placed at a respectful distance from her Majesty, and the dishes +being placed on the board by the highest nobles of the realm, who, upon +their knees, served the queen with wine. No one save the ambassador sat +at Elizabeth's table, but in the same hall was spread another, at which +the Earl of Essex entertained many distinguished guests, young Count +Lewis Gunther of Nassau among the number. + +In the midsummer twilight the brilliantly decorated barges were again +floating on the historic river, the gaily-coloured lanterns lighting the +sweep of the oars, and the sound of lute and viol floating merrily across +the water. As the ambassador came into the courtyard of his house, he +found a crowd of several thousand people assembled, who shouted welcome +to the representative of Henry, and invoked blessings on the head of +Queen Elizabeth and of her royal brother of France. Meanwhile all the +bells of London were ringing, artillery was thundering, and bonfires were +blazing, until the night was half spent. + +Such was the holiday-making by which the league between the great +Protestant queen and the ex-chief of the Huguenots of France was +celebrated within a year after the pope had received him, a repentant +sinner, into the fold of the Church. Truly it might be said that +religion was rapidly ceasing to be the line of demarcation among the +nations, as had been the case for the two last generations of mankind. + +The Duke of Bouillon soon afterwards departed for the Netherlands, where +the regular envoy to the commonwealth, Paul Chouart Seigneur de Buzanval, +had already been preparing the States-General for their entrance into the +league. Of course it was duly impressed upon those republicans that they +should think themselves highly honoured by the privilege of associating +themselves with so august an alliance. The queen wrote an earnest letter +to the States, urging them to join the league. "Especially should you do +so," she said, "on account of the reputation which you will thereby gain +for your affairs with the people who are under you, seeing you thus +sustained (besides the certainty which you have of our favour) by the +friendship of other confederated princes, and particularly by that of the +most Christian king." + +On the 31st October the articles of agreement under which the republic +acceded to the new confederation were signed at the Hague. Of course +it was not the exact counterpart of the famous Catholic association. +Madam League, after struggling feebly for the past few years, a decrepit +beldame, was at last dead and buried. But there had been a time when she +was filled with exuberant and terrible life. She, at least, had known +the object of her creation, and never, so long as life was in her, had +she faltered in her dread purpose. To extirpate Protestantism, to murder +Protestants, to burn, hang, butcher, bury them alive, to dethrone every +Protestant sovereign in Europe, especially to assassinate the Queen of +England, the Prince of Orange, with all his race, and Henry of Navarre, +and to unite in the accomplishment of these simple purposes all the +powers of Christendom under the universal monarchy of Philip of Spain-- +for all this, blood was shed in torrents, and the precious metals of the +"Indies" squandered as fast as the poor savages, who were thus taking +their first lessons in the doctrines of Jesus of Nazareth, could dig it +from the mines. For this America had been summoned, as it were by +almighty fiat, out of previous darkness, in order that it might furnish +money with which to massacre all the heretics of the earth. For this +great purpose was the sublime discovery of the Genoese sailor to be +turned to account. These aims were intelligible, and had in part been +attained. William of Orange had fallen, and a patent of nobility, with a +handsome fortune, had been bestowed upon his assassin. Elizabeth's life +had been frequently attempted. So had those of Henry, of Maurice, of +Olden-Barneveld. Divine providence might perhaps guide the hand of +future murderers with greater accuracy, for even if Madam League were +dead, her ghost still walked among the Jesuits and summoned them to +complete the crimes left yet unfinished. + +But what was the design of the new confederacy? It was not a Protestant +league. Henry of Navarre could no longer be the chief of such an +association, although it was to Protestant powers only that he could turn +for assistance. It was to the commonwealth of the Netherlands, to the +northern potentates and to the Calvinist and Lutheran princes of Germany, +that the king and queen could alone appeal in their designs against +Philip of Spain. + +The position of Henry was essentially a false one from the beginning. +He felt it to be so, and the ink was scarce dry with which he signed the +new treaty before he was secretly casting about him to, make peace with +that power with which he was apparently summoning all the nations of the +earth to do battle. Even the cautious Elizabeth was deceived by the +crafty Bearnese, while both united to hoodwink the other states and +princes. + +On the 31st October, accordingly, the States-General agreed to go into +the league with England and France; "in order to resist the enterprises +and ambitious designs of the King of Spain against all the princes and +potentates of Christendom." As the queen had engaged--according to the +public treaty or decoy--to furnish four thousand infantry to the league, +the States now agreed to raise and pay for another four thousand to be +maintained in the king's service at a cost of four hundred and fifty +thousand florins annually, to be paid by the month. The king promised, +in case the Netherlands should be invaded by the enemy with the greater +part of his force, that these four thousand soldiers should return to the +Netherlands. The king further bound himself to carry on a sharp +offensive war in Artois and Hainault. + +The States-General would have liked a condition inserted in the treaty +that no peace should be made with Spain by England or France without the +consent of the provinces; but this was peremptorily refused. + +Perhaps the republic had no special reason to be grateful for the +grudging and almost contemptuous manner in which it had thus been +virtually admitted into the community of sovereigns; but the men who +directed its affairs were far too enlightened not to see how great a step +was taken when their political position, now conceded to them, had been +secured. In good faith they intended to carry out the provisions of the +new treaty, and they immediately turned their attention to the vital +matters of making new levies and of imposing new taxes, by means of which +they might render themselves useful to their new allies. + +Meantime Ancel was deputed by Henry to visit the various courts of +Germany and the north in order to obtain, if possible, new members for +the league? But Germany was difficult to rouse. The dissensions among +Protestants were ever inviting the assaults of the Papists. Its +multitude of sovereigns were passing their leisure moments in wrangling +among themselves as usual on abstruse points of theology, and devoting +their serious hours to banquetting, deep drinking, and the pleasures of +the chase. The jeremiads of old John of Nassau grew louder than ever, +but his voice was of one crying in the wilderness. The wrath to come of +that horrible Thirty Years' War, which he was not to witness seemed to +inspire all his prophetic diatribes. But there were few to heed them. +Two great dangers seemed ever impending over Christendom, and it is +difficult to decide which fate would have been the more terrible, the +establishment of the universal monarchy of Philip II., or the conquest of +Germany by the Grand Turk. But when Ancel and other emissaries sought to +obtain succour against the danger from the south-west, he was answered by +the clash of arms and the shrieks of horror which came daily from the +south-east. In vain was it urged, and urged with truth, that the Alcoran +was less cruel than the Inquisition, that the soil of Europe might be +overrun by Turks and Tartars, and the crescent planted triumphantly in +every village, with less disaster to the human race, and with better hope +that the germs of civilization and the precepts of Christianity might +survive the invasion, than if the system of Philip, of Torquemada, and of +Alva, should become the universal law. But the Turk was a frank enemy of +Christianity, while Philip murdered Christians in the name of Christ. +The distinction imposed upon the multitudes, with whom words were things. +Moreover, the danger from the young and enterprising Mahomet seemed more +appalling to the imagination than the menace, from which experience had +taken something of its terrors, of the old and decrepit Philip. + +The Ottoman empire, in its exact discipline, in its terrible +concentration of purpose, in its contempt for all arts and sciences, and +all human occupation save the trade of war and the pursuit of military +dominion, offered a strong contrast to the distracted condition of +the holy Roman empire, where an intellectual and industrious people, +distracted by half a century of religious controversy and groaning under +one of the most elaborately perverse of all the political systems ever +invented by man, seemed to offer itself an easy prey to any conqueror. +The Turkish power was in the fulness of its aggressive strength, and +seemed far more formidable than it would have done had there been clearer +perceptions of what constitutes the strength and the wealth of nations. +Could the simple truth have been thoroughly, comprehended that a realm +founded upon such principles was the grossest of absurdities, the Eastern +might have seemed less terrible than the Western danger. + +But a great campaign, at no considerable distance from the walls of +Vienna, had occupied the attention of Germany during the autumn. Mahomet +had taken the field in person with a hundred thousand men, and the +emperor's brother, Maximilian, in conjunction with the Prince of +Transylvania, at the head of a force of equal magnitude, had gone forth +to give him battle. Between the Theiss and the Danube, at Keveste, not +far from the city of Erlau, on the 26th October, the terrible encounter +on which the fate of Christendom seemed to hang at last took place, and +Europe held its breath in awful suspense until its fate should be +decided. When the result at last became known, a horrible blending of +the comic and the tragic, such as has rarely been presented in history, +startled the world. Seventy thousand human beings--Moslems and +Christians--were lying dead or wounded on the banks of a nameless little +stream which flows into the Theisa, and the commanders-in-chief of both +armies were running away as fast as horses could carry them. Each army +believed itself hopelessly defeated, and abandoning tents, baggage, +artillery, ammunition, the remnants of each, betook themselves to panic- +stricken flight. Generalissimo Maximilian never looked behind him as he +fled, until he had taken refuge in Kaschan, and had thence made his way, +deeply mortified and despondent, to Vienna. The Prince of Transylvania +retreated into the depths of his own principality. Mahomet, with his +principal officers, shut himself up in Buda, after which he returned to +Constantinople and abandoned himself for a time to a voluptuous ease, +inconsistent with the Ottoman projects of conquering the world. The +Turks, less prone to desperation than the Christians, had been utterly +overthrown in the early part of the action, but when the victors were, +as usual, greedily bent upon plunder before the victory had been fairly +secured, the tide of battle was turned by the famous Italian renegade +Cicala. The Turks, too, had the good sense to send two days afterwards +and recover their artillery, trains, and other property, which ever since +the battle had been left at the mercy of the first comers. + +So ended the Turkish campaign of the year 1596. Ancel, accordingly, +fared ill in his negotiations with Germany. On the other hand Mendoza, +Admiral of Arragon, had been industriously but secretly canvassing the +same regions as the representative of the Spanish king. It was important +for Philip, who put more faith in the league of the three powers than +Henry himself did, to lose no time in counteracting its influence. The +condition of the holy Roman empire had for some time occupied his most +serious thoughts. It seemed plain that Rudolph would never marry. +Certainly he would never marry the Infanta, although he was very angry +that his brother should aspire to the hand which he himself rejected. +In case of his death without children, Philip thought it possible that +there might be a Protestant revolution in Germany, and that the house of +Habsburg might lose the imperial crown altogether. It was even said that +the emperor himself was of that opinion, and preferred that the empire +should end with his own life." Philip considered that neither Matthias +nor Maximilian was fit to succeed their brother, being both of them +lukewarm in the Catholic faith." In other words, he chose that his +destined son-in-law, the Cardinal Albert, should supersede them, and he +was anxious to have him appointed as soon as possible King of the Romans. + +"His Holiness the Pope and the King of Spain," said the Admiral of +Arragon, "think it necessary to apply most stringent measures to the +emperor to compel him to appoint a successor, because, in case of his +death without one, the administration during the vacancy would fall to +the elector palatine,--a most perverse Calvinistic heretic, and as great +an enemy of the house of Austria and of our holy religion as the Turk +himself--as sufficiently appears in those diabolical laws of his +published in the palatinate a few months since. A vacancy is so +dreadful, that in the north of Germany the world would come to an end; +yet the emperor, being of rather a timid nature than otherwise, is +inclined to quiet, and shrinks from the discussions and conflicts likely +to be caused by an appointment. Therefore his Holiness and his Catholic +Majesty, not choosing that we should all live in danger of the world's +falling in ruins, have resolved to provide the remedy. They are to +permit the electors to use the faculty which they possess of suspending +the emperor and depriving him of his power; there being examples of this +in other times against emperors who governed ill." + +The Admiral farther alluded to the great effort made two years before to +elect the King of Denmark emperor, reminding Philip that in Hamburg they +had erected triumphal arches, and made other preparations to receive him. +This year, he observed, the Protestants were renewing their schemes. On +the occasion of the baptism of the child of the elector palatine, the +English envoy being present, and Queen Elizabeth being god-mother, they +had agreed upon nine articles of faith much more hostile to the Catholic +creed than anything ever yet professed. In case of the death of the +emperor, this elector palatine would of course make much trouble, and +the emperor should therefore be induced, by fair means if possible, on +account of the great inconvenience of forcing him, but not without a hint +of compulsion, to acquiesce in the necessary measures. Philip was +represented as willing to assist the empire with considerable force +against the Turk--as there could be no doubt that Hungary was in great +danger--but in recompense it was necessary to elect a King of the Romans +in all respects satisfactory to him. There were three objections to the +election of Albert, whose recent victories and great abilities entitled +him in Philip's opinion to the crown. Firstly, there was a doubt whether +the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia were elective or hereditary, and it +was very important that the King of the Romans should succeed to those +two crowns, because the electors and other princes having fiefs within +those kingdoms would be unwilling to swear fealty to two suzerains, and +as Albert was younger than his brothers he could scarcely expect to take +by inheritance. + +Secondly, Albert had no property of his own, but the Admiral suggested +that the emperor might be made to abandon to him the income of the Tyrol. + +Thirdly, it was undesirable for Albert to leave the Netherlands at that +juncture. Nevertheless, it was suggested by the easy-going Admiral, with +the same tranquil insolence which marked all his proposed arrangements, +that as Rudolph would retire from the government altogether, Albert, as +King of the Romans and acting emperor, could very well take care of the +Netherlands as part of his whole realm. Albert being moreover about to +marry the Infanta, the handsome dowry which he would receive with her +from the king would enable him to sustain his dignity. + +Thus did Philip who had been so industrious during the many past years +in his endeavours to expel the heretic Queen of England and the Huguenot +Henry from the realms of their ancestors, and to seat himself or his +daughter, or one or another of his nephews, in their places, now busy +himself with schemes to discrown Rudolph of Habsburg, and to place the +ubiquitous Infanta and her future husband on his throne. Time would show +the result. + +Meantime, while the Protestant Ancel and other agents of the new league +against Philip were travelling about from one court of Europe to another +to gain adherents to their cause, the great founder of the confederacy +was already secretly intriguing for a peace with that monarch. The ink +was scarce dry on the treaty to which he had affixed his signature before +he was closeted with the agents of the Archduke Albert, and receiving +affectionate messages and splendid presents from that military +ecclesiastic. + +In November, 1596, La Balvena, formerly a gentleman of the Count de la +Fera, came to Rouen. He had a very secret interview with Henry IV. at +three o'clock one morning, and soon afterwards at a very late hour in the +night. The king asked him why the archduke was not willing to make a +general peace, including England and Holland. Balvena replied that he +had no authority to treat on that subject; it being well known, however, +that the King of Spain would never consent to a peace with the rebels, +except on the ground of the exclusive maintenance of the Catholic +religion. + +He is taking the very course to destroy that religion, said Henry. The +king then avowed himself in favour of peace for the sake of the poor +afflicted people of all countries. He was not tired of arms, he said, +which were so familiar to him, but his wish was to join in a general +crusade against the Turk. This would be better for the Catholic religion +than the present occupations of all parties. He avowed that the Queen of +England was his very good friend, and said he had never yet broken his +faith with her, and never would do so. She had sent him the Garter, and +he had accepted it, as his brother Henry III. had done before him, and he +would negotiate no peace which did not include her. The not very distant +future was to show how much these stout professions of sincerity were +worth. Meantime Henry charged Balvena to keep their interviews a +profound secret, especially from every one in France. The king expressed +great anxiety lest the Huguenots should hear of it, and the agent +observed that any suspicion of peace negotiations would make great +disturbance among the heretics, as one of the conditions of the king's +absolution by the pope was supposed to be that he should make war upon +his Protestant subjects. On his return from Rouen the emissary made a +visit to Monlevet, marshal of the camp to Henry IV. and a Calvinist. +There was much conversation about peace, in the course of which Monlevet +observed, "We are much afraid of you in negotiation, for we know that you +Spaniards far surpass us in astuteness." + +"Nay," said Balvena, "I will only repeat the words of the Emperor Charles +V.--'The Spaniards seem wise, and are madmen; the French seem madmen, and +are wise.'" + +A few weeks later the archduke sent Balvena again to Rouen. He had +another interview with the king, at which not only Villeroy and other +Catholics were present, but Monlevet also. This proved a great obstacle +to freedom of conversation. The result was the same as before. + +There were strong professions of a desire on the part of the king for a +peace but it was for a general peace; nothing further. + +On the 4th December Balvena was sent for by the king before daylight, +just as he was mounting his horse for the chase. + +"Tell his Highness," said Henry, "that I am all frankness, and incapable +of dissimulation, and that I believe him too much a man of honour to wish +to deceive me. Go tell him that I am most anxious for peace, and that I +deeply regret the defeat that has been sustained against the Turk. Had I +been there I would have come out dead or victorious. Let him arrange an +agreement between us, so that presto he may see me there with my brave +nobles, with infantry and with plenty of Switzers. Tell him that I am +his friend: Begone. Be diligent." + +On the last day but two of the year, the archduke, having heard this +faithful report of Henry's affectionate sentiments, sent him a suit of +splendid armour, such as was then made better in Antwerp than anywhere +else, magnificently burnished of a blue colour, according to an entirely +new fashion. + +With such secret courtesies between his most Catholic Majesty's +vicegerent and himself was Henry's league with the two Protestant +powers accompanied. + +Exactly at the same epoch Philip was again preparing an invasion of the +queen's dominions. An armada of a hundred and twenty-eight ships, with a +force of fourteen thousand infantry and three thousand horse, had been +assembled during the autumn of this year at Lisbon, notwithstanding the +almost crushing blow that the English and Hollanders had dealt the king's +navy so recently at Cadiz. This new expedition was intended for Ireland, +where it was supposed that the Catholics would be easily roused. It was +also hoped that the King of Scots might be induced to embrace this +opportunity of wreaking vengeance on his mother's destroyer. "He was on +the watch the last time that my armada went forth against the English," +said Philip, "and he has now no reason to do the contrary, especially if +he remembers that here is a chance to requite the cruelty which was +practised on his mother." + +The fleet sailed on the 5th October under the command of the Count Santa +Gadea. Its immediate destination was the coast of Ireland, where they +were to find some favourable point for disembarking the troops. Having +accomplished this, the ships, with the exception of a few light vessels, +were to take their departure and pass the winter in Ferrol. In case the +fleet should be forced by stress of weather on the English coast, the +port of Milford Haven in Wales was to be seized, "because," said Philip, +"there are a great many Catholics there well affected to our cause, and +who have a special enmity to the English." In case the English fleet +should come forth to give battle, Philip sent directions that it was to +be conquered at once, and that after the victory Milford Haven was to be +firmly held. + +This was easily said. But it was not fated that this expedition should +be more triumphant than that of the unconquerable armada which had been +so signally conquered eight years before. Scarcely had the fleet put to +sea when it was overtaken by a tremendous storm, in which forty ships +foundered with five thousand men. The shattered remnants took refuge in +Ferrol. There the ships were to refit, and in the spring the attempt was +to be renewed. Thus it was ever with the King of Spain. There was a +placid unconsciousness on his part of defeat which sycophants thought +sublime. And such insensibility might have been sublimity had the +monarch been in person on the deck of a frigate in the howling tempest, +seeing ship after ship go down before his eyes; and exerting himself with +tranquil energy and skill to encourage his followers, and to preserve +what remained afloat from destruction. Certainly such exhibitions of +human superiority to the elements are in the highest degree inspiring. +His father had shown himself on more than one occasion the master of his +fate. The King of France, too, bare-headed, in his iron corslet, leading +a forlorn hope, and, by the personal charm of his valour, changing +fugitives into heroes and defeat into victory, had afforded many examples +of sublime unconsciousness of disaster, such as must ever thrill the +souls of mankind. But it is more difficult to be calm in battle and +shipwreck than at the writing desk; nor is that the highest degree of +fortitude which enables a monarch--himself in safety--to endure without +flinching the destruction of his fellow creatures. + +No sooner, however, was the remnant of the tempest-tost fleet safe in +Ferrol than the king requested the cardinal to collect an army at Calais +and forthwith to invade England. He asked his nephew whether he could +not manage to send his troops across the channel in vessels of light +draught, such as he already had at command, together with some others +which might be furnished him from Spain. In this way he was directed to +gain a foot-hold in England, and he was to state immediately whether he +could accomplish this with his own resources or should require the +assistance of the fleet at Ferrol. The king further suggested that the +enemy, encouraged by his success at Cadiz the previous summer, might be +preparing a fresh expedition against Spain, in which case the invasion of +England would be easier to accomplish. + +Thus on the last day of 1596, Philip, whose fleet sent forth for the +conquest of Ireland and England had been too crippled to prosecute the +adventure, was proposing to his nephew to conquer England without any +fleet at all. He had given the same advice to Alexander Farnese so soon +as he heard of the destruction of the invincible armada. + + + + +ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + +Allow her to seek a profit from his misfortune +Burning of Servetus at Geneva +Constant vigilance is the price of liberty +Evil has the advantage of rapidly assuming many shapes +French seem madmen, and are wise +Hanging of Mary Dyer at Boston +Imposed upon the multitudes, with whom words were things +Impossible it was to invent terms of adulation too gross +In times of civil war, to be neutral is to be nothing +Meet around a green table except as fencers in the field +One-third of Philip's effective navy was thus destroyed +Patriotism seemed an unimaginable idea +Placid unconsciousness on his part of defeat +Plea of infallibility and of authority soon becomes ridiculous +Religion was rapidly ceasing to be the line of demarcation +So often degenerated into tyranny (Calvinism) +Spaniards seem wise, and are madmen +The Alcoran was less cruel than the Inquisition +There are few inventions in morals +To attack England it was necessary to take the road of Ireland +Tranquil insolence +Unproductive consumption was alarmingly increasing +Upon their knees, served the queen with wine +Wish to sell us the bear-skin before they have killed the bear + + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1595-96 *** + +************ This file should be named 4868.txt or 4868.zip ************ + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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