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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-27 15:53:09 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-27 15:53:09 -0800 |
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diff --git a/48495/48495-0.txt b/48495/48495-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8119e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/48495/48495-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4232 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48495 ***
+
+NIETZSCHE
+
+AND OTHER EXPONENTS OF
+
+INDIVIDUALISM
+
+BY
+
+PAUL CARUS
+
+CHICAGO LONDON
+
+THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+1914
+
+
+[Illustration: Friedrich Nietzsche. Statue by Klein.]
+
+ TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+ ANTI-SCIENTIFIC TENDENCIES
+ DEUSSEN'S RECOLLECTIONS
+ EXTREME NOMINALISM
+ A PHILOSOPHY OF ORIGINALITY
+ THE OVERMAN
+ ZARATHUSTRA
+ A PROTEST AGAINST HIMSELF
+ NIETZSCHE'S PREDECESSOR
+ EGO-SOVEREIGNTY
+ ANOTHER NIETZSCHE
+ NIETZSCHE'S DISCIPLES
+ THE PRINCIPLE OF VALUATION
+ INDIVIDUALISM
+ CONCLUSION
+ INDEX
+
+
+
+ANTI-SCIENTIFIC TENDENCIES.
+
+
+Philosophies are world-conceptions presenting three main features:
+(1) A systematic comprehension of the knowledge of their age; (2) An
+emotional attitude toward the cosmos; and (3) A principle that will
+serve as a basis for rules of conduct. The first feature determines the
+worth of the several philosophical systems in the history of mankind,
+being the gist of that which will last, and giving them strength and
+backbone. The second one, however, appeals powerfully to the sentiments
+of those who are imbued with the same spirit and thus constitutes its
+immediate acceptability; while the ethics of a philosophy becomes the
+test by which its use and practicability can be measured.
+
+The author's ideal has been to harmonize these three features by making
+the first the regulator of the second and a safe basis of the third.
+What we need is truth; our fundamental emotion must be truthfulness,
+and our ethics must be a living of the truth. Truth is not something
+that we can fashion according to our pleasure; it is not subjective;
+its very nature is objectivity. But we must render it subjective by a
+love of truth; we must make it our own, and by doing so our conduct in
+life will unfailingly adjust itself.
+
+Former philosophies made the subjective element predominant, and thus
+every philosopher worked out a philosophy of his own, endeavoring to
+be individual and original. The aim of our own philosophy has been
+to reduce the subjective to its proper sphere, and to establish, in
+agreement with the scientific spirit of the age, a philosophy of
+objective validity.
+
+It is a well known experience that the march of progress does not
+advance in a straight line but proceeds in epicycles. Man seems to tire
+of the rigor of truth. From time to time he wants fiction. A strict
+adherence to exact methods becomes monotonous to clever minds lacking
+the power of concentration, and they gladly hail vagaries. Truth, they
+claim, is relative, knowledge mere opinion, and poetry had better
+replace science. Then they say: Error, be thou our guide; Error, thou
+art a liberator from the tyranny of truth. Glory be to Error!
+
+Similar retrograde movements take place from time to time in art.
+Classical taste changes with romantic tendencies. Goethe, Schiller and
+Lessing are followed by Schlegel and Tieck, Mozart and Beethoven by
+Wagner.
+
+The last half-century has been an age of unprecedented progress in
+science and we would expect that with all the wonderful successes and
+triumphs of scientific invention this age of science ought to find its
+consummation in the adoption of a philosophy of science. But no! The
+mass of mankind is weary of science, and anti-scientific tendencies
+grow up like mushrooms, finding spokesmen in philosophers like William
+James and Henri Bergson who have the ear of large masses, proclaiming
+the superiority of subjectivism over objectivism, and the advantages of
+animal instinct over human reason.
+
+These subjective philosophies if considered as expressions of
+sentiment, as sentimental attitudes toward the world, as poetical
+effusions of a semi-philosophical nature, are perfectly legitimate and
+can be indulged in as well as the several religions which in allegories
+attune the minds of their followers toward the All of which they are
+parts. There is no need to condemn arts or emotions for they have a
+right to exist just as they are.
+
+We protest against subjectivism in philosophy only when it denies the
+possibility of an objective philosophy. We do not deny that the masses
+of the world are not, cannot be and never will be scientific thinkers.
+Science is the prerogative of the few, and the large masses of mankind
+will always be of a pragmatist type. If the pragmatist considered
+himself as a psychologist pure and simple showing how the majority
+of mankind argues, how people are influenced by their own interest
+and how their thoughts are warped by what they wish the facts to be,
+pragmatism would be a commendable branch of the science of the soul.
+Pragmatism explains the errors of philosophy and we can learn much from
+a consideration of its principles. It becomes objectionable only in so
+far as it claims to be philosophy in the strict sense of the word.
+
+The name philosophy is used in two senses, first as we defined it
+above, as a world-conception based upon critically sifted knowledge;
+and secondly it is used in a vague general sense as wisdom in the
+practical affairs of life. And if pragmatism claims to be a philosophy
+in this second sense it ought not to deny that philosophy as a science
+is possible.
+
+Philosophy as a science is philosophy _par excellence_. It is the only
+philosophy of objective validity. All other philosophies are effusions
+of subjective points of view, of attitudes, of sentiment. But we must
+insist that these two contrasts may exist side by side just as art does
+not render mathematics supererogatory, and as a physicist who in his
+profession devotes himself to a study of nature according to methods of
+an objective exactness may in his leisure hours paint a _Stimmungsbild_
+to give an artistic expression to a subjective mood.
+
+This world is not merely the object of science. There are innumerable
+tendencies which exist and have a right to exist, but they ought not to
+banish science, scientific enquiry and scientific ideals from the place
+they hold; for science is the mariners' compass which guides us over
+the ocean of life, and though the majority of the passengers do not
+and need not worry about it, science is after all the only means which
+makes for progress and lifts mankind to higher and higher levels.
+
+If we criticize men like James and Bergson and other philosophers of
+subjectivism we do it as a defence of the indispensable character of
+the objectivity of science as well as of philosophy as a science.
+
+James and Bergson were by no means the originators of their method of
+philosophizing. There have been many sages before them who deemed the
+spectacles through which they viewed the world to be the most important
+or even the only significant issue of life's problems. The Ionian
+physicists were outdone by the sophists, and in modern times Friedrich
+Nietzsche expressed the most sovereign contempt for science.
+
+Among all the philosophies of modern times there is perhaps none which
+in its inmost principle is more thoroughly opposed to our own than
+Nietzsche's, and yet there are some points of mutual contact which
+are well worth pointing out. The problem which is at the basis of
+Nietzsche's thought is the same as in our philosophy, but our solution
+is radically different from his.
+
+Friedrich Nietzsche is a philosopher who astonishes his readers by the
+boldness with which he rebels against every tradition, tearing down
+the holiest and dearest things, preaching destruction of all rule, and
+looking with disdain upon the heap of ruins in which his revolutionary
+thoughts would leave the world.
+
+For more than a century Germany has been the storm-center of
+philosophical thought. The commotions that started in the Fatherland
+reached other countries, France, England, and the United States, after
+they had lost their force at home. Kant's transcendentalism and Hegel's
+phenomenalism began to flourish among the English-speaking races after
+having become almost extinct in the home of their founders. Prof. R.
+M. Wenley of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., expresses
+this truth with his native Scotch wit in the statement which I do
+not hesitate to endorse, that "German professors when they die go to
+Oxford," and we may add that from Oxford they travel west to settle for
+a while in Concord, Boston, Washington, or other American cities.
+
+Hegelianism had scarcely died out in the United States when
+Schopenhauer and Nietzsche began to become fashionable. The influence
+of the former has been felt in a quiet way for some time while the
+Nietzsche movement is of more recent date and also of a more violent
+character.
+
+Nietzsche represents a type of most modern date. His was a genius after
+the heart of Lombroso. He was eccentric and atypical.
+
+Lombroso's psychology is an outgrowth of nominalism which does not
+recognize an objective norm for truth, health, reason, or normality
+of any kind, and regards the average as the sole method of finding a
+norm. If, however, the average type is the standard of measurement, the
+unusually excellent specimens, being rare in number, must be classed
+together with all other deviations from the average, and thus a genius
+is regarded as abnormal as much as a criminal--a theory which has found
+many admirers in this age that is sicklied over with agnosticism, the
+modern offshoot of nominalism. The truth is that true genius (not
+the pseudo-genius of erratic minds, not the would-be genius of those
+who make a failure of life) is uncommonly normal--I had almost said
+"abnormally normal."
+
+A perfect crystal is rare; so the perfectly normal man is an exception;
+yet for all that he is a better representative of the ideal of his type
+than the average.
+
+Nietzsche was most assuredly very ingenious; he was unusually talented
+but he was not a genius in the full sense of the word. He was abnormal,
+titanic in his pretensions and aims, and erratic. Breaking down under
+the burden of his own thought, he ended his tragical career in an
+insane asylum.
+
+The mental derangement of Nietzsche may be an unhappy accident but
+it appears to have come as the natural result of his philosophy.
+Nietzsche, by nature modest and tractable, almost submissive, was, as a
+thinker, too proud to submit to anything, even to truth. Schopenhauer
+had taught him that the intellect, with its comprehension of truth,
+is a mere slave of the will, ancilla voluntatis. Our cognition of the
+truth has a purpose; it must accommodate itself to our own interest.
+But the self is sovereign; the self wants to assert itself; the self
+alone has a right to exist; and the self that does not dare to be
+itself is a servile, menial creature. Therefore Nietzsche preaches the
+ethics of self-assertion and pride. He is too proud to recognize the
+duty of inquiry, the duty of adapting his mind to the world, or of
+recognizing the cosmic order of the universe as superior to his self.
+He feels bigger than the cosmos; he is himself; and he wants to be
+himself. His own self is sovereign; and if the world is not satisfied
+to submit to his will, the world may go to ruin. If the world breaks to
+pieces, it will only cause him to laugh; on the other hand, if his very
+self is forced to the wall in this conflict, he will still, from sheer
+pride, not suffer himself to abandon his principle of the absolute
+sovereignty of selfhood. He will not be a man, human and humane, but
+an overman (_Uebermensch_), a superhuman despiser of humanity and
+humaneness. The multitudes are to him like cattle to be used, to be
+milked, fleeced and butchered, and Nietzsche calls them herds, animals
+of the flock, _Heerdentiere_.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy is unique in being throughout the expression of
+an emotion--the proud sentiment of a self-sufficient sovereignty of
+self. It rejects with disdain both the methods of the intellect, which
+submit the problems of life to an investigation, and the demands of
+morality, which recognize the existence of duty.
+
+Other philosophers have claimed that rights imply duties and duties,
+rights. Nietzsche knows of rights only. Nietzsche claims that there is
+no objective science save by the permission of the sovereign self, nor
+is there any "ought," except for slaves and fools. He prides himself
+on being "the first Unmoralist," implying the absolute sovereignty of
+man--of the overman--and the foolishness as well as falsity of moral
+maxims.
+
+
+
+
+DEUSSEN'S RECOLLECTIONS
+
+
+Professor Paul Deussen, Sanskritist and philosopher of Kiel, was
+Friedrich Nietzsche's most intimate friend. They were chums together in
+school in Schulpforta, and remained friends to the end of Nietzsche's
+life. Nietzsche had come to Schulpforta in 1858, and Deussen entered
+the next year in the same class. Once Nietzsche, who as the senior of
+the class had to keep order among his fellow scholars during working
+periods and prevent them from making a disturbance, approached Deussen
+while he sat in his seat peacefully chewing the sandwich he had brought
+for his lunch and said, "Don't talk so loud to your crust!" using
+here the boys' slang term for a sandwich. These were the first words
+Nietzsche had spoken to Deussen, and Deussen says:[1] "I see Nietzsche
+still before me, how with the unsteady glance peculiar to extremely
+near-sighted people, his eye wandered over the rows of his classmates
+searching in vain for an excuse to interfere."
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS A PUPIL AT SCHULPFORTA IN THE
+YEAR 1861.]
+
+Nietzsche and Deussen began to take walks together and soon became
+chums, probably on account of their common love for Anacreon, whose
+poems were interesting to both perhaps on account of the easy Greek in
+which they are written.
+
+In those days the boys of Schulpforta addressed each other by the
+formal _Sie_; but one day when Deussen happened to be in the dormitory,
+he discovered in the trunk under his bed a little package of snuff;
+Nietzsche was present and each took a pinch. With this pinch they swore
+eternal brotherhood. They did not drink brotherhood as is the common
+German custom, but, as Deussen humorously says, they "snuffed it"; and
+from that time they called each other by the more intimate _du_. This
+friendship continued through life with only one interruption, and on
+Laetare Sunday in 1861, they stepped to the altar together and side by
+side received the blessing at their confirmation. On that day both were
+overcome by a feeling of holiness and ecstasy. Thus their friendship
+was sealed in Christ, and though it may seem strange of Nietzsche who
+was later a most iconoclastic atheist, a supernatural vision filled
+their young hearts for many weeks afterwards.
+
+There was a third boy to join this friendship--a certain Meyer, a
+young, handsome and amiable youth distinguished by wit and the ability
+to draw excellent caricatures. But Meyer was in constant conflict with
+his teachers and generally in rebellion against the rules of the
+school. He had to leave school before he finished his course. Nietzsche
+and Deussen accompanied him to the gate and returned in great sorrow
+when he had disappeared on the highway. What has become of Meyer is
+not known. Deussen saw him five years later in his home at Oberdreis,
+but at that time he was broken in health and courage, disgruntled with
+God, the world and himself. Later he held a subordinate position in the
+custom house, and soon after that all trace of him was lost. Probably
+he died young.
+
+This Meyer was attached to Nietzsche for other reasons than Deussen.
+While Deussen appreciated more the intellectuality and congeniality of
+his friend, Meyer seems to have been more attracted by his erratic and
+wayward tendencies and this for some time endeared him to Nietzsche.
+Thus it came to pass that the two broke with Deussen for a time.
+
+The way of establishing a state of hostility in Schulpforta was to
+declare oneself "mad" at another, and to some extent this proved to be
+a good institution, for since the boys came in touch with each other
+daily and constantly in the school, those who could not agree would
+have easily come to blows had it not been for this tabu which made
+it a rule that they were not on speaking terms. This state of things
+lasted for six weeks, and was only broken by an incidental discussion
+in a Latin lesson, when Nietzsche proposed one of his highly improbable
+conjectures for a verse of Virgil. The discussion grew heated, and
+when the professor after a long Latin disquisition finally asked
+whether any one had something to say on the subject, Deussen rose and
+extemporized a Latin hexameter which ran thus:
+
+ "_Nietzschius erravit, neque coniectura probanda est_"
+
+On account of the declared state of "mad"-ness, the debate was carried
+on through the teacher, addressing him each time with the phrase: "Tell
+Nietzsche," "Tell Deussen," "Tell Meyer," etc., but in the heat of
+the controversy they forgot to speak in the third person, and finally
+addressed their adversaries directly. This broke the spell of being
+"mad" and they came to an understanding and a definite reconciliation.
+
+Nietzsche never had another friend with whom he became so intimate as
+with Deussen. Deussen says (page 9): "At that time we understood each
+other perfectly. In our lonely walks we discussed all possible subjects
+of religion, philosophy, poetry, art and music. Often our thoughts ran
+wild and when words failed us we would look into each other's eyes,
+and one would say to the other: 'We understand each other.' These
+words became a standing phrase which forthwith we decided to avoid as
+trivial, and we had to laugh when occasionally it escaped our lips in
+spite of us. The great ordeal of the final examination came. We had to
+pass first through our written tests. In German composition, on the
+'advantages and dangers of wealth' Nietzsche passed with No. 1; also in
+a Latin exercise _de bello Punico primo_; but in mathematics he failed
+with the lowest mark, No. 4. This upset him and in fact he who was
+almost the most gifted of us all was compelled to withdraw."
+
+While the two were strolling up and down in front of the schoolhouse,
+Nietzsche unburdened his grief to his friend, and Deussen tried to
+comfort him. "What difference does it make," said he, "if you pass
+badly, if only you pass at all? You are and will always be more gifted
+than all the rest of us, and will soon outstrip even me whom you now
+envy. You must increase but I must decrease."
+
+The course of events was as Deussen had predicted, for Nietzsche
+though not passing with as much distinction as he may have deserved
+nevertheless received his diploma.
+
+When Deussen with his wife visited Nietzsche in August 1907 at
+Sils-Maria, Nietzsche showed him a requiem which he had composed for
+his own funeral, and he added: "I do not believe that I will last much
+longer. I have reached the age at which my father died, and I fear
+that I shall fall a victim to the same disease as he." Though Deussen
+protested vigorously against this sad prediction and tried to cheer him
+up, Nietzsche indeed succumbed to his sad fate within two years.
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE FROM PHOTOGRAPH IN THE POSSESSION OF
+PROFESSOR DEUSSEN.]
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Professor Deussen, though Nietzsche's most intimate friend, is by no
+means uncritical in judging his philosophy. It is true he cherishes
+the personal character and the ideal tendencies of his old chum, but
+he is not blind to his faults. Deussen says of Nietzsche: "He was
+never a systematic philosopher.... The great problems of epistemology,
+of psychology, of æsthetics and ethics are only tentatively touched
+upon in his writings.... There are many pearls of worth upon which he
+throws a brilliant side light, as it were in lightning flashes....
+His overwhelming imagination is always busy. His thoughts were
+always presented in pleasant imagery and in language of dazzling
+brilliancy, but he lacked critical judgment and was not controlled by a
+consideration of reality. Therefore the creation of his pen was never
+in harmony with the actual world, and among the most valuable truths
+which he revealed with ingenious profundity there are bizarre and
+distorted notions stated as general rules although they are merely rare
+exceptions, as is also frequently the case in sensational novels. Thus
+Nietzsche produced a caricature of life which means no small danger for
+receptive and inexperienced minds. His readers can escape this danger
+only when they do what Nietzsche did not do, when they confront every
+thought of his step by step by the actual nature of things, and retain
+only what proves to be true under the touchstone of experience."
+
+Between the negation of the will and its affirmation Nietzsche granted
+to Deussen while still living in Basel, that the ennoblement of the
+will should be man's aim. The affirmation of the will is the pagan
+ideal with the exception of Platonism. The negation of the will is the
+Christian ideal, and according to Nietzsche the ennoblement of the will
+is realized in his ideal of the overman. Deussen makes the comment that
+Nietzsche's notion of the overman is in truth the ideal of all mankind,
+whether this highest type of manhood be called Christ or overman; and
+we grant that such an ideal is traceable everywhere. It is called
+"Messiah" among the Jews; "hero" among the Greeks, "Christ" among
+the Christians, and chiün, the superior man, or to use Nietzsche's
+language, "the overman," among the Chinese; but the characteristics
+with which Nietzsche endows his overman are unfortunately mere brutal
+strength and an unscrupulous will to play the tyrant. Here Professor
+Deussen halts. It appears that he knew the peaceful character of his
+friend too well to take his ideal of the overman seriously.
+
+We shall discuss Nietzsche's ideal of the overman more fully further
+down in a discussion of his most original thoughts, the typically
+Nietzschean ideas.
+
+
+[1] See Dr. Paul Deussen's _Erinnerungen an Friedrich Nietzsche._
+Leipsic, 1901.
+
+
+
+
+EXTREME NOMINALISM
+
+
+According to Nietzsche, the history of philosophy from Plato to his
+own time is a progress of the idea that objective truth (a conception
+of "the true world") is not only not attainable, but does not exist
+at all. He expresses this idea in his Twilight of the Idols (English
+edition, pp. 122-123) under the caption, "How the 'True World' Finally
+Became a Fable," which describes the successive stages as follows:
+
+
+ "1. The true world attainable by the wise, the pious, and
+ the virtuous man,--he lives in it, he embodies it.
+
+ "(Oldest form of the idea, relatively rational, simple,
+ and convincing. Transcription of the proposition, 'I,
+ Plato, am the truth,')
+
+ "2. The true world unattainable at present, but promised
+ to the wise, the pious, and the virtuous man (to the
+ sinner who repents).
+
+ "(Progress of the idea: it becomes more refined, more
+ insidious, more incomprehensible,--it becomes feminine, it
+ becomes Christian.)
+
+ "3. The true world unattainable, undemonstrable, and
+ unable to be promised; but even as conceived, a comfort,
+ an obligation, and an imperative.
+
+ "(The old sun still, but shining only through mist and
+ scepticism; the idea becomes sublime, pale, northerly,
+ Koenigsbergian.)
+
+ "4. The true world--unattainable? At any rate unattained.
+ And being unattained also unknown. Consequently also
+ neither comforting, saving nor obligatory: what obligation
+ could anything unknown lay upon us?
+
+ "(Gray morning. First dawning of reason. Cock-crowing of
+ Positivism.)
+
+ "5. The 'true world'--an idea neither good for anything,
+ nor even obligatory any longer,--an idea become useless
+ and superfluous; consequently a refuted idea; let us do
+ away with it!
+
+ "(Full day; breakfast; return of _bon sens_ and
+ cheerfulness; Plato blushing for shame; infernal noise of
+ all free intellects,)
+
+ "6. We have done away with the true world: what world is
+ left? perhaps the seeming?... But no! in doing away with
+ the true, we have also done away with the seeming world!
+
+ "(Noon; the moment of the shortest shadow; end of the
+ longest error; climax of mankind; _Incipit Zarathustra!_)"
+
+The reader will ask, "What next?" Probably afternoon and evening, and
+then night. In the night presumably "the old sun," i. e., the idea of
+Plato's true world, which (according to Nietzsche) grew pale in the
+morning, will shine again.
+
+Nietzsche's main desire was to live the real life and make his home not
+in an imaginary Utopia but in this actual world of ours. He reproached
+the philosophers as well as the religious leaders and ethical teachers
+for trying to make mankind believe that the teal world is purely
+phenomenal, for replacing it by the world of thought which they called
+"the true world" or the world of truth. To Nietzsche the typical
+philosopher is Plato. He and all his followers are accused of hypocrisy
+for making people believe that "the true world" of their own fiction is
+real and that man's ambition should be to attain to this "true world"
+(the world of philosophy, of science, of art, of ethical ideals) built
+above the real world. Nietzsche means to shatter all the idols of the
+past, and he has come to the conclusion that even the scientists were
+guilty of the same fault as the philosophers. They erected a world of
+thought, of subjective conception from the materials of the real world,
+and so he denounces even their attempts at constructing a "true world"
+as either a self-mystification or a lie. It is as imaginary as the
+world of the priest. In order to lead a life worthy of the "overman,"
+we should assert ourselves and feel no longer hampered by rules of
+conduct or canons of logic or by any consideration for truth.
+
+With all his hatred of religion, Nietzsche was nevertheless an
+intensely religious character, and knowing that he could not clearly
+see a connection between his so-called "real world" and his actual
+surroundings, he developed all the symptoms of religious fanaticism
+which characterizes religious leaders of all ages. He indulged in
+a mystic ecstacy, preaching it as the essential feature of his
+philosophy, and his Dionysiac enthusiasm is not the least of the
+intoxicants which are contained in his thought and bring so many
+poetical and talented but immature minds under his control.
+
+It is obvious that "the real world" of Nietzsche is more unreal than
+"the true world" of philosophy and of religion which he denounces as
+fictitious, but he was too naive and philosophically crude to see this.
+Nietzsche's "real world" is a fabric of his own personal imagination,
+while the true world of science is at least a thought-construction
+of the world which pictures facts with objective exactness; it is
+controlled by experience and can be utilized in practical life; it is
+subject to criticism and its propositions are being constantly tested
+either to be refuted or verified. Nietzsche's "real world" is the hope
+(and perhaps not even a desirable hope) of a feverish brain whose
+action is influenced by a decadent body.
+
+Nietzsche's so-called "real world" is one ideal among many others. It
+is as much subjective as the ideals of other mortals,--of men who seek
+happiness in wealth, or in pleasures, or in fame, or in scholarship,
+or in a religious life--all of them imagine that the world of their
+thoughts is real and the goal which they endeavor to reach is the only
+thing that possesses genuine worth. In Nietzsche's opinion all are
+dreamers catching at shadows, but the shadow of his own fancy appeared
+to him as real.
+
+According to Nietzsche the universe is not a cosmos but a chaos. He
+says (_La Gaya Scienza_, German edition, p. 148):
+
+ "The astral order in which we live is an exception. This
+ order and the relative stability which is thereby caused,
+ made the exception' of exceptions possible,--the formation
+ of organisms. The character-total of the world is into all
+ eternity chaos, not in the sense of a missing necessity,
+ but of missing order, articulation, form, beauty, wisdom,
+ and as all our æsthetic humanities may be called."
+
+In agreement with this conception of order, Nietzsche says of man, the
+rational animal:
+
+ "I fear that animals look upon man as a being of their own
+ kind, which in a most dangerous way has lost the sound
+ animal-sense,--as a lunatic animal, a laughing animal, a
+ crying animal, a miserable animal." (_La Gaya Scienza_,
+ German edition, p. 196.)
+
+If reason is an aberration, the brute must be superior to man and
+instinct must range higher than logical thought. Man's reason,
+according to this consistent nominalist view, is purely subjective and
+has no prototype in the objective world. This is a feature common to
+all nominalistic philosophies. John Stuart Mill regards the theorems
+of logic and mathematics, not only not as truths, but as positive
+untruths. He says:
+
+ "The points, lines, circles, and squares, which any one
+ has in his mind, are (I apprehend) simply copies of the
+ points, lines, circles, and squares which he has known in
+ his experience. Our idea of a point, I apprehend to be
+ simply our idea of the _minimum visibile_, the smallest
+ portion of surface which we can see. A line, as defined
+ by geometers, is wholly inconceivable. We can reason
+ about a line as if it had no breadth; because we have a
+ power, which is the foundation of all the control we can
+ exercise over the operations of our minds; the power, when
+ a perception is present to our senses, or a conception
+ to our intellects, of attending to a part only of that
+ perception or conception, instead of the whole. But we
+ cannot conceive a line without breadth; we can form no
+ mental picture of such a line: all the lines which we have
+ in our minds are lines possessing breadth."
+
+Nietzsche shows his nominalistic tendencies by repeatedly pronouncing
+the same propositions in almost literally the same words,[1] without,
+however, acknowledging the school in which he picked up this error.
+
+It is quite true that mathematical lines and circles are human
+conceptions, but they are not purely subjective conceptions, still
+less untruths; they are great and important discoveries. They are
+not arbitrarily devised but constructed according to the laws of the
+uniformities that dominate existence. They represent actual features
+of the factors which shape the objective universe, and thus only is it
+possible that the astronomer through the calculation of mathematical
+curves can predict the motion of the stars.[2]
+
+Reason is the key to the universe, because it is the reflex of cosmic
+order, and the cosmic order, the intrinsic regularity and immanent
+harmony of the uniformities of nature, is not a subjective illusion but
+an objective reality.
+
+When Goethe claims that all things transitory are symbols of that
+which is intransitory and eternal, Nietzsche answers that the idea of
+anything intransitory is a mere symbol, and God (the idea of anything
+eternal) a poet's lie.
+
+Like a mocking-bird, the nominalist philosopher imitates the ring of
+Goethe's well-known lines at the conclusion of the second part of
+"Faust," in which the "real world" of transient things is considered as
+a mere symbol of the true world of eternal verities:
+
+ "Das Unvergangliche
+ Ist nur dein Gleichniss.
+ Gott der Verfängliche
+ Ist Dichter-Erschleichniss.
+ Weltspiel, das herrische,
+ Mischt Sein und Schein:--
+ Das Ewig-Närrische
+ Mischt uns--hinein."
+
+ "The non-deciduous
+ Is a symbol of _thy_ sense,
+ God ever invidious,
+ A poetical license.
+ World-play domineeringly
+ Mixes semblance and fact,
+ And between them us sneeringly
+ The Ever-Foolish has packed."
+
+In spite of Nietzsche's hunger for the realities of life, that is
+to say for objectivity, he was in fact the most subjective of all
+philosophers--so much so that he was incapable of formulating any
+thought as an objectively precise statement. He did not believe in
+truth: "There is probability, but no truth," says he in _Der Wanderer
+und sein Schatten_, p. 190; and he adds concerning the measure of the
+value of truth (ibid., Aphorism 4): "The trouble in ascending mountains
+is no measure of their height, and should it be different in science?"
+
+It is true that such words as "long" and "short" are relative, because
+dependent on subjective needs and valuations. But must we for that
+reason give up all hope of describing facts in objective terms? Are not
+meters and foot-measures definite magnitudes, whether or not they be
+long for one purpose and short for another? Relativity itself admits
+of a description in objective terms; but if a statement of facts in
+objective terms were impossible, the ideals of exact science (as all
+ideals) would be a dream.
+
+That Nietzsche prefers the abrupt style of aphorisms to dispassionate
+inquisitions is a symptom that betrays the nature of his philosophy.
+His ideas, thus expressed, are easily understood. They are but very
+loosely connected, and we find them frequently contradictory. They are
+not presented in a logical, orderly way, but sound like reiterated
+challenges to battle. They are appeals to all wild impulses and a
+clamor for the right of self-assertion.
+
+While Nietzsche's philosophy is in itself inconsistent and illogical,
+it is yet born of the logic of facts; it is the consistent result and
+legitimate conclusion of principles uttered centuries ago and which
+were slowly matured in the historical development of thought.
+
+The old nominalistic school is the father of Nietzsche's philosophy.
+A consistent nominalist will be driven from one conclusion to another
+until he reaches the stage of Nietzsche, which is philosophical
+anarchism and extreme individualism.
+
+The nominalist denies the reality of reason; he regards the existence
+of universals as a fiction, and looks upon the world as a heap of
+particulars. He loses sight of the unity of the world and forgets that
+form is a true feature of things. It is form and the sameness of the
+laws of form which makes universality of reason possible.
+
+Nominalism rose in opposition to the medieval realism of the schoolmen
+who looked upon universals as real and concrete things, representing
+them as individual beings that existed _ante res, in rebus_, and
+_post res_, i. e., in the particulars, before them and after them.
+The realists were wrong in so far as they conceived universals as
+substances or distinct essences, as true realities (hence the name
+"realism"); only they were supposed to be of a more spiritual nature
+than material things but, after all, they were concrete existences.
+They were said to have been created by God as an artisan would make
+patterns or molds for the things which he proposes to produce.
+According to Plato, ideas serve the Creator as models of concrete
+objects of which they are deemed to be the prototypes. The realists
+were mistaken in regarding the ideal as concrete and real, but the
+nominalists, on the other hand, also went too far in denying the
+objective significance of universals and declaring that universals were
+mere names (_nomina_ and _flatus vocis_), i. e., words invented for the
+sake of conveniently thinking things and serving no other purpose.
+
+At the bottom of the controversy lies the problem as to the nature of
+things. The question arises, What are things in themselves? Do things,
+or do they not, possess an independence of their own? Kant's reply is,
+that things in themselves can not be known; but our reply is, that
+the nature of a thing consists in its form; a thing is such as it is
+because it has a definite form. Therefore "things in themselves" do not
+exist; but there are "forms in themselves."
+
+Form is not a non-entity but the most important feature of reality,
+and the pure laws of form are the determinative factors of the world.
+The sciences of the laws of pure form, logic, arithmetic, algebra,
+geometry, etc., are therefore the key to a comprehension of the world,
+and morality is the realization of ideals, i. e., of the conceptions of
+pure forms, which are higher, nobler, and better than those which have
+been actualized.
+
+From our standpoint, evolution is a process in which the eternal laws
+of being manifest themselves in a series of regular transformations,
+reaching a point at which sentiency appears. And then evolution takes
+the shape of progress, that is to say, sentient beings develop
+mind; sentiments become sensations, i. e., representative images;
+and words denote the universals. Then reason originates as a reflex
+of the eternal laws of pure form. Human reason is deepened in a
+scientific world-conception, and becoming aware of the moral aspect of
+universality it broadens out into comprehensive sympathy with all forms
+of existence that like ourselves aspire after a fuller comprehension of
+existence.
+
+Thus the personality of man is the reflex of that system of
+eternalities which sways the universe, and humanity is found to be a
+revelation of the core of the cosmos, an incarnation of Godhood. This
+revelation, however, is not closed. The appearance of the religions of
+good-will and mutual sympathy merely marks the beginning of a new era,
+and we may expect that the future of mankind will surpass the present,
+as much as the present surpasses savagery. Such is the higher humanity,
+the true "overman," representing a higher species of mankind, whom we
+expect.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy of "unmorality" looms on the horizon of human
+thought as a unique conception apparently ushered into this world
+without any preparation and without any precedent. It sets itself up
+against tradition. Schopenhauer, Nietzsche's immediate predecessor,
+regarded history as the desolate dream of mankind, and Nietzsche
+exhibits a remorseless contempt for everything that comes to us as a
+product of history. Nietzsche scorns not only law and order, church
+and state, but also reason, argument, and rule; he scorns consistency
+and logic which are regarded as toys for weaklings or as tools of the
+crafty.
+
+Nietzsche is a nominalist with a vengeance. His philosophy is
+particularism carried to extremes. There is no unity of existence to
+him. The God-idea is dead--not only the old metaphysical notion of a
+God-individual, but also God in the sense of the ultimate ground of
+being, the supreme norm of the cosmos. Nietzsche's world is split up
+into particular selves. He does not ask how they originated; he only
+knows that they are here. Above all, he knows that his own self is
+here, and there is no bond of sympathy between it and other selves. The
+higher self is that which assumes dominion over the world. His ideal
+is brutal strength, his overman the tyrant who tramples under foot his
+fellowmen. Democracy is an abomination to him, and he despises the
+gospel of love as it is preached by both Christ and Buddha. This is
+the key to his anti-moralism and to the doctrine of the autonomy of
+selfhood.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy might be called philosophical nihilism, if
+he did not object to the word. He calls it positivism, but it is
+particularism, or rather an aristocratic individualism which in the
+domain of thought plays the same role that political nihilism plays
+in Russia. It would dethrone the hereditary Czar, the ruler by God's
+grace, but it would not establish a republic. It would set on the
+throne a ruthless demagogue, a self-made political boss--the overman.
+It is the philosophy of protest, and Nietzsche is conscious of being
+Slavic in thought and aspiration. Nor does he forget that his ancestors
+belonged to the nobility. He claims to have been descended from a
+Polish nobleman by the name of Niëtzki, a Protestant who came to
+Germany in the eighteenth century as a religious refugee.
+
+Nietzsche's love of Slavism manifested itself in his childhood, for
+when the news of the fall of Sebastopol became known, Nietzsche, at
+that time a mere boy, was so dejected that he could not eat and gave
+expression to his chagrin in mournful strains of verse.
+
+He who has faith in truth accepts truth as authority; he who accepts
+truth as authority recognizes duty; he who recognizes duty beholds
+a goal of life. He has found a purpose for which life appears worth
+living, and reaches out beyond the bounds of his narrow individuality
+into the limitless cosmos. He transcends himself, he grows in truth, he
+increases in power, he widens in his sympathies.
+
+Here we touch upon the God problem. In denning God as the ultimate
+authority of conduct, we are confronted by the dilemma, Is there, or
+is there not a norm of morality, a standard of right and wrong, to
+which the self must submit? And this question is another version of
+the problem as to the existence of truth. Is there truth which we
+must heed, or is truth a fiction and is the self not bound to respect
+anything? We answer this question as to the existence of truth in the
+affirmative, Nietzsche in the negative.
+
+But he who rejects truth cuts himself loose from the fountain-head of
+the waters of life. He may deify selfhood, but his own self will die of
+its self-apotheosis. His divinity is not a true God-incarnation, it is
+a mere assumption and the self-exaltation of a pretender.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy is more consistent than it appears on its face.
+Being the negation of the right of consistency, its lack of consistency
+is its most characteristic feature. If the intellect is truly, as
+Schopenhauer suggests, the servant of the will, then there is no
+authority in reason, and arguments have no strength. All quarrels are
+simply questions of power. Then, there is might, but not right; right
+is simply the _bon plaisir_ of might. Then there is no good nor evil;
+good is that which I will, bad is that which threatens to thwart my
+will. Good and evil are distinctions invented for the enslavement of
+the masses, but the free man, the genius, the aristocrat, who craftily
+tramples the masses under foot, knows no difference. He is beyond good
+and evil.
+
+This, indeed, is the consequence which Nietzsche boldly draws. It is a
+consistent anarchism; it is unmoralism, a courageous denial of ethical
+rule; and a proud aristocratism, the ruthless shout of triumph of the
+victor who hails the doctrine of the survival of the strongest and
+craftiest as a "joyful science."
+
+Nietzsche would not refute the arguments of those who differ from
+him; for refutation of other views does not befit a positive mind that
+posits its own truth. "What have I to do with refutations!" exclaims
+Nietzsche in the Preface to his Genealogy of Morals. The self is
+lord. There is no law for the lord, and so he denounces the ethics of
+Christianity as slave-morality, and preaches the lord-morality of the
+strong which is self-assertion.
+
+Morality itself is denounced by Nietzsche as immoral. Morality is the
+result of evolution, and man's moral ideas are products of conditions
+climatic, social, economical, national, religious, and what not. Why
+should we submit to the tyranny of a rule which after all proves to be
+a relic of barbarism? Nietzsche rejects morality as incompatible with
+the sovereignty of selfhood, and, pronouncing our former judgment a
+superstition, he proposes "a transvaluation of all values." The self
+must be established as supreme ruler, and therefore all rules, maxims,
+principles, must go, for the very convictions of a man are mere chains
+that fetter the freedom of his soul.
+
+
+[1] _La Gaya Scienza_, German edition, p. 154; and _passim_ in
+_Menschliches_, etc.
+
+[2] For further details of a refutation of this wrong conception of
+geometry, see the author's _Foundation of Mathematics_.
+
+
+
+
+A PHILOSOPHY OF ORIGINALITY
+
+
+One might expect that Nietzsche, who glories in the triumph of the
+strong over the weak in the struggle for life, red in tooth and claw,
+would look up to Darwin as his master. But Nietzsche recognizes no,
+master, and he emphasizes this by speaking in his poetry of Darwin
+as "this English joker," whose "mediocre reason" is accepted for
+philosophy.[1] To Nietzsche that which exists is the mere incidental
+product of blind forces. Instead of working for a development of the
+better from the best of the present, which is the method of nature,
+he shows his contempt for the human and all-too-human; he prophesies
+a deluge and hopes that from its floods the overman will emerge whose
+seal of superiority will be the strength of the conqueror that enables
+him to survive in the struggle for existence.
+
+Nietzsche has looked deeply into the apparent chaos of life that
+according to Darwin is a ruthless struggle for survival. He avoids
+the mistake of those sentimentalists who believe that goody-goodyness
+can rule the world, who underrate the worth of courage and over-rate
+humility, and who would venture to establish peace on earth by
+grounding arms. He sees the differences that exist between all things,
+the antagonism that obtains everywhere, and preferring to play the part
+of the hammer, he showers expressions of contempt upon the anvil.
+
+And Nietzsche's self-assertion is immediate and direct. He does not
+pause to consider what his self is, neither how it originated nor what
+will become of it. He takes it as it is and opposes it to the authority
+of other powers, the state, the church, and the traditions of the past.
+An investigation of the nature of the self might have dispelled the
+illusion of his self-glorification, but he never thinks of analysing
+its constitution. Bluntly and without any reflection or deliberation he
+claims the right of the sovereignty of self. He seems to forget that
+there are different selves, and that what we need most is a standard by
+which we can gauge their respective worth, and not an assertion of the
+rights of the self in general.
+
+We do not intend to quarrel with Nietzsche's radicalism. Nor do we
+underrate the significance of the self. We, too, believe that every
+self has the liberty to choose its own position and may claim as many
+rights as it pleases provided it can maintain them. If it cannot
+maintain them it will be crushed; otherwise it may conquer its rivals
+and suppress counter-claims; but therefore the wise man looks before he
+leaps. Reckless self-assertion is the method of brute creation. Neither
+the lion nor the lamb meditate on their fate; they simply follow their
+instincts. They are carnivorous or herbivorous by nature through the
+actions of their ancestors. This is what Buddhists call the law of
+deeds or _Karma_. Man's karma leads higher. Man can meditate on his
+own fate, and he can discriminate. His self is a personality, i. e.,
+a self-controlled commonwealth of motor ideas. Man does not blindly
+follow his impulses but establishes rules of action. He can thus
+abbreviate the struggle and avoid unnecessary friction; he can rise
+from brute violence to a self-contained and well-disciplined strength.
+Self-control (i. e., ethical guidance) is the characteristic feature
+of the true "overman"; but Nietzsche knows nothing of self-control;
+he would allow the self blindly to assert itself after the fashion of
+animal instincts.
+
+Nietzsche is the philosopher of instinct. He spurns all logical order,
+even truth itself. He has a contempt for every one who learns from
+others, for he regards such a man as a slave to other people's thought.
+His ambition for originality is expressed in these four lines which he
+inserted as a motto to the second edition of _La Gaya Scienza_:
+
+ "Ich wohne in meinem eignen Haus,
+ Hab' niemandem nie nichts nachgemacht
+ Und--lachte noch jeden Meister aus,
+ Der nicht sich selber ausgelacht."
+
+We translate faithfully, preserving even the ungrammatical use of the
+double negative, as follows:
+
+ "In my own house do I reside,
+ Did never no one imitate,
+ And every master I deride,
+ Save if himself he'd derogate."
+
+We wonder that Nietzsche did not think of Goethe's little rhyme, which
+seems to suit his case exactly:
+
+ "A fellow says: 'I own no school or college;
+ No master lives whom I acknowledge;
+ And pray don't entertain the thought
+ That from the dead I e'er learned aught.'
+ This, if I rightly understand,
+ Means: 'I'm a fool by own command.'"
+
+Nietzsche observes that the thoughts of most philosophers are secretly
+guided by instincts. He feels that all thought is at bottom a "will for
+power," and the will for truth has no right to exist except it serve
+the will for power. He reproaches philosophers for glorifying truth.
+
+Fichte in his _Duties of the Scholar_ says:
+
+ "My life and my fate are nothing; but the results of my
+ life are of great importance. I am a priest of Truth; I am
+ in the service of Truth; I feel under obligation to do, to
+ risk, and to suffer anything for truth."
+
+Nietzsche declares that this is shallow. Will for truth, he says,
+should be called "will to make being thinkable." Here, it seems to us,
+Nietzsche simply replaces the word "truth" by one of its functions.
+Truth is a systematic representation of reality, a comprehensive
+description of facts; the result being that "existence is made
+thinkable."
+
+Nietzsche is in a certain sense right when he says that truth in itself
+is nothing; for every representation of reality must serve a purpose,
+otherwise it is superfluous and useless. And the purpose of truth is
+the furtherance of life. Nietzsche instinctively hits the right thing
+in saying that at the bottom of philosophy there is the will for power.
+In spite of our school-philosopher's vain declamations of "science
+for its own sake," genuine philosophy will never be anything else
+than a method for the acquisition of power. But this method is truth.
+Nietzsche errs when he declares that "the head is merely the intestine
+of the heart." The head endeavors to find out the truth, and the truth
+is not purely subjective. It is true that truth is of no use to a man
+unless he makes it his own; he must possess it; it must be part of
+himself, but he cannot create it. Truth cannot be made; it must be
+discovered. Since the scholar's specialized business is the elucidation
+of the method of discovering the truth--not its purpose, not its
+application in practical life--Fichte's ideal of the aim of scholarship
+remains justified.
+
+Omit the ideal of truth in a philosophy, and it becomes an _ignis
+fatuus_, a will-o'-the-wisp, that will lead people astray. Truth makes
+existence thinkable, but thinkableness alone is not as yet a test of
+truth. The ultimate test of truth is its practical application. There
+is something wrong with a theory that does not work, and thus the self
+has a master, which is reality, the world in which it lives, with its
+laws and actualities. The subjective self must measure its worth by the
+objective standard of truth--to be obtained through exact inquiry and
+scientific investigation.
+
+The will for power, in order to succeed, must be clarified by a
+methodical comprehension of facts and conditions. The contradictory
+impulses in one's own self must be systematized so that they will not
+collide and mutually annihilate themselves; and the comprehension of
+this orderly disposition is called reason.
+
+Nietzsche is on the right track when he ridicules such ideals as
+"virtue for virtue's sake," and even "truth for truth's sake." Virtue
+and truth are for the sake of life. They have not their purpose in
+themselves, but their nature consists in serving the expansion and
+further growth of the human soul. This is a truth which we have always
+insisted upon and which becomes apparent when those people who speak of
+virtue for its own sake try to define virtue, or determine the ultimate
+standard of right and wrong, of goodness and badness. We say, that
+whatever enhances soulgrowth, thus producing higher life and begetting
+a superior humanity, is good; while whatever cripples or retards those
+aspirations is bad. Further, truth is not holy in itself. It becomes
+holy in the measure that it serves man's holiest aspirations. We
+sometimes meet among scientists, and especially among philologists,
+men who with the ideal of "truth for truth's sake," pursue some very
+trivial investigations, such, for example, as the use of the accusative
+after certain prepositions in Greek, or how often Homer is guilty of a
+hiatus. They resemble Faust's famulus Wagner, whom Faust characterizes
+as a fool
+
+ ".... whose choice is
+ To stick in shallow trash for ever more,
+ Who digs with eager hand for buried ore,
+ And when he finds an angle-worm rejoices."
+
+Thus there are many trivial truths of no importance, the investigation
+of which serves no useful purpose. For instance, whether the correct
+pronunciation of the Greek letter _êta_; was _ee_ or _ay_ need not
+concern us much, and the philologist who devotes all his life and his
+best strength to its settlement is rather to be pitied than admired.
+Various truths are very different in value, for life and truth become
+holy according to their importance. All this granted, we need not, with
+Nietzsche, discard truth, reason, virtue, and all moral aspirations.
+
+Nietzsche apparently is under the illusion that reason, systematic
+thought, moral discipline and self-control, are external powers, and
+in his love of liberty he objects to their authority. Did he ever
+consider that thought is not an external agent, but a clarification of
+man's instincts, and that discipline is, or at least in its purpose
+and final aim ought to be, self-regulation, so that our contradictory
+thoughts would not wage an internecine war? Thus, Nietzsche, the
+instinct-philosopher, appears as an ingenious boy whose very
+immaturity is regarded by himself as the highest blossom of his
+existence. Like an intoxicated youth, he revels in his irresponsibility
+and laughs at the man who has learned to take life seriously. Because
+the love of truth originates from instincts, Nietzsche treats it as a
+mere instinct, and nothing else. He forgets that in the evolution of
+man's soul all instincts develop into something higher than instinct,
+and the love of truth develops into systematic science.
+
+Nietzsche never investigated what his own self consisted of. He never
+analyzed his individuality. Other-wise he would have learned that he
+received the most valuable part of his being from others, and that the
+bundle of instincts which he called his sovereign self was nothing but
+the heirloom of the ages that preceded him. In spite of his repudiation
+of any debt to others, he was but the continuation of others. But he
+boldly carried his individualism, if not to its logical conclusions,
+yet to its moral applications. When speaking of the Order of Assassins
+of the times of the Crusades, he said with enthusiasm: "The highest
+secret of their leaders was, 'Nothing is true, everything is allowed!'"
+And Nietzsche adds: "That indeed, was liberty of spirit; that dismissed
+even the belief in truth." The philosopher of instinct even regards
+the adherence to truth as slavery and the proclamation of truth as
+dogmatism.
+
+
+[1] See Nietzsche's poems in the appendix to _A Genealogy of Morals_,
+Eng. ed., Macmillan, p. 248.
+
+
+
+
+THE OVERMAN
+
+
+He quintessence of Nietzsche's philosophy is the "overman." What is the
+overman?
+
+The word (_Uebermensch_) comes from a good mint; it is of Goethe's
+coinage, and he used it in the sense of an awe-inspiring being, almost
+in the sense of _Unmensch_, to characterize Faust, the titanic man of
+high aims and undaunted courage,--the man who would not be moved in the
+presence of hell and pursued his aspirations in spite of the forbidding
+countenance of God and the ugly grin of Satan. But the same expression
+was used in its proper sense about two and a half millenniums ago
+in ancient China, where at the time of Lao-tze the term _chiün jen_
+[Chin. chars], "superior man," or _chiün tse_, "superior sage," was in
+common usage. But the overman or _chiün jen_ of Lao-tze, of Confucius
+and other Chinese sages is not a man of power, not a Napoleon, not
+an unprincipled tyrant, not a self-seeker of domineering will, not a
+man whose ego and its welfare is his sole and exclusive aim, but a
+Christlike figure, who puts his self behind and thus makes his self--a
+nobler and better self--come to the front, who does not retaliate, but
+returns good for evil,[1] a man (as the Greek sage describes him) who
+would rather suffer wrong than commit wrong.[2]
+
+This kind of higher man is the very opposite of Nietzsche's overman,
+and it is the spirit of this nobler conception of a higher humanity
+which furnishes the best ideas of all the religions of the world, of
+Lao-tze's Taoism, of Buddhism and of Christianity.
+
+Alexander Tille, the English translator of Nietzsche's _Thus Spake
+Zarathustra_, translates the word _Uebermensch_ by "beyond-man." But
+"beyond" means _jenseits_; and Nietzsche wrote _über_, i. e., superior
+to, over, or higher than, and the literal translation "overman" appears
+to be the best. It is certainly better than the barbaric combination of
+"superman" in which Latin and Saxon are mixed against one of the main
+rules for the construction of words. Say "superhuman" and "overman,"
+but not "overhuman" or "superman." Emerson in a similar vein, when
+attempting to characterize that which is higher than the soul, invented
+the term "oversoul," and I can see no objection to the word "overman."
+
+The overman is the higher man, the superhuman man of the future, a
+higher, nobler, more powerful, a better being than the present man!
+What a splendid idea! Since evolution has been accepted as a truth, we
+may fairly trust that we all believe in the overman. All our reformers
+believe in the possibility of realizing a higher mankind. We Americans
+especially have faith in the coming of the kingdom of the overman, and
+our endeavor is concentrated in hastening his arrival. The question is
+only, What is the overman and how can we make this ideal of a higher
+development actual?
+
+Happy Nietzsche! You need not trouble yourself about consistency;
+you reject all ideals as superstitions, and then introduce an ideal
+of your own. "There you see," says an admirer of Nietzsche, "what a
+splendid principle it is not to own any allegiance to logic, or rule,
+or consistency. The best thought of Nietzsche's would never have been
+uttered if he had remained faithful to his own principles."
+
+However ingenious the idea of an overman may be, Nietzsche carries his
+propositions to such extremes that in spite of many flashes of truth
+they become in the end ridiculous and even absurd. His ideal is good,
+but he utterly fails to comprehend its nature and also the mode in
+which alone the overman can be realized.
+
+Nietzsche proclaims the coming of the "overman," but his overman is not
+superior by intellect, wisdom, or nobility of character, but by vigor,
+by strength, by an unbending desire for power and an unscrupulous
+determination. The blond barbarian of the north who tramples under
+foot the citizens of Greece and Rome, Napoleon I, and the Assyrian
+conqueror,--such are his heroes in whom this higher manhood formerly
+manifested itself.
+
+He saw in the history of human thought, the development of the notion
+of the "true world," which to him was a mere subjective phantom, a
+superstition; but a reaction must set in, and he prophesied that the
+doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying the
+torch to its temples, churches and institutions. Upon the ruins of
+the old world the real man, the overman, would rise and establish his
+own empire, an empire of unlimited power in which the herds, i. e.,
+the common people, would become subservient. The "herd animal" (so
+Nietzsche called any one foolish enough to recognize morality and
+truth) is born to obey. He is destined to be trodden under foot by the
+overman who is strong, and also unscrupulous enough to use the herds
+and govern them.
+
+Nietzsche was by no means under the illusion that the rule of the
+overman would be lasting, but he took comfort in the thought that
+though there would be periods in which the slaves would assert
+themselves and establish an era of the herd animals, the overman
+would nevertheless assert himself from time to time, and this was
+what he called his "doctrine of the eternal return"--the gospel of
+his philosophy. The highest summit of existence is reached in those
+phases of the denouement of human life when the overman has full
+control over the herds which are driven into the field, sheared
+and butchered for the sole benefit of him who knows the secret that
+this world has no moral significance beyond being a prey to his good
+pleasure. Nietzsche's hope is certainly not desirable for the mass
+of mankind, but even the fate of the overman himself would appear as
+little enviable a condition as that of the tyrant Dionysius under the
+sword of Damocles, or the Czar of Russia living in constant fear of the
+anarchistic bomb.
+
+Nietzsche, feeling that his thoughts were untimely, lived in the
+hope of "the coming of the great day" on which his views would find
+recognition. He looked upon the present as a rebellion against the
+spirit of strength and vigor; Christianity especially, and its doctrine
+of humility and love for the down-trodden was hateful to him. He speaks
+of it as a rebellion of slaves and places in the same category the
+democraticism that now characterizes the tendency of human development
+which he denounces as a pseudo-civilization.
+
+He insists that the overman is beyond good and evil; and yet it
+is obvious that though he claims to be the first philosopher who
+maintained the principle of unmorality, he was only the first
+philosopher boldly to proclaim it. His maxim (or lack of maxims) has
+been stealthily and secretly in use among all those classes whom he
+calls "overmen," great and small. The great overmen are conquerors
+and tyrants, who meteorlike appear and disappear, the small ones are
+commonly characterized as the criminal classes; but there is this
+difference between the two, that the former, at least so far as they
+have succeeded, recognize the absolute necessity of establishing law
+and order, and though they may temporarily have infringed upon the
+rules of morality themselves, they have finally come always to the
+conclusion that in order to maintain their position they must enforce
+upon others the usual rules of morality.
+
+Both Alexander and Cæsar were magnanimous at the right moment. They
+showed mercy to the vanquished, they exercised justice frequently
+against their own personal likes or dislikes, and were by no means men
+of impulse as Nietzsche would have his overman be. The same is true
+of Napoleon whose success is mainly due to making himself subservient
+to the needs of his age. As soon as he assumed the highest power in
+France, Napoleon replaced the frivolous tone at his court, to which his
+first wife Josephine had been accustomed, by an observance of so-called
+_bourgeois_ decency, and he enforced it against her inclinations and
+his own.
+
+Further, Napoleon served the interests of Germany more than is
+commonly acknowledged by sweeping out of existence the mediæval
+system of innumerable sovereigns, ecclesiastical as well as secular,
+who in conformity with the conservative tenor of the German people
+had irremediably ensconced themselves in their hereditary rights
+to the disadvantage of the people. Moreover, the _Code Napoleon_,
+the new law book, perhaps the most enduring work of Napoleon, was
+compiled by the jurists of the time, not because Napoleon cared for
+justice, but because he saw that the only way of establishing a stable
+government was by acknowledging rules of equity and by enforcing
+their recognition. It is true that Napoleon made his service in the
+cause of right and justice a pedestal for himself, but in contrast to
+Nietzsche's ideas we must notice that this recognition of principle
+was the only way of success to a man whose natural tendency was an
+unbounded egotism, an unlimited desire for power.
+
+In spite of his enthusiasm in announcing the advent of an overman,
+Nietzsche would be a poor adviser for a rising usurper. He would be
+able to cause a great upheaval, to bring about a Volcanic eruption,
+or to raise a thunderstorm wherever restlessness prevails, but his
+philosophy lacks the principle of using discretion, or advising
+self-discipline, of applying scientific methods--all of which is
+indispensable for success. He preaches boldness, not wisdom; and a hero
+after Nietzsche's heart would be like a navigator who courageously
+ventures into the storm but scorns a chart and leaves the mariners'
+compass behind; he would steer not as circumstances demand but
+according to his own sweet will, and would be wrecked before ever
+reaching the harbor of overmanhood.
+
+How much greater is the ideal of the overman as taught by the ancient
+philosopher of China! He, the _chiün jen_, the superior man, does not
+need power either political or financial to be great; he does not need
+a pedestal of oppressed slaves to stand on; he is great in himself,
+because he has a great compassionate heart and a broad comprehensive
+mind. He is simple, and, as we read in the _Tao Teh King_, "He wears
+wool [is not dressed in silk and purple] and wears his jewel concealed
+in his bosom."
+
+
+[1] _Lao-tse's Tao Teh King_, Chaps. 49 and 63.
+
+[2] For a collection of Greek quotations on the ethics of returning
+good for evil, see _The Open Court_, Vol. XV, 1901, pp. 9-12.
+
+
+
+
+ZARATHUSTRA
+
+
+To those who have not the time to wade through the twelve volumes of
+Nietzsche's works and yet wish to become acquainted with him at his
+best, we recommend a perusal of his book _Thus Spake Zarathustra_.
+It is original and interesting, full of striking passages, sometimes
+flashes with deep truths, then again is sterile and unprofitable, or
+even tedious, and sometimes absurd; but at any rate it presents the
+embodiment of Nietzsche's grandest thoughts in their most attractive
+and characteristic form. We need scarcely warn the reader that
+Zarathustra is only another name for Friedrich Nietzsche and has
+nothing to do with the historical person of that name, the great
+Iranian prophet, the founder of Mazdaism.
+
+Nietzsche's Zarathustra is a hermit philosopher who, weary of his
+wisdom, leaves his cave and comes to mingle with men, to teach them the
+overman. He meets a saint who loves God, and Zarathustra leaving him
+says: "Is it possible? This old saint in his forest has not yet heard
+that God is dead!"
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE IN THE PRIME OF LIFE.]
+
+Zarathustra preaches to a crowd in the market:
+
+ "I teach you the overman. Man is a something that shall be
+ surpassed. What have ye done to surpass him?
+
+ "All beings hitherto have created something beyond
+ themselves: and are ye going to be the ebb of this great
+ tide and rather revert to the animal than surpass man?
+
+ "What with man is the ape? A joke or a sore shame. Man
+ shall be the same for the overman, a joke or a sore shame.
+
+ "Behold, I teach you the overman!
+
+ "The overman is the significance of the earth. Your will
+ shall say; the overman shall be the significance of the
+ earth.
+
+ "I conjure you, my brethren, remain faithful to the
+ earth and do not believe those who speak unto you of
+ superterrestrial hopes! Poisoners they are whether they
+ know it or not.
+
+ "Verily, a muddy stream is man. One must be the ocean to
+ be able to receive a muddy stream without becoming unclean.
+
+ "Behold, I teach you the overman: he is that ocean, in him
+ your great contempt can sink.
+
+ "What is the greatest thing ye can experience? That is
+ the hour of great contempt. The hour in which not only
+ your happiness, but your reason and virtue as well, turn
+ loathsome.
+
+ "I love him who is of a free spirit and of a free heart:
+ thus his head is merely the intestine of his heart, but
+ his heart driveth him to destruction.
+
+ "I love all those who are like heavy drops falling one by
+ one from the dark cloud lowering over men: they announce
+ the coming of the lightning and perish in the announcing.
+
+ "Behold, I am an announcer of the lightning and a heavy
+ drop from the clouds; that lightning's name it the
+ overman."
+
+Zarathustra comes as an enemy of the good and the just. He says:
+
+ "Lo, the good and just! Whom do they hate most? Him
+ who breaketh to pieces their tables of values,--the
+ law-breaker, the criminal:--but he is the creator.
+
+ "The destroyer of morality I am called by the good and
+ just: my tale is immoral."
+
+[Illustration: COINS OF ANCIENT ELIS. Each is worth two drachmæ. One
+shows on the obverse a Zeus head with a laurel wreath, the other a
+winged Victory.]
+
+Nietzsche's favorite animals are the proud eagle and the cunning
+serpent, the former because it typifies aristocracy, the latter as
+the wisest among all creatures of the earth. It is a strange and
+exceptional combination, for these two animals are commonly represented
+as enemies. The eagle and serpent was the emblem of ancient Elis and
+is at present the coat-of-arms of Mexico, but in both cases the eagle
+is interpreted to be the conqueror of the serpent, not its friend,
+carrying it as his prey in his claws.
+
+Zarathustra's philosophy is a combination of the eagle's pride and the
+serpent's wisdom, which Nietzsche describes thus:
+
+ "Lo! an eagle swept through the air in wide circles,
+ a serpent hanging from it not like a prey, but like a
+ friend: coiling round its neck.
+
+ "They are mine animals,' said Zarathustra and rejoiced
+ heartily.
+
+ "The proudest animal under the sun, and the wisest animal
+ under the sun have set out to reconnoitre.
+
+ "They wish to learn whether Zarathustra still liveth.
+ Verily, do I still live.
+
+ "More dangerous than among animals I found it among men.
+ Dangerous ways are taken by Zarathustra. Let mine animals
+ lead me!"
+
+Here is a sentence worth quoting:
+
+ "Of all that is written I love only that which the writer
+ wrote with his blood. Write with blood, and thou wilt
+ learn that blood is spirit."
+
+In another chapter on the back-worlds-men Nietzsche writes:
+
+ "Once Zarathustra threw his spell beyond man, like all
+ back-worlds-men. Then the world seemed to me the work of a
+ suffering and tortured God.
+
+ "Alas! brethren, that God whom I created was man's work
+ and man's madness, like all Gods!
+
+ "Man he was, and but a poor piece of man and the I. From
+ mine own ashes and flame it came unto me, that ghost yea
+ verily! It did not come unto me from beyond!
+
+ "What happened, brethren? I overcame myself, the sufferer,
+ and carrying mine own ashes unto the mountains invented
+ for myself a brighter flame. And lo! the ghost departed
+ from me!
+
+ "Now to me, the convalescent, it would be suffering and
+ pain to believe in such ghosts: suffering it would be for
+ me and humiliation. Thus spake I unto the back-worlds-men."
+
+Nietzsche's self is not ideal but material; it is not thought, not even
+the will, but the body. The following passage sounds like Vedantism as
+interpreted by a materialist:
+
+ "He who is awake and knoweth saith: Body I am throughout,
+ and nothing besides; and soul is merely a word for a
+ something in body.
+
+ "Body is one great reason, a plurality with one sense, a
+ war and a peace, a flock and a herdsman.
+
+ "Also thy little reason, my brother, which thou callest
+ 'spirit'--it is a tool of thy body, a little tool and toy
+ of thy great reason.
+
+ "T, thou sayest and art proud of that word. But the
+ greater thing is--which thou wilt not believe--thy body
+ and its great reason. It doth not say T, but it is the
+ acting 'I.'
+
+ "The self ever listeneth and seeketh: it compareth,
+ subdueth, conquereth, destroyeth. It ruleth and is the
+ ruler of the 'I' as well.
+
+ "Behind thy thoughts and feelings, my brother, standeth a
+ mighty lord, an unknown wise man--whose name is self. In
+ thy body he dwelleth, thy body he is.
+
+ "There is more reason in thy body than in thy best wisdom.
+ And who can know why thy body needeth thy beat wisdom?
+
+ "Thy self laugheth at thine 'I' and its prancings: What
+ are these boundings and flights of thought? it saith
+ unto itself. A round-about way to my purpose. I am the
+ leading-string of the I and the suggester of its concepts.
+
+ "The creative self created for itself valuing and
+ despising, it created for itself lust and woe. The
+ creative body created for itself the spirit to be the hand
+ of its will."
+
+One of the best passages in Zarathustra's sermons is Nietzsche's
+command to love the overman, the man of the distant future:
+
+ "I tell you, your love of your neighbor is your bad love
+ of yourselves.
+
+ "Ye flee from yourselves unto your neighbor and would
+ fain make a virtue thereof; but I see through your
+ unselfishness.'
+
+ "The thou is older than the I; the thou hath been
+ proclaimed holy, but the I not yet; man thus thrusteth
+ himself upon his neighbor.
+
+ "Do I counsel you to love your neighbor? I rather counsel
+ you to flee from your neighbor and to love the most remote.
+
+ "Love unto the most remote future man is higher than love
+ unto your neighbor. And I consider love unto things and
+ ghosts to be higher than love unto men.
+
+ "This ghost which marcheth before thee, my brother, is
+ more beautiful than thou art. Why dost thou not give him
+ thy flesh and thy bones? Thou art afraid and fleest unto
+ thy neighbor.
+
+ "Unable to endure yourselves and not loving yourselves
+ enough, you seek to wheedle your neighbor into loving you
+ and thus to gild you with his error.
+
+ "My brethren, I counsel you not to love your neighbor; I
+ counsel you to love those who are the most remote."
+
+In perfect agreement with the ideal of the overman is Nietzsche's view
+of marriage, and verily it contains a very true and noble thought:
+
+ "Thou shalt build beyond thyself. But first thou must be
+ built thyself square in body and soul.
+
+ "Thou shalt not only propagate thyself but propagate
+ thyself upwards! Therefore the garden of marriage may help
+ thee!
+
+ "Thou shalt create a higher body, a prime motor, a wheel
+ of self-rolling,--thou shalt create a creator.
+
+ "Marriage: thus I call the will of two to create that one
+ which is more than they who created it I call marriage
+ reverence unto each other as unto those who will such a
+ will.
+
+ "Let this be the significance and the truth of thy
+ marriage. But that which the much-too-many call marriage,
+ those superfluous--alas, what call I that?
+
+ "Alas! that soul's poverty of two! Alas! that soul's dirt
+ of two! Alas! that miserable ease of two!
+
+ "Marriage they call that; and they say marriage is made in
+ heaven.
+
+ "Well, I like it not that heaven of the superfluous!"
+
+Nietzsche takes a Schopenhauerian view of womankind, excepting from the
+common condemnation his sister alone, to whom he once said, "You are
+not a woman, you are a friend." He says of woman:
+
+ "Too long a slave and a tyrant have been hidden in woman.
+ Therefore woman is not yet capable of friendship; she
+ knoweth love only."
+
+Nietzsche is not aware that the self changes and that it grows by the
+acquisition of truth. He treats the self as remaining the same, and
+truth as that which our will has made conceivable. Truth to him is a
+mere creature of the self. Here is Zarathustra's condemnation of man's
+search for truth:
+
+ "'Will unto truth' ye call, ye wisest men, what inspireth
+ you and maketh you ardent?
+
+ "'Will unto the conceivableness of all that is,'--thus I
+ call your will!
+
+ "All that is ye are going to make conceivable. For with
+ good mistrust ye doubt whether it is conceivable.
+
+ "But it hath to submit itself and bend before yourselves!
+ Thus your will willeth. Smooth it shall become and subject
+ unto spirit as its mirror and reflected image.
+
+ "That is your entire will, ye wisest men, as a will
+ unto power; even when ye speak of good and evil and of
+ valuations.
+
+ "Ye will create the world before which to kneel down. Thus
+ it is your last hope and drunkenness."
+
+Recognition of truth is regarded as submission:
+
+ "To be true,--few are able to be so! And he who is able
+ doth not want to be so. But least of all the good are able.
+
+ "Oh, these good people! _Good men never speak the truth_.
+ To be good in that way is a sickness for the mind.
+
+ "They yield, these good men, they submit themselves;
+ their heart saith what is said unto it, their foundation
+ obeyeth. But whoever obeyeth doth not hear _himself_!"
+
+Nietzsche despises science. He must have had sorry experiences with
+scientists who offered him the dry bones of scholarship as scientific
+truth.
+
+ "When I lay sleeping, a sheep ate at the ivy-wreath of my
+ head,--ate and said eating: 'Zarathustra is no longer a
+ scholar.'
+
+ "Said it and went off clumsily and proudly. So a child
+ told me.
+
+ "This is the truth: I have departed from the house of
+ scholars, and the door I have shut violently behind me.
+
+ "Too long sat my soul hungry at their table. Not, as they,
+ am I trained for perceiving as for cracking nuts.
+
+ "Freedom I love, and a breeze over a fresh soil. And I
+ would rather sleep on ox-skins then on their honors and
+ respectabilities.
+
+ "I am too hot and am burnt with mine own thoughts, so as
+ often to take my breath away. Then I must go into the open
+ air and away from all dusty rooms.
+
+ "Like millworks they work, and like corn-crushers. Let
+ folk only throw their grain into them! They know only too
+ well how to grind corn and make white dust out of it.
+
+ "They look well at each other's fingers and trust each
+ other not over-much. Ingenious in little stratagems, they
+ wait for those whose knowledge walketh on lame feet; like
+ spiders they wait.
+
+ "They also know how to play with false dice; and I found
+ them playing so eagerly that they perspired from it.
+
+ "We are strangers unto each other, and their virtues are
+ still more contrary unto my taste than their falsehoods
+ and false dice."
+
+Even if all scientists were puny sciolists, the ideal of science would
+remain, and if all the professed seekers for truth were faithless to
+and unworthy of their high calling, truth itself would not be abolished.
+
+So far as we can see, Nietzsche never became acquainted with any one of
+the exact sciences. He was a philologist who felt greatly dissatisfied
+with the loose methods of his colleagues, but he has not done much
+in his own specialty to attain to a greater exactness of results.
+His essays on Homer, on the Greek tragedy, and similar subjects,
+have apparently not received much recognition among philologists and
+historians.
+
+Having gathered a number of followers in his cave, one of them, called
+the conscientious man, said to the others:
+
+ "We seek different things, even up here, ye and I.
+ For I seek more security. Therefore have I come unto
+ Zarathustra. For he is the firmest tower and will--
+
+ "Fear--that is man's hereditary and fundamental feeling.
+ By fear everything is explained, original sin and original
+ virtue. Out of fear also hath grown my virtue, which is
+ called Science.
+
+ "Such long, old fears, at last become refined, spiritual,
+ intellectual, to-day, methinketh, it is called _Science_."
+
+This conception of science is refuted by Nietzsche in this fashion:
+
+ "Thus spake the conscientious one. But Zarathustra, who
+ had just returned into his cave and had heard the last
+ speech and guessed its sense, threw a handful of roses at
+ the conscientious one, laughing at his 'truths.' 'What?'
+ he called. 'What did I hear just now? Verily, methinketh,
+ thou art a fool, or I am one myself. And thy "truth" I
+ turn upside down with one blow, and that quickly.'
+
+ "'For fear is our exception. But courage and adventure,
+ and the joy of what is uncertain, what hath never been
+ dared--courage, methinketh, is the whole prehistoric
+ development of man.
+
+ "'From the wildest, most courageous beasts he hath, by his
+ envy and his preying, won all their virtues. Only thus
+ hath he become a man.
+
+ "'_This_ courage, at last become refined, spiritual,
+ intellectual, this human courage with an eagle's wings and
+ a serpent's wisdom--it, methinketh, is called to-day--'
+
+ "'_Zarathustra_!' cried all who sat together there, as
+ from one mouth making a great laughter withal."
+
+ In spite of identifying the self with the body, which is
+ mortal, Nietzsche longs for the immortal. He says:
+
+ "Oh! how could I fail to be eager for eternity, and for
+ the marriage-ring of rings, the ring of recurrence?
+
+ "Never yet have I found the woman by whom I should like to
+ have had children, unless it be this woman I love--for I
+ love thee, O Eternity!"
+
+[Illustration: NIETZSCHE'S HANDWRITING.]
+
+The best known of Nietzsche's poems forms the conclusion of Thus Spake
+Zarathustra, the most impressive work of Nietzsche, and is called
+by him "The Drunken Song." The thoughts are almost incoherent and
+it is difficult to say what is really meant by it. Nothing is more
+characteristic of Nietzsche's attitude and the vagueness of his fitful
+mode of thought. It has been illustrated by Hans Lindlof, in the same
+spirit in which Richard Strauss has written a musical composition on
+the theme of Nietzsche's _Thus Spake Zarathustra._
+
+[Illustration: NIETZSCHE'S DRUNKEN SONG--ILLUSTRATION BY LINDLOF.]
+
+"The Drunken Song" reads in our translation as follows:
+
+ "Man, listen, pray!
+ What the deep midnight has to say:
+ 'I lay asleep,
+ 'But woke from dreams deep and distraught
+ The world is deep,
+ 'E'en deeper than the day e'er thought.
+ 'Deep's the world's pain,--
+ 'Joy deeper still than heartache's burning.
+ 'Pain says, Life's vain!
+ 'But for eternity Joy's yearning.
+ 'For deep eternity Joy's yearning!'"
+
+Prof. William Benjamin Smith has translated this same song, and we
+think it will be interesting to our readers to compare his translation
+with our rendering. It reads as follows:
+
+ "Oh Man! Give ear!
+ What saith the midnight deep and drear?
+ 'From sleep, from sleep
+ 'I woke as from a dream profound.
+ 'The world is deep
+ 'And deeper than the day can sound.
+ 'Deep is its woe,--
+ 'Joy, deeper still than heart's distress.
+ 'Woe saith, Forego!
+ 'But Joy wills everlastingness,--
+ 'Wills deep, deep everlastingness.'"
+
+
+
+
+A PROTEST AGAINST HIMSELF
+
+
+Nietzsche is far from regarding his philosophy as timely. He was
+a proud and aristocratic character, spoiled from childhood by an
+unfaltering admiration on the part of both his mother and sister.
+It was unfortunate for him that his father had died before he could
+influence the early years of his son through wholesome discipline.
+Not enjoying a vigorous constitution Nietzsche was greatly impressed
+with the thought that a general decadence was overshadowing mankind.
+The truth was that his own bodily system was subject to many ailments
+which hampered his mental improvement. He was hungering for health, he
+envied the man of energy, he longed for strength and vigor, but all
+this was denied him, and so these very shortcomings of his own bodily
+strength--his own decadence--prompted in him a yearning for bodily
+health, for an unbounded exercise of energy, and for success. These
+were his dearest ideals, and his desire for power was his highest
+ambition. He saw in the history of human thought, the development of
+the notion of the "true world," which to him was a mere subjective
+phantom, a superstition; but a reaction would set in, and he prophesied
+that the doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying
+the torch to its temples, churches and institutions. Upon the ruins of
+the old world the real man, the overman, would rise and establish his
+own empire, an empire of unlimited power in which the herds, i. e., the
+common people would become subservient.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy forms a strange contrast to his own habits of
+life. A model of virtue, he made himself the advocate of vice, and
+gloried in it. He encouraged the robber[1] to rob, but he himself was
+honesty incarnate; he incited the people to rebel against authority of
+all kinds, but he himself was a "model child" in the nursery, a "model
+scholar" in school, and a "model soldier" while serving in the German
+army. His teachers as well as the officers of his regiment fail to find
+words enough to _praise Nietzsche's obedience_.[2]
+
+Nietzsche's professors declare that he distinguished himself "_durch
+pünktlichen Gehorsam_" (p. 3); his sister tells us that she and her
+brother were "_ungeheuer artig, wahre Musterkinder_" (p. 36). He makes
+a good soldier, and, in spite of his denunciations of posing, displays
+theatrical vanity in having himself photographed with drawn sword (the
+scabbard is missing). His martial mustache almost anticipates the
+tonsorial art of the imperial barber of the present Kaiser; and yet
+his spectacled eyes and good-natured features betray the peacefulness
+of his intentions. He plays the soldier only, and would have found
+difficulty in killing even a fly.
+
+Nietzsche disclaims ever having learned anything in any school, but
+there never was a more grateful German pupil in Germany. He composed
+fervid poems on his school--the well known institution Schulpforta,
+which on account of its severe discipline he praises, not in irony but
+seriously, as the "narrow gate."[3]
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS A VOLUNTEER IN THE GERMAN
+ARTILLERY, 1868.]
+
+Nietzsche denounces the German character, German institutions, and
+the German language, his mother-tongue, and is extremely unfair in
+his denunciations. He takes pleasure in the fact that _Deutsch_ (see
+Ulfila's Bible translation) originally means "pagans or heathen," and
+hopes that the dear German people will earn the honor of being called
+pagans. (_La Gaya Scienza_, p. 176.) A reaction against his patriotism
+set in immediately after the war, when he became acquainted with the
+brutality of some vulgar specimens of the victorious nation,--most of
+them non-combatants.[4]
+
+Nietzsche not only wrote in German and made the most involved
+constructions, but when the war broke out he asked his adopted country
+Switzerland, in which he had acquired citizenship after accepting
+a position as professor of classical languages at the University
+of Basel, for leave of absence to join the German army. In the
+Franco-Prussian war he might have had a chance to live up to his
+theories of struggle, but unfortunately the Swiss authorities did
+not allow him to join the army, and granted leave of absence only on
+condition that he would serve as a nurse. Such is the irony of fate.
+While Nietzsche stood up for a ruthless assertion of strength and for
+a suppression of sympathy which he denounced as a relic of the ethics
+of a negation of life, his own tender soul was so over-sensitive that
+his sister feels justified in tracing his disease back to the terrible
+impressions he received during the war.
+
+Nietzsche speaks of the king as "the dear father of the country."[5]
+If there was a flaw in Nietzsche's moral character, it was
+goody-goodyness; and his philosophy is a protest against the principles
+of his own nature. While boldly calling himself "the first unmoralist,"
+justifying even license itself and defending the coarsest lust,[6] his
+own life might have earned him the name of sissy, and he shrank in
+disgust from moral filth wherever he met with it in practical life.
+
+Nietzsche denounced pessimism, and yet his philosophy was, as he
+himself confesses, the last consequence of pessimism. Hegel declared
+(says Nietzsche in _Morgenröthe_, p. 8), "Contradiction moves the
+world, all things are self-contradictory"; "we (adds Nietzsche) carry
+pessimism even into logic." He proposes to vivisect morality; "but
+(adds he) you cannot vivisect a thing without killing it." Thus his
+"unmoralism" is simply an expression of his earnestness to investigate
+the moral problem, and he expresses the result in the terse sentence;
+_Moral ist Nothlüge_ (_Menschliches_, p. 63.)
+
+He preached struggle and hatred, and yet was so tender-hearted that
+in an hour of dejection he confessed to his sister with a sigh: "I
+was not at all made to hate or be an enemy."[7] The decadence which
+he imputes to mankind is a mere reflection of his own state of mind,
+and the strength which he praises is that quality in which he is most
+sorely lacking. Nietzsche himself had the least possible connection
+with active life. He was unmarried, had no children, nor any interests
+beyond his ambition, and having served as professor of the classical
+languages for some time at the small university of Basel, he was for
+the greater part of his life without a calling, without duties, without
+aims. He never ventured to put his own theories into practice. He did
+not even try to rise as a prophet of his own philosophy, and remained
+in isolation to the very end of his life.
+
+Nietzsche must have felt the contradiction between his theories and
+his habits of life, and it appears that he suffered under it more than
+can be estimated by an impartial reader of his books. He was like the
+bird in the cage who sings of liberty, or an apoplectic patient who
+dreams of deeds of valor as a knight in tournament or as a wrestler in
+the prize ring. Never was craving for power more closely united with
+impotence!
+
+It is characteristic of him that he said, "If there were a God, how
+should I endure not to be God?" and so his ambition impelled him at
+least to prophesy the coming of his ideal, i. e., robust health, full
+of bodily vigor and animal spirits, unchecked by any rule of morality,
+and an unstinted use of power.
+
+Nietzsche had an exaggerated conception of his vocation and he saw
+in himself the mouthpiece of that grandest and deepest truth, viz.,
+that man should dare to be himself without any regard of morality
+or consideration for his fellow beings. And here we have the tragic
+element of his life. Nietzsche, the atheist, deemed himself a God
+incarnate, and the despiser of the Crucified, suffered a martyr's fate
+in offering his own life to the cause of his hope. The earnestness
+with which he preached his wild and untenable doctrines appeals to
+us and renders his figure sympathetic, which otherwise would be
+grotesque. Think of a man who in his megalomania preaches a doctrine
+that justifies an irresponsible desire for power! Would he not be
+ridiculous in his impotence to actualize his dream? and on the other
+hand, if he were strong enough to practice what he preached, if like
+another Napoleon, he would make true his dreams of enslaving the world,
+would not mankind in self-defense soon rise in rebellion and treat
+him as a criminal, rendering him and his followers incapable of doing
+harm? But Nietzsche's personality, weak and impotent and powerless to
+appear as the overman and to subjugate the world to his will, suffered
+excruciating pains in his soul and tormented himself to death, which
+came to him in the form of decadence--a softening of the brain.
+
+Poor Nietzsche! what a bundle of contradictions! None of these
+contradictions are inexplicable. All of them are quite natural. They
+are the inevitable reactions against a prior enthusiasm, and he swings,
+according to the law of the pendulum, to the opposite extreme of his
+former position.
+
+How did Nietzsche develop into an unmoralist? Simply by way of
+reaction against the influence of Schopenhauer in combination with the
+traditional Christianity.
+
+Nietzsche passed through three periods in his development. He was
+first a follower of Schopenhauer and an admirer of Wagner, but he
+shattered his idols and became a convert to Auguste Comte's positivism.
+Schopenhauer was the master at whose feet Nietzsche sat; from him
+he learned boldness of thought and atheism, that this world is a
+world of misery and struggle. He accepted for a time Schopenhauer's
+pessimism but rebelled in his inmost soul against the ethical doctrine
+of the negation of the will. He retained Schopenhauer's contempt for
+previous philosophers (presumably he never tried to understand them)
+yet he resented the thought of a negation of life and replaced it by
+a most emphatic assertion. He thus recognized the reactionary spirit
+of Schopenhauer, whose system is a Christian metaphysics. Nietzsche
+denounces the ethics of a negation of the will as a disease, and since
+nature in the old system is regarded as the source of moral evil the
+idea dawns on him that he himself, trying to establish a philosophy of
+nature, is an immoralist. He now questions morality itself from the
+standpoint of an affirmation of the will, and at last goes so far as to
+speak of ideals as a symptom of shallowness.[8]
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS PROFESSOR AT BASLE.]
+
+Nietzsche argued that our conception of truth and our ideal world
+is but a phantasmagoria, and the picture of the universe in our
+consciousness a distorted image of real life. Our pleasures and pains,
+too, are both transient and subjective. Accordingly it would be a gross
+mistake for us to exaggerate their importance. What does it matter if
+we endure a little more or less pain, or of what use are the pleasures
+in which we might indulge? The realities of life consist in power, and
+in our dominion over the forces that dominate life. Knowledge and truth
+are of no use unless they become subservient to this realistic desire
+for power. They are mere means to an end which is the superiority of
+the overman, the representative of Nietzsche's philosophy by whom
+the mass of mankind are to be enslaved. This view constitutes his
+third period, in which he wrote those works that are peculiarly
+characteristic of his own philosophy.
+
+Nietzsche must not be taken too seriously. He was engaged with the
+deepest problems of life, and published his opinions as to their
+solution before he had actually attempted to investigate them. He
+criticised and attacked like the Irishman who hits a head wherever he
+sees it. Here are the first three rules of his philosophical warfare:
+
+"First: I attack only those causes which are victorious, sometimes I
+wait till they are victorious. Secondly: I attack them only when I
+would find no allies, when I stand isolated, when I compromise myself
+alone. Thirdly: I have never taken a step in public which did not
+compromise me. That is my criterion of right action."
+
+A man who adopts this strange criterion of right conduct must produce
+a strange philosophy. His soul is in an uproar against itself. Says
+Nietzsche in his _Götzendämmerung_, Aphorism 45:
+
+ "Almost every genius knows as one phase of his development
+ the 'Catilinary existence,' so-called, which is a feeling
+ of hatred, of vengeance, of revolution against everything
+ that is, which no longer needs to become ... Catiline--the
+ form of Cæsar's pre-existence."
+
+Nietzsche changed his views during his life-time, and the unmoralist
+Nietzsche originated in contradiction to his habitual moralism. He was
+a man of extremes. As soon as a new thought dawned on him, it took
+possession of his soul to the exclusion of his prior views, and his
+later self contradicts his former self.
+
+Nietzsche says:
+
+"The serpent that cannot slough must die. In the same way, the spirits
+which are prevented from changing their opinions cease to be spirits."
+
+So we must expect that if Nietzsche had been permitted to continue
+longer in health, he would have cast off the slough of his immoralism
+and the negative conceptions of his positivism. His _Zarathustra_ was
+the last work of his pen, but it is only the most classical expression
+of the fermentation of his soul, not the final purified result of his
+philosophy; it is not the solution of the problem that stirred his
+heart.
+
+While writing his _Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen_, Nietzsche
+characterizes his method of work thus:
+
+ "That I proceed with my outpourings considerably like a
+ dilettante and in an immature manner, I know very well,
+ but I am anxious first of all to get rid of the whole
+ polemico-negative material. I wish undisturbedly to sing
+ off, up and down and truly dastardly, the whole gamut
+ of my hostile feelings, 'that the vaults shall echo
+ back.'[9] Later on, i. e., within five years, I shall
+ discard all polemics and bethink myself of a really 'good
+ work,' But at present my breast is oppressed with disgust
+ and tribulation. I must expectorate, decorously and
+ indecorously, but radically and for good" [_endgültig_].
+
+The writings of Nietzsche will make the impression of a youthful
+immaturity upon any half-way serious reader. There is a hankering
+after originality which of necessity leads to aberrations and a
+sovereign contempt for the merits of the past. The world seems
+endangered, and yet any one who would seriously try to live up to
+Nietzsche's ideal must naturally sober down after a while, and we may
+apply to him what Mephistopheles says of the baccalaureus:
+
+ "Yet even from him we're not in special peril
+ He will, ere long, to other thoughts incline.
+ The must may foam absurdly in the barrel.
+ Nathless, it turns at last to wine."
+ _Tr. by Bayard Taylor._
+
+Nietzsche did not live long enough to experience a period of matured
+thought. He died before the fermentation of his mind had come to its
+normal close, and so his life will remain forever a great torso,
+without intrinsic worth, but suggestive and appealing only to the
+immature, including the "herd animal" who would like to be an overman.
+
+The very immaturity of Nietzsche's view becomes attractive to
+immature minds. He wrote while his thoughts were still in a state of
+fermentation, and he died before the wine of his soul was clarified.
+
+Nietzsche is an almost tragic figure that will live in art as a
+brooding thinker, a representative of the dissatisfied, a man of an
+insatiable love of life, with wild and unsteady looks, proud in his
+indomitable self-assertion, but broken in body and spirit. Such he was
+in his last disease when his mind was wrapt in the eternal night of
+dementia, the oppressive consciousness of which made him exclaim in
+lucid moments the pitiable complaint. "_Mutter, ich bin dumm_" As such
+he is represented in Klein's statue,[10] which in its pathetic posture
+is a psychological masterpiece.
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE--THE LATEST PORTRAIT, AFTER AN OIL
+PAINTING BY C. STOEVING.]
+
+Nietzsche's works are poetic effusions more than philosophical
+expositions and yet we would hesitate to call him a poet. His poems are
+not poetical in the usual sense. They lack poetry and yet they appeal
+not only to his admirers, but also to his critics and enemies. Most
+of them are artificial yet they are so characteristic that they are
+interesting specimens of a peculiar kind of taste. They strike us as
+ingenious, because they reflect his eccentricities.
+
+In a poem entitled "Ecce Homo"[11] he characterizes himself:
+
+ "Yea, I know from whence I came!
+ Never satiate, like the flame
+ Glow I and consume me too
+ Into light turns what I find,
+ Cinders do I leave behind,
+ Flame am I, 'tis surely true."
+
+
+
+[1] E.g.:
+
+ "Bitte nie! Lass dies Gewimmer!
+ Nimm, ich bitte dich, nimm immer!"
+
+
+[2] Compare _Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's_ by his sister, Elisabeth
+Förster-Nietzsche.
+
+[3] Leben, pp. 90-97.
+
+[4] (See, e. g., Leben, II., 1, pp. 108-111.) "Nach dem Kriege missfiel
+mir der Luxus, die Franzosenverachtung," etc., p. 108. "Ich halte
+das jetzige Preussen für eine der Cultur höchst gefährliche Macht."
+Nietzsche ridicules the German language as barbarous in sound (_La
+Gaya Scienza_, pp. 138-140), "wälderhaft, heiser, wie aus räucherigen
+Stuben und unhöflichen Gegenden." Unique is the origin of the standard
+style of modern high German from the bureaucratic slang, "kanzleimässig
+schreiben, das war etwas Vornehmes" (_La Gaya Scienza_, p. 138), and
+at present the German changes into an "Offizierdeutsch" (ibid., p.
+139). Nietzsche suspects, "the German depth," "die deutsche Tiefe," to
+be a mere mental dyspepsia (see "Jenseits von Gut und Böse," p. 211),
+saying, "Der Deutsche verdaut seine Ereignisse schlecht, or wird nie
+damit fertig; die deutsche Tiefe ist oft nur eine schwere, zögernde
+Verdauung." Nevertheless, he holds that the old-fashioned German depth
+is better than modern Prussian "Schneidigkeit und Berliner Witz und
+Sand." He prefers the company of the Swiss to that of his countrymen.
+(See also "Was den Deutschen abgeht," Vol. 8, p. 108.)
+
+[5] "Unser lieber König," "der Landesvater," etc. See _Leben_, I., p.
+24, and IL, 1, p. 248, "Unser lieber alter Kaiser Wilhelm," and "wir
+Preussen waren wirklich stolz." These expressions occur in Nietzsche's
+description of the Emperor's appearance at Bayreuth.
+
+[6] _E.g._, "Auch der schädlichste Mensch ist vielleicht immer noch
+der allernützlichste in Hinsicht auf Erhaltung der Art," etc. _La Gaya
+Scienza_, p. 3 ff.
+
+[7] "Ich bin so gar nicht zum Hassen und zum Feind sein gemacht!"
+
+[8] See, e. g., _Leben_, I., p. 135, where he speaks of a new
+"Freigeisterei," denouncing the "libres penseurs" as "unverbesserliche
+Flachköpfe und Hanswürste," adding, "Sie glauben allesammt noch an's
+'Ideal.'"
+
+[9] "Dass das Gewölbe wiederhallt,"--a quotation from Goethe's "Faust."
+
+[10] Reproduced as the frontispiece of this book.
+
+[11]
+
+"Ja, ich weiss woher ich stamme!
+Ungesättigt gleich der Flamme,
+Glühe und verzehr ich mich,
+licht wird alles was ich fasse,
+Kohle alles was ich lasse:
+Flamme bin ich sicherlich!"
+
+
+
+
+
+NIETZSCHE'S PREDECESSOR
+
+
+Friedrich Nietzsche, the author of _Thus Spake Zarathustra_ and the
+inventor of the new ideal called the "overman," is commonly regarded
+as the most extreme egotist, to whom morality is non-existent and who
+glories in the coming of the day in which a man of his liking--the
+overman--would live au grand jour. His philosophy is an individualism
+carried to its utmost extreme, sanctioning egotism, denouncing altruism
+and establishing the right of the strong to trample the weak under
+foot. It is little known, however, that he followed another thinker,
+Johann Caspar Schmidt, whose extreme individualism he adopted. But this
+forerunner who preached a philosophy of the sovereignty of self and an
+utter disregard of our neighbors' rights remained unheeded; he lived in
+obscurity, he died in poverty, and under the pseudonym "Max Stirner" he
+left behind a book entitled _Der Einzige und sein Eigentum_.
+
+The historian Lange briefly mentioned him in his _History of
+Materialism_, and the novelist John Henry Mackay followed up the
+reference which led to the discovery of this lonely comet on the
+philosophical sky.[1]
+
+The strangest thing about this remarkable book consists in the many
+coincidences with Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy. It is commonly
+deemed impossible that the famous spokesman of the overman should not
+have been thoroughly familiar with this failure in the philosophical
+book market; but while Stirner was forgotten the same ideas
+transplanted into the volumes of the author of _Thus Spake Zarathustra_
+found an echo first in Germany and soon afterwards all over the world.
+
+Stirner's book has been Englished by Stephen T. Byington with an
+introduction by J. L. Walker at the instigation of Benjamin R. Tucker,
+the representative of American peaceful anarchism, under the title
+_The Ego and His Own_. They have been helped by Mr. George Schumm and
+his wife, Mrs. Emma Heller Schümm. These five persons, all interested
+in this lonely and unique thinker, must have had much trouble in
+translating the German original and though the final rendering of the
+title is not inappropriate, the translator and his advisers agree
+that it falls short of the mark. For the accepted form Mr. B. R.
+Tucker is responsible, and he admits in the preface that it is not
+an exact equivalent of the German. _Der Einzige_ means "the unique
+man," a person of a definite individuality, but in the book itself our
+author modifies and enriches the meaning of the term. The unique man
+becomes the ego and an owner (_ein Eigener_), a man who is possessed of
+property, especially of his own being. He is a master of his own and
+he prides himself on his ownhood, as well as his ownership. As such he
+is unique, and the very term indicates that the thinker who proposes
+this view-point is an extreme individualist. In Stirner's opinion
+Christianity pursued the ideal of liberty from the world; and in this
+sense Christians speak of spiritual liberty. To become free from
+anything that oppresses us we must get rid of it, and so the Christian
+to rid himself of the world becomes a prey to the idea of a contempt
+of the world. Stirner declares that the future has a better lot in
+store for man. Man shall not merely be free, which is a purely negative
+quality, but he shall be his own master; he shall become an owner of
+his own personality and whatever else he may have to control. His
+end and aim is he himself. There is no moral duty above him. Stirner
+explains in the very first sentence of his book:
+
+ "What is not supposed to be my concern! First and
+ foremost, the good cause, then God's cause, the cause of
+ mankind, of truth, of freedom, of humanity, of justice;
+ further, the cause of my people, my prince, my fatherland;
+ finally, even the cause of mind, and a thousand other
+ causes. Only my cause is never to be my concern. 'Shame on
+ the egoist who thinks only of himself!"
+
+Stirner undertakes to refute this satirical explanation in his book
+on the unique man and his own, and a French critic according to
+Paul Lauterbach (p. 5) speaks of his book as _un livre qu'on quitte
+monarque_, "a book which one lays aside a king."
+
+Stirner is opposed to all traditional views. He is against church and
+state. He stands for the self-development of every individual, and
+insists that the highest duty of every one is to stand up for his
+ownhood.
+
+J. L. Walker in his Introduction contrasts Stirner with Nietzsche and
+gives the prize of superiority to the former, declaring him to be a
+genuine anarchist not less than Josiah Warren, the leader of the small
+band of New England anarchists. He says:
+
+ "In Stirner we have the philosophical foundation for
+ political liberty. His interest in the practical
+ development of egoism to the dissolution of the state
+ and the union of free men is clear and pronounced, and
+ harmonizes perfectly with the economic philosophy of
+ Josiah Warren. Allowing for difference of temperament
+ and language, there is a substantial agreement between
+ Stirner and Proudhon. Each would be free, and sees in
+ every increase of the number of free people and their
+ intelligence an auxiliary force against the oppressor.
+ But, on the other hand, will any one for a moment
+ seriously contend that Nietzsche and Proudhon march
+ together in general aim and tendency--that they have
+ anything in common except the daring to profane the shrine
+ and sepulcher of superstition?
+
+ "Nietzsche has been much spoken of as a disciple of
+ Stirner, and, owing to favorable cullings from Nietzsche's
+ writings, it has occurred that one of his books has been
+ supposed to contain more sense than it really does--so
+ long as one had read only the extracts.
+
+ "Nietzsche cites scores or hundreds of authors. Had he
+ read everything, and not read Stirner?
+
+ "But Nietzsche is as unlike Stirner as a tight-rope
+ performance is unlike an algebraic equation.
+
+ "Stirner loved liberty for himself, and loved to see any
+ and all men and women taking liberty, and he had no lust
+ of power. Democracy to him was sham liberty, egoism the
+ genuine liberty.
+
+ "Nietzsche, on the contrary, pours out his contempt
+ upon democracy because it is not aristocratic. He is
+ predatory to the point of demanding that those who must
+ succumb to feline rapacity shall be taught to submit with
+ resignation. When he speaks of 'anarchistic dogs' scouring
+ the streets of great civilized cities, it is true, the
+ context shows that he means the communists; but his
+ worship of Napoleon, his bathos of anxiety for the rise
+ of an aristocracy that shall rule Europe for thousands
+ of years, his idea of treating women in the Oriental
+ fashion, show that Nietzsche has struck out in a very
+ old path--doing the apotheosis of tyranny. We individual
+ egoistic anarchists, however, may say to die Nietzsche
+ school, so as not to be misunderstood: We do not ask of
+ the Napoleons to have pity, nor of the predatory barons
+ to do justice. They will find it convenient for their own
+ welfare to make terms with men who have learned of Stirner
+ what a man can be who worships nothing, bears allegiance
+ to nothing. To Nietzsche's rhodomontade of eagles in
+ baronial form, born to prey on industrial lambs, we rather
+ tauntingly oppose the ironical question: Where are your
+ claws? What if the 'eagles' are found to be plain barnyard
+ fowls on which more silly fowls have fastened steel spurs
+ to hack the victims, who, however, have the power to
+ disarm the sham 'eagles' between two suns?
+
+ "Stirner shows that men make their tyrants as they make
+ their gods, and his purpose is to unmake tyrants.
+
+ "Nietzsche dearly loves a tyrant.
+
+ "In style Stirner's work offers the greatest possible
+ contrast to the puerile, padded phraseology of Nietzsche's
+ _Zarathustra_ and its false imagery. Who ever imagined
+ such an unnatural conjuncture as an eagle 'toting' a
+ serpent in friendship? which performance is told of in
+ bare words, but nothing comes of it. In Stirner we are
+ treated to an enlivening and earnest discussion addressed
+ to serious minds, and every reader feels that the word
+ is to him, for his instruction and benefit, so far as he
+ has mental independence and courage to take it and use it
+ The startling intrepidity of this book is infused with
+ a whole-hearted love for all mankind, as evidenced by
+ the fact that the author shows not one iota of prejudice
+ or any idea of division of men into ranks. He would lay
+ aside government, but would establish any regulation
+ deemed convenient, and for this only _our_ convenience
+ is consulted. Thus there will be general liberty only
+ when the disposition toward tyranny is met by intelligent
+ opposition that will no longer submit to such a rule.
+ Beyond this the manly sympathy and philosophical bent of
+ Stirner are such that rulership appears by contrast a
+ vanity, an infatuation of perverted pride. We know not
+ whether we more admire our author or more love him.
+
+ "Stirner's attitude toward woman is not special. She is
+ an individual if she can be, not handicapped by anything
+ he says, feels, thinks, or plans. This was more fully
+ exemplified in his life than even in this book; but there
+ is not a line in the book to put or keep woman in an
+ inferior position to man, neither is there anything of
+ caste or aristocracy in the book."
+
+It is not our intention to enter here into a detailed criticism of
+Stirner's book. We will only point out that society will practically
+remain the same whether we consider social arrangements as voluntary
+contracts or as organically developed social institutions, or as
+imposed upon mankind by the divine world-order, or even if czars and
+kings claim to govern "by the grace of God." Whatever religious or
+natural sanction any government may claim to possess, the method of
+keeping order will be the same everywhere. Wrongs have been done and in
+the future may still be committed in the name of right, and injustice
+may again and again worst justice in the name of the law. On the other
+hand, however, we can notice a progress throughout the world of a slow
+but steady improvement of conditions. Any globe-trotter will find by
+experience that his personal safety, his rights and privileges are
+practically the same in all civilized countries, whether they are
+republics like Switzerland, France and the United States, or monarchies
+like Sweden, Germany and Italy. At the same time murders, robberies,
+thefts and other crimes are committed all over the world, even in
+the homes of those who pride themselves on being the most civilized
+nations. The world-conception lying behind our different social
+theories is the same wherever the same kind of civilization prevails.
+Where social evils prevail, dissatisfaction sets in which produces
+theories and reform programs, and when they remain unheeded, a climax
+is reached which leads to revolution.
+
+Stirner's book begins with a short exhortation headed with Goethe's
+line,
+
+ "My trust in nothingness is placed."
+
+He discusses the character of human life (Chap. I) and contrasts men
+of the old and the new eras (Chap. II). He finds that the ancients
+idealized bodily existence while Christianity incarnates the ideal.
+Greek artists transfigure actual life; in Christianity the divine takes
+abode in the world of flesh, God becomes incarnate in man. The Greeks
+tried to go beyond the world and Christianity came; Christian thinkers
+are pressed to go beyond God, and there they find spirit. They are
+led to a contempt of the world and will finally end in a contempt of
+spirit. But Stirner believes that the ideal and the real can never be
+reconciled, and we must free ourselves from the errors of the past. The
+truly free man is not the one who has become free, but the one who has
+come into his own, and this is the sovereign ego.
+
+As Achilles had his Homer so Stirner found his prophet in a German
+socialist of Scotch Highlander descent, John Henry Mackay. The reading
+public should know that Mackay belongs to the same type of restless
+reformers, and he soon became an egoistic anarchist, a disciple of
+Stirner. His admiration is but a natural consequence of conditions.
+Nevertheless Mackay's glorification of Stirner proves that in Stirner
+this onesided world-conception has found its classical, its most
+consistent and its philosophically most systematic presentation.
+Whatever we may have to criticize in anarchism, Stirner is a man of
+uncommon distinction, the leader of a party, and the standard-bearer
+of a cause distinguished by the extremeness of its propositions which
+from the principle of individualism are carried to their consistent
+ends.
+
+Mackay undertook the difficult task of unearthing the history of a man
+who, naturally modest and retired, had nowhere left deep impressions.
+No stone remained unturned and every clue that could reveal anything
+about his hero's life was followed up with unprecedented devotion. He
+published the results of his labors in a book entitled "Max Stirner,
+His Life and His Work."[2] The report is extremely touching not so
+much on account of the great significance of Stirner's work which to
+impartial readers appears exaggerated, but through the personal tragedy
+of a man who towers high above his surroundings and suffers the misery
+of poverty and failure.
+
+Mr. Mackay describes Stirner as of medium height, rather less so than
+more, well proportioned, slender, always dressed with care though
+without pretension, having the appearance of a teacher, and wearing
+silver-or steel-rimmed spectacles. His hair and beard were blonde
+with a tinge of red, his eyes blue and clear, but neither dreamy nor
+penetrating. His thin lips usually wore a sarcastic smile, which,
+however, had nothing of bitterness; his general appearance was
+sympathetic. No portrait of Stirner is in existence except one pencil
+sketch which was made from memory in 1892 by the London socialist,
+Friedrich Engels, but the criticism is made by those who knew Stirner
+that his features, especially his chin and the top of his head, were
+not so angular though nose and mouth are said to have been well
+portrayed, and Mackay claims that Stirner never wore a coat and collar
+of that type.
+
+[Illustration: PENCIL SKETCH OF MAX STIRNER. The only portrait in
+existence.]
+
+Stirner was of purely Frankish blood. His ancestors lived for centuries
+in or near Baireuth. His father, Albert Christian Heinrich Schmidt of
+Anspach, a maker of wind-instruments, died of consumption in 1807 at
+the age of 37, half a year after the birth of his son. His mother,
+Sophie Eleanora, née Reinlein of the city of Erlangen, six months later
+married H. F. L. Ballerstedt, the assistant in an apothecary shop in
+Helmstedt, and moved with him to Kulm on the Vistula. In 1818 the boy
+was sent back to his native city where his childless god-father and
+uncle, Johann Caspar Martin Sticht, and his wife took care of him.
+
+Young Johann Caspar passed through school with credit, and his
+schoolmates used to call him "Stirner" on account of his high forehead
+(_Stirn_) which was the most conspicuous feature of his face. This name
+clung to him throughout life. In fact his most intimate friends never
+called him by any other, his real name being almost forgotten through
+disuse and figuring only in official documents.
+
+Stirner attended the universities of Erlangen, Berlin and Königsberg,
+and finally passed his examination for admission as a teacher in
+gymnasial schools. His stepfather died in the summer of 1837 in Kulm at
+the age of 76. It is not known what became of his mother who had been
+mentally unsound for some time.
+
+Neither father nor stepfather had ever been successful, and if Stirner
+ever received any inheritance it must have been very small. On December
+12 of 1837 Stirner married Agnes Clara Kunigunde Burtz, the daughter of
+his landlady.
+
+Their married life was brief, the young wife dying in a premature
+child-birth on August 29th. We have no indication of an ardent love
+on either side. He who wrote with passionate fire and with so much
+insistence in his philosophy, was calm and peaceful, subdued and quiet
+to a fault in real life.
+
+Having been refused appointment in one of the public or royal schools
+Stirner accepted a position in a girls' school October 1, 1839.
+During the political fermentation which preceded the revolutionary
+year of 1848, he moved in the circle of those bold spirits who called
+themselves _Die Freien_ and met at Hippel's, among whom were Ludwig
+Buhl, Meyen, Friedrich Engels, Mussak, C. F. Köppen, the author of a
+work on Buddha, Dr. Arthur Müller and the brothers Bruno, Egbert and
+Edgar Bauer. It was probably among their associates that Stirner met
+Marie Dähnhardt of Gadebusch near Schwerin, Mecklenberg, the daughter
+of an apothecary, Helmuth Ludwig Dähnhardt. She was as different from
+Stirner as a dashing emancipated woman can be from a gentle meek man,
+but these contrasts were joined together in wedlock on October 21,
+1843. Their happiness did not last long, for Marie Dähnhardt left her
+husband at the end of three years.
+
+The marriage ceremony of this strange couple has been described in the
+newspapers and it is almost the only fact of Stirner's life that stands
+out boldly as a well-known incident. That these descriptions contain
+exaggerations and distortions is not improbable, but it cannot be
+denied that much contained in the reports must be true.
+
+On the morning of October 21, a clergyman of extremely liberal
+views, Rev. Marot, a member of the Consistory, was called to meet
+the witnesses of the ceremony at Stirner's room. Bruno Bauer, Buhl,
+probably also Julius Faucher, Assessor Kochius and a young English
+woman, a friend of the bride, were present. The bride was in her
+week-day dress. Mr. Marot asked for a Bible, but none could be found.
+According to one version the clergyman was obliged to request Herr Buhl
+to put on his coat and to have the cards removed. When the rings were
+to be exchanged the groom discovered that he had forgotten to procure
+them, and according to Wilhelm Jordan's recollection Bauer pulled out
+his knitted purse and took off the brass rings, offering them as a
+substitute during the ceremony. After the wedding a dinner with cold
+punch was served to which Mr. Marot was invited. But he refused, while
+the guests remained and the wedding carousal proceeded in its jolly
+course.
+
+In order to understand how this incident was possible we must know that
+in those pre-revolutionary years the times were out of joint and these
+heroes of the rebellion wished to show their disrespect and absolute
+indifference to a ceremony that to them had lost all its sanctity.
+
+Stirner's married life was very uneventful, except that he wrote the
+main book of his life and dedicated it to his wife after a year's
+marriage, with the words,
+
+ "Meinem Liebchen
+ Marie Dähnhardt."
+
+Obviously this form which ignores the fact that they were married,
+and uses a word of endearment which in this connection is rather
+trivial, must be regarded as characteristic of their relation and their
+life principles. Certain it is that she understood only the negative
+features of her husband's ideals and had no appreciation of the genius
+that stirred within him. Lauterbach, the editor of the Reclam edition
+of Stirner's book, comments ironically on this dedication with the
+Spanish motto _Da Dios almendras al que no tiene muelas_, "God gives
+almonds to those who have no teeth."
+
+Marie Dähnhardt was a graceful blonde woman rather under-sized, with
+heavy hair which surrounded her head in ringlets according to the
+fashion of the time. She was very striking and became a favorite of
+the round table of the _Freien_ who met at Hippel's. She smoked cigars
+freely and sometimes donned male attire, in order to accompany her
+husband and his friends on their nightly excursions. It appears that
+Stirner played the most passive part in these adventures, but true
+to his principle of individuality we have no knowledge that he ever
+criticized his wife.
+
+Marie Dähnhardt had lost her father early and was in possession of a
+small fortune of 10,000 thalers, possibly more. At any rate it was
+considered quite a sum in the circle of Stirner's friends, but it did
+not last long. Having written his book, Stirner gave up his position
+so as to prevent probable discharge and now they looked around for new
+resources. Though Stirner had studied political economy he was a most
+unpractical man; but seeing there was a dearth of milk-shops, he and
+his wife started into business. They made contracts with dairies but
+did not advertise their shop, and when the milk was delivered to them
+they had large quantities of milk on hand but no patrons, the result
+being a lamentable failure with debts.
+
+In the circle of his friends Stirner's business experience offered
+inexhaustible material for jokes, while at home it led rapidly to the
+dissolution of his marriage. Frau Schmidt complained in later years
+that her husband had wasted her property, while no complaints are known
+from him. One thing is sure that they separated. She went to England
+where she established herself as a teacher under the protection of Lady
+Bunsen, the wife of the Prussian ambassador.
+
+Frau Schmidt's later career is quite checkered. She was a well-known
+character in the colony of German exiles in London. One of her friends
+there was a Lieutenant Techow. When she was again in great distress she
+emigrated with other Germans, probably in 1852 or 1853, to Melbourne,
+Australia. Here she tasted the misery of life to the dregs. She made a
+living as a washerwoman and is reported to have married a day laborer.
+Their bitter experiences made her resort to religion for consolation,
+and in 1870 or 1871 she became a convert to the Catholic Church. At her
+sister's death she became her heir and so restored her good fortune to
+some extent. She returned to London where Mr. Mackay to his great joy
+discovered that she was still alive at the advanced age of eighty.
+What a valuable resource her reminiscences would be for his inquiries!
+But she refused to give any information and finally wrote him a letter
+which literally reads as follows: "Mary Smith _solemnly avowes_ that
+she will have _no more_ correspondence on the subject, and authorizes
+Mr. -------[3] to return all those writings to their owners. She is ill
+and prepares for death."
+
+The last period of Stirner's life, from the time when his wife left him
+to his death, is as obscure as his childhood days. He moved from place
+to place, and since his income was very irregular creditors pressed him
+hard. His lot was tolerable because of the simple habits of his life,
+his only luxury consisting in smoking a good cigar. In 1853 we find
+him at least twice in debtor's prison, first 21 days, from March 5 to
+26,1853, and then 36 days, from New Year's eve until February 4 of the
+next year. In the meantime (September 7) he moved to Philippstrasse 19.
+It was Stirner's last home. He stayed with the landlady of this place,
+a kind-hearted woman who treated all her boarders like a mother, until
+June 25, 1856, when he died rather suddenly as the result of the bite
+of a poisonous fly. A few of his friends, among them Bruno Bauer and
+Ludwig Buhl, attended his funeral; a second-class grave was procured
+for one thaler 10 groats, amounting approximately to one American
+dollar.
+
+During this period Stirner undertook several literary labors from which
+he possibly procured some remuneration. He translated the classical
+authors on political economy from the French and from the English,
+which appeared under the title _Die National-Oekonomen der Franzosen
+und Engländer_ (Leipsic, Otto Wigand, 1845-1847).
+
+He also wrote a history of the Reaction which he explained to be a mere
+counter-revolution. This _Geschichte der Reaction_ was planned as a
+much more comprehensive work, but the two volumes which appeared were
+only two parts of the second volume as originally intended.
+
+The work is full of quotations, partly from Auguste Comte, partly from
+Edmund Burke. None of these works represent anything typically original
+or of real significance in the history of human thought.
+
+His real contribution to the world's literature remains his work
+_Der Einzige und sein Eigentum_, the title of which is rendered in
+English _The Ego and His Own_, and this, strange to say, enthrones
+the individual man, the ego, every personality, as a sovereign power
+that should not be subject to morality, rules, obligations, or duties
+of any kind. The appeal is made so directly that it will convince all
+those unscientific and half-educated minds who after having surrendered
+their traditional faith find themselves without any authority in
+either religion or politics. God is to them a fable and the state an
+abstraction. Ideas and ideals, such as truth, goodness, beauty, are
+mere phrases. What then remains but the concrete bodily personality
+of every man of which every one is the ultimate standard of right and
+wrong?
+
+
+[1] See also R. Schellwien, _Max Stirner und Friedrich Nietzsche_; V.
+Basch, _L'individualisme anarchiste, Max Stirner_, 1904.
+
+[2] _Max Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk_. Berlin, 1898.
+
+[3] The name of the gentleman she mentions is replaced by a dash at his
+express wish in the facsimile of her letter reproduced in Mr. Mackay's
+book (p. 255).
+
+
+
+
+EGO-SOVEREIGNTY
+
+
+Strange that neither of these philosophers of individuality,
+Nietzsche or Stirner, ever took the trouble to investigate what an
+individual is! Stirner halts before this most momentous question
+of his world-conception, and so he overlooks that his ego, his own
+individuality, this supreme sovereign standing beyond right and wrong,
+the ultimate authority of everything, is a hazy, fluctuating, uncertain
+thing which differs from day to day and Anally disappears.
+
+The individuality of any man is the product of communal life. No one
+of us could exist as a rational personality were he not a member
+of a social group from which he has imbibed his ideas as well as
+his language. Every word is a product of his intercourse with his
+fellow-beings. His entire existence consists in his relations toward
+others and finds expression in his attitude toward social institutions.
+We may criticize existent institutions but we can never do without any.
+A denial of either their existence or their significance proves an
+utter lack of insight into the nature of personality.
+
+We insert here a few characteristic sentences of Stirner's views, and
+in order to be fair we follow the condensation of John Henry Mackay
+(pp. 135-192) than whom certainly we could find no more sympathetic or
+intelligent student of this individualistic philosophy.
+
+Here are Stirner's arguments:
+
+The ancients arrived at the conclusion that man was spirit. They
+created a world of spirit, and in this world of spirit Christianity
+begins. But what is spirit? Spirit has originated from nothing. It
+is its own creation and man makes it the center of the world. The
+injunction was given, Thou shalt not live to thyself but to thy spirit,
+to thy ideas. Spirit is the God, the ego and the spirit are in constant
+conflict. Spirit dwells beyond the earth. It is in vain to force the
+divine into service here for I am neither God nor man, neither the
+highest being nor my being. The spirit is like a ghost whom no one has
+seen, but of whom there are innumerable creditable witnesses, such as
+grandmother can give account of. The whole world that surrounds thee
+is filled with spooks of thy imagination. The holiness of truth which
+hallows thee is a strange element. It is not thine own and strangeness
+is a characteristic of holiness. The specter is truly only in thine
+ownhood..... Right is a spleen conferred by a spook; might, that is
+myself. I am the mighty one and the owner of might.... Right is the
+royal will of society. Every right which exists is created right. I am
+expected to honor it where I find it and subject myself to it. But what
+to me is the right of society, the right of all? What do I care for
+equality of right, for the struggle for right, for inalienable rights?
+Right becomes word in law. The dominant will is the preserver of the
+states. My own will shall upset them. Every state is a despotism.
+All right and all power is claimed to belong to the community of the
+people. I, however, shall not allow myself to be bound by it, for I
+recognize no duty even though the state may call crime in me what
+it considers right for itself. My relation to the state is not the
+relation of one ego to another ego. It is the relation of the sinner
+to the saint, but the saint is a mere fixed idea from which crimes
+originate (Mackay, pages 154-5).
+
+It will sometimes be difficult to translate Stirner's declarations in
+their true meaning; for instance: "I am the owner of mankind, I am
+mankind and shall do nothing for the benefit of another mankind. The
+property of mankind is mine. I do not respect the property of mankind.
+Poverty originates when I can not utilize my own self as I want to. It
+is the state which hinders men from entering into a direct relation
+with others. On the mercy of right my private property depends. Only
+within prescribed limits am I allowed to compete. Only the medium of
+exchange, the money which the state makes, am I allowed to use. The
+forms of the state may change, the purpose of the state always remains
+the same. My property, however, is what I empower myself to. Let
+violence decide, I expect all from my own.
+
+"You shall not lure me with love, nor catch me with the promise of
+communion of possessions, but the question of property will be solved
+only through a war of all against all, and what a slave will do as
+soon as he has broken his fetters we shall have to see. I know no law
+of love. As every one of my sentiments is my property, so also is
+love. I give it, I donate it, I squander it merely because it makes me
+happy. Earn it if you believe you have a right to it. The measure of
+my sentiments can not be prescribed to me, nor the aim of my feelings
+determined. We and the world have only one relation toward each other,
+that of usefulness. Yea, I use the world and men." (Pp. 156-157.)
+
+As to promises made and confidence solicited Stirner would not allow
+a limitation of freedom. He says: "In itself an oath is no more
+sacred than a lie is contemptible." Stirner opposes the idea of
+communism. "The community of man creates laws for society. Communism
+is a communion in equality." Says Stirner, "I prefer to depend on the
+egotism of men rather than on their compassion." He feels himself
+swelled into a temporary, transient, puny deity. No man expresses him
+rightly, no concept defines him; he, the ego, is perfect. Stirner
+concludes his book: "Owner I am of my own power and I am such only when
+I know myself as the only one. In the only one even the owner returns
+into his creative nothingness from which he was born. Any higher being
+above, be it God or man, detracts from the feeling of my uniqueness and
+it pales before the sun of this consciousness. If I place my trust in
+myself, the only one, it will stand upon a transient mortal creator of
+himself, who feeds upon himself, and I can say,
+
+ "_Ich hab mein Sach' auf nichts gestellt._"
+ "My trust in nothingness is placed.'"
+
+We call attention to Stirner's book, "The Only One and His Ownhood,"
+not because we are strongly impressed by the profundity of his thought
+but because we believe that here is a man who ought to be answered,
+whose world-conception deserves a careful analysis which finally would
+lead to a justification of society, the state and the ideals of right
+and truth.
+
+Society is not, as Stirner imagines, an artificial product of men who
+band themselves together in order to produce a state for the benefit of
+a clique. Society and state, as well as their foundation the family,
+are of a natural growth. All the several social institutions (kind of
+spiritual organisms) are as much organisms as are plants and animals.
+The co-operation of the state with religious, legal, civic and other
+institutions, are as much realities as are individuals, and any one who
+would undertake to struggle against them or treat them as nonentities
+will be implicated in innumerable struggles.
+
+Stirner is the philosopher of individualism. To him the individual,
+this complicated and fluctuant being, is a reality, indeed the only
+true reality, while other combinations, institutions and social
+units are deemed to be mere nonentities. If from this standpoint the
+individualism of Stirner were revised, the student would come to
+radically different conclusions, and these conclusions would show that
+not without good reasons has the individual developed as a by-product
+of society, and all the possessions, intellectual as well as material,
+which exist are held by individuals only through the assistance and
+with the permission of the whole society or its dominant factors.
+
+Both socialism and its opposite, individualism, which is ultimately
+the same as anarchism, are extremes that are based upon an erroneous
+interpretation of communal life. Socialists make society, and
+anarchists the individual their ultimate principle of human existence.
+Neither socialism nor anarchism are principles; both are factors, and
+both factors are needed for preserving the health of society as well
+as comprehending the nature of mankind. By neglecting either of these
+factors, we can only be led astray and arrive at wrong conclusions.
+
+Poor Stirner wanted to exalt the ego, the sovereign individual, not
+only to the exclusion of a transcendent God and of the state or any
+other power, divine or social, but even to the exclusion of his
+own ideals, be it truth or anything spiritual; and yet he himself
+sacrificed his life for a propaganda of the ego as a unique and
+sovereign being. He died in misery and the recognition of his labors
+has slowly, very slowly, followed after his death. Yea, even after his
+death a rival individualist, Friedrich Nietzsche, stole his thunder and
+reaped the fame which Stirner had earned. Certainly this noble-minded,
+modest, altruistic egotist was paid in his own coin.
+
+Did Stirner live up to his principle of ego sovereignty? In one sense
+he did; he recognized the right of every one to be himself, even when
+others infringed upon his own well-being. His wife fell out with him
+but he respected her sovereignty and justified her irregularities.
+Apparently he said to himself, "She has as much right to her own
+personality as I have to mine." But in another sense, so far as he
+himself was concerned, he did not. What became of his own rights, his
+ownhood, and the sweeping claim that the world was his property, that
+he was entitled to use or misuse the world and all mankind as he saw
+fit; that no other human being could expect recognition, nay not even
+on the basis of contracts, or promises, or for the sake of love, or
+humaneness and compassion? Did Stirner in his poverty ever act on the
+principle that he was the owner of the world, that there was no tie of
+morality binding on him, no principle which he had to respect? Nothing
+of the kind. He lived and died in peace with all the world, and the
+belief in the great ego sovereignty with its bold renunciation of all
+morality was a mere Platonic idea, a tame theory which had not the
+slightest influence upon his practical life.
+
+Men of Stirner's type do not fare well in a world where the ego has
+come into its own. They will be trampled under foot, they will be
+bruised and starved, and they will die by the wayside. No, men of
+Stirner's type had better live in the protective shadow of a state; the
+worst and most despotic state will be better than none, for no state
+means mob rule or the tyranny of the bulldozer, the ruffian, the brutal
+and unprincipled self-seeker.
+
+Here Friedrich Nietzsche comes in. Like Stirner, Nietzsche was a
+peaceful man; but unlike Stirner, Nietzsche had a hankering for power.
+Being pathological himself, without energy, without strength and
+without a healthy appetite and a good stomach, Nietzsche longed to play
+the part of a bulldozer among a herd of submissive human creatures whom
+he would control and command. This is Nietzsche's ideal, and he calls
+it the "overman." Here Nietzsche modified and added his own notion to
+Stirner's philosophy.
+
+Individualistic philosophies are therefore based on an obvious error
+by misunderstanding the nature of the individual man, by forgetting
+the reality of society and its continued significance for the
+individual life. A careful investigation of the nature of the state
+as well as of our personality would have taught Stirner that both
+the state and the individual are realities. The state and society
+exist as much as the individuals of which they are composed,[1] and
+no individual can ignore in his maxims of life the rules of conduct,
+the moral principles, or whatever you may call that something which
+constitutes the conditions of his existence, of his physical and
+social surroundings. The dignity and divinity of personality does not
+exclude the significance of super-personalities; indeed, the two, super
+personal presences with their moral obligations and concrete human
+persons with their rights and duties, co-operate with each other and
+produce thereby all the higher values of life.
+
+Stirner is onesided but, within the field of his onesided view,
+consistent. Nietzsche spurns consistency but accepts the field
+of notions created by Stirner, and, glorying in the same extreme
+individualism, proclaims the gospel of that individual who on the basis
+of Stirner's philosophy would make the best of a disorganized state
+of society, who by taking upon himself the functions of the state
+would utilize the advantages thus gained for the suppression of his
+fellow beings; and this kind of individual is dignified with the title
+"overman."
+
+Nietzsche has been blamed for appropriating Stirner's thoughts and
+twisting them out of shape from the self-assertion of every ego
+consciousness into the autocracy of the unprincipled man of power; but
+we must concede that the common rules of literary ethics can not apply
+to individualists who deny all and any moral authority. Why should
+Nietzsche give credit to the author from whom he drew his inspiration
+if neither acknowledges any rule which he feels obliged to observe?
+Nietzsche uses Stirner as Stirner declares that it is the good right of
+every ego to use his fellows, and Nietzsche shows us what the result
+would be--the rise of a political boss, a brute in human shape, the
+overman.
+
+Nietzsche is a poet, not a philosopher, not even a thinker, but as a
+poet he exercises a peculiar fascination upon many people who would
+never think of agreeing with him. Most admirers of Nietzsche belong to
+the class which Nietzsche calls the "herd animals," people who have no
+chance of ever asserting themselves, and become hungry for power as a
+sick man longs for health.
+
+Individualism and anarchism continue to denounce the state, when they
+ought to reform it and improve its institutions. In the meantime the
+world wags on. The state exists, society exists, and innumerable social
+institutions exist. The individual grows under the influence of other
+individuals, his ideas--mere spooks of his brain--yet the factors of
+his life, right or wrong, guide him and determine his fate. There are
+as rare exceptions a few lawless societies in the wild West where a few
+outlaws meet by chance, revolver in hand, but even among them the state
+of anarchy does not last long, for by habit and precedent certain rules
+are established, and wherever man meets man, wherever they offer and
+accept one another's help, they co-operate or compete, they join hands
+or fight, they make contracts, form alliances, and establish rules, the
+result of which is society, the state, with all the institutions of the
+state, the administration, the legislature, the judiciary, with all the
+intricate machinery that regulates the interrelations of man to man.
+
+The truth is that man develops into a rational, human and humane being
+through society by his intercourse with other men. Man is not really an
+individual in the sense of Stirner and Nietzsche, a being by himself
+and for himself, having no obligations to his fellows. Man is a part
+of the society through which he originated and to which he belongs and
+to overlook, to neglect and to ignore his relations to society, not to
+recognize definite obligations or rules of conduct which we formulate
+as duties is the grossest mistake philosophers can make, and this
+becomes obvious if we consider the nature of man as a social being as
+Aristotle has defined it.
+
+
+[1] See the author's _The Nature of the State_, 1894, and
+_Personality_, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+ANOTHER NIETZSCHE
+
+
+The assertion of selfhood and the hankering after originality make
+Nietzsche the exponent of the absolute uniqueness of everything
+particular, and he goes to the extreme of denying all kinds of
+universality--even that of formal laws (the so-called uniformities
+of nature), reason, and especially its application in the field of
+practical life, morality. His ideal is "Be thyself! Be unique! Be
+original!" Properly speaking, we should not use the term ideal when
+speaking of Nietzsche's maxims of life, for the conception of an
+ideal is based upon a recognition of some kind of universality, and
+Nietzsche actually sneers at any one having ideals. The adherents of
+Nietzsche speak of their master as "_der Einzige_," i. e., "the unique
+one," and yet (in spite of the truth that every thing particular is in
+its way unique) the uniformities of nature are so real and unfailing
+that Nietzsche is simply the representative of a type which according
+to the laws of history and mental evolution naturally and inevitably
+appears whenever the philosophy of nominalism reaches its climax. He
+would therefore not be unique even if he were the only one that aspires
+after a unique selfhood; but the fact is that there are a number of
+Nietzsches, he happening to be the best known of his type. Other
+advocates of selfhood, of course, will be different from Nietzsche in
+many unimportant details, but they will be alike in all points that
+are essential and characteristic. One of these Nietzsches is George
+Moore, a Britain who is scarcely familiar with the writings of his
+German double, but a few quotations from his book, _Confessions of a
+Young Man_, will show that he can utter thoughts which might have been
+written by Friedrich Nietzsche himself. George Moore says:
+
+ "I was not dissipated, but I loved the abnormal" (p. 18).
+
+ "I was a model young man indeed" (p. 20).
+
+ "I boasted of dissipations" (p. 19).
+
+ "I say again, let general principles be waived; it
+ will suffice for the interest of these pages if it be
+ understood that brain-instincts have always been, and
+ still are, the initial and the determining powers of my
+ being" (p. 47).
+
+George Moore, like Nietzsche, is one of Schopenhauer's disciples who
+has become sick of pessimism. He says:
+
+ "That odious pessimism! How sick I am of it" (p. 310).
+
+When George Moore speaks of God he thinks of him in the old-fashioned
+way as a big self, an individual and particular being. Hence he denies
+him. God is as dead as any pagan deity. George Moore says:
+
+ "To talk to us, the legitimate children of the nineteenth
+ century, of logical proofs of the existence of God,
+ strikes us in just the same light as the logical proof of
+ the existence of Jupiter Ammon" (p. 137).
+
+George Moore is coarse in comparison with Nietzsche. Nietzsche is no
+cynic; he is pure-hearted and noble by nature. Moore is voluptuous
+and vulgar. Both are avowed immoralists, and if the principle of an
+unrestrained egotism be right, George Moore is as good as Nietzsche,
+and any criminal given to the most abominable vices would not be worse
+than either.
+
+Nietzsche feels the decadence of the age and longs for health; but he
+attributes the cause of his own decadence to the Christian ideals of
+virtue, love, and sympathy with others. George Moore cherishes the same
+views; he says:
+
+ "We are now in a period of decadence, growing steadily
+ more and more acute" (p. 239).
+
+ "Respectability ... continues to exercise a meretricious
+ and enervating influence on literature" (p. 240).
+
+ "Pity, that most vile of all vile virtues, has never been
+ known to me. The great pagan world I love knew it not" (p.
+ 200).
+
+ "The philanthropist is the Nero of modern times" (p. 185).
+
+Both Nietzsche and Moore long for limitless freedom; but Moore seems
+more consistent, for he lacks the ideal of the overman and extends
+freedom to the sex relation, saying:
+
+ "Marriage--what an abomination! Love--yes, but not
+ marriage...freedom limitless" (p. 168-169).
+
+Moore loves art, but his view of art is cynical, and here too he is
+unlike Nietzsche; he says:
+
+ "Art is not nature. Art is nature digested. Art is a
+ sublime excrement" (p. 178).
+
+Both believe in the coming of a great social deluge. George Moore says:
+
+ "The French revolution will compare with the revolution
+ that is to come, that must come, that is inevitable, as a
+ puddle on the road-side compares with the sea. Men will
+ hang like pears on every lamp-post, in every great quarter
+ of London, there will be an electric guillotine that will
+ decapitate the rich like hogs in Chicago" (p. 343).
+
+Ideals are regarded as superstitions, and belief in ideas is deemed
+hypocritical. George Moore says:
+
+ "In my heart of hearts I think myself a cut above you,
+ because I do not believe in leaving the world better than
+ I found it; and you, exquisitely hypocritical reader,
+ think that you are a cut above me because you say you
+ would leave the world better than you found it" (p. 354).
+
+The deeds of a man, his thoughts and aspirations, which constitute his
+spiritual self, count for nothing; the body alone is supposed to be
+real, and thus after death a pig is deemed more useful than a Socrates.
+Continues Moore:
+
+ "The pig that is being slaughtered as I write this line
+ will leave the world better than it found it, but you will
+ leave only a putrid carcass fit for nothing but the grave"
+ (p. 353).
+
+Wrong is idealized:
+
+ "Injustice we worship; all that lifts us out of the
+ miseries of life is the sublime fruit of injustice.
+
+ "Man would not be man but for injustice" (p. 203).
+
+ "Again I say that all we deem sublime in the world's
+ history are acts of injustice; and it is certain that if
+ mankind does not relinquish at once and for ever, its
+ vain, mad, and frantic dream of justice, the world will
+ lapse into barbarism" (p. 205).
+
+George Moore gives a moment's thought to the ideal of "a new art, based
+upon science, in opposition to the art of the old world that was based
+on imagination, an art that should explain all things and embrace
+modern life in its entirety, in its endless ramifications, be it, as it
+were, a new creed in a new civilization ... that would continue to a
+more glorious and legitimate conclusion the work that the prophets have
+begun"; but he turns his back upon it. It would be after all a product
+of development; it would be the tyranny of a past age, and he says, "as
+well drink the dregs of yesterday's champagne" (p. 128).
+
+
+
+
+NIETZSCHE'S DISCIPLES
+
+
+It is said that barking dogs do not bite, and this being true, we must
+look upon Nietzsche's philosophy as a harmless display of words and a
+burning desire for power without making any attempt to practice what
+he preached. His philosophy, so far as he is concerned, is a purely
+Platonic love of an unattainable star whose brilliance dazzled the
+imagination of a childlike peaceful weakling. Suppose, however, for
+argument's sake, that Nietzsche had been a man of robust health, and
+that he had been born at the time of great disturbances, offering
+unlimited chances to an unscrupulous ambition, would he under these
+circumstances have led the life he preached, and in case he had done
+so, would he have boldly and unreservedly admitted his principles while
+carrying out his plans? Did ever Cæsar or Napoleon or any usurper,
+such as Richard III, who unscrupulously aspired for power, own that he
+would shrink from nothing to attain his aim? Such a straightforward
+policy for any schemer would be the surest way of missing his aim.
+Such men, on the contrary, have played hypocrites, and have pretended
+to cherish ideals generally approved by the large masses of the people
+whom Nietzsche calls the herd. So it is obvious that the philosophy
+of Nietzsche if it were ever practically applied, would have become a
+secret doctrine known only to the initiated few, while the broad masses
+would be misguided by some demonstrative show of moral principles that
+might be pleasing to the multitudes and yet at the same time conceal
+the real tendency of the overman to gain possession of his superior
+position.
+
+Nietzsche's influence upon professional philosophers is comparatively
+weak. Whenever mentioned by them, it is in criticism, and he is
+generally set aside as onesided, and perhaps justly, because he was
+truly no philosopher in the strict sense of the word. He was no
+reasoner, no logician, and we can not, properly speaking, look upon
+his philosophy as a system or even a systematized view of the world.
+Nietzsche made himself the exponent of a tendency, and as such he has
+his followers among large masses of those very people whom he despised
+as belonging to the herds. As Nietzsche idealized this very quality
+in which he was lacking, so his followers recruit themselves from the
+ranks of those people who more than all others would be opposed to the
+rule of the overman. His most ardent followers are among the nihilists
+of Russia, the socialists and anarchists of all civilized countries.
+The secret reason of attraction, perhaps unknown to themselves, seems
+to be Nietzsche's defense of the blind impulse and the privilege which
+he claims for the overman to be himself in spite of law and order and
+morality, and also his contempt for rules, religious, philosophical,
+ethical or even logical, that would restrict the great sovereign
+passion for power.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy has taken a firm hold of a number of souls
+who rebel against the social, the political, the religious, and even
+the scientific, conditions of our civilization. Nietzsche is the
+philosopher of protest, and, strange to say, while he himself is
+aristocratic in his instincts, he appeals most powerfully to the masses
+of the people.
+
+Nietzsche's disciples are not among the aristocrats, not among the
+scholars, not among the men of genius. His followers are among
+the people who believe in hatred and hail him as a prophet of the
+great deluge. His greatest admirers are anarchists, sometimes also
+socialists, and above all those geniuses who have failed to find
+recognition. Nietzsche's thought will prove veritable dynamite if it
+should happen to reach the masses of mankind, the disinherited, the
+uneducated, the proletariat, the Catilinary existences. Nietzsche's
+philosophy is an intoxicant to those whom he despised most; they see in
+him their liberator, and rejoice in his invectives.
+
+Invectives naturally appeal to those who are as unthinking as the
+brutes of the field, but feel the sufferings of existence as much as
+do the beasts of burden. They are impervious to argument, but being
+full of bitterness and envy they can be led most easily by any kind
+of denunciations of their betters. Nietzsche hated the masses, the
+crowd of the common people, the herd. He despised the lowly and had
+a contempt for the ideals of democracy. Nevertheless, his style of
+thought is such as to resemble the rant of the leaders of mobs, and
+it is quite probable that in the course of time he will become the
+philosopher of demagogues.
+
+A great number of Nietzsche's disciples share their master's
+eccentricities and especially his impetuosity. Having a contempt for
+philosophy as the work of the intellect, they move mainly in the field
+of political and social self-assertion; they are anarchists who believe
+that the overman is coming in labor troubles, strikes, and through a
+subversion of the authority of government in any form.
+
+The best known German expounders of Nietzsche's philosophy have been
+Rudolph Steiner and Alexander Tille.[1] Professor Henri Lichtenberger
+of the University of Nancy was his interpreter in France,[2] and the
+former editor of The Eagle and the Serpent, known under the pseudonym
+of Erwin McCall, in England. This periodical, which flourished for a
+short time only, characterized its own tendency as follows:
+
+"_The Eagle and the Serpent_ is a bi-monthly journal of egoistic
+philosophy and sociology which teaches that in social science altruism
+spells damnation and egoism spells salvation. In the war against their
+exploiters the exploited cannot hope to succeed till they act as a
+unit, an 'ego.'"
+
+A reader of _The Eagle and the Serpent_ humorously criticised the
+egoistic philosophy as follows:
+
+ "Dear Eagle and Serpent.--I am one of those unreasonable
+ persons who see no irreconcilable conflict between egoism
+ and altruism. The altruism of Tolstoy is the shortest
+ road to the egoism of Whitman. The unbounded love and
+ compassion of Jesus made him conscious of being the son
+ of God, and that he and the Father were one. Could egoism
+ go further than this? I believe that true egoism and true
+ altruism grow in precisely equal degree in the soul, and
+ that the alleged qualities which bear either name and
+ attempt to masquerade alone without their respective
+ make-weights are shams and counterfeits. The real
+ desideratum is balance, and that cannot be permanently
+ preserved on one leg. However, you skate surprisingly well
+ for the time being on one foot, and I have enjoyed the
+ first performance so well that I enclose 60 cents for a
+ season-ticket--ERNEST H. CROSBY. Rhinebeck, N. Y., U. S.
+ A."
+
+A German periodical _Der Eigene_, i. e., "he who is his own,"
+announced itself as "a journal for all and nobody," and sounded "the
+slogan of the egoists," by calling on them to "preserve their ownhood."
+
+Another anarchistic periodical that stood under the influence of
+Nietzsche appeared in Budapest,[3] Hungary, in German and Hungarian
+under the name Ohne Staat, ("Without Government") as "the organ of
+ideal anarchists," under the editorship of Karl Krausz.
+
+Perhaps the most worthy exponent of Nietzsche in England to-day is his
+translator Thomas Common. He does not consider himself an orthodox
+Nietzsche apostle but thinks that Nietzsche has given the world a very
+important revelation and that his new philosophy of history and his
+explanation of the role of Christianity are among the most wonderful
+discoveries since Darwin. At the same time Mr. Common pronounces
+Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal recurrence "very foolish" and believes
+his use of the terms "good" and "evil" so perverted that he was
+frequently confused about them and so misled superficial readers. Mr.
+Common published at regular intervals during the years 1903 to 1909
+ten numbers of a small periodical entitled variously _Notes for Good
+Europeans and The Good European Point of View_, and expects to resume
+its publication soon. Its motto is from Nietzsche, "In a word--and it
+shall be an honorable word--we are Good Europeans ... the heirs of
+thousands of years of the European spirit." Its purpose is expressed in
+its first number as follows: "Our general purpose is to spread the best
+and most important knowledge relating to human well-being among those
+who are worthy to receive it, with a view to reducing the knowledge
+to practice, after some degree of unanimity has been attained.... As
+Nietzsche's works, notwithstanding some limitations, exaggerations and
+minor errors, embody the foremost philosophical thought of the age, it
+will be one of our special objects to introduce these works to English
+readers."
+
+These numbers contain many bibliographical and other notes of interest
+to friends or critics of the Nietzsche propaganda. Mr. Common has
+published selections from Nietzsche's works under the title, _Nietzsche
+as Critic, Philosopher, Poet and Prophet_.[4]
+
+In America Nietzsche's philosophy is represented by a book of Ragnar
+Redbeard, entitled _Might is Right, the Survival of the Fittest._[5]
+The author characterizes his work as follows:
+
+[Illustration: BUST OF NIETZSCHE, BY KLINGER.]
+
+ "This book is a reasoned negation of the Ten
+ Commandments--the Golden Rule--the Sermon on the
+ Mount--Republican Principles--Christian Principles--and
+ Principles' in general.
+
+ "It proclaims upon scientific evolutionary grounds,
+ the unlimited absolutism of Might, and asserts that
+ cut-and-dried moral codes are crude and immoral
+ inventions, promotive of vice and vassalage."
+
+The author is a most ardent admirer of Nietzsche, as may be learned
+from his verses made after the pattern of Nietzsche's poetry. He sings:
+
+ "There is no 'law' in heaven or earth that man must needs
+ obey! Take what you can, and all you can; and take it
+ while you--may.
+
+ "Let not the Jew-born Christ ideal unnerve you in the
+ fight. You have no 'rights,' except the rights you win
+ by--might.
+
+ "There is no justice, right, nor wrong; no truth, no good,
+ no evil. There is no 'man's immortal soul,' no fiery,
+ fearsome Devil.
+
+ "There is no 'heaven of glory:' No!--no 'hell where
+ sinners roast' There is no 'God the Father,' No!--no Son,
+ no 'Holy Ghost.'
+
+ "This world is no Nirvâna where joy forever flows. It is a
+ grewsome butcher shop where dead 'lambs' hang in--rows.
+
+ "Man is the most ferocious of all the beasts of prey. He
+ rangeth round the mountains, to love, and feast, and--slay.
+
+ "He sails the stormy oceans, he gallops o'er the plains,
+ and sucks the very marrow-bones of captives held
+ in--chains.
+
+ "Death endeth all for every man,--for every 'son of
+ thunder'; then be a lion (not a 'lamb') and--don't be
+ trampled under."
+
+A valuable recent addition to the discussion of egoism is _The
+Philosophy of Egoism_ by James L. Walker, (Denver, 1905).
+
+We know of no American periodical which stands for Nietzsche's views,
+except, perhaps, _The Lion's Paw_ (Chicago) which claims to follow no
+one. In the last years of the nineteenth century Clarence L. Swartz
+published at Wellesley, Mass., an egoistic periodical called the _I_.
+This magazine is no longer in existence, but Mr. Swartz is very active
+in the International Intelligence Institute whose aims are universal
+language, universal nationality and universal peace. He still maintains
+the same philosophical view which he held as editor of the _I_, but his
+philosophical egoism has led him in far different paths from those of
+Nietzsche--into the paths of peace and not of struggle. He expresses
+his present conception as follows:
+
+"In the last analysis there is no right but might. Such is the common
+ordinary rule of every-day life, from which there is no escape, even
+were escape desirable. Any attempt to overthrow or circumvent or
+even dispute the exercise of this prerogative of the mighty is but to
+assert or oppose a greater might. Expediency always dictates how might
+should be exercised. Politically, I hold that the non-coercion of
+the non-invasive individual is the part of wisdom. The individual is
+supreme, and should be preserved as against society, for in no other
+way can evolution perform its perfect work."
+
+_The Free Comrade_ edited by J. Wm. Lloyd and Leonard Abbott, an
+avowedly socialistic and individualistic paper, originally under the
+sole editorship of Lloyd, stood for Nietzsche and his egoism, but can
+no longer be said to do so.
+
+
+[1] A. Tille, _Von Darwin bis Nietzsche_. R. Steiner, _Wahrheit und
+Wissenschaft_; _Die Philosophie der Freiheit; and F. Nietzsche, ein
+Kämpfer gegen seine Zeit_.
+
+We have already mentioned the biography of Nietzsche published by the
+philosopher's sister, Frau E. Förster-Nietzsche. A characterization,
+disavowed by Nietzsche's admirers, was written by Frau Lou Andreas
+Salome, under the title _F. Nietzsche in seinen Werken_. Other
+works kindred in spirit are Schellwien's _Der Geist der neueren
+Philosophie_, 1895, and Der Darwinismus, 1896; also Adolf Gerecke,
+_Die Aussichtslosigkeit des Moralismus_; Schmitt, _An der Grenzscheide
+zweier Weltalter_; Károly Krausz, _Nietzsche und seine Weltanschauung._
+
+[2] Henri Lichtenberger, _La Philosophie de Nietzsche_. Paris, Alcan,
+1898
+
+[3] We may mention incidentally that a contributor to _Ohne Staat_
+reproduced one of the Homilies of St Chrysostom, in which he harangues
+after the fashion of the early Christian preachers against wealth
+and power. The state's attorney, not versed in Christian patristic
+literature, seized the issue and placed the man who quoted the old
+Byzantine saint behind the prison bars. In the issue of Nov., 1898, Dr.
+Eugen Heinrich Schmitt mentions the case and says: "Thus we have an
+exact and historical proof that the liberty of speech and thought was
+incomparably greater in miserable, servile Byzantium than it is now in
+the much more miserable and more servile despotism of modern Europe."
+Does not Dr. Schmitt overlook the fact that in the days of Byzantine
+Christianity the saints were protected by the mob, which was much
+feared by the imperial government and was kept at bay only by a nominal
+recognition of its claims and beliefs?
+
+[4] Other recent English Nietzschean literature is as follows: Grace
+Neal Dolson, _The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche_, 1901; Oscar Levy,
+_The Revival of Aristocracy_, 1906; A. R. Orage, _Fried. Nietzsche,
+the Dionysion Spirit of the Age_, 1906; A. R. Orage, _Nietzsche in
+Outline and Alphorism_; Henry L. Mencken, _The Philosophy of Friedrich
+Nietzsche_; M. A. Mügge, _Friedrich Nietzsche: His Life and Work_;
+Anthony M. Ludovici, _Who Is to Be Master of the World_?
+
+[5] Published by Adolph Mueller, Chicago.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRINCIPLE OF VALUATION
+
+
+It may be interesting in this connection to mention the case of an
+American equivalent to Nietzsche's philosophy, which so far as I know
+has never yet seen publicity.
+
+Some time ago the writer of this little book became acquainted with a
+journalist who has worked out for his own satisfaction a new system of
+philosophy which he calls "Christian economics," the tendency of which
+would be to preach a kind of secret doctrine for the initiated few who
+would be clever enough to avail themselves of the good opportunity. He
+claims that the only thing worth while in life is the acquisition of
+power through the instrumentality of money. He who acquires millions
+can direct the destiny of mankind, and this tendency was first
+realized in the history of mankind in this Christian nation of ours,
+whose ostensible faith is Christianity. Our religion, he argues, is
+especially adapted to serve as a foil to protect and conceal the real
+issue, and so he calls his world-conception, "Christian economics."
+Emperors and kings are mere puppets who are exhibited to general
+inspection, and so are presidents and all the magistrates in office.
+Political government has to obey the behests of the financiers, and the
+most vital life of mankind resides in its economical conditions.
+
+The inventor of this new system of "Christian economics" would allow no
+other valuation except that of making money, on the sole ground that
+science, art and the pleasures of life are nothing to man unless he is
+in control of power which can be had only through the magic charm of
+the almighty dollar.
+
+I shall not comment upon his view, but shall leave it to the reader,
+and am here satisfied to point out its similarity to Nietzsche's
+philosophy. There is one point only which I shall submit here for
+criticism and that is the principle of valuation which is a weak point
+with both the originator of "Christian economics" and with Friedrich
+Nietzsche.
+
+Nietzsche proclaimed with great blast of trumpets, if we may so call
+his rhetorical display of phrases, that we need a revaluation of
+all values; but the best he could do was to establish a standard of
+valuation of his own. Every man in this world attains his mode of
+judging values according to his character, which is formed partly by
+inherited tendencies, partly by education and is modified by his own
+reflections and experiences. There are but few persons in this world
+who are clearsighted enough to formulate the ultimately guiding motive
+of their conduct. Most people follow their impulses blindly, but in
+all of them conduct forms a certain consistent system corresponding to
+their own idiosyncrasy. These impulses may sometimes be contradictory,
+yet upon the whole they will all agree, just as leaves and blossoms,
+roots and branches of the same tree will naturally be formed according
+to the secret plan that determines the growth of the whole organism.
+Those who work out a specially pronounced system of moral conduct do
+not always agree in practical life with their own moral principle,
+sometimes because they wilfully misrepresent it and more frequently
+because their maxims of morality are such as they themselves would
+like to be, while their conduct is such as they actually are. Such are
+the conditions of life and we will call that principle which as an
+ultimate _raison d'être_ determines the conduct of man, his standard of
+valuation. We will see at once that there is a different standard for
+each particular character.
+
+A scientist as a rule looks at the world through the spectacles of
+the scientist. His estimation of other people depends entirely on
+their accomplishments in his own line of science. Artist, musician, or
+sculptor does the same. To a professional painter scarcely any other
+people exist except his pupils, his master, his rivals and especially
+art patrons. The rest of the world is as indifferent as if it did not
+exist; it forms the background, an indiscriminate mass upon which all
+other values find their setting. All the professions and vocations,
+and all the workers along the various lines of life are alike in that
+every man has his own standard of valuation.
+
+A Napoleon or a Cæsar might have preached the doctrine that the
+sciences, the arts and other accomplishments are of no value if
+compared with the acquisition of power, but I feel sure that it would
+not have been much heeded by the mass of mankind, for no one would
+change his standard of value. A financier might publicly declare that
+the only way to judge people is according to the credit they have in
+banking, but it would scarcely change the standard of judgment in
+society. Beethoven knew as well as any other of his contemporaries the
+value of money and the significance of power, and yet he pursued his
+own calling, fascinated by his love for music. The same is true not
+only of every genius in all the different lines of art and science, but
+also of religious reformers and inventors of all classes. Tom, Dick and
+Harry in their hankering for pleasure and frivolous amusement are not
+less under the influence of the conditions under which they have been
+born than the great men whose names are written in the book of fame. It
+is difficult for every one of us to create for himself a new standard
+of valuation, for what Goethe says of man's destiny in a poem entitled
+_Daimon_, is true:[1]
+
+ "As on the day which has begotten thee
+ The sun and planets stood in constellation,
+ Thus growest and remainest thou to be,
+ For't is life's start lays down the regulation
+ How thou must be. Thyself thou canst not flee.
+ Such sibyl's is and prophet's proclamation.
+ For truly, neither force nor time dissolveth,
+ Organic form as, living, it evolveth."
+
+The original reads thus:
+
+ "Wie an dem Tag der dich der Welt verliehen,
+ Die Sonne stand zum Grusse der Planeten,
+ Bist alsobald and fort und fort gediehen
+ Nach dem Gesetz, wonach du angetreten.
+ So musst du sein, dir kannst du nicht entfliehen,
+ So sagten schon Sibyllen, so Propheten;
+ Und keine Zeit und keine Macht zerstückelt,
+ Geprägte Form, die lebend sich entwickelt."
+
+Our attitude in life depends upon our character, and the basic elements
+of character are the product of the circumstances that gave birth to
+our being. Our character enters unconsciously or consciously in the
+formulation of our standards of value which we will find to be the
+most significant factors of our destinies. Now the question arises, Is
+the standard of value which we set up, each one of us according to his
+character, purely subjective or is there any objective criterion of its
+worth?
+
+We must understand that to a great extent our choice of a profession
+and other preferences in our occupations or valuations are naturally
+different according to conditions; some men are fit to be musicians,
+or scholars, or traders, or farmers, or manufacturers, and others
+are not. The same profession would not be appropriate for every one.
+But there is a field common to all occupations which deals with man's
+attitude toward his fellow beings and, in fact, toward the whole
+universe in general. This it is with which we are mainly concerned
+in our discussion of a criterion of value because it is the field
+occupied by religion, philosophy and ethics. Tradition has sanctioned
+definite views on this very subject which have been codified in certain
+rules of conduct different in many details in different countries
+according to religion, national and climatic conditions, and the type
+of civilization; yet, after all, they agree in most remarkable and
+surprising coincidences in all essential points.
+
+Nietzsche, the most radical of radicals, sets up a standard of
+valuation of his own, placing it in the acquisition of power, and he
+claims that it alone is entitled to serve as a measure for judging
+worth because, says he, it alone deals with that which is real in the
+world; yet at the same time he disdains to recognize the existence of
+any objective criterion of the several standards of value. If he were
+consistent, he ought to give the palm of highest morality to the man
+who succeeds best in trampling under foot his fellowmen, and he does
+so by calling him the overman, but he does not call him moral. To be
+sure this would be a novel conception of morality and would sanction
+what is commonly execrated as one of the most devilish forms of
+immorality. Nietzsche takes morality in its accepted meaning, and so
+in contradiction to himself denies its justification in general.
+
+Considering that every one carries a standard of valuation in himself
+we propose the question, "Is there no objective criterion of valuation,
+or are all valuations purely subjective?" This question means whether
+the constitution of the objective world in which we all live, is such
+as to favor a definite mode of action determined by some definite
+criterion of value.
+
+We answer that subjective standards of valuation may be regarded as
+endorsed through experience by the course of events in the world
+whenever they meet with success, and thus subjective judgments become
+objectively justified. They are seen to be in agreement with the
+natural course of the world, and those who adhere to them will in the
+long run be rewarded by survival. Such an endorsement of standards can
+be determined by experience and has resulted in what is commonly called
+"morality." We may here take for granted that the moral valuation is a
+product of many millenniums and has been established, not only in one
+country and by one religion, nor in one kind of human society, but in
+perfect independence in many different countries, under the most varied
+conditions, and finds expression in the symbolism of the most divergent
+creeds. The beliefs of a Christian, of a Buddhist, of a Mussulman in
+Turkey, or a Taoist in the Celestial Empire, of a Parsee in Bombay, or
+Japanese Shintoist, are all as unlike as they can be, but all agree
+as to the excellency of moral behavior which has been formulated in
+these different religions in sayings incorporated in their literature.
+We find very little if anything contradictory in their standards of
+valuation, and if there is any objective norm for the subjective
+valuation of man it is this moral consensus in which all the great
+religious prophets and reformers of mankind agree.
+
+A transvaluation of all values is certainly needed, and it is taking
+place now. In fact it has always taken place whenever and wherever
+mankind grows or progresses or changes the current world-conception.
+
+The old morality has been negative and we feel the need of positive
+ideals. The old doctrines are formulated in rules which forbid certain
+actions and our commandments begin with the words "Thou shalt not...."
+Those folk are esteemed moral who obey these restrictions or at least
+do not ostensibly infringe upon them, and this practically limits
+morality to mediocrity. How often have great and noble people been
+condemned as immoral because some irregularities would not fit the
+Procrustean bed of customary respectability! Think only of George Eliot
+who had to suffer under the prejudices of Sunday-School morality! We
+need a higher standard in which we may set aside the paltry views
+of the old morality without losing our ideals. We need a positive
+norm, the norm which counts in the actual world and in history, where
+man is measured not by his sins of omission but by his positive
+accomplishments; not by the errors he has or has not committed, but by
+his deeds, by the work with which he has benefited mankind. Therefore
+the new morality does not waste much time with the several injunctions,
+"Thou shalt not ..." but impresses the growing generation with the
+demand: "Do something useful; show thyself efficient; be superior to
+others in nobility, in generosity, in energy; excel in one way or
+another"; and in this sense a transvaluation of the old values is being
+worked out at present.
+
+We will grant that Nietzsche's demand of a transvaluation of all values
+may mean to criticize the narrow doctrines and views of the religion
+of his surroundings. But as he expresses himself and according to his
+philosophical principle he goes so far as to condemn not only the husk
+of all these religious movements, but also their spirit. In spite of
+his subjectivism which denies the existence of anything ideal, and
+goes so far as to deny the right even of truth to have an objective
+value, Nietzsche establishes a new objectivism, and proposes his own,
+and indeed very crude, subjective standard of valuation as the only
+objective one worthy of consideration for the transvaluation of all
+values.
+
+Nietzsche's real world, or rather what he deemed to be the real world,
+is a dream, the dream of a sick man, to whom nothing possesses value
+save the boons denied him, physical health, strength, power to dare and
+to do.
+
+The transvaluation of all values which Nietzsche so confidently
+prophesied, will not take place, at least not in the sense that
+Nietzsche believed. There is no reason to doubt that in the future
+as in the past history will follow the old conservative line of
+development in which different people according to their different
+characters will adopt their own subjective standards, and nature, by a
+survival of the fittest will select those for preservation who are most
+in agreement with this real world in which we live, a world from which
+Nietzsche, according to the sickly condition of his constitution, was
+separated by a wide gulf. He thirsted for it in vain, and we believe
+that he had a wrong conception of the wealth of its possibilities and
+viewpoints.
+
+
+[1] So far as I know, these lines have never been translated before.
+
+
+
+
+INDIVIDUALISM
+
+
+Nietzsche is unquestionably a bold thinker, a Faust-like questioner,
+and a Titan among philosophers. He is a man who understands that the
+problem of all problems is the question, Is there an authority higher
+than myself? And having discarded belief in God, he finds no authority
+except pretensions.
+
+Nietzsche apparently is only familiar with the sanctions of morality
+and the criterion of good and evil as they are represented in the
+institutions and thoughts established by history, and seeing how
+frequently they serve as tools in the hands of the crafty for the
+oppression of the unsophisticated masses of the people, he discards
+them as utterly worthless. Hence his truly magnificent wrath, his
+disgust, his contempt for underling man, for the masses, this muddy
+stream of present mankind.
+
+If Nietzsche had dug deeper, he would have found that there is after
+all a deep significance in moral ideals, for there is an authority
+above the self by which the worth of the self must be measured. Truth
+is not a mere creature of the self, but is the comprehension of the
+immutable eternal laws of being which constitute the norm of existence.
+Our self, "that creating, willing, valuing 'I,' which (according to
+Nietzsche) is the measure and value of all things," is itself measured
+by that eternal norm of being, the existence of which Nietzsche does
+not recognize.
+
+What is true of Nietzsche applies in all fundamental questions also to
+his predecessor, Max Stirner. It applies to individualism in any form
+if carried to its consistent and most extreme consequences.
+
+Nietzsche is blind to the truth that there is a norm above the self,
+and that this norm is the source of duty and the object of religion;
+he therefore denies the very existence of duty, of conviction, of
+moral principles, of sympathy with the suffering, of authority in any
+shape, and yet he dares to condemn man in the shape of the present
+generation of mankind. What right has he, then, to judge the sovereign
+self of to-day and to announce the coming of another self in the
+overman? From the principles of his philosophical anarchism he has no
+right to denounce mankind of to-day, as an underling; for if there is
+no objective standard of worth, there is no sense in distinguishing
+between the underman of to-day and the overman of a nobler future.
+
+On this point, however, Nietzsche deviates from his predecessor
+Stirner. The latter is more consistent as an individualist, but the
+former appeals strongly to the egoism of the individual.
+
+Nietzsche is a Titan and he is truly Titanic in his rebellion against
+the smallness of everything that means to be an incarnation of what is
+great and noble and holy. But he does not protest against the smallness
+of the representatives of truth and right, he protests against truth
+and right themselves, and thus he is not merely Titanic, but a genuine
+Titan,--attempting to take the heavens by storm, a monster, not
+superhuman but inhuman in proportions, in sentiment and in spirit.
+Being ingenious, he is, in his way, a genius, but he is not evenly
+balanced; he is eccentric and, not recognizing the authority of reason
+and science, makes eccentricity his maxim. Thus his grandeur becomes
+grotesque.
+
+The spirit of negation, the mischief-monger Mephistopheles, says of
+Faust with reference to his despair of reason and science:
+
+ "Reason and Knowledge only thou despise,
+ The highest strength in man that lies!...
+ And I shall have thee fast and sure."
+ --_Tr. by Bayard Taylor._
+
+Being giant-like, the Titan Nietzsche has a sense only for things
+of large dimensions. He fails to understand the significance of the
+subtler relations of existence. He is clumsy like Gargantua; he is
+coarse in his reasoning; he is narrow in his comprehension; his horizon
+is limited. He sees only the massive effects of the great dynamical
+changes brought about by brute force; he is blind to the quiet and slow
+but more powerful workings of spiritual forces. The molecular forces
+that are invisible to the eye transform the world more thoroughly than
+hurricanes and thunderstorms; yet the strongest powers are the moral
+laws, the curses of wrong-doing and oppression, and the blessings of
+truthfulness, of justice, of good-will. Nietzsche sees them not; he
+ignores them. He measures the worth of the overman solely by his brute
+force.
+
+If Nietzsche were right, the overman of the future who is going to take
+possession of the earth will not be nobler and better, wiser and juster
+than the present man, but more gory, more tiger-like, more relentless,
+more brutal.
+
+Nietzsche has a truly noble longing for the advent of the overman, but
+he throws down the ladder on which man has been climbing up, and thus
+losing his foothold, he falls down to the place whence mankind started
+several millenniums ago.
+
+We enjoy the rockets of Nietzsche's genius, we understand his
+Faust-like disappointment as to the unavailableness of science such as
+he knew it; we sympathize with the honesty with which he offered his
+thoughts to the world; we recognize the flashes of truth which occur
+in his sentences, uttered in the tone of a prophet; but we cannot help
+condemning his philosophy as unsound in its basis, his errors being the
+result of an immaturity of comprehension.
+
+Nietzsche has touched upon the problem of problems, but he has not
+solved it. He weighs the souls of his fellowmen and finds them
+wanting; but his own soul is not less deficient. His philosophy is well
+worth studying, but it is not a good guide through life. It is great
+only as being the gravest error, boldly, conscientiously, and seriously
+carried to its utmost extremes and preached as the latest word of
+wisdom.
+
+It has been customary that man should justify himself before the
+tribunal of morality, but Nietzsche summons morality itself before
+his tribunal. Morality justifies herself by calling on truth, but
+the testimony of truth is ruled out, for truth--objective truth--is
+denounced as a superstition of the dark ages. Nietzsche knows truth
+only as a contemptible method of puny spirits to make existence
+conceivable--a hopeless task! Nietzsche therefore finds morality guilty
+as a usurper and a tyrant, and he exhorts all _esprits forts_ to shake
+off the yoke.
+
+We grant that the self should not be the slave of morality; it should
+not feel the "ought" as a command; it should identify itself with it
+and make its requirements the object of its own free will. Good-will on
+earth will render the law redundant; but when you wipe out the ideal
+of good-will itself together with its foundation, which is truth and
+the recognition of truth, the struggle for existence will reappear
+in its primitive fierceness, and mankind will return to the age of
+savagery. Let the _esprits forts of Nietzsche's_ type try to realize
+their master's ideal, and their attempts will soon lead to their own
+perdition.
+
+We read in _Der arme Teufel_,[1] a weekly whose radical editor would
+not have been prevented by conventional reasons from joining the new
+fad of Nietzscheanism, the following satirical comment on some modern
+poet of original selfhood:
+
+ "'I am against matrimony because I am a poet Wife,
+ children, family life,--well, well! they may be good
+ enough for the man possessed of the herding instinct But
+ I object to trivialities in my own life. I want something
+ stimulating, sensation, poetry 1 A wife would be prosaic
+ to me, simply on account of being my wife; and children
+ who would call me papa would be disgusting. Poetry I need!
+ Poetry!' Thus he spoke to a friend, and when the latter
+ was gone continued his letter reproaching a waitress for
+ again asking for money and at the same time reflecting
+ upon the purity of her relations to the bartender who, she
+ pretended, was her cousin only...."
+
+If marriage relations were abolished to-day, would not in the course of
+time some new form of marriage be established? Those who are too proud
+to utilize the experiences of past generations, will have to repeat
+them for themselves and must wade through their follies, sins, errors,
+and suffer all the consequences and undergo their penalties.
+
+Nietzsche tries to produce a Cæsar by teaching his followers to imitate
+the vices of a Catiline; he would raise gods by begetting Titans; he
+endeavors to give a nobler and better standard to mankind, not by
+lifting the people higher and rendering them more efficient, but by
+depriving them of all wisdom and making them more pretentious.
+
+If the ethics of Nietzsche were accepted to-day as authoritative, and
+if people at large acted accordingly, the world would be benefited
+in one respect, viz., hypocrisy would cease, and the selfishness of
+mankind would manifest itself in all its nude bestiality. Passions
+would have full sway; lust, robbery, jealousy, murder, and revenge
+would increase, and Death in all forms of wild outbursts would reap
+a richer harvest than he ever did in the days of prehistoric savage
+life. The result would be a pruning on a grand scale, and after a few
+bloody decades those only would survive who either by nature or by
+hypocritical self-control deemed it best to keep the lower passions
+and the too prurient instincts of their selfhood in proper check, and
+then the old-fashioned rules of morality, which Nietzsche declared
+antiquated, would be given a new trial in the new order of things. They
+might receive a different sanction, but they would find recognition.
+
+Nietzsche forgets that the present social order originated from that
+general free-for-all fight which he commends, and that if we begin at
+the start we should naturally run through the same or a similar course
+of development to the same or very similar conditions. Will it not be
+better to go on improving than to revert to the primitive state of
+savagery?
+
+There are superstitious notions about the nature of the sanction of
+ethics, but for that reason the moral ideals of mankind remain as
+firmly established as ever.
+
+The self is not the standard of measurement for good and evil, right
+and wrong, as Nietzsche claims in agreement with the sophists of old;
+the self is only the condition to which and under which it applies.
+There is no good and evil in the purely physical world, there is no
+suffering, no pain, no anguish--all this originates with the rise of
+organized animal life which is endowed with sentiency; and further
+there is no goodness and badness, no morality until the animal rises to
+the height of comprehending the nature of evil. The tiger is in himself
+neither good nor bad, but he makes himself a cause of suffering to
+others; and thus he is by them regarded as bad. Goodness and badness
+are relative, but they are not for that reason unreal.
+
+It is true that there is no "ought" in the world as an "ought"; nor are
+there metaphysical ghosts of divine commandments revealing themselves.
+But man learns the lesson how to avoid evil and reducing it to brief
+rules which are easily remembered, he calls them "commandments."
+
+Buddha was aware that there is no metaphysical ghost of an "ought," and
+being the first positivist before positivism was ever thought of, his
+decalogue is officially called "avoiding the ten evils," not "the ten
+commandments," the latter being a popular term of later origin.
+
+Granting that there is no metaphysical "ought" in the world and that
+it finds application only in the domain of animate life through the
+presence of the self or rather of many selves, we fail to see that
+the self is the creator of the norm of good and evil. Granting also
+that there are degrees of comprehending the nature of evil and that
+different applications naturally result under different conditions,
+we cannot for that reason argue that ethics are purely subjective and
+that there is no objective norm that underlies the moral evolution of
+mankind and comes out in the progress of civilization more and more in
+its purity.
+
+Nietzsche is like a schoolboy whose teacher is an inefficient pedant.
+He rebels against his authority and having had but poor instruction
+proclaims that the multiplication table is a mere superstition with
+which the old man tries to enslave the free minds of his scholars. Are
+there not different solutions possible of the same example and has not
+every one to regard his own solution as the right solution? How can the
+teacher claim that he is the standard of truth? Why, the very attempt
+at setting up a standard of any kind is tyranny and the recognition of
+it is a self-imposed slavery. There is no rightness save the rightness
+that can be maintained in a general hand-to-hand contest, for it is
+ultimately the fist that decides all controversies.
+
+Nietzsche calls himself an atheist; he denies the existence of God
+in any form, and thus carries atheism to an extreme where it breaks
+down in self-contradiction. We understand by God (whether personal,
+impersonal, or superpersonal) that something which determines the
+course of life; the factors that shape the world, including ourselves;
+the law to which we must adjust our conduct. Nietzsche enthrones the
+self in the place of God, but for all practical purposes his God is
+blunt success and survival of the fittest in the crude sense of the
+term; for according to his philosophy the self must heed survival in
+the struggle for existence alone, and that, therefore, is his God.
+
+Nietzsche's God is power, i. e., overwhelming force, which allows the
+wolf to eat the lamb. He ignores the power of the still small voice,
+the effectiveness of law in the world which makes it possible that man,
+the over-brute, is not the most ferocious, the most muscular, or the
+strongest animal. Nietzsche regards the cosmic order, in accommodation
+to which ethical codes have been invented, as a mere superstition. Thus
+it will come to pass that Nietzsche's type of the overman, should it
+really make its appearance on earth, would be wiped out as surely as
+the lion, the king of the beasts, the proud pseudo-overbrute of the
+animals, will be exterminated in course of time. The lion has a chance
+for survival only behind the bars of the zoölogical gardens or when he
+allows himself to be tamed by man, that weakling among the brutes whose
+power has been built up by a comprehension of the sway of the invisible
+laws of life, physical, mental and moral.
+
+What is the secret of Nietzsche's success? While other men of greater
+consistency, among them his predecessor Stirner, failed, he attained
+an unparalleled fame, and his philosophy exercised an extraordinary
+influence upon large classes of people not only in Germany but also
+abroad, in Russia, in France, in the United States and even in
+conservative England.
+
+We must concede that Nietzsche possesses a poetic power of oratory; he
+appeals to sentiment; he is not much of a thinker, not a philosopher,
+but a leader and a prophet, and as such he stands for the most extreme
+egoism. Nietzsche attempts to establish the absolute sovereignty of
+the individual and grants a most irresponsible freedom to the man who
+dares; and this principle of doing away with moral maxims has made him
+popular.
+
+The truth is that our moral sanctions are no longer accepted. People
+still believe in God, in the authority of church and state, but their
+belief is no longer a living faith. Whatever they may think of God, the
+old God, the God of traditional dogmatism, is gone. He is no longer a
+living power in the hearts of the people; and so, large masses rejoice
+to have the proclamation frankly stated that God is dead, that they
+need no longer fear hell, and that the chains of their slavery are
+broken.
+
+Nietzsche is consistent in his denial of the traditional sanctions. He
+understands not only that there are no gods, that the powers of nature
+as personifications do not exist, but that the laws of nature are mere
+abstract generalizations. We need no longer believe in Hephaestos, the
+god of fire; there is no use to bow the knee to him or do homage to his
+divinity. Nor is there any truth in the existence of a phlogiston, a
+metaphysical fire-stuff, or any fire essence; there are only scattered
+facts of burning. Everything else is mere superstition. Generalizations
+exist only in our imagination, and so we should get rid of the idea
+that there is any truth at all. Science is a pretender which is apt to
+make cowards of us. That man is wise who is not hampered by scruple or
+doubt of any kind and simply follows the bent of his mind, subjecting
+to himself every thing he finds, including his fellow human beings.
+
+This bold and reckless proposition appeals to egoism and it seems so
+true that abstract formulas and generalizations are empty. Weight
+exists; there is gravity; there are particular phenomena of masses in
+mutual attraction, but gravitation, the law of these actual happenings,
+is a mere formula, an imaginary quantity, a mere thought about which we
+need not worry. The law of gravitation is a human invention and has no
+real existence in the realm of facts.
+
+And the same would of course be true about the interrelations among
+human beings in their social intercourse, too. All the several maxims
+of conduct, which are called moral and constitute our code of ethics,
+are built upon generalizations. There is no sanction for them. The gods
+who were formerly supposed to be responsible for the several domains
+of facts have died long ago. The Jewish deity called Elohim, the
+Lord, entered upon the inheritance of the ancient gods, but he too had
+to die. Thereupon his place was taken by metaphysical essences, pale
+ghosts of a mysterious nature, but they too died and so the last shadow
+of anything authoritative is gone. We are _en face du rien_; therefore
+let us boldly enjoy our freedom. Let us be ourselves; let our passions
+take their course; let us do wrong if it suits us; let us live without
+consideration of anything, just as we please. There is no sanction of
+moral maxims to be respected; there is no authority of conduct; there
+is no judge; there is no evil, no wrong.
+
+This seems pretty plausible to our modern generation raised in the
+traditions of nominalism, but would we really ignore the law of
+gravitation because the Newtonian formula is a man-made abstraction
+and a mere generalization? Yet, if we do not give heed to it we fall,
+and the same is true of any law of nature. Our sciences are mental
+constructions; they are mind-made, and so far as they are built out
+of the material of our experience they tally with facts and we call
+them true. Our social interrelations, too, constitute conditions
+observable in experience; they can be formulated in Jaws and applied
+to practical life; they can be expressed in maxims of conduct and have
+received various sanctions successively, the sanctions of religion,
+the sanctions of metaphysics, the sanctions of science. In the age of
+savagery the sanction of moral maxims was offered us in a mythological
+dress. With the rise of monotheism our moral sanction came to us as
+the command of a supreme ruler of the universe; in the age of abstract
+philosophy as metaphysical principles, and in the age of science these
+should be recognized as lessons of experience.
+
+
+[1] May 13, 1809. Detroit, 949 Gratiot Ave.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+We will gladly grant that personifications are mythological fictions,
+that metaphysical entities are products of a philosophical imagination
+and that the scientific formulas are abstract generalizations, but
+we deny that generalizations are unmeaning; they signify some actual
+features of reality. Abstract ideas are not purely fictitious; they
+denote significant qualities or occurrences, and the relations in life,
+the forms of things, combinations, or in general the non-material
+configurations, co-operations, combinations and functions are the
+most important and the most significant aspects of existence. Indeed,
+matter and energy are only the clumsy conditions of being; they denote
+actuality and reality, but all things, all events, all facts are such
+as they are on account of their form--on account of that feature which
+is non-material and non-energetic.
+
+According to Nietzsche the whole history of mankind, especially the
+development of reason, knowledge and science, is a great blunder,
+and the dawn of day begins with a radical break with the past. We see
+in the evolution of life a gradual ascent with a slow but constant
+approximation to truth. In the history of religion we see in the dawn
+of civilization the beginning of a comprehension of truth. Mythology
+is not error pure and simple, not a conglomeration of superstitions;
+it is plainly characterized by a groping after great truths, and myths
+become foolish inventions only when the poetic character of the tale
+is misunderstood. So dogmas become dangerous errors when the symbol is
+taken literally, when the letter is exalted and the spirit forgotten.
+It is true that science has taken away the charm of many religious
+beliefs, but the great lesson of the doctrine of evolution is to show
+us that our onward march in the humanization of man does not stop, that
+the periods of mythology and dogma are stages in the progress of our
+recognition of the truth. There is no need to fear a collapse of past
+results but we may boldly build higher. We must search for truth and
+we shall have a clearer vision of it, and the future will bring new
+glories, new fulfilments of old hopes and grander realization of our
+fondest dreams.
+
+Verily, the overman will come, although he is not quite so near at
+hand as one might wish. He is at hand though, but he will not come, as
+Nietzsche announces him, in the storm of a catastrophe. The fire and
+the storm may precede the realization of a higher humanity; but the
+higher humanity will be found neither in the fire nor in the storm.
+The overman will be born of the present man, not by a contempt for the
+shortcomings of the present man, but by a recognition of the essential
+features of man's manhood, by developing and purifying the truly human
+by making man conform to the eternal norm of rationality, humaneness
+and rightness of conduct.
+
+What we need first is the standard of the higher man; and on
+this account we must purify our notions of the norm of truth and
+righteousness,--of God. Let us find first the over-God, and the overman
+will develop naturally. The belief in an individual God-being is giving
+way to the recognition of a superpersonal God, the norm of scientific
+truth, the standard of right and wrong, the standard of worth by
+which we measure the value of our own being; and the kingdom of the
+genuine overman will be established by the spread of the scientific
+comprehension of the world, in matters physical, social, intellectual,
+moral, and religious.
+
+
+
+
+ INDEX
+
+
+ Abbott, Leonard
+ Alexander
+ All-too-human
+ Ambition; for originality; for power
+ Anacreon
+ Anarchism
+ Anarchists
+ _Ancilla Voluntatis_, intellect
+ Animals superior to man
+ Aphorisms, no preference for
+ Aristocracy
+ Aristocratic tastes
+ Aristotle
+ Art; nature of
+ Assassins
+ Atheism
+ Authority of conduct
+ Average, the
+
+ Back-worlds-men
+ Ballerstedt, H. F. L.
+ Basch, V.
+ Bauer, Bruno
+ Beethoven
+ Bergson, Henri
+ Blood is spirit
+ Body, self is
+ Bruno, Edgar and Egbert
+ Buddha's Decalogue; gospel of love
+ Buhl, Ludwig
+ Burke, Edmund
+ Burtz, Agnes Clara Kunigunde
+ Byington, Stephen T.
+
+ Cæsar
+ Carus, _Foundation of Mathematics_;
+ _Lao-Tse's Too Teh King_;
+ _The Nature of the State,_; _Personality_
+ Catilinary existences
+ Catilene
+ Chaos, universe a
+ Change of views
+ _Chiün jen_
+ Christ, overman the
+ Christ's gospel of love
+ Christian economics
+ Christianity a rebellion of slaves
+ Classical taste
+ Commandments, negative
+ Common, Thomas; _Nietzsche as Critic, Philosopher, Poet
+ and Prophet_
+ Comte, Auguste
+ Confucius
+ Consistency, N. scorns; of N.; of Stirner
+ Contempt for, democratic ideals; man; past;
+ philosophy; the all-too-human; truth; world
+ Contradictions natural
+ Contrast between life and theory
+ Cosmic order
+ Cosmos, universe not a
+ Criterion of right action
+ Crosby, Ernest H.
+ Cynic, N. not a
+ Dähnhardt, Helmuth Ludwig
+ Dähnhardt, Marie
+ Damocles, sword of
+ Darwin
+ Decadence
+ Democracy
+ _Der arme Teufel_
+ _Der Eigene_
+ _Der Wanderer und sein Schatten_
+ Deussen, Paul; his opinion of N.
+ _Die Freien_
+ Dionysiac enthusiasm
+ Doctrine of the eternal return
+ Dolson, Grace Neal
+ Dream, N.'s real world a
+ Dreamers catching at shadows
+ _Drunken Song_
+ Duty not recognized
+
+ Eagle and Serpent
+ _Eagle and the Serpent, The_
+ Eliot, George
+ Elis, Coins of
+ Emerson
+ Emotional attitude
+ Engels, Friedrich
+ Error, a liberator; mythology not
+ Eternal return
+ Eternity, love for
+ Ethics, denial of; denounced; identical;
+ no sanction for; of the strong; result of N.'s;
+ test of philosophy. See also s. v. "Morality."
+ Evolution, defined; lesson of
+ Examination at school
+ Expediency
+
+ Faucher, Julius
+ Faust
+ Fichte, _Duties of the scholar_
+ Financier, standard of
+ _Flatus vocis_
+ Form, importance of
+ Forms in themselves
+ Förster-Nietzsche, Elisabeth, _Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's_
+ _Free Comrade_
+ Freedom fettered by convictions; limitless love of; spiritual
+
+ Garden of marriage
+ Gargantua
+ _Genealogy of morals_
+ Generalizations, abstract; not unmeaning
+ Genius not abnormal
+ Geometry
+ Gerecke, Adolph
+ German things, dislike of
+ Germany a philosophical storm center
+ God, a poet's lie; authority of conduct; created by man;
+ denial of; idea of; is dead; norm of truth; self in place of
+ Goethe; imitation of; quotations from,
+ Good, and evil; and evil, overman beyond; men never true
+ _Good Europeans, notes for_
+ Good will
+ Goody-goodyness
+ _Götzendämmerung_
+ Gravitation a human invention
+
+ Hammer and anvil
+ Health, N.'s desire for
+ Hegel
+ Herd animal (_Heerdentier_)
+ Hero, overman the
+ Hippel's
+ Homer
+ Hypocrisy, Plato accused of
+ Hypocrisy to obtain power
+
+ _I_
+ Ideal, Christianity incarnates
+ Ideals are superstitions; needed, positive; significance in
+ Identical ethics; world-conceptions
+ Idols of the past shattered
+ Imaginary, scientist's world
+ Immature minds, influence on
+ Immaturity; appeal of; of N.
+ Immortality, desire for
+ Individual defined
+ Individualism; aristocratic; error of extreme; ineffective
+ Influence of N.
+ Insanity
+ Instinct higher than reason; N. the philosopher of; self a bundle of
+ Intellect _ancilla voluntatis_
+ International Intelligence Institute
+ Intoxicants
+ Ionian physicist
+
+ James, William
+ "Joyful science"
+
+ Kant
+ Karma
+ Key to the universe, reason the
+ Kochius
+ Köppen, C. F.
+ Klein's statue
+ Kraust, Károly
+
+ _La Gaya Scienza_
+ Lange, _History of Materialism_
+ Lao-tze
+ Lauterbach
+ Leasing
+ Levy, Oscar
+ Lichtenberger, Henri
+ Life, truth for the sake of
+ Lightning, overman the
+ Lion and lamb
+ _Lion's Paw_
+ Lindlof, Hans
+ Lloyd, J. Wm.
+ Logic untrue
+ Lombroso
+ Love, freedom of; not your neighbor; Stirner's view of
+ Ludovici, Anthony M.
+
+ McCall, Erwin (pseud.)
+ Mackay, John Henry
+ Man, beast of prey; a muddy stream; a part of society;
+ animals' opinion of; contempt for; his own master;
+ humanization of; personality of
+ Marot
+ Marriage, a poet's objection to; an abomination; N.'s view of
+ Masses, are pragmatists; distinction for; enslaved by overman
+ Mathematics
+ Measure of truth
+ Mencken, Henry L.
+ Mephistopheles
+ Messiah, overman the
+ Meyen
+ Meyer, a fellow student
+ Mill, John Stuart
+ Moore, George, and N. compared; _Confessions of a Young Man_
+ "_Moral ist Nothlüge_,"
+ Morality, denial of; immoral; limited to mediocrity;
+ See also s. v. "Ethics."
+ _Morgenröthe_
+ Mozart
+ Mueller, Adolph
+ Müller, Dr. Arthur
+ Mügge, M. A.
+ Mussak
+ Mythology not an error
+
+ Napoleon
+ Nature, uniformities of
+ Negation, of will; spirit of
+ Negative, commandments
+ Neighbor, love not
+ Nietzsche, a model of virtue; a modern; a mystic;
+ abnormal, not a genius; ancestors of; and George Moore
+ compared; and Stirner compared; confirmation of;
+ consistency of; contrast between life and theory;
+ destroyer of morality; his doctrine of self; immaturity of;
+ insanity of, not an accident; nominalistic tendencies of;
+ philosophy of, agreement with; philosophy of, result of
+ nominalism; religious character of; requiem composed by;
+ subjectivity of; success of; tender-hearted
+ Nihilism
+ _Nomina_
+ Nominalism, and realism; of Lombroso; traditions of
+ Normal man the exception
+ Nothingness, trust in
+ Nurse, N. as a
+
+ Obedience
+ Objectivism, subjective
+ Objectivity of truth
+ Ocean, overman the
+ _Ohne Staat_
+ _Open Court, The_
+ Orage, A. R.
+ Order; cosmic
+ Originality; ambition for; hankering after
+ Overman
+ love of; the true
+
+ Particularism
+ Patriotism
+ Personality of man
+ Pessimism
+ Philologist, N. a
+ Philosophy as a science; contempt for; three features of
+ Pig, usefulness of
+ Plato; accused of hypocrisy; ideal of; ideas of
+ Platonism
+ Pleasure and pain
+ Poet, God the lie of
+ Poet, N. a; N. not really a
+ Positive ideals needed
+ Positivism
+ Power, acquisition of; desire for;
+ God is; hypocrisy to obtain; will for
+ Pragmatism
+ Pragmatists, masses are
+ Pride
+ Probability but no truth
+ Progress, evolution is; in epicycles; in the world
+ Protest, against himself; against truth; philosopher of;
+ philosophy of
+ Proudhon
+
+ Quarrels at school
+
+ Real world
+ Realism and nominalism
+ Reason, a blunder; key to the universe; origin of;
+ subjective; tool of body; universality of
+ Redbeard, Ragnar, _Might is Right_
+ Relativity
+ Religion, hatred of
+ Revaluation of values
+ Richard III
+ Right but might, no
+ Rules of N.'s philosophical warfare
+
+ Salome, Lou Andreas
+ Sandwich, anecdote
+ Schellwien, R.
+ Schiller
+ Schlegel
+ Schmidt, Albert Christian Heinrich
+ Schmidt, Johann Caspar. See
+ Stirner, Max.
+ Schmitt, Eugen Heinrich
+ Schopenhauer
+ Schulpforta; a pupil at
+ Schümm, George and Mrs. Emma H.
+ Science, a blunder; a means; a mental construction;
+ a pretender; despised; for its own sake, 3; triumph of;
+ unavailableness of; world of
+ Sciences of form, the
+ Scientist, standard of
+ Sebastopol, fall of
+ Self, an authority above; is body;
+ sovereignty of; truth creature of
+ Self-assertion, right of, 24; the ethics of the strong
+ Serpent; eagle and
+ Slavism
+ Smith, William Benjamin
+ Snuffing brotherhood
+ Socialism
+ Society; man a part of
+ Socrates
+ Soldier, N. as a
+ Sophists
+ Spectacles not the world
+ Spirit, blood is; Stirner on
+ Spoiled child
+ Standard, of measurement; of valuation; of values needed
+ State, a despotism; growth of
+ Steiner, Rudolph
+ Sticht, Johann Caspar
+ _Stimmungsbild_
+ Stirner, Max, and Nietzsche compared; arguments of;
+ consistent; contrast between life and theory; death of;
+ _Der Einzige und sein Eigentum_; description of;
+ life of; marriage of; pencil sketch of; the name;
+ works of
+ Straus, Richard
+ Subjective standard
+ Subjectivism
+ Subjectivity of N.
+ Superman
+ Superpersonal God
+ Superpersonalities
+ Swartz, Clarence L.
+ Switzerland, a citizen of
+
+ Things in themselves
+ Three, features of philosophy; periods in N.'s development;
+ rules of philosophical warfare
+ _Thus Spake Zarathustra_
+ Tieck
+ Tille, Alexander
+ Tolstoy
+ Tradition defied; opposed to; sanction of; sanction of denied
+ Tragic, element; figure
+ Transvaluation of values
+ True world
+ Truth, as authority; creature of self; defined; existence of;
+ flashes of; for the sake of life; need of; non-existent;
+ objectivity of; probability but no; protests against
+ Tucker, Benjamin R.
+ _Twilight of the Idols_
+ Tyrant, morality a; N. loves a; overman a
+
+ Ulfila's bible
+ Uniformities dominate existence
+ Universality of reason
+ Universe a chaos
+ Unmoralist; development into; the first
+ Unmoralism
+ Unmorality
+ Unseitgemässe Betrachtungen
+
+ Valuation, principle of
+ Vedantism interpreted by a materialist
+ Virtue, a model of
+
+ Wagner
+ Walker, James, L.; _The Philosophy of Egoism_
+ Warren, Josiah
+ Wenley, R. M.
+ Whitman
+ Will, ennoblement of; for power; intellect slave of; negation of
+ Woman; Stirner's attitude toward
+ World-conceptions identical
+
+ Zarathustra
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nietzsche and other Exponents of
+Individualism, by Paul Carus
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48495 ***
diff --git a/48495/48495-h/48495-h.htm b/48495/48495-h/48495-h.htm index e563878..560e087 100644 --- a/48495/48495-h/48495-h.htm +++ b/48495/48495-h/48495-h.htm @@ -127,42 +127,7 @@ v:link {color: #800000; text-decoration: none; } <body>
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+ }
+}
diff --git a/48495/old/48495-8.txt b/48495/old/48495-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0386a5e --- /dev/null +++ b/48495/old/48495-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4622 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nietzsche and other Exponents of
+Individualism, by Paul Carus
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Nietzsche and other Exponents of Individualism
+
+Author: Paul Carus
+
+Release Date: March 15, 2015 [EBook #48495]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NIETZSCHE AND OTHER EXPONENTS OF INDIVIDUALISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Annemie Arnst & Marc D'Hooghe at
+http://www.freeliterature.org (Images generously made
+available by the Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+NIETZSCHE
+
+AND OTHER EXPONENTS OF
+
+INDIVIDUALISM
+
+BY
+
+PAUL CARUS
+
+CHICAGO LONDON
+
+THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+1914
+
+
+[Illustration: Friedrich Nietzsche. Statue by Klein.]
+
+ TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+ ANTI-SCIENTIFIC TENDENCIES
+ DEUSSEN'S RECOLLECTIONS
+ EXTREME NOMINALISM
+ A PHILOSOPHY OF ORIGINALITY
+ THE OVERMAN
+ ZARATHUSTRA
+ A PROTEST AGAINST HIMSELF
+ NIETZSCHE'S PREDECESSOR
+ EGO-SOVEREIGNTY
+ ANOTHER NIETZSCHE
+ NIETZSCHE'S DISCIPLES
+ THE PRINCIPLE OF VALUATION
+ INDIVIDUALISM
+ CONCLUSION
+ INDEX
+
+
+
+ANTI-SCIENTIFIC TENDENCIES.
+
+
+Philosophies are world-conceptions presenting three main features:
+(1) A systematic comprehension of the knowledge of their age; (2) An
+emotional attitude toward the cosmos; and (3) A principle that will
+serve as a basis for rules of conduct. The first feature determines the
+worth of the several philosophical systems in the history of mankind,
+being the gist of that which will last, and giving them strength and
+backbone. The second one, however, appeals powerfully to the sentiments
+of those who are imbued with the same spirit and thus constitutes its
+immediate acceptability; while the ethics of a philosophy becomes the
+test by which its use and practicability can be measured.
+
+The author's ideal has been to harmonize these three features by making
+the first the regulator of the second and a safe basis of the third.
+What we need is truth; our fundamental emotion must be truthfulness,
+and our ethics must be a living of the truth. Truth is not something
+that we can fashion according to our pleasure; it is not subjective;
+its very nature is objectivity. But we must render it subjective by a
+love of truth; we must make it our own, and by doing so our conduct in
+life will unfailingly adjust itself.
+
+Former philosophies made the subjective element predominant, and thus
+every philosopher worked out a philosophy of his own, endeavoring to
+be individual and original. The aim of our own philosophy has been
+to reduce the subjective to its proper sphere, and to establish, in
+agreement with the scientific spirit of the age, a philosophy of
+objective validity.
+
+It is a well known experience that the march of progress does not
+advance in a straight line but proceeds in epicycles. Man seems to tire
+of the rigor of truth. From time to time he wants fiction. A strict
+adherence to exact methods becomes monotonous to clever minds lacking
+the power of concentration, and they gladly hail vagaries. Truth, they
+claim, is relative, knowledge mere opinion, and poetry had better
+replace science. Then they say: Error, be thou our guide; Error, thou
+art a liberator from the tyranny of truth. Glory be to Error!
+
+Similar retrograde movements take place from time to time in art.
+Classical taste changes with romantic tendencies. Goethe, Schiller and
+Lessing are followed by Schlegel and Tieck, Mozart and Beethoven by
+Wagner.
+
+The last half-century has been an age of unprecedented progress in
+science and we would expect that with all the wonderful successes and
+triumphs of scientific invention this age of science ought to find its
+consummation in the adoption of a philosophy of science. But no! The
+mass of mankind is weary of science, and anti-scientific tendencies
+grow up like mushrooms, finding spokesmen in philosophers like William
+James and Henri Bergson who have the ear of large masses, proclaiming
+the superiority of subjectivism over objectivism, and the advantages of
+animal instinct over human reason.
+
+These subjective philosophies if considered as expressions of
+sentiment, as sentimental attitudes toward the world, as poetical
+effusions of a semi-philosophical nature, are perfectly legitimate and
+can be indulged in as well as the several religions which in allegories
+attune the minds of their followers toward the All of which they are
+parts. There is no need to condemn arts or emotions for they have a
+right to exist just as they are.
+
+We protest against subjectivism in philosophy only when it denies the
+possibility of an objective philosophy. We do not deny that the masses
+of the world are not, cannot be and never will be scientific thinkers.
+Science is the prerogative of the few, and the large masses of mankind
+will always be of a pragmatist type. If the pragmatist considered
+himself as a psychologist pure and simple showing how the majority
+of mankind argues, how people are influenced by their own interest
+and how their thoughts are warped by what they wish the facts to be,
+pragmatism would be a commendable branch of the science of the soul.
+Pragmatism explains the errors of philosophy and we can learn much from
+a consideration of its principles. It becomes objectionable only in so
+far as it claims to be philosophy in the strict sense of the word.
+
+The name philosophy is used in two senses, first as we defined it
+above, as a world-conception based upon critically sifted knowledge;
+and secondly it is used in a vague general sense as wisdom in the
+practical affairs of life. And if pragmatism claims to be a philosophy
+in this second sense it ought not to deny that philosophy as a science
+is possible.
+
+Philosophy as a science is philosophy _par excellence_. It is the only
+philosophy of objective validity. All other philosophies are effusions
+of subjective points of view, of attitudes, of sentiment. But we must
+insist that these two contrasts may exist side by side just as art does
+not render mathematics supererogatory, and as a physicist who in his
+profession devotes himself to a study of nature according to methods of
+an objective exactness may in his leisure hours paint a _Stimmungsbild_
+to give an artistic expression to a subjective mood.
+
+This world is not merely the object of science. There are innumerable
+tendencies which exist and have a right to exist, but they ought not to
+banish science, scientific enquiry and scientific ideals from the place
+they hold; for science is the mariners' compass which guides us over
+the ocean of life, and though the majority of the passengers do not
+and need not worry about it, science is after all the only means which
+makes for progress and lifts mankind to higher and higher levels.
+
+If we criticize men like James and Bergson and other philosophers of
+subjectivism we do it as a defence of the indispensable character of
+the objectivity of science as well as of philosophy as a science.
+
+James and Bergson were by no means the originators of their method of
+philosophizing. There have been many sages before them who deemed the
+spectacles through which they viewed the world to be the most important
+or even the only significant issue of life's problems. The Ionian
+physicists were outdone by the sophists, and in modern times Friedrich
+Nietzsche expressed the most sovereign contempt for science.
+
+Among all the philosophies of modern times there is perhaps none which
+in its inmost principle is more thoroughly opposed to our own than
+Nietzsche's, and yet there are some points of mutual contact which
+are well worth pointing out. The problem which is at the basis of
+Nietzsche's thought is the same as in our philosophy, but our solution
+is radically different from his.
+
+Friedrich Nietzsche is a philosopher who astonishes his readers by the
+boldness with which he rebels against every tradition, tearing down
+the holiest and dearest things, preaching destruction of all rule, and
+looking with disdain upon the heap of ruins in which his revolutionary
+thoughts would leave the world.
+
+For more than a century Germany has been the storm-center of
+philosophical thought. The commotions that started in the Fatherland
+reached other countries, France, England, and the United States, after
+they had lost their force at home. Kant's transcendentalism and Hegel's
+phenomenalism began to flourish among the English-speaking races after
+having become almost extinct in the home of their founders. Prof. R.
+M. Wenley of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., expresses
+this truth with his native Scotch wit in the statement which I do
+not hesitate to endorse, that "German professors when they die go to
+Oxford," and we may add that from Oxford they travel west to settle for
+a while in Concord, Boston, Washington, or other American cities.
+
+Hegelianism had scarcely died out in the United States when
+Schopenhauer and Nietzsche began to become fashionable. The influence
+of the former has been felt in a quiet way for some time while the
+Nietzsche movement is of more recent date and also of a more violent
+character.
+
+Nietzsche represents a type of most modern date. His was a genius after
+the heart of Lombroso. He was eccentric and atypical.
+
+Lombroso's psychology is an outgrowth of nominalism which does not
+recognize an objective norm for truth, health, reason, or normality
+of any kind, and regards the average as the sole method of finding a
+norm. If, however, the average type is the standard of measurement, the
+unusually excellent specimens, being rare in number, must be classed
+together with all other deviations from the average, and thus a genius
+is regarded as abnormal as much as a criminal--a theory which has found
+many admirers in this age that is sicklied over with agnosticism, the
+modern offshoot of nominalism. The truth is that true genius (not
+the pseudo-genius of erratic minds, not the would-be genius of those
+who make a failure of life) is uncommonly normal--I had almost said
+"abnormally normal."
+
+A perfect crystal is rare; so the perfectly normal man is an exception;
+yet for all that he is a better representative of the ideal of his type
+than the average.
+
+Nietzsche was most assuredly very ingenious; he was unusually talented
+but he was not a genius in the full sense of the word. He was abnormal,
+titanic in his pretensions and aims, and erratic. Breaking down under
+the burden of his own thought, he ended his tragical career in an
+insane asylum.
+
+The mental derangement of Nietzsche may be an unhappy accident but
+it appears to have come as the natural result of his philosophy.
+Nietzsche, by nature modest and tractable, almost submissive, was, as a
+thinker, too proud to submit to anything, even to truth. Schopenhauer
+had taught him that the intellect, with its comprehension of truth,
+is a mere slave of the will, ancilla voluntatis. Our cognition of the
+truth has a purpose; it must accommodate itself to our own interest.
+But the self is sovereign; the self wants to assert itself; the self
+alone has a right to exist; and the self that does not dare to be
+itself is a servile, menial creature. Therefore Nietzsche preaches the
+ethics of self-assertion and pride. He is too proud to recognize the
+duty of inquiry, the duty of adapting his mind to the world, or of
+recognizing the cosmic order of the universe as superior to his self.
+He feels bigger than the cosmos; he is himself; and he wants to be
+himself. His own self is sovereign; and if the world is not satisfied
+to submit to his will, the world may go to ruin. If the world breaks to
+pieces, it will only cause him to laugh; on the other hand, if his very
+self is forced to the wall in this conflict, he will still, from sheer
+pride, not suffer himself to abandon his principle of the absolute
+sovereignty of selfhood. He will not be a man, human and humane, but
+an overman (_Uebermensch_), a superhuman despiser of humanity and
+humaneness. The multitudes are to him like cattle to be used, to be
+milked, fleeced and butchered, and Nietzsche calls them herds, animals
+of the flock, _Heerdentiere_.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy is unique in being throughout the expression of
+an emotion--the proud sentiment of a self-sufficient sovereignty of
+self. It rejects with disdain both the methods of the intellect, which
+submit the problems of life to an investigation, and the demands of
+morality, which recognize the existence of duty.
+
+Other philosophers have claimed that rights imply duties and duties,
+rights. Nietzsche knows of rights only. Nietzsche claims that there is
+no objective science save by the permission of the sovereign self, nor
+is there any "ought," except for slaves and fools. He prides himself
+on being "the first Unmoralist," implying the absolute sovereignty of
+man--of the overman--and the foolishness as well as falsity of moral
+maxims.
+
+
+
+
+DEUSSEN'S RECOLLECTIONS
+
+
+Professor Paul Deussen, Sanskritist and philosopher of Kiel, was
+Friedrich Nietzsche's most intimate friend. They were chums together in
+school in Schulpforta, and remained friends to the end of Nietzsche's
+life. Nietzsche had come to Schulpforta in 1858, and Deussen entered
+the next year in the same class. Once Nietzsche, who as the senior of
+the class had to keep order among his fellow scholars during working
+periods and prevent them from making a disturbance, approached Deussen
+while he sat in his seat peacefully chewing the sandwich he had brought
+for his lunch and said, "Don't talk so loud to your crust!" using
+here the boys' slang term for a sandwich. These were the first words
+Nietzsche had spoken to Deussen, and Deussen says:[1] "I see Nietzsche
+still before me, how with the unsteady glance peculiar to extremely
+near-sighted people, his eye wandered over the rows of his classmates
+searching in vain for an excuse to interfere."
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS A PUPIL AT SCHULPFORTA IN THE
+YEAR 1861.]
+
+Nietzsche and Deussen began to take walks together and soon became
+chums, probably on account of their common love for Anacreon, whose
+poems were interesting to both perhaps on account of the easy Greek in
+which they are written.
+
+In those days the boys of Schulpforta addressed each other by the
+formal _Sie_; but one day when Deussen happened to be in the dormitory,
+he discovered in the trunk under his bed a little package of snuff;
+Nietzsche was present and each took a pinch. With this pinch they swore
+eternal brotherhood. They did not drink brotherhood as is the common
+German custom, but, as Deussen humorously says, they "snuffed it"; and
+from that time they called each other by the more intimate _du_. This
+friendship continued through life with only one interruption, and on
+Laetare Sunday in 1861, they stepped to the altar together and side by
+side received the blessing at their confirmation. On that day both were
+overcome by a feeling of holiness and ecstasy. Thus their friendship
+was sealed in Christ, and though it may seem strange of Nietzsche who
+was later a most iconoclastic atheist, a supernatural vision filled
+their young hearts for many weeks afterwards.
+
+There was a third boy to join this friendship--a certain Meyer, a
+young, handsome and amiable youth distinguished by wit and the ability
+to draw excellent caricatures. But Meyer was in constant conflict with
+his teachers and generally in rebellion against the rules of the
+school. He had to leave school before he finished his course. Nietzsche
+and Deussen accompanied him to the gate and returned in great sorrow
+when he had disappeared on the highway. What has become of Meyer is
+not known. Deussen saw him five years later in his home at Oberdreis,
+but at that time he was broken in health and courage, disgruntled with
+God, the world and himself. Later he held a subordinate position in the
+custom house, and soon after that all trace of him was lost. Probably
+he died young.
+
+This Meyer was attached to Nietzsche for other reasons than Deussen.
+While Deussen appreciated more the intellectuality and congeniality of
+his friend, Meyer seems to have been more attracted by his erratic and
+wayward tendencies and this for some time endeared him to Nietzsche.
+Thus it came to pass that the two broke with Deussen for a time.
+
+The way of establishing a state of hostility in Schulpforta was to
+declare oneself "mad" at another, and to some extent this proved to be
+a good institution, for since the boys came in touch with each other
+daily and constantly in the school, those who could not agree would
+have easily come to blows had it not been for this tabu which made
+it a rule that they were not on speaking terms. This state of things
+lasted for six weeks, and was only broken by an incidental discussion
+in a Latin lesson, when Nietzsche proposed one of his highly improbable
+conjectures for a verse of Virgil. The discussion grew heated, and
+when the professor after a long Latin disquisition finally asked
+whether any one had something to say on the subject, Deussen rose and
+extemporized a Latin hexameter which ran thus:
+
+ "_Nietzschius erravit, neque coniectura probanda est_"
+
+On account of the declared state of "mad"-ness, the debate was carried
+on through the teacher, addressing him each time with the phrase: "Tell
+Nietzsche," "Tell Deussen," "Tell Meyer," etc., but in the heat of
+the controversy they forgot to speak in the third person, and finally
+addressed their adversaries directly. This broke the spell of being
+"mad" and they came to an understanding and a definite reconciliation.
+
+Nietzsche never had another friend with whom he became so intimate as
+with Deussen. Deussen says (page 9): "At that time we understood each
+other perfectly. In our lonely walks we discussed all possible subjects
+of religion, philosophy, poetry, art and music. Often our thoughts ran
+wild and when words failed us we would look into each other's eyes,
+and one would say to the other: 'We understand each other.' These
+words became a standing phrase which forthwith we decided to avoid as
+trivial, and we had to laugh when occasionally it escaped our lips in
+spite of us. The great ordeal of the final examination came. We had to
+pass first through our written tests. In German composition, on the
+'advantages and dangers of wealth' Nietzsche passed with No. 1; also in
+a Latin exercise _de bello Punico primo_; but in mathematics he failed
+with the lowest mark, No. 4. This upset him and in fact he who was
+almost the most gifted of us all was compelled to withdraw."
+
+While the two were strolling up and down in front of the schoolhouse,
+Nietzsche unburdened his grief to his friend, and Deussen tried to
+comfort him. "What difference does it make," said he, "if you pass
+badly, if only you pass at all? You are and will always be more gifted
+than all the rest of us, and will soon outstrip even me whom you now
+envy. You must increase but I must decrease."
+
+The course of events was as Deussen had predicted, for Nietzsche
+though not passing with as much distinction as he may have deserved
+nevertheless received his diploma.
+
+When Deussen with his wife visited Nietzsche in August 1907 at
+Sils-Maria, Nietzsche showed him a requiem which he had composed for
+his own funeral, and he added: "I do not believe that I will last much
+longer. I have reached the age at which my father died, and I fear
+that I shall fall a victim to the same disease as he." Though Deussen
+protested vigorously against this sad prediction and tried to cheer him
+up, Nietzsche indeed succumbed to his sad fate within two years.
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE FROM PHOTOGRAPH IN THE POSSESSION OF
+PROFESSOR DEUSSEN.]
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Professor Deussen, though Nietzsche's most intimate friend, is by no
+means uncritical in judging his philosophy. It is true he cherishes
+the personal character and the ideal tendencies of his old chum, but
+he is not blind to his faults. Deussen says of Nietzsche: "He was
+never a systematic philosopher.... The great problems of epistemology,
+of psychology, of æsthetics and ethics are only tentatively touched
+upon in his writings.... There are many pearls of worth upon which he
+throws a brilliant side light, as it were in lightning flashes....
+His overwhelming imagination is always busy. His thoughts were
+always presented in pleasant imagery and in language of dazzling
+brilliancy, but he lacked critical judgment and was not controlled by a
+consideration of reality. Therefore the creation of his pen was never
+in harmony with the actual world, and among the most valuable truths
+which he revealed with ingenious profundity there are bizarre and
+distorted notions stated as general rules although they are merely rare
+exceptions, as is also frequently the case in sensational novels. Thus
+Nietzsche produced a caricature of life which means no small danger for
+receptive and inexperienced minds. His readers can escape this danger
+only when they do what Nietzsche did not do, when they confront every
+thought of his step by step by the actual nature of things, and retain
+only what proves to be true under the touchstone of experience."
+
+Between the negation of the will and its affirmation Nietzsche granted
+to Deussen while still living in Basel, that the ennoblement of the
+will should be man's aim. The affirmation of the will is the pagan
+ideal with the exception of Platonism. The negation of the will is the
+Christian ideal, and according to Nietzsche the ennoblement of the will
+is realized in his ideal of the overman. Deussen makes the comment that
+Nietzsche's notion of the overman is in truth the ideal of all mankind,
+whether this highest type of manhood be called Christ or overman; and
+we grant that such an ideal is traceable everywhere. It is called
+"Messiah" among the Jews; "hero" among the Greeks, "Christ" among
+the Christians, and chiün, the superior man, or to use Nietzsche's
+language, "the overman," among the Chinese; but the characteristics
+with which Nietzsche endows his overman are unfortunately mere brutal
+strength and an unscrupulous will to play the tyrant. Here Professor
+Deussen halts. It appears that he knew the peaceful character of his
+friend too well to take his ideal of the overman seriously.
+
+We shall discuss Nietzsche's ideal of the overman more fully further
+down in a discussion of his most original thoughts, the typically
+Nietzschean ideas.
+
+
+[1] See Dr. Paul Deussen's _Erinnerungen an Friedrich Nietzsche._
+Leipsic, 1901.
+
+
+
+
+EXTREME NOMINALISM
+
+
+According to Nietzsche, the history of philosophy from Plato to his
+own time is a progress of the idea that objective truth (a conception
+of "the true world") is not only not attainable, but does not exist
+at all. He expresses this idea in his Twilight of the Idols (English
+edition, pp. 122-123) under the caption, "How the 'True World' Finally
+Became a Fable," which describes the successive stages as follows:
+
+
+ "1. The true world attainable by the wise, the pious, and
+ the virtuous man,--he lives in it, he embodies it.
+
+ "(Oldest form of the idea, relatively rational, simple,
+ and convincing. Transcription of the proposition, 'I,
+ Plato, am the truth,')
+
+ "2. The true world unattainable at present, but promised
+ to the wise, the pious, and the virtuous man (to the
+ sinner who repents).
+
+ "(Progress of the idea: it becomes more refined, more
+ insidious, more incomprehensible,--it becomes feminine, it
+ becomes Christian.)
+
+ "3. The true world unattainable, undemonstrable, and
+ unable to be promised; but even as conceived, a comfort,
+ an obligation, and an imperative.
+
+ "(The old sun still, but shining only through mist and
+ scepticism; the idea becomes sublime, pale, northerly,
+ Koenigsbergian.)
+
+ "4. The true world--unattainable? At any rate unattained.
+ And being unattained also unknown. Consequently also
+ neither comforting, saving nor obligatory: what obligation
+ could anything unknown lay upon us?
+
+ "(Gray morning. First dawning of reason. Cock-crowing of
+ Positivism.)
+
+ "5. The 'true world'--an idea neither good for anything,
+ nor even obligatory any longer,--an idea become useless
+ and superfluous; consequently a refuted idea; let us do
+ away with it!
+
+ "(Full day; breakfast; return of _bon sens_ and
+ cheerfulness; Plato blushing for shame; infernal noise of
+ all free intellects,)
+
+ "6. We have done away with the true world: what world is
+ left? perhaps the seeming?... But no! in doing away with
+ the true, we have also done away with the seeming world!
+
+ "(Noon; the moment of the shortest shadow; end of the
+ longest error; climax of mankind; _Incipit Zarathustra!_)"
+
+The reader will ask, "What next?" Probably afternoon and evening, and
+then night. In the night presumably "the old sun," i. e., the idea of
+Plato's true world, which (according to Nietzsche) grew pale in the
+morning, will shine again.
+
+Nietzsche's main desire was to live the real life and make his home not
+in an imaginary Utopia but in this actual world of ours. He reproached
+the philosophers as well as the religious leaders and ethical teachers
+for trying to make mankind believe that the teal world is purely
+phenomenal, for replacing it by the world of thought which they called
+"the true world" or the world of truth. To Nietzsche the typical
+philosopher is Plato. He and all his followers are accused of hypocrisy
+for making people believe that "the true world" of their own fiction is
+real and that man's ambition should be to attain to this "true world"
+(the world of philosophy, of science, of art, of ethical ideals) built
+above the real world. Nietzsche means to shatter all the idols of the
+past, and he has come to the conclusion that even the scientists were
+guilty of the same fault as the philosophers. They erected a world of
+thought, of subjective conception from the materials of the real world,
+and so he denounces even their attempts at constructing a "true world"
+as either a self-mystification or a lie. It is as imaginary as the
+world of the priest. In order to lead a life worthy of the "overman,"
+we should assert ourselves and feel no longer hampered by rules of
+conduct or canons of logic or by any consideration for truth.
+
+With all his hatred of religion, Nietzsche was nevertheless an
+intensely religious character, and knowing that he could not clearly
+see a connection between his so-called "real world" and his actual
+surroundings, he developed all the symptoms of religious fanaticism
+which characterizes religious leaders of all ages. He indulged in
+a mystic ecstacy, preaching it as the essential feature of his
+philosophy, and his Dionysiac enthusiasm is not the least of the
+intoxicants which are contained in his thought and bring so many
+poetical and talented but immature minds under his control.
+
+It is obvious that "the real world" of Nietzsche is more unreal than
+"the true world" of philosophy and of religion which he denounces as
+fictitious, but he was too naive and philosophically crude to see this.
+Nietzsche's "real world" is a fabric of his own personal imagination,
+while the true world of science is at least a thought-construction
+of the world which pictures facts with objective exactness; it is
+controlled by experience and can be utilized in practical life; it is
+subject to criticism and its propositions are being constantly tested
+either to be refuted or verified. Nietzsche's "real world" is the hope
+(and perhaps not even a desirable hope) of a feverish brain whose
+action is influenced by a decadent body.
+
+Nietzsche's so-called "real world" is one ideal among many others. It
+is as much subjective as the ideals of other mortals,--of men who seek
+happiness in wealth, or in pleasures, or in fame, or in scholarship,
+or in a religious life--all of them imagine that the world of their
+thoughts is real and the goal which they endeavor to reach is the only
+thing that possesses genuine worth. In Nietzsche's opinion all are
+dreamers catching at shadows, but the shadow of his own fancy appeared
+to him as real.
+
+According to Nietzsche the universe is not a cosmos but a chaos. He
+says (_La Gaya Scienza_, German edition, p. 148):
+
+ "The astral order in which we live is an exception. This
+ order and the relative stability which is thereby caused,
+ made the exception' of exceptions possible,--the formation
+ of organisms. The character-total of the world is into all
+ eternity chaos, not in the sense of a missing necessity,
+ but of missing order, articulation, form, beauty, wisdom,
+ and as all our æsthetic humanities may be called."
+
+In agreement with this conception of order, Nietzsche says of man, the
+rational animal:
+
+ "I fear that animals look upon man as a being of their own
+ kind, which in a most dangerous way has lost the sound
+ animal-sense,--as a lunatic animal, a laughing animal, a
+ crying animal, a miserable animal." (_La Gaya Scienza_,
+ German edition, p. 196.)
+
+If reason is an aberration, the brute must be superior to man and
+instinct must range higher than logical thought. Man's reason,
+according to this consistent nominalist view, is purely subjective and
+has no prototype in the objective world. This is a feature common to
+all nominalistic philosophies. John Stuart Mill regards the theorems
+of logic and mathematics, not only not as truths, but as positive
+untruths. He says:
+
+ "The points, lines, circles, and squares, which any one
+ has in his mind, are (I apprehend) simply copies of the
+ points, lines, circles, and squares which he has known in
+ his experience. Our idea of a point, I apprehend to be
+ simply our idea of the _minimum visibile_, the smallest
+ portion of surface which we can see. A line, as defined
+ by geometers, is wholly inconceivable. We can reason
+ about a line as if it had no breadth; because we have a
+ power, which is the foundation of all the control we can
+ exercise over the operations of our minds; the power, when
+ a perception is present to our senses, or a conception
+ to our intellects, of attending to a part only of that
+ perception or conception, instead of the whole. But we
+ cannot conceive a line without breadth; we can form no
+ mental picture of such a line: all the lines which we have
+ in our minds are lines possessing breadth."
+
+Nietzsche shows his nominalistic tendencies by repeatedly pronouncing
+the same propositions in almost literally the same words,[1] without,
+however, acknowledging the school in which he picked up this error.
+
+It is quite true that mathematical lines and circles are human
+conceptions, but they are not purely subjective conceptions, still
+less untruths; they are great and important discoveries. They are
+not arbitrarily devised but constructed according to the laws of the
+uniformities that dominate existence. They represent actual features
+of the factors which shape the objective universe, and thus only is it
+possible that the astronomer through the calculation of mathematical
+curves can predict the motion of the stars.[2]
+
+Reason is the key to the universe, because it is the reflex of cosmic
+order, and the cosmic order, the intrinsic regularity and immanent
+harmony of the uniformities of nature, is not a subjective illusion but
+an objective reality.
+
+When Goethe claims that all things transitory are symbols of that
+which is intransitory and eternal, Nietzsche answers that the idea of
+anything intransitory is a mere symbol, and God (the idea of anything
+eternal) a poet's lie.
+
+Like a mocking-bird, the nominalist philosopher imitates the ring of
+Goethe's well-known lines at the conclusion of the second part of
+"Faust," in which the "real world" of transient things is considered as
+a mere symbol of the true world of eternal verities:
+
+ "Das Unvergangliche
+ Ist nur dein Gleichniss.
+ Gott der Verfängliche
+ Ist Dichter-Erschleichniss.
+ Weltspiel, das herrische,
+ Mischt Sein und Schein:--
+ Das Ewig-Närrische
+ Mischt uns--hinein."
+
+ "The non-deciduous
+ Is a symbol of _thy_ sense,
+ God ever invidious,
+ A poetical license.
+ World-play domineeringly
+ Mixes semblance and fact,
+ And between them us sneeringly
+ The Ever-Foolish has packed."
+
+In spite of Nietzsche's hunger for the realities of life, that is
+to say for objectivity, he was in fact the most subjective of all
+philosophers--so much so that he was incapable of formulating any
+thought as an objectively precise statement. He did not believe in
+truth: "There is probability, but no truth," says he in _Der Wanderer
+und sein Schatten_, p. 190; and he adds concerning the measure of the
+value of truth (ibid., Aphorism 4): "The trouble in ascending mountains
+is no measure of their height, and should it be different in science?"
+
+It is true that such words as "long" and "short" are relative, because
+dependent on subjective needs and valuations. But must we for that
+reason give up all hope of describing facts in objective terms? Are not
+meters and foot-measures definite magnitudes, whether or not they be
+long for one purpose and short for another? Relativity itself admits
+of a description in objective terms; but if a statement of facts in
+objective terms were impossible, the ideals of exact science (as all
+ideals) would be a dream.
+
+That Nietzsche prefers the abrupt style of aphorisms to dispassionate
+inquisitions is a symptom that betrays the nature of his philosophy.
+His ideas, thus expressed, are easily understood. They are but very
+loosely connected, and we find them frequently contradictory. They are
+not presented in a logical, orderly way, but sound like reiterated
+challenges to battle. They are appeals to all wild impulses and a
+clamor for the right of self-assertion.
+
+While Nietzsche's philosophy is in itself inconsistent and illogical,
+it is yet born of the logic of facts; it is the consistent result and
+legitimate conclusion of principles uttered centuries ago and which
+were slowly matured in the historical development of thought.
+
+The old nominalistic school is the father of Nietzsche's philosophy.
+A consistent nominalist will be driven from one conclusion to another
+until he reaches the stage of Nietzsche, which is philosophical
+anarchism and extreme individualism.
+
+The nominalist denies the reality of reason; he regards the existence
+of universals as a fiction, and looks upon the world as a heap of
+particulars. He loses sight of the unity of the world and forgets that
+form is a true feature of things. It is form and the sameness of the
+laws of form which makes universality of reason possible.
+
+Nominalism rose in opposition to the medieval realism of the schoolmen
+who looked upon universals as real and concrete things, representing
+them as individual beings that existed _ante res, in rebus_, and
+_post res_, i. e., in the particulars, before them and after them.
+The realists were wrong in so far as they conceived universals as
+substances or distinct essences, as true realities (hence the name
+"realism"); only they were supposed to be of a more spiritual nature
+than material things but, after all, they were concrete existences.
+They were said to have been created by God as an artisan would make
+patterns or molds for the things which he proposes to produce.
+According to Plato, ideas serve the Creator as models of concrete
+objects of which they are deemed to be the prototypes. The realists
+were mistaken in regarding the ideal as concrete and real, but the
+nominalists, on the other hand, also went too far in denying the
+objective significance of universals and declaring that universals were
+mere names (_nomina_ and _flatus vocis_), i. e., words invented for the
+sake of conveniently thinking things and serving no other purpose.
+
+At the bottom of the controversy lies the problem as to the nature of
+things. The question arises, What are things in themselves? Do things,
+or do they not, possess an independence of their own? Kant's reply is,
+that things in themselves can not be known; but our reply is, that
+the nature of a thing consists in its form; a thing is such as it is
+because it has a definite form. Therefore "things in themselves" do not
+exist; but there are "forms in themselves."
+
+Form is not a non-entity but the most important feature of reality,
+and the pure laws of form are the determinative factors of the world.
+The sciences of the laws of pure form, logic, arithmetic, algebra,
+geometry, etc., are therefore the key to a comprehension of the world,
+and morality is the realization of ideals, i. e., of the conceptions of
+pure forms, which are higher, nobler, and better than those which have
+been actualized.
+
+From our standpoint, evolution is a process in which the eternal laws
+of being manifest themselves in a series of regular transformations,
+reaching a point at which sentiency appears. And then evolution takes
+the shape of progress, that is to say, sentient beings develop
+mind; sentiments become sensations, i. e., representative images;
+and words denote the universals. Then reason originates as a reflex
+of the eternal laws of pure form. Human reason is deepened in a
+scientific world-conception, and becoming aware of the moral aspect of
+universality it broadens out into comprehensive sympathy with all forms
+of existence that like ourselves aspire after a fuller comprehension of
+existence.
+
+Thus the personality of man is the reflex of that system of
+eternalities which sways the universe, and humanity is found to be a
+revelation of the core of the cosmos, an incarnation of Godhood. This
+revelation, however, is not closed. The appearance of the religions of
+good-will and mutual sympathy merely marks the beginning of a new era,
+and we may expect that the future of mankind will surpass the present,
+as much as the present surpasses savagery. Such is the higher humanity,
+the true "overman," representing a higher species of mankind, whom we
+expect.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy of "unmorality" looms on the horizon of human
+thought as a unique conception apparently ushered into this world
+without any preparation and without any precedent. It sets itself up
+against tradition. Schopenhauer, Nietzsche's immediate predecessor,
+regarded history as the desolate dream of mankind, and Nietzsche
+exhibits a remorseless contempt for everything that comes to us as a
+product of history. Nietzsche scorns not only law and order, church
+and state, but also reason, argument, and rule; he scorns consistency
+and logic which are regarded as toys for weaklings or as tools of the
+crafty.
+
+Nietzsche is a nominalist with a vengeance. His philosophy is
+particularism carried to extremes. There is no unity of existence to
+him. The God-idea is dead--not only the old metaphysical notion of a
+God-individual, but also God in the sense of the ultimate ground of
+being, the supreme norm of the cosmos. Nietzsche's world is split up
+into particular selves. He does not ask how they originated; he only
+knows that they are here. Above all, he knows that his own self is
+here, and there is no bond of sympathy between it and other selves. The
+higher self is that which assumes dominion over the world. His ideal
+is brutal strength, his overman the tyrant who tramples under foot his
+fellowmen. Democracy is an abomination to him, and he despises the
+gospel of love as it is preached by both Christ and Buddha. This is
+the key to his anti-moralism and to the doctrine of the autonomy of
+selfhood.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy might be called philosophical nihilism, if
+he did not object to the word. He calls it positivism, but it is
+particularism, or rather an aristocratic individualism which in the
+domain of thought plays the same role that political nihilism plays
+in Russia. It would dethrone the hereditary Czar, the ruler by God's
+grace, but it would not establish a republic. It would set on the
+throne a ruthless demagogue, a self-made political boss--the overman.
+It is the philosophy of protest, and Nietzsche is conscious of being
+Slavic in thought and aspiration. Nor does he forget that his ancestors
+belonged to the nobility. He claims to have been descended from a
+Polish nobleman by the name of Niëtzki, a Protestant who came to
+Germany in the eighteenth century as a religious refugee.
+
+Nietzsche's love of Slavism manifested itself in his childhood, for
+when the news of the fall of Sebastopol became known, Nietzsche, at
+that time a mere boy, was so dejected that he could not eat and gave
+expression to his chagrin in mournful strains of verse.
+
+He who has faith in truth accepts truth as authority; he who accepts
+truth as authority recognizes duty; he who recognizes duty beholds
+a goal of life. He has found a purpose for which life appears worth
+living, and reaches out beyond the bounds of his narrow individuality
+into the limitless cosmos. He transcends himself, he grows in truth, he
+increases in power, he widens in his sympathies.
+
+Here we touch upon the God problem. In denning God as the ultimate
+authority of conduct, we are confronted by the dilemma, Is there, or
+is there not a norm of morality, a standard of right and wrong, to
+which the self must submit? And this question is another version of
+the problem as to the existence of truth. Is there truth which we
+must heed, or is truth a fiction and is the self not bound to respect
+anything? We answer this question as to the existence of truth in the
+affirmative, Nietzsche in the negative.
+
+But he who rejects truth cuts himself loose from the fountain-head of
+the waters of life. He may deify selfhood, but his own self will die of
+its self-apotheosis. His divinity is not a true God-incarnation, it is
+a mere assumption and the self-exaltation of a pretender.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy is more consistent than it appears on its face.
+Being the negation of the right of consistency, its lack of consistency
+is its most characteristic feature. If the intellect is truly, as
+Schopenhauer suggests, the servant of the will, then there is no
+authority in reason, and arguments have no strength. All quarrels are
+simply questions of power. Then, there is might, but not right; right
+is simply the _bon plaisir_ of might. Then there is no good nor evil;
+good is that which I will, bad is that which threatens to thwart my
+will. Good and evil are distinctions invented for the enslavement of
+the masses, but the free man, the genius, the aristocrat, who craftily
+tramples the masses under foot, knows no difference. He is beyond good
+and evil.
+
+This, indeed, is the consequence which Nietzsche boldly draws. It is a
+consistent anarchism; it is unmoralism, a courageous denial of ethical
+rule; and a proud aristocratism, the ruthless shout of triumph of the
+victor who hails the doctrine of the survival of the strongest and
+craftiest as a "joyful science."
+
+Nietzsche would not refute the arguments of those who differ from
+him; for refutation of other views does not befit a positive mind that
+posits its own truth. "What have I to do with refutations!" exclaims
+Nietzsche in the Preface to his Genealogy of Morals. The self is
+lord. There is no law for the lord, and so he denounces the ethics of
+Christianity as slave-morality, and preaches the lord-morality of the
+strong which is self-assertion.
+
+Morality itself is denounced by Nietzsche as immoral. Morality is the
+result of evolution, and man's moral ideas are products of conditions
+climatic, social, economical, national, religious, and what not. Why
+should we submit to the tyranny of a rule which after all proves to be
+a relic of barbarism? Nietzsche rejects morality as incompatible with
+the sovereignty of selfhood, and, pronouncing our former judgment a
+superstition, he proposes "a transvaluation of all values." The self
+must be established as supreme ruler, and therefore all rules, maxims,
+principles, must go, for the very convictions of a man are mere chains
+that fetter the freedom of his soul.
+
+
+[1] _La Gaya Scienza_, German edition, p. 154; and _passim_ in
+_Menschliches_, etc.
+
+[2] For further details of a refutation of this wrong conception of
+geometry, see the author's _Foundation of Mathematics_.
+
+
+
+
+A PHILOSOPHY OF ORIGINALITY
+
+
+One might expect that Nietzsche, who glories in the triumph of the
+strong over the weak in the struggle for life, red in tooth and claw,
+would look up to Darwin as his master. But Nietzsche recognizes no,
+master, and he emphasizes this by speaking in his poetry of Darwin
+as "this English joker," whose "mediocre reason" is accepted for
+philosophy.[1] To Nietzsche that which exists is the mere incidental
+product of blind forces. Instead of working for a development of the
+better from the best of the present, which is the method of nature,
+he shows his contempt for the human and all-too-human; he prophesies
+a deluge and hopes that from its floods the overman will emerge whose
+seal of superiority will be the strength of the conqueror that enables
+him to survive in the struggle for existence.
+
+Nietzsche has looked deeply into the apparent chaos of life that
+according to Darwin is a ruthless struggle for survival. He avoids
+the mistake of those sentimentalists who believe that goody-goodyness
+can rule the world, who underrate the worth of courage and over-rate
+humility, and who would venture to establish peace on earth by
+grounding arms. He sees the differences that exist between all things,
+the antagonism that obtains everywhere, and preferring to play the part
+of the hammer, he showers expressions of contempt upon the anvil.
+
+And Nietzsche's self-assertion is immediate and direct. He does not
+pause to consider what his self is, neither how it originated nor what
+will become of it. He takes it as it is and opposes it to the authority
+of other powers, the state, the church, and the traditions of the past.
+An investigation of the nature of the self might have dispelled the
+illusion of his self-glorification, but he never thinks of analysing
+its constitution. Bluntly and without any reflection or deliberation he
+claims the right of the sovereignty of self. He seems to forget that
+there are different selves, and that what we need most is a standard by
+which we can gauge their respective worth, and not an assertion of the
+rights of the self in general.
+
+We do not intend to quarrel with Nietzsche's radicalism. Nor do we
+underrate the significance of the self. We, too, believe that every
+self has the liberty to choose its own position and may claim as many
+rights as it pleases provided it can maintain them. If it cannot
+maintain them it will be crushed; otherwise it may conquer its rivals
+and suppress counter-claims; but therefore the wise man looks before he
+leaps. Reckless self-assertion is the method of brute creation. Neither
+the lion nor the lamb meditate on their fate; they simply follow their
+instincts. They are carnivorous or herbivorous by nature through the
+actions of their ancestors. This is what Buddhists call the law of
+deeds or _Karma_. Man's karma leads higher. Man can meditate on his
+own fate, and he can discriminate. His self is a personality, i. e.,
+a self-controlled commonwealth of motor ideas. Man does not blindly
+follow his impulses but establishes rules of action. He can thus
+abbreviate the struggle and avoid unnecessary friction; he can rise
+from brute violence to a self-contained and well-disciplined strength.
+Self-control (i. e., ethical guidance) is the characteristic feature
+of the true "overman"; but Nietzsche knows nothing of self-control;
+he would allow the self blindly to assert itself after the fashion of
+animal instincts.
+
+Nietzsche is the philosopher of instinct. He spurns all logical order,
+even truth itself. He has a contempt for every one who learns from
+others, for he regards such a man as a slave to other people's thought.
+His ambition for originality is expressed in these four lines which he
+inserted as a motto to the second edition of _La Gaya Scienza_:
+
+ "Ich wohne in meinem eignen Haus,
+ Hab' niemandem nie nichts nachgemacht
+ Und--lachte noch jeden Meister aus,
+ Der nicht sich selber ausgelacht."
+
+We translate faithfully, preserving even the ungrammatical use of the
+double negative, as follows:
+
+ "In my own house do I reside,
+ Did never no one imitate,
+ And every master I deride,
+ Save if himself he'd derogate."
+
+We wonder that Nietzsche did not think of Goethe's little rhyme, which
+seems to suit his case exactly:
+
+ "A fellow says: 'I own no school or college;
+ No master lives whom I acknowledge;
+ And pray don't entertain the thought
+ That from the dead I e'er learned aught.'
+ This, if I rightly understand,
+ Means: 'I'm a fool by own command.'"
+
+Nietzsche observes that the thoughts of most philosophers are secretly
+guided by instincts. He feels that all thought is at bottom a "will for
+power," and the will for truth has no right to exist except it serve
+the will for power. He reproaches philosophers for glorifying truth.
+
+Fichte in his _Duties of the Scholar_ says:
+
+ "My life and my fate are nothing; but the results of my
+ life are of great importance. I am a priest of Truth; I am
+ in the service of Truth; I feel under obligation to do, to
+ risk, and to suffer anything for truth."
+
+Nietzsche declares that this is shallow. Will for truth, he says,
+should be called "will to make being thinkable." Here, it seems to us,
+Nietzsche simply replaces the word "truth" by one of its functions.
+Truth is a systematic representation of reality, a comprehensive
+description of facts; the result being that "existence is made
+thinkable."
+
+Nietzsche is in a certain sense right when he says that truth in itself
+is nothing; for every representation of reality must serve a purpose,
+otherwise it is superfluous and useless. And the purpose of truth is
+the furtherance of life. Nietzsche instinctively hits the right thing
+in saying that at the bottom of philosophy there is the will for power.
+In spite of our school-philosopher's vain declamations of "science
+for its own sake," genuine philosophy will never be anything else
+than a method for the acquisition of power. But this method is truth.
+Nietzsche errs when he declares that "the head is merely the intestine
+of the heart." The head endeavors to find out the truth, and the truth
+is not purely subjective. It is true that truth is of no use to a man
+unless he makes it his own; he must possess it; it must be part of
+himself, but he cannot create it. Truth cannot be made; it must be
+discovered. Since the scholar's specialized business is the elucidation
+of the method of discovering the truth--not its purpose, not its
+application in practical life--Fichte's ideal of the aim of scholarship
+remains justified.
+
+Omit the ideal of truth in a philosophy, and it becomes an _ignis
+fatuus_, a will-o'-the-wisp, that will lead people astray. Truth makes
+existence thinkable, but thinkableness alone is not as yet a test of
+truth. The ultimate test of truth is its practical application. There
+is something wrong with a theory that does not work, and thus the self
+has a master, which is reality, the world in which it lives, with its
+laws and actualities. The subjective self must measure its worth by the
+objective standard of truth--to be obtained through exact inquiry and
+scientific investigation.
+
+The will for power, in order to succeed, must be clarified by a
+methodical comprehension of facts and conditions. The contradictory
+impulses in one's own self must be systematized so that they will not
+collide and mutually annihilate themselves; and the comprehension of
+this orderly disposition is called reason.
+
+Nietzsche is on the right track when he ridicules such ideals as
+"virtue for virtue's sake," and even "truth for truth's sake." Virtue
+and truth are for the sake of life. They have not their purpose in
+themselves, but their nature consists in serving the expansion and
+further growth of the human soul. This is a truth which we have always
+insisted upon and which becomes apparent when those people who speak of
+virtue for its own sake try to define virtue, or determine the ultimate
+standard of right and wrong, of goodness and badness. We say, that
+whatever enhances soulgrowth, thus producing higher life and begetting
+a superior humanity, is good; while whatever cripples or retards those
+aspirations is bad. Further, truth is not holy in itself. It becomes
+holy in the measure that it serves man's holiest aspirations. We
+sometimes meet among scientists, and especially among philologists,
+men who with the ideal of "truth for truth's sake," pursue some very
+trivial investigations, such, for example, as the use of the accusative
+after certain prepositions in Greek, or how often Homer is guilty of a
+hiatus. They resemble Faust's famulus Wagner, whom Faust characterizes
+as a fool
+
+ ".... whose choice is
+ To stick in shallow trash for ever more,
+ Who digs with eager hand for buried ore,
+ And when he finds an angle-worm rejoices."
+
+Thus there are many trivial truths of no importance, the investigation
+of which serves no useful purpose. For instance, whether the correct
+pronunciation of the Greek letter _êta_; was _ee_ or _ay_ need not
+concern us much, and the philologist who devotes all his life and his
+best strength to its settlement is rather to be pitied than admired.
+Various truths are very different in value, for life and truth become
+holy according to their importance. All this granted, we need not, with
+Nietzsche, discard truth, reason, virtue, and all moral aspirations.
+
+Nietzsche apparently is under the illusion that reason, systematic
+thought, moral discipline and self-control, are external powers, and
+in his love of liberty he objects to their authority. Did he ever
+consider that thought is not an external agent, but a clarification of
+man's instincts, and that discipline is, or at least in its purpose
+and final aim ought to be, self-regulation, so that our contradictory
+thoughts would not wage an internecine war? Thus, Nietzsche, the
+instinct-philosopher, appears as an ingenious boy whose very
+immaturity is regarded by himself as the highest blossom of his
+existence. Like an intoxicated youth, he revels in his irresponsibility
+and laughs at the man who has learned to take life seriously. Because
+the love of truth originates from instincts, Nietzsche treats it as a
+mere instinct, and nothing else. He forgets that in the evolution of
+man's soul all instincts develop into something higher than instinct,
+and the love of truth develops into systematic science.
+
+Nietzsche never investigated what his own self consisted of. He never
+analyzed his individuality. Other-wise he would have learned that he
+received the most valuable part of his being from others, and that the
+bundle of instincts which he called his sovereign self was nothing but
+the heirloom of the ages that preceded him. In spite of his repudiation
+of any debt to others, he was but the continuation of others. But he
+boldly carried his individualism, if not to its logical conclusions,
+yet to its moral applications. When speaking of the Order of Assassins
+of the times of the Crusades, he said with enthusiasm: "The highest
+secret of their leaders was, 'Nothing is true, everything is allowed!'"
+And Nietzsche adds: "That indeed, was liberty of spirit; that dismissed
+even the belief in truth." The philosopher of instinct even regards
+the adherence to truth as slavery and the proclamation of truth as
+dogmatism.
+
+
+[1] See Nietzsche's poems in the appendix to _A Genealogy of Morals_,
+Eng. ed., Macmillan, p. 248.
+
+
+
+
+THE OVERMAN
+
+
+He quintessence of Nietzsche's philosophy is the "overman." What is the
+overman?
+
+The word (_Uebermensch_) comes from a good mint; it is of Goethe's
+coinage, and he used it in the sense of an awe-inspiring being, almost
+in the sense of _Unmensch_, to characterize Faust, the titanic man of
+high aims and undaunted courage,--the man who would not be moved in the
+presence of hell and pursued his aspirations in spite of the forbidding
+countenance of God and the ugly grin of Satan. But the same expression
+was used in its proper sense about two and a half millenniums ago
+in ancient China, where at the time of Lao-tze the term _chiün jen_
+[Chin. chars], "superior man," or _chiün tse_, "superior sage," was in
+common usage. But the overman or _chiün jen_ of Lao-tze, of Confucius
+and other Chinese sages is not a man of power, not a Napoleon, not
+an unprincipled tyrant, not a self-seeker of domineering will, not a
+man whose ego and its welfare is his sole and exclusive aim, but a
+Christlike figure, who puts his self behind and thus makes his self--a
+nobler and better self--come to the front, who does not retaliate, but
+returns good for evil,[1] a man (as the Greek sage describes him) who
+would rather suffer wrong than commit wrong.[2]
+
+This kind of higher man is the very opposite of Nietzsche's overman,
+and it is the spirit of this nobler conception of a higher humanity
+which furnishes the best ideas of all the religions of the world, of
+Lao-tze's Taoism, of Buddhism and of Christianity.
+
+Alexander Tille, the English translator of Nietzsche's _Thus Spake
+Zarathustra_, translates the word _Uebermensch_ by "beyond-man." But
+"beyond" means _jenseits_; and Nietzsche wrote _über_, i. e., superior
+to, over, or higher than, and the literal translation "overman" appears
+to be the best. It is certainly better than the barbaric combination of
+"superman" in which Latin and Saxon are mixed against one of the main
+rules for the construction of words. Say "superhuman" and "overman,"
+but not "overhuman" or "superman." Emerson in a similar vein, when
+attempting to characterize that which is higher than the soul, invented
+the term "oversoul," and I can see no objection to the word "overman."
+
+The overman is the higher man, the superhuman man of the future, a
+higher, nobler, more powerful, a better being than the present man!
+What a splendid idea! Since evolution has been accepted as a truth, we
+may fairly trust that we all believe in the overman. All our reformers
+believe in the possibility of realizing a higher mankind. We Americans
+especially have faith in the coming of the kingdom of the overman, and
+our endeavor is concentrated in hastening his arrival. The question is
+only, What is the overman and how can we make this ideal of a higher
+development actual?
+
+Happy Nietzsche! You need not trouble yourself about consistency;
+you reject all ideals as superstitions, and then introduce an ideal
+of your own. "There you see," says an admirer of Nietzsche, "what a
+splendid principle it is not to own any allegiance to logic, or rule,
+or consistency. The best thought of Nietzsche's would never have been
+uttered if he had remained faithful to his own principles."
+
+However ingenious the idea of an overman may be, Nietzsche carries his
+propositions to such extremes that in spite of many flashes of truth
+they become in the end ridiculous and even absurd. His ideal is good,
+but he utterly fails to comprehend its nature and also the mode in
+which alone the overman can be realized.
+
+Nietzsche proclaims the coming of the "overman," but his overman is not
+superior by intellect, wisdom, or nobility of character, but by vigor,
+by strength, by an unbending desire for power and an unscrupulous
+determination. The blond barbarian of the north who tramples under
+foot the citizens of Greece and Rome, Napoleon I, and the Assyrian
+conqueror,--such are his heroes in whom this higher manhood formerly
+manifested itself.
+
+He saw in the history of human thought, the development of the notion
+of the "true world," which to him was a mere subjective phantom, a
+superstition; but a reaction must set in, and he prophesied that the
+doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying the
+torch to its temples, churches and institutions. Upon the ruins of
+the old world the real man, the overman, would rise and establish his
+own empire, an empire of unlimited power in which the herds, i. e.,
+the common people, would become subservient. The "herd animal" (so
+Nietzsche called any one foolish enough to recognize morality and
+truth) is born to obey. He is destined to be trodden under foot by the
+overman who is strong, and also unscrupulous enough to use the herds
+and govern them.
+
+Nietzsche was by no means under the illusion that the rule of the
+overman would be lasting, but he took comfort in the thought that
+though there would be periods in which the slaves would assert
+themselves and establish an era of the herd animals, the overman
+would nevertheless assert himself from time to time, and this was
+what he called his "doctrine of the eternal return"--the gospel of
+his philosophy. The highest summit of existence is reached in those
+phases of the denouement of human life when the overman has full
+control over the herds which are driven into the field, sheared
+and butchered for the sole benefit of him who knows the secret that
+this world has no moral significance beyond being a prey to his good
+pleasure. Nietzsche's hope is certainly not desirable for the mass
+of mankind, but even the fate of the overman himself would appear as
+little enviable a condition as that of the tyrant Dionysius under the
+sword of Damocles, or the Czar of Russia living in constant fear of the
+anarchistic bomb.
+
+Nietzsche, feeling that his thoughts were untimely, lived in the
+hope of "the coming of the great day" on which his views would find
+recognition. He looked upon the present as a rebellion against the
+spirit of strength and vigor; Christianity especially, and its doctrine
+of humility and love for the down-trodden was hateful to him. He speaks
+of it as a rebellion of slaves and places in the same category the
+democraticism that now characterizes the tendency of human development
+which he denounces as a pseudo-civilization.
+
+He insists that the overman is beyond good and evil; and yet it
+is obvious that though he claims to be the first philosopher who
+maintained the principle of unmorality, he was only the first
+philosopher boldly to proclaim it. His maxim (or lack of maxims) has
+been stealthily and secretly in use among all those classes whom he
+calls "overmen," great and small. The great overmen are conquerors
+and tyrants, who meteorlike appear and disappear, the small ones are
+commonly characterized as the criminal classes; but there is this
+difference between the two, that the former, at least so far as they
+have succeeded, recognize the absolute necessity of establishing law
+and order, and though they may temporarily have infringed upon the
+rules of morality themselves, they have finally come always to the
+conclusion that in order to maintain their position they must enforce
+upon others the usual rules of morality.
+
+Both Alexander and Cæsar were magnanimous at the right moment. They
+showed mercy to the vanquished, they exercised justice frequently
+against their own personal likes or dislikes, and were by no means men
+of impulse as Nietzsche would have his overman be. The same is true
+of Napoleon whose success is mainly due to making himself subservient
+to the needs of his age. As soon as he assumed the highest power in
+France, Napoleon replaced the frivolous tone at his court, to which his
+first wife Josephine had been accustomed, by an observance of so-called
+_bourgeois_ decency, and he enforced it against her inclinations and
+his own.
+
+Further, Napoleon served the interests of Germany more than is
+commonly acknowledged by sweeping out of existence the mediæval
+system of innumerable sovereigns, ecclesiastical as well as secular,
+who in conformity with the conservative tenor of the German people
+had irremediably ensconced themselves in their hereditary rights
+to the disadvantage of the people. Moreover, the _Code Napoleon_,
+the new law book, perhaps the most enduring work of Napoleon, was
+compiled by the jurists of the time, not because Napoleon cared for
+justice, but because he saw that the only way of establishing a stable
+government was by acknowledging rules of equity and by enforcing
+their recognition. It is true that Napoleon made his service in the
+cause of right and justice a pedestal for himself, but in contrast to
+Nietzsche's ideas we must notice that this recognition of principle
+was the only way of success to a man whose natural tendency was an
+unbounded egotism, an unlimited desire for power.
+
+In spite of his enthusiasm in announcing the advent of an overman,
+Nietzsche would be a poor adviser for a rising usurper. He would be
+able to cause a great upheaval, to bring about a Volcanic eruption,
+or to raise a thunderstorm wherever restlessness prevails, but his
+philosophy lacks the principle of using discretion, or advising
+self-discipline, of applying scientific methods--all of which is
+indispensable for success. He preaches boldness, not wisdom; and a hero
+after Nietzsche's heart would be like a navigator who courageously
+ventures into the storm but scorns a chart and leaves the mariners'
+compass behind; he would steer not as circumstances demand but
+according to his own sweet will, and would be wrecked before ever
+reaching the harbor of overmanhood.
+
+How much greater is the ideal of the overman as taught by the ancient
+philosopher of China! He, the _chiün jen_, the superior man, does not
+need power either political or financial to be great; he does not need
+a pedestal of oppressed slaves to stand on; he is great in himself,
+because he has a great compassionate heart and a broad comprehensive
+mind. He is simple, and, as we read in the _Tao Teh King_, "He wears
+wool [is not dressed in silk and purple] and wears his jewel concealed
+in his bosom."
+
+
+[1] _Lao-tse's Tao Teh King_, Chaps. 49 and 63.
+
+[2] For a collection of Greek quotations on the ethics of returning
+good for evil, see _The Open Court_, Vol. XV, 1901, pp. 9-12.
+
+
+
+
+ZARATHUSTRA
+
+
+To those who have not the time to wade through the twelve volumes of
+Nietzsche's works and yet wish to become acquainted with him at his
+best, we recommend a perusal of his book _Thus Spake Zarathustra_.
+It is original and interesting, full of striking passages, sometimes
+flashes with deep truths, then again is sterile and unprofitable, or
+even tedious, and sometimes absurd; but at any rate it presents the
+embodiment of Nietzsche's grandest thoughts in their most attractive
+and characteristic form. We need scarcely warn the reader that
+Zarathustra is only another name for Friedrich Nietzsche and has
+nothing to do with the historical person of that name, the great
+Iranian prophet, the founder of Mazdaism.
+
+Nietzsche's Zarathustra is a hermit philosopher who, weary of his
+wisdom, leaves his cave and comes to mingle with men, to teach them the
+overman. He meets a saint who loves God, and Zarathustra leaving him
+says: "Is it possible? This old saint in his forest has not yet heard
+that God is dead!"
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE IN THE PRIME OF LIFE.]
+
+Zarathustra preaches to a crowd in the market:
+
+ "I teach you the overman. Man is a something that shall be
+ surpassed. What have ye done to surpass him?
+
+ "All beings hitherto have created something beyond
+ themselves: and are ye going to be the ebb of this great
+ tide and rather revert to the animal than surpass man?
+
+ "What with man is the ape? A joke or a sore shame. Man
+ shall be the same for the overman, a joke or a sore shame.
+
+ "Behold, I teach you the overman!
+
+ "The overman is the significance of the earth. Your will
+ shall say; the overman shall be the significance of the
+ earth.
+
+ "I conjure you, my brethren, remain faithful to the
+ earth and do not believe those who speak unto you of
+ superterrestrial hopes! Poisoners they are whether they
+ know it or not.
+
+ "Verily, a muddy stream is man. One must be the ocean to
+ be able to receive a muddy stream without becoming unclean.
+
+ "Behold, I teach you the overman: he is that ocean, in him
+ your great contempt can sink.
+
+ "What is the greatest thing ye can experience? That is
+ the hour of great contempt. The hour in which not only
+ your happiness, but your reason and virtue as well, turn
+ loathsome.
+
+ "I love him who is of a free spirit and of a free heart:
+ thus his head is merely the intestine of his heart, but
+ his heart driveth him to destruction.
+
+ "I love all those who are like heavy drops falling one by
+ one from the dark cloud lowering over men: they announce
+ the coming of the lightning and perish in the announcing.
+
+ "Behold, I am an announcer of the lightning and a heavy
+ drop from the clouds; that lightning's name it the
+ overman."
+
+Zarathustra comes as an enemy of the good and the just. He says:
+
+ "Lo, the good and just! Whom do they hate most? Him
+ who breaketh to pieces their tables of values,--the
+ law-breaker, the criminal:--but he is the creator.
+
+ "The destroyer of morality I am called by the good and
+ just: my tale is immoral."
+
+[Illustration: COINS OF ANCIENT ELIS. Each is worth two drachmæ. One
+shows on the obverse a Zeus head with a laurel wreath, the other a
+winged Victory.]
+
+Nietzsche's favorite animals are the proud eagle and the cunning
+serpent, the former because it typifies aristocracy, the latter as
+the wisest among all creatures of the earth. It is a strange and
+exceptional combination, for these two animals are commonly represented
+as enemies. The eagle and serpent was the emblem of ancient Elis and
+is at present the coat-of-arms of Mexico, but in both cases the eagle
+is interpreted to be the conqueror of the serpent, not its friend,
+carrying it as his prey in his claws.
+
+Zarathustra's philosophy is a combination of the eagle's pride and the
+serpent's wisdom, which Nietzsche describes thus:
+
+ "Lo! an eagle swept through the air in wide circles,
+ a serpent hanging from it not like a prey, but like a
+ friend: coiling round its neck.
+
+ "They are mine animals,' said Zarathustra and rejoiced
+ heartily.
+
+ "The proudest animal under the sun, and the wisest animal
+ under the sun have set out to reconnoitre.
+
+ "They wish to learn whether Zarathustra still liveth.
+ Verily, do I still live.
+
+ "More dangerous than among animals I found it among men.
+ Dangerous ways are taken by Zarathustra. Let mine animals
+ lead me!"
+
+Here is a sentence worth quoting:
+
+ "Of all that is written I love only that which the writer
+ wrote with his blood. Write with blood, and thou wilt
+ learn that blood is spirit."
+
+In another chapter on the back-worlds-men Nietzsche writes:
+
+ "Once Zarathustra threw his spell beyond man, like all
+ back-worlds-men. Then the world seemed to me the work of a
+ suffering and tortured God.
+
+ "Alas! brethren, that God whom I created was man's work
+ and man's madness, like all Gods!
+
+ "Man he was, and but a poor piece of man and the I. From
+ mine own ashes and flame it came unto me, that ghost yea
+ verily! It did not come unto me from beyond!
+
+ "What happened, brethren? I overcame myself, the sufferer,
+ and carrying mine own ashes unto the mountains invented
+ for myself a brighter flame. And lo! the ghost departed
+ from me!
+
+ "Now to me, the convalescent, it would be suffering and
+ pain to believe in such ghosts: suffering it would be for
+ me and humiliation. Thus spake I unto the back-worlds-men."
+
+Nietzsche's self is not ideal but material; it is not thought, not even
+the will, but the body. The following passage sounds like Vedantism as
+interpreted by a materialist:
+
+ "He who is awake and knoweth saith: Body I am throughout,
+ and nothing besides; and soul is merely a word for a
+ something in body.
+
+ "Body is one great reason, a plurality with one sense, a
+ war and a peace, a flock and a herdsman.
+
+ "Also thy little reason, my brother, which thou callest
+ 'spirit'--it is a tool of thy body, a little tool and toy
+ of thy great reason.
+
+ "T, thou sayest and art proud of that word. But the
+ greater thing is--which thou wilt not believe--thy body
+ and its great reason. It doth not say T, but it is the
+ acting 'I.'
+
+ "The self ever listeneth and seeketh: it compareth,
+ subdueth, conquereth, destroyeth. It ruleth and is the
+ ruler of the 'I' as well.
+
+ "Behind thy thoughts and feelings, my brother, standeth a
+ mighty lord, an unknown wise man--whose name is self. In
+ thy body he dwelleth, thy body he is.
+
+ "There is more reason in thy body than in thy best wisdom.
+ And who can know why thy body needeth thy beat wisdom?
+
+ "Thy self laugheth at thine 'I' and its prancings: What
+ are these boundings and flights of thought? it saith
+ unto itself. A round-about way to my purpose. I am the
+ leading-string of the I and the suggester of its concepts.
+
+ "The creative self created for itself valuing and
+ despising, it created for itself lust and woe. The
+ creative body created for itself the spirit to be the hand
+ of its will."
+
+One of the best passages in Zarathustra's sermons is Nietzsche's
+command to love the overman, the man of the distant future:
+
+ "I tell you, your love of your neighbor is your bad love
+ of yourselves.
+
+ "Ye flee from yourselves unto your neighbor and would
+ fain make a virtue thereof; but I see through your
+ unselfishness.'
+
+ "The thou is older than the I; the thou hath been
+ proclaimed holy, but the I not yet; man thus thrusteth
+ himself upon his neighbor.
+
+ "Do I counsel you to love your neighbor? I rather counsel
+ you to flee from your neighbor and to love the most remote.
+
+ "Love unto the most remote future man is higher than love
+ unto your neighbor. And I consider love unto things and
+ ghosts to be higher than love unto men.
+
+ "This ghost which marcheth before thee, my brother, is
+ more beautiful than thou art. Why dost thou not give him
+ thy flesh and thy bones? Thou art afraid and fleest unto
+ thy neighbor.
+
+ "Unable to endure yourselves and not loving yourselves
+ enough, you seek to wheedle your neighbor into loving you
+ and thus to gild you with his error.
+
+ "My brethren, I counsel you not to love your neighbor; I
+ counsel you to love those who are the most remote."
+
+In perfect agreement with the ideal of the overman is Nietzsche's view
+of marriage, and verily it contains a very true and noble thought:
+
+ "Thou shalt build beyond thyself. But first thou must be
+ built thyself square in body and soul.
+
+ "Thou shalt not only propagate thyself but propagate
+ thyself upwards! Therefore the garden of marriage may help
+ thee!
+
+ "Thou shalt create a higher body, a prime motor, a wheel
+ of self-rolling,--thou shalt create a creator.
+
+ "Marriage: thus I call the will of two to create that one
+ which is more than they who created it I call marriage
+ reverence unto each other as unto those who will such a
+ will.
+
+ "Let this be the significance and the truth of thy
+ marriage. But that which the much-too-many call marriage,
+ those superfluous--alas, what call I that?
+
+ "Alas! that soul's poverty of two! Alas! that soul's dirt
+ of two! Alas! that miserable ease of two!
+
+ "Marriage they call that; and they say marriage is made in
+ heaven.
+
+ "Well, I like it not that heaven of the superfluous!"
+
+Nietzsche takes a Schopenhauerian view of womankind, excepting from the
+common condemnation his sister alone, to whom he once said, "You are
+not a woman, you are a friend." He says of woman:
+
+ "Too long a slave and a tyrant have been hidden in woman.
+ Therefore woman is not yet capable of friendship; she
+ knoweth love only."
+
+Nietzsche is not aware that the self changes and that it grows by the
+acquisition of truth. He treats the self as remaining the same, and
+truth as that which our will has made conceivable. Truth to him is a
+mere creature of the self. Here is Zarathustra's condemnation of man's
+search for truth:
+
+ "'Will unto truth' ye call, ye wisest men, what inspireth
+ you and maketh you ardent?
+
+ "'Will unto the conceivableness of all that is,'--thus I
+ call your will!
+
+ "All that is ye are going to make conceivable. For with
+ good mistrust ye doubt whether it is conceivable.
+
+ "But it hath to submit itself and bend before yourselves!
+ Thus your will willeth. Smooth it shall become and subject
+ unto spirit as its mirror and reflected image.
+
+ "That is your entire will, ye wisest men, as a will
+ unto power; even when ye speak of good and evil and of
+ valuations.
+
+ "Ye will create the world before which to kneel down. Thus
+ it is your last hope and drunkenness."
+
+Recognition of truth is regarded as submission:
+
+ "To be true,--few are able to be so! And he who is able
+ doth not want to be so. But least of all the good are able.
+
+ "Oh, these good people! _Good men never speak the truth_.
+ To be good in that way is a sickness for the mind.
+
+ "They yield, these good men, they submit themselves;
+ their heart saith what is said unto it, their foundation
+ obeyeth. But whoever obeyeth doth not hear _himself_!"
+
+Nietzsche despises science. He must have had sorry experiences with
+scientists who offered him the dry bones of scholarship as scientific
+truth.
+
+ "When I lay sleeping, a sheep ate at the ivy-wreath of my
+ head,--ate and said eating: 'Zarathustra is no longer a
+ scholar.'
+
+ "Said it and went off clumsily and proudly. So a child
+ told me.
+
+ "This is the truth: I have departed from the house of
+ scholars, and the door I have shut violently behind me.
+
+ "Too long sat my soul hungry at their table. Not, as they,
+ am I trained for perceiving as for cracking nuts.
+
+ "Freedom I love, and a breeze over a fresh soil. And I
+ would rather sleep on ox-skins then on their honors and
+ respectabilities.
+
+ "I am too hot and am burnt with mine own thoughts, so as
+ often to take my breath away. Then I must go into the open
+ air and away from all dusty rooms.
+
+ "Like millworks they work, and like corn-crushers. Let
+ folk only throw their grain into them! They know only too
+ well how to grind corn and make white dust out of it.
+
+ "They look well at each other's fingers and trust each
+ other not over-much. Ingenious in little stratagems, they
+ wait for those whose knowledge walketh on lame feet; like
+ spiders they wait.
+
+ "They also know how to play with false dice; and I found
+ them playing so eagerly that they perspired from it.
+
+ "We are strangers unto each other, and their virtues are
+ still more contrary unto my taste than their falsehoods
+ and false dice."
+
+Even if all scientists were puny sciolists, the ideal of science would
+remain, and if all the professed seekers for truth were faithless to
+and unworthy of their high calling, truth itself would not be abolished.
+
+So far as we can see, Nietzsche never became acquainted with any one of
+the exact sciences. He was a philologist who felt greatly dissatisfied
+with the loose methods of his colleagues, but he has not done much
+in his own specialty to attain to a greater exactness of results.
+His essays on Homer, on the Greek tragedy, and similar subjects,
+have apparently not received much recognition among philologists and
+historians.
+
+Having gathered a number of followers in his cave, one of them, called
+the conscientious man, said to the others:
+
+ "We seek different things, even up here, ye and I.
+ For I seek more security. Therefore have I come unto
+ Zarathustra. For he is the firmest tower and will--
+
+ "Fear--that is man's hereditary and fundamental feeling.
+ By fear everything is explained, original sin and original
+ virtue. Out of fear also hath grown my virtue, which is
+ called Science.
+
+ "Such long, old fears, at last become refined, spiritual,
+ intellectual, to-day, methinketh, it is called _Science_."
+
+This conception of science is refuted by Nietzsche in this fashion:
+
+ "Thus spake the conscientious one. But Zarathustra, who
+ had just returned into his cave and had heard the last
+ speech and guessed its sense, threw a handful of roses at
+ the conscientious one, laughing at his 'truths.' 'What?'
+ he called. 'What did I hear just now? Verily, methinketh,
+ thou art a fool, or I am one myself. And thy "truth" I
+ turn upside down with one blow, and that quickly.'
+
+ "'For fear is our exception. But courage and adventure,
+ and the joy of what is uncertain, what hath never been
+ dared--courage, methinketh, is the whole prehistoric
+ development of man.
+
+ "'From the wildest, most courageous beasts he hath, by his
+ envy and his preying, won all their virtues. Only thus
+ hath he become a man.
+
+ "'_This_ courage, at last become refined, spiritual,
+ intellectual, this human courage with an eagle's wings and
+ a serpent's wisdom--it, methinketh, is called to-day--'
+
+ "'_Zarathustra_!' cried all who sat together there, as
+ from one mouth making a great laughter withal."
+
+ In spite of identifying the self with the body, which is
+ mortal, Nietzsche longs for the immortal. He says:
+
+ "Oh! how could I fail to be eager for eternity, and for
+ the marriage-ring of rings, the ring of recurrence?
+
+ "Never yet have I found the woman by whom I should like to
+ have had children, unless it be this woman I love--for I
+ love thee, O Eternity!"
+
+[Illustration: NIETZSCHE'S HANDWRITING.]
+
+The best known of Nietzsche's poems forms the conclusion of Thus Spake
+Zarathustra, the most impressive work of Nietzsche, and is called
+by him "The Drunken Song." The thoughts are almost incoherent and
+it is difficult to say what is really meant by it. Nothing is more
+characteristic of Nietzsche's attitude and the vagueness of his fitful
+mode of thought. It has been illustrated by Hans Lindlof, in the same
+spirit in which Richard Strauss has written a musical composition on
+the theme of Nietzsche's _Thus Spake Zarathustra._
+
+[Illustration: NIETZSCHE'S DRUNKEN SONG--ILLUSTRATION BY LINDLOF.]
+
+"The Drunken Song" reads in our translation as follows:
+
+ "Man, listen, pray!
+ What the deep midnight has to say:
+ 'I lay asleep,
+ 'But woke from dreams deep and distraught
+ The world is deep,
+ 'E'en deeper than the day e'er thought.
+ 'Deep's the world's pain,--
+ 'Joy deeper still than heartache's burning.
+ 'Pain says, Life's vain!
+ 'But for eternity Joy's yearning.
+ 'For deep eternity Joy's yearning!'"
+
+Prof. William Benjamin Smith has translated this same song, and we
+think it will be interesting to our readers to compare his translation
+with our rendering. It reads as follows:
+
+ "Oh Man! Give ear!
+ What saith the midnight deep and drear?
+ 'From sleep, from sleep
+ 'I woke as from a dream profound.
+ 'The world is deep
+ 'And deeper than the day can sound.
+ 'Deep is its woe,--
+ 'Joy, deeper still than heart's distress.
+ 'Woe saith, Forego!
+ 'But Joy wills everlastingness,--
+ 'Wills deep, deep everlastingness.'"
+
+
+
+
+A PROTEST AGAINST HIMSELF
+
+
+Nietzsche is far from regarding his philosophy as timely. He was
+a proud and aristocratic character, spoiled from childhood by an
+unfaltering admiration on the part of both his mother and sister.
+It was unfortunate for him that his father had died before he could
+influence the early years of his son through wholesome discipline.
+Not enjoying a vigorous constitution Nietzsche was greatly impressed
+with the thought that a general decadence was overshadowing mankind.
+The truth was that his own bodily system was subject to many ailments
+which hampered his mental improvement. He was hungering for health, he
+envied the man of energy, he longed for strength and vigor, but all
+this was denied him, and so these very shortcomings of his own bodily
+strength--his own decadence--prompted in him a yearning for bodily
+health, for an unbounded exercise of energy, and for success. These
+were his dearest ideals, and his desire for power was his highest
+ambition. He saw in the history of human thought, the development of
+the notion of the "true world," which to him was a mere subjective
+phantom, a superstition; but a reaction would set in, and he prophesied
+that the doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying
+the torch to its temples, churches and institutions. Upon the ruins of
+the old world the real man, the overman, would rise and establish his
+own empire, an empire of unlimited power in which the herds, i. e., the
+common people would become subservient.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy forms a strange contrast to his own habits of
+life. A model of virtue, he made himself the advocate of vice, and
+gloried in it. He encouraged the robber[1] to rob, but he himself was
+honesty incarnate; he incited the people to rebel against authority of
+all kinds, but he himself was a "model child" in the nursery, a "model
+scholar" in school, and a "model soldier" while serving in the German
+army. His teachers as well as the officers of his regiment fail to find
+words enough to _praise Nietzsche's obedience_.[2]
+
+Nietzsche's professors declare that he distinguished himself "_durch
+pünktlichen Gehorsam_" (p. 3); his sister tells us that she and her
+brother were "_ungeheuer artig, wahre Musterkinder_" (p. 36). He makes
+a good soldier, and, in spite of his denunciations of posing, displays
+theatrical vanity in having himself photographed with drawn sword (the
+scabbard is missing). His martial mustache almost anticipates the
+tonsorial art of the imperial barber of the present Kaiser; and yet
+his spectacled eyes and good-natured features betray the peacefulness
+of his intentions. He plays the soldier only, and would have found
+difficulty in killing even a fly.
+
+Nietzsche disclaims ever having learned anything in any school, but
+there never was a more grateful German pupil in Germany. He composed
+fervid poems on his school--the well known institution Schulpforta,
+which on account of its severe discipline he praises, not in irony but
+seriously, as the "narrow gate."[3]
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS A VOLUNTEER IN THE GERMAN
+ARTILLERY, 1868.]
+
+Nietzsche denounces the German character, German institutions, and
+the German language, his mother-tongue, and is extremely unfair in
+his denunciations. He takes pleasure in the fact that _Deutsch_ (see
+Ulfila's Bible translation) originally means "pagans or heathen," and
+hopes that the dear German people will earn the honor of being called
+pagans. (_La Gaya Scienza_, p. 176.) A reaction against his patriotism
+set in immediately after the war, when he became acquainted with the
+brutality of some vulgar specimens of the victorious nation,--most of
+them non-combatants.[4]
+
+Nietzsche not only wrote in German and made the most involved
+constructions, but when the war broke out he asked his adopted country
+Switzerland, in which he had acquired citizenship after accepting
+a position as professor of classical languages at the University
+of Basel, for leave of absence to join the German army. In the
+Franco-Prussian war he might have had a chance to live up to his
+theories of struggle, but unfortunately the Swiss authorities did
+not allow him to join the army, and granted leave of absence only on
+condition that he would serve as a nurse. Such is the irony of fate.
+While Nietzsche stood up for a ruthless assertion of strength and for
+a suppression of sympathy which he denounced as a relic of the ethics
+of a negation of life, his own tender soul was so over-sensitive that
+his sister feels justified in tracing his disease back to the terrible
+impressions he received during the war.
+
+Nietzsche speaks of the king as "the dear father of the country."[5]
+If there was a flaw in Nietzsche's moral character, it was
+goody-goodyness; and his philosophy is a protest against the principles
+of his own nature. While boldly calling himself "the first unmoralist,"
+justifying even license itself and defending the coarsest lust,[6] his
+own life might have earned him the name of sissy, and he shrank in
+disgust from moral filth wherever he met with it in practical life.
+
+Nietzsche denounced pessimism, and yet his philosophy was, as he
+himself confesses, the last consequence of pessimism. Hegel declared
+(says Nietzsche in _Morgenröthe_, p. 8), "Contradiction moves the
+world, all things are self-contradictory"; "we (adds Nietzsche) carry
+pessimism even into logic." He proposes to vivisect morality; "but
+(adds he) you cannot vivisect a thing without killing it." Thus his
+"unmoralism" is simply an expression of his earnestness to investigate
+the moral problem, and he expresses the result in the terse sentence;
+_Moral ist Nothlüge_ (_Menschliches_, p. 63.)
+
+He preached struggle and hatred, and yet was so tender-hearted that
+in an hour of dejection he confessed to his sister with a sigh: "I
+was not at all made to hate or be an enemy."[7] The decadence which
+he imputes to mankind is a mere reflection of his own state of mind,
+and the strength which he praises is that quality in which he is most
+sorely lacking. Nietzsche himself had the least possible connection
+with active life. He was unmarried, had no children, nor any interests
+beyond his ambition, and having served as professor of the classical
+languages for some time at the small university of Basel, he was for
+the greater part of his life without a calling, without duties, without
+aims. He never ventured to put his own theories into practice. He did
+not even try to rise as a prophet of his own philosophy, and remained
+in isolation to the very end of his life.
+
+Nietzsche must have felt the contradiction between his theories and
+his habits of life, and it appears that he suffered under it more than
+can be estimated by an impartial reader of his books. He was like the
+bird in the cage who sings of liberty, or an apoplectic patient who
+dreams of deeds of valor as a knight in tournament or as a wrestler in
+the prize ring. Never was craving for power more closely united with
+impotence!
+
+It is characteristic of him that he said, "If there were a God, how
+should I endure not to be God?" and so his ambition impelled him at
+least to prophesy the coming of his ideal, i. e., robust health, full
+of bodily vigor and animal spirits, unchecked by any rule of morality,
+and an unstinted use of power.
+
+Nietzsche had an exaggerated conception of his vocation and he saw
+in himself the mouthpiece of that grandest and deepest truth, viz.,
+that man should dare to be himself without any regard of morality
+or consideration for his fellow beings. And here we have the tragic
+element of his life. Nietzsche, the atheist, deemed himself a God
+incarnate, and the despiser of the Crucified, suffered a martyr's fate
+in offering his own life to the cause of his hope. The earnestness
+with which he preached his wild and untenable doctrines appeals to
+us and renders his figure sympathetic, which otherwise would be
+grotesque. Think of a man who in his megalomania preaches a doctrine
+that justifies an irresponsible desire for power! Would he not be
+ridiculous in his impotence to actualize his dream? and on the other
+hand, if he were strong enough to practice what he preached, if like
+another Napoleon, he would make true his dreams of enslaving the world,
+would not mankind in self-defense soon rise in rebellion and treat
+him as a criminal, rendering him and his followers incapable of doing
+harm? But Nietzsche's personality, weak and impotent and powerless to
+appear as the overman and to subjugate the world to his will, suffered
+excruciating pains in his soul and tormented himself to death, which
+came to him in the form of decadence--a softening of the brain.
+
+Poor Nietzsche! what a bundle of contradictions! None of these
+contradictions are inexplicable. All of them are quite natural. They
+are the inevitable reactions against a prior enthusiasm, and he swings,
+according to the law of the pendulum, to the opposite extreme of his
+former position.
+
+How did Nietzsche develop into an unmoralist? Simply by way of
+reaction against the influence of Schopenhauer in combination with the
+traditional Christianity.
+
+Nietzsche passed through three periods in his development. He was
+first a follower of Schopenhauer and an admirer of Wagner, but he
+shattered his idols and became a convert to Auguste Comte's positivism.
+Schopenhauer was the master at whose feet Nietzsche sat; from him
+he learned boldness of thought and atheism, that this world is a
+world of misery and struggle. He accepted for a time Schopenhauer's
+pessimism but rebelled in his inmost soul against the ethical doctrine
+of the negation of the will. He retained Schopenhauer's contempt for
+previous philosophers (presumably he never tried to understand them)
+yet he resented the thought of a negation of life and replaced it by
+a most emphatic assertion. He thus recognized the reactionary spirit
+of Schopenhauer, whose system is a Christian metaphysics. Nietzsche
+denounces the ethics of a negation of the will as a disease, and since
+nature in the old system is regarded as the source of moral evil the
+idea dawns on him that he himself, trying to establish a philosophy of
+nature, is an immoralist. He now questions morality itself from the
+standpoint of an affirmation of the will, and at last goes so far as to
+speak of ideals as a symptom of shallowness.[8]
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS PROFESSOR AT BASLE.]
+
+Nietzsche argued that our conception of truth and our ideal world
+is but a phantasmagoria, and the picture of the universe in our
+consciousness a distorted image of real life. Our pleasures and pains,
+too, are both transient and subjective. Accordingly it would be a gross
+mistake for us to exaggerate their importance. What does it matter if
+we endure a little more or less pain, or of what use are the pleasures
+in which we might indulge? The realities of life consist in power, and
+in our dominion over the forces that dominate life. Knowledge and truth
+are of no use unless they become subservient to this realistic desire
+for power. They are mere means to an end which is the superiority of
+the overman, the representative of Nietzsche's philosophy by whom
+the mass of mankind are to be enslaved. This view constitutes his
+third period, in which he wrote those works that are peculiarly
+characteristic of his own philosophy.
+
+Nietzsche must not be taken too seriously. He was engaged with the
+deepest problems of life, and published his opinions as to their
+solution before he had actually attempted to investigate them. He
+criticised and attacked like the Irishman who hits a head wherever he
+sees it. Here are the first three rules of his philosophical warfare:
+
+"First: I attack only those causes which are victorious, sometimes I
+wait till they are victorious. Secondly: I attack them only when I
+would find no allies, when I stand isolated, when I compromise myself
+alone. Thirdly: I have never taken a step in public which did not
+compromise me. That is my criterion of right action."
+
+A man who adopts this strange criterion of right conduct must produce
+a strange philosophy. His soul is in an uproar against itself. Says
+Nietzsche in his _Götzendämmerung_, Aphorism 45:
+
+ "Almost every genius knows as one phase of his development
+ the 'Catilinary existence,' so-called, which is a feeling
+ of hatred, of vengeance, of revolution against everything
+ that is, which no longer needs to become ... Catiline--the
+ form of Cæsar's pre-existence."
+
+Nietzsche changed his views during his life-time, and the unmoralist
+Nietzsche originated in contradiction to his habitual moralism. He was
+a man of extremes. As soon as a new thought dawned on him, it took
+possession of his soul to the exclusion of his prior views, and his
+later self contradicts his former self.
+
+Nietzsche says:
+
+"The serpent that cannot slough must die. In the same way, the spirits
+which are prevented from changing their opinions cease to be spirits."
+
+So we must expect that if Nietzsche had been permitted to continue
+longer in health, he would have cast off the slough of his immoralism
+and the negative conceptions of his positivism. His _Zarathustra_ was
+the last work of his pen, but it is only the most classical expression
+of the fermentation of his soul, not the final purified result of his
+philosophy; it is not the solution of the problem that stirred his
+heart.
+
+While writing his _Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen_, Nietzsche
+characterizes his method of work thus:
+
+ "That I proceed with my outpourings considerably like a
+ dilettante and in an immature manner, I know very well,
+ but I am anxious first of all to get rid of the whole
+ polemico-negative material. I wish undisturbedly to sing
+ off, up and down and truly dastardly, the whole gamut
+ of my hostile feelings, 'that the vaults shall echo
+ back.'[9] Later on, i. e., within five years, I shall
+ discard all polemics and bethink myself of a really 'good
+ work,' But at present my breast is oppressed with disgust
+ and tribulation. I must expectorate, decorously and
+ indecorously, but radically and for good" [_endgültig_].
+
+The writings of Nietzsche will make the impression of a youthful
+immaturity upon any half-way serious reader. There is a hankering
+after originality which of necessity leads to aberrations and a
+sovereign contempt for the merits of the past. The world seems
+endangered, and yet any one who would seriously try to live up to
+Nietzsche's ideal must naturally sober down after a while, and we may
+apply to him what Mephistopheles says of the baccalaureus:
+
+ "Yet even from him we're not in special peril
+ He will, ere long, to other thoughts incline.
+ The must may foam absurdly in the barrel.
+ Nathless, it turns at last to wine."
+ _Tr. by Bayard Taylor._
+
+Nietzsche did not live long enough to experience a period of matured
+thought. He died before the fermentation of his mind had come to its
+normal close, and so his life will remain forever a great torso,
+without intrinsic worth, but suggestive and appealing only to the
+immature, including the "herd animal" who would like to be an overman.
+
+The very immaturity of Nietzsche's view becomes attractive to
+immature minds. He wrote while his thoughts were still in a state of
+fermentation, and he died before the wine of his soul was clarified.
+
+Nietzsche is an almost tragic figure that will live in art as a
+brooding thinker, a representative of the dissatisfied, a man of an
+insatiable love of life, with wild and unsteady looks, proud in his
+indomitable self-assertion, but broken in body and spirit. Such he was
+in his last disease when his mind was wrapt in the eternal night of
+dementia, the oppressive consciousness of which made him exclaim in
+lucid moments the pitiable complaint. "_Mutter, ich bin dumm_" As such
+he is represented in Klein's statue,[10] which in its pathetic posture
+is a psychological masterpiece.
+
+[Illustration: FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE--THE LATEST PORTRAIT, AFTER AN OIL
+PAINTING BY C. STOEVING.]
+
+Nietzsche's works are poetic effusions more than philosophical
+expositions and yet we would hesitate to call him a poet. His poems are
+not poetical in the usual sense. They lack poetry and yet they appeal
+not only to his admirers, but also to his critics and enemies. Most
+of them are artificial yet they are so characteristic that they are
+interesting specimens of a peculiar kind of taste. They strike us as
+ingenious, because they reflect his eccentricities.
+
+In a poem entitled "Ecce Homo"[11] he characterizes himself:
+
+ "Yea, I know from whence I came!
+ Never satiate, like the flame
+ Glow I and consume me too
+ Into light turns what I find,
+ Cinders do I leave behind,
+ Flame am I, 'tis surely true."
+
+
+
+[1] E.g.:
+
+ "Bitte nie! Lass dies Gewimmer!
+ Nimm, ich bitte dich, nimm immer!"
+
+
+[2] Compare _Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's_ by his sister, Elisabeth
+Förster-Nietzsche.
+
+[3] Leben, pp. 90-97.
+
+[4] (See, e. g., Leben, II., 1, pp. 108-111.) "Nach dem Kriege missfiel
+mir der Luxus, die Franzosenverachtung," etc., p. 108. "Ich halte
+das jetzige Preussen für eine der Cultur höchst gefährliche Macht."
+Nietzsche ridicules the German language as barbarous in sound (_La
+Gaya Scienza_, pp. 138-140), "wälderhaft, heiser, wie aus räucherigen
+Stuben und unhöflichen Gegenden." Unique is the origin of the standard
+style of modern high German from the bureaucratic slang, "kanzleimässig
+schreiben, das war etwas Vornehmes" (_La Gaya Scienza_, p. 138), and
+at present the German changes into an "Offizierdeutsch" (ibid., p.
+139). Nietzsche suspects, "the German depth," "die deutsche Tiefe," to
+be a mere mental dyspepsia (see "Jenseits von Gut und Böse," p. 211),
+saying, "Der Deutsche verdaut seine Ereignisse schlecht, or wird nie
+damit fertig; die deutsche Tiefe ist oft nur eine schwere, zögernde
+Verdauung." Nevertheless, he holds that the old-fashioned German depth
+is better than modern Prussian "Schneidigkeit und Berliner Witz und
+Sand." He prefers the company of the Swiss to that of his countrymen.
+(See also "Was den Deutschen abgeht," Vol. 8, p. 108.)
+
+[5] "Unser lieber König," "der Landesvater," etc. See _Leben_, I., p.
+24, and IL, 1, p. 248, "Unser lieber alter Kaiser Wilhelm," and "wir
+Preussen waren wirklich stolz." These expressions occur in Nietzsche's
+description of the Emperor's appearance at Bayreuth.
+
+[6] _E.g._, "Auch der schädlichste Mensch ist vielleicht immer noch
+der allernützlichste in Hinsicht auf Erhaltung der Art," etc. _La Gaya
+Scienza_, p. 3 ff.
+
+[7] "Ich bin so gar nicht zum Hassen und zum Feind sein gemacht!"
+
+[8] See, e. g., _Leben_, I., p. 135, where he speaks of a new
+"Freigeisterei," denouncing the "libres penseurs" as "unverbesserliche
+Flachköpfe und Hanswürste," adding, "Sie glauben allesammt noch an's
+'Ideal.'"
+
+[9] "Dass das Gewölbe wiederhallt,"--a quotation from Goethe's "Faust."
+
+[10] Reproduced as the frontispiece of this book.
+
+[11]
+
+"Ja, ich weiss woher ich stamme!
+Ungesättigt gleich der Flamme,
+Glühe und verzehr ich mich,
+licht wird alles was ich fasse,
+Kohle alles was ich lasse:
+Flamme bin ich sicherlich!"
+
+
+
+
+
+NIETZSCHE'S PREDECESSOR
+
+
+Friedrich Nietzsche, the author of _Thus Spake Zarathustra_ and the
+inventor of the new ideal called the "overman," is commonly regarded
+as the most extreme egotist, to whom morality is non-existent and who
+glories in the coming of the day in which a man of his liking--the
+overman--would live au grand jour. His philosophy is an individualism
+carried to its utmost extreme, sanctioning egotism, denouncing altruism
+and establishing the right of the strong to trample the weak under
+foot. It is little known, however, that he followed another thinker,
+Johann Caspar Schmidt, whose extreme individualism he adopted. But this
+forerunner who preached a philosophy of the sovereignty of self and an
+utter disregard of our neighbors' rights remained unheeded; he lived in
+obscurity, he died in poverty, and under the pseudonym "Max Stirner" he
+left behind a book entitled _Der Einzige und sein Eigentum_.
+
+The historian Lange briefly mentioned him in his _History of
+Materialism_, and the novelist John Henry Mackay followed up the
+reference which led to the discovery of this lonely comet on the
+philosophical sky.[1]
+
+The strangest thing about this remarkable book consists in the many
+coincidences with Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy. It is commonly
+deemed impossible that the famous spokesman of the overman should not
+have been thoroughly familiar with this failure in the philosophical
+book market; but while Stirner was forgotten the same ideas
+transplanted into the volumes of the author of _Thus Spake Zarathustra_
+found an echo first in Germany and soon afterwards all over the world.
+
+Stirner's book has been Englished by Stephen T. Byington with an
+introduction by J. L. Walker at the instigation of Benjamin R. Tucker,
+the representative of American peaceful anarchism, under the title
+_The Ego and His Own_. They have been helped by Mr. George Schumm and
+his wife, Mrs. Emma Heller Schümm. These five persons, all interested
+in this lonely and unique thinker, must have had much trouble in
+translating the German original and though the final rendering of the
+title is not inappropriate, the translator and his advisers agree
+that it falls short of the mark. For the accepted form Mr. B. R.
+Tucker is responsible, and he admits in the preface that it is not
+an exact equivalent of the German. _Der Einzige_ means "the unique
+man," a person of a definite individuality, but in the book itself our
+author modifies and enriches the meaning of the term. The unique man
+becomes the ego and an owner (_ein Eigener_), a man who is possessed of
+property, especially of his own being. He is a master of his own and
+he prides himself on his ownhood, as well as his ownership. As such he
+is unique, and the very term indicates that the thinker who proposes
+this view-point is an extreme individualist. In Stirner's opinion
+Christianity pursued the ideal of liberty from the world; and in this
+sense Christians speak of spiritual liberty. To become free from
+anything that oppresses us we must get rid of it, and so the Christian
+to rid himself of the world becomes a prey to the idea of a contempt
+of the world. Stirner declares that the future has a better lot in
+store for man. Man shall not merely be free, which is a purely negative
+quality, but he shall be his own master; he shall become an owner of
+his own personality and whatever else he may have to control. His
+end and aim is he himself. There is no moral duty above him. Stirner
+explains in the very first sentence of his book:
+
+ "What is not supposed to be my concern! First and
+ foremost, the good cause, then God's cause, the cause of
+ mankind, of truth, of freedom, of humanity, of justice;
+ further, the cause of my people, my prince, my fatherland;
+ finally, even the cause of mind, and a thousand other
+ causes. Only my cause is never to be my concern. 'Shame on
+ the egoist who thinks only of himself!"
+
+Stirner undertakes to refute this satirical explanation in his book
+on the unique man and his own, and a French critic according to
+Paul Lauterbach (p. 5) speaks of his book as _un livre qu'on quitte
+monarque_, "a book which one lays aside a king."
+
+Stirner is opposed to all traditional views. He is against church and
+state. He stands for the self-development of every individual, and
+insists that the highest duty of every one is to stand up for his
+ownhood.
+
+J. L. Walker in his Introduction contrasts Stirner with Nietzsche and
+gives the prize of superiority to the former, declaring him to be a
+genuine anarchist not less than Josiah Warren, the leader of the small
+band of New England anarchists. He says:
+
+ "In Stirner we have the philosophical foundation for
+ political liberty. His interest in the practical
+ development of egoism to the dissolution of the state
+ and the union of free men is clear and pronounced, and
+ harmonizes perfectly with the economic philosophy of
+ Josiah Warren. Allowing for difference of temperament
+ and language, there is a substantial agreement between
+ Stirner and Proudhon. Each would be free, and sees in
+ every increase of the number of free people and their
+ intelligence an auxiliary force against the oppressor.
+ But, on the other hand, will any one for a moment
+ seriously contend that Nietzsche and Proudhon march
+ together in general aim and tendency--that they have
+ anything in common except the daring to profane the shrine
+ and sepulcher of superstition?
+
+ "Nietzsche has been much spoken of as a disciple of
+ Stirner, and, owing to favorable cullings from Nietzsche's
+ writings, it has occurred that one of his books has been
+ supposed to contain more sense than it really does--so
+ long as one had read only the extracts.
+
+ "Nietzsche cites scores or hundreds of authors. Had he
+ read everything, and not read Stirner?
+
+ "But Nietzsche is as unlike Stirner as a tight-rope
+ performance is unlike an algebraic equation.
+
+ "Stirner loved liberty for himself, and loved to see any
+ and all men and women taking liberty, and he had no lust
+ of power. Democracy to him was sham liberty, egoism the
+ genuine liberty.
+
+ "Nietzsche, on the contrary, pours out his contempt
+ upon democracy because it is not aristocratic. He is
+ predatory to the point of demanding that those who must
+ succumb to feline rapacity shall be taught to submit with
+ resignation. When he speaks of 'anarchistic dogs' scouring
+ the streets of great civilized cities, it is true, the
+ context shows that he means the communists; but his
+ worship of Napoleon, his bathos of anxiety for the rise
+ of an aristocracy that shall rule Europe for thousands
+ of years, his idea of treating women in the Oriental
+ fashion, show that Nietzsche has struck out in a very
+ old path--doing the apotheosis of tyranny. We individual
+ egoistic anarchists, however, may say to die Nietzsche
+ school, so as not to be misunderstood: We do not ask of
+ the Napoleons to have pity, nor of the predatory barons
+ to do justice. They will find it convenient for their own
+ welfare to make terms with men who have learned of Stirner
+ what a man can be who worships nothing, bears allegiance
+ to nothing. To Nietzsche's rhodomontade of eagles in
+ baronial form, born to prey on industrial lambs, we rather
+ tauntingly oppose the ironical question: Where are your
+ claws? What if the 'eagles' are found to be plain barnyard
+ fowls on which more silly fowls have fastened steel spurs
+ to hack the victims, who, however, have the power to
+ disarm the sham 'eagles' between two suns?
+
+ "Stirner shows that men make their tyrants as they make
+ their gods, and his purpose is to unmake tyrants.
+
+ "Nietzsche dearly loves a tyrant.
+
+ "In style Stirner's work offers the greatest possible
+ contrast to the puerile, padded phraseology of Nietzsche's
+ _Zarathustra_ and its false imagery. Who ever imagined
+ such an unnatural conjuncture as an eagle 'toting' a
+ serpent in friendship? which performance is told of in
+ bare words, but nothing comes of it. In Stirner we are
+ treated to an enlivening and earnest discussion addressed
+ to serious minds, and every reader feels that the word
+ is to him, for his instruction and benefit, so far as he
+ has mental independence and courage to take it and use it
+ The startling intrepidity of this book is infused with
+ a whole-hearted love for all mankind, as evidenced by
+ the fact that the author shows not one iota of prejudice
+ or any idea of division of men into ranks. He would lay
+ aside government, but would establish any regulation
+ deemed convenient, and for this only _our_ convenience
+ is consulted. Thus there will be general liberty only
+ when the disposition toward tyranny is met by intelligent
+ opposition that will no longer submit to such a rule.
+ Beyond this the manly sympathy and philosophical bent of
+ Stirner are such that rulership appears by contrast a
+ vanity, an infatuation of perverted pride. We know not
+ whether we more admire our author or more love him.
+
+ "Stirner's attitude toward woman is not special. She is
+ an individual if she can be, not handicapped by anything
+ he says, feels, thinks, or plans. This was more fully
+ exemplified in his life than even in this book; but there
+ is not a line in the book to put or keep woman in an
+ inferior position to man, neither is there anything of
+ caste or aristocracy in the book."
+
+It is not our intention to enter here into a detailed criticism of
+Stirner's book. We will only point out that society will practically
+remain the same whether we consider social arrangements as voluntary
+contracts or as organically developed social institutions, or as
+imposed upon mankind by the divine world-order, or even if czars and
+kings claim to govern "by the grace of God." Whatever religious or
+natural sanction any government may claim to possess, the method of
+keeping order will be the same everywhere. Wrongs have been done and in
+the future may still be committed in the name of right, and injustice
+may again and again worst justice in the name of the law. On the other
+hand, however, we can notice a progress throughout the world of a slow
+but steady improvement of conditions. Any globe-trotter will find by
+experience that his personal safety, his rights and privileges are
+practically the same in all civilized countries, whether they are
+republics like Switzerland, France and the United States, or monarchies
+like Sweden, Germany and Italy. At the same time murders, robberies,
+thefts and other crimes are committed all over the world, even in
+the homes of those who pride themselves on being the most civilized
+nations. The world-conception lying behind our different social
+theories is the same wherever the same kind of civilization prevails.
+Where social evils prevail, dissatisfaction sets in which produces
+theories and reform programs, and when they remain unheeded, a climax
+is reached which leads to revolution.
+
+Stirner's book begins with a short exhortation headed with Goethe's
+line,
+
+ "My trust in nothingness is placed."
+
+He discusses the character of human life (Chap. I) and contrasts men
+of the old and the new eras (Chap. II). He finds that the ancients
+idealized bodily existence while Christianity incarnates the ideal.
+Greek artists transfigure actual life; in Christianity the divine takes
+abode in the world of flesh, God becomes incarnate in man. The Greeks
+tried to go beyond the world and Christianity came; Christian thinkers
+are pressed to go beyond God, and there they find spirit. They are
+led to a contempt of the world and will finally end in a contempt of
+spirit. But Stirner believes that the ideal and the real can never be
+reconciled, and we must free ourselves from the errors of the past. The
+truly free man is not the one who has become free, but the one who has
+come into his own, and this is the sovereign ego.
+
+As Achilles had his Homer so Stirner found his prophet in a German
+socialist of Scotch Highlander descent, John Henry Mackay. The reading
+public should know that Mackay belongs to the same type of restless
+reformers, and he soon became an egoistic anarchist, a disciple of
+Stirner. His admiration is but a natural consequence of conditions.
+Nevertheless Mackay's glorification of Stirner proves that in Stirner
+this onesided world-conception has found its classical, its most
+consistent and its philosophically most systematic presentation.
+Whatever we may have to criticize in anarchism, Stirner is a man of
+uncommon distinction, the leader of a party, and the standard-bearer
+of a cause distinguished by the extremeness of its propositions which
+from the principle of individualism are carried to their consistent
+ends.
+
+Mackay undertook the difficult task of unearthing the history of a man
+who, naturally modest and retired, had nowhere left deep impressions.
+No stone remained unturned and every clue that could reveal anything
+about his hero's life was followed up with unprecedented devotion. He
+published the results of his labors in a book entitled "Max Stirner,
+His Life and His Work."[2] The report is extremely touching not so
+much on account of the great significance of Stirner's work which to
+impartial readers appears exaggerated, but through the personal tragedy
+of a man who towers high above his surroundings and suffers the misery
+of poverty and failure.
+
+Mr. Mackay describes Stirner as of medium height, rather less so than
+more, well proportioned, slender, always dressed with care though
+without pretension, having the appearance of a teacher, and wearing
+silver-or steel-rimmed spectacles. His hair and beard were blonde
+with a tinge of red, his eyes blue and clear, but neither dreamy nor
+penetrating. His thin lips usually wore a sarcastic smile, which,
+however, had nothing of bitterness; his general appearance was
+sympathetic. No portrait of Stirner is in existence except one pencil
+sketch which was made from memory in 1892 by the London socialist,
+Friedrich Engels, but the criticism is made by those who knew Stirner
+that his features, especially his chin and the top of his head, were
+not so angular though nose and mouth are said to have been well
+portrayed, and Mackay claims that Stirner never wore a coat and collar
+of that type.
+
+[Illustration: PENCIL SKETCH OF MAX STIRNER. The only portrait in
+existence.]
+
+Stirner was of purely Frankish blood. His ancestors lived for centuries
+in or near Baireuth. His father, Albert Christian Heinrich Schmidt of
+Anspach, a maker of wind-instruments, died of consumption in 1807 at
+the age of 37, half a year after the birth of his son. His mother,
+Sophie Eleanora, née Reinlein of the city of Erlangen, six months later
+married H. F. L. Ballerstedt, the assistant in an apothecary shop in
+Helmstedt, and moved with him to Kulm on the Vistula. In 1818 the boy
+was sent back to his native city where his childless god-father and
+uncle, Johann Caspar Martin Sticht, and his wife took care of him.
+
+Young Johann Caspar passed through school with credit, and his
+schoolmates used to call him "Stirner" on account of his high forehead
+(_Stirn_) which was the most conspicuous feature of his face. This name
+clung to him throughout life. In fact his most intimate friends never
+called him by any other, his real name being almost forgotten through
+disuse and figuring only in official documents.
+
+Stirner attended the universities of Erlangen, Berlin and Königsberg,
+and finally passed his examination for admission as a teacher in
+gymnasial schools. His stepfather died in the summer of 1837 in Kulm at
+the age of 76. It is not known what became of his mother who had been
+mentally unsound for some time.
+
+Neither father nor stepfather had ever been successful, and if Stirner
+ever received any inheritance it must have been very small. On December
+12 of 1837 Stirner married Agnes Clara Kunigunde Burtz, the daughter of
+his landlady.
+
+Their married life was brief, the young wife dying in a premature
+child-birth on August 29th. We have no indication of an ardent love
+on either side. He who wrote with passionate fire and with so much
+insistence in his philosophy, was calm and peaceful, subdued and quiet
+to a fault in real life.
+
+Having been refused appointment in one of the public or royal schools
+Stirner accepted a position in a girls' school October 1, 1839.
+During the political fermentation which preceded the revolutionary
+year of 1848, he moved in the circle of those bold spirits who called
+themselves _Die Freien_ and met at Hippel's, among whom were Ludwig
+Buhl, Meyen, Friedrich Engels, Mussak, C. F. Köppen, the author of a
+work on Buddha, Dr. Arthur Müller and the brothers Bruno, Egbert and
+Edgar Bauer. It was probably among their associates that Stirner met
+Marie Dähnhardt of Gadebusch near Schwerin, Mecklenberg, the daughter
+of an apothecary, Helmuth Ludwig Dähnhardt. She was as different from
+Stirner as a dashing emancipated woman can be from a gentle meek man,
+but these contrasts were joined together in wedlock on October 21,
+1843. Their happiness did not last long, for Marie Dähnhardt left her
+husband at the end of three years.
+
+The marriage ceremony of this strange couple has been described in the
+newspapers and it is almost the only fact of Stirner's life that stands
+out boldly as a well-known incident. That these descriptions contain
+exaggerations and distortions is not improbable, but it cannot be
+denied that much contained in the reports must be true.
+
+On the morning of October 21, a clergyman of extremely liberal
+views, Rev. Marot, a member of the Consistory, was called to meet
+the witnesses of the ceremony at Stirner's room. Bruno Bauer, Buhl,
+probably also Julius Faucher, Assessor Kochius and a young English
+woman, a friend of the bride, were present. The bride was in her
+week-day dress. Mr. Marot asked for a Bible, but none could be found.
+According to one version the clergyman was obliged to request Herr Buhl
+to put on his coat and to have the cards removed. When the rings were
+to be exchanged the groom discovered that he had forgotten to procure
+them, and according to Wilhelm Jordan's recollection Bauer pulled out
+his knitted purse and took off the brass rings, offering them as a
+substitute during the ceremony. After the wedding a dinner with cold
+punch was served to which Mr. Marot was invited. But he refused, while
+the guests remained and the wedding carousal proceeded in its jolly
+course.
+
+In order to understand how this incident was possible we must know that
+in those pre-revolutionary years the times were out of joint and these
+heroes of the rebellion wished to show their disrespect and absolute
+indifference to a ceremony that to them had lost all its sanctity.
+
+Stirner's married life was very uneventful, except that he wrote the
+main book of his life and dedicated it to his wife after a year's
+marriage, with the words,
+
+ "Meinem Liebchen
+ Marie Dähnhardt."
+
+Obviously this form which ignores the fact that they were married,
+and uses a word of endearment which in this connection is rather
+trivial, must be regarded as characteristic of their relation and their
+life principles. Certain it is that she understood only the negative
+features of her husband's ideals and had no appreciation of the genius
+that stirred within him. Lauterbach, the editor of the Reclam edition
+of Stirner's book, comments ironically on this dedication with the
+Spanish motto _Da Dios almendras al que no tiene muelas_, "God gives
+almonds to those who have no teeth."
+
+Marie Dähnhardt was a graceful blonde woman rather under-sized, with
+heavy hair which surrounded her head in ringlets according to the
+fashion of the time. She was very striking and became a favorite of
+the round table of the _Freien_ who met at Hippel's. She smoked cigars
+freely and sometimes donned male attire, in order to accompany her
+husband and his friends on their nightly excursions. It appears that
+Stirner played the most passive part in these adventures, but true
+to his principle of individuality we have no knowledge that he ever
+criticized his wife.
+
+Marie Dähnhardt had lost her father early and was in possession of a
+small fortune of 10,000 thalers, possibly more. At any rate it was
+considered quite a sum in the circle of Stirner's friends, but it did
+not last long. Having written his book, Stirner gave up his position
+so as to prevent probable discharge and now they looked around for new
+resources. Though Stirner had studied political economy he was a most
+unpractical man; but seeing there was a dearth of milk-shops, he and
+his wife started into business. They made contracts with dairies but
+did not advertise their shop, and when the milk was delivered to them
+they had large quantities of milk on hand but no patrons, the result
+being a lamentable failure with debts.
+
+In the circle of his friends Stirner's business experience offered
+inexhaustible material for jokes, while at home it led rapidly to the
+dissolution of his marriage. Frau Schmidt complained in later years
+that her husband had wasted her property, while no complaints are known
+from him. One thing is sure that they separated. She went to England
+where she established herself as a teacher under the protection of Lady
+Bunsen, the wife of the Prussian ambassador.
+
+Frau Schmidt's later career is quite checkered. She was a well-known
+character in the colony of German exiles in London. One of her friends
+there was a Lieutenant Techow. When she was again in great distress she
+emigrated with other Germans, probably in 1852 or 1853, to Melbourne,
+Australia. Here she tasted the misery of life to the dregs. She made a
+living as a washerwoman and is reported to have married a day laborer.
+Their bitter experiences made her resort to religion for consolation,
+and in 1870 or 1871 she became a convert to the Catholic Church. At her
+sister's death she became her heir and so restored her good fortune to
+some extent. She returned to London where Mr. Mackay to his great joy
+discovered that she was still alive at the advanced age of eighty.
+What a valuable resource her reminiscences would be for his inquiries!
+But she refused to give any information and finally wrote him a letter
+which literally reads as follows: "Mary Smith _solemnly avowes_ that
+she will have _no more_ correspondence on the subject, and authorizes
+Mr. -------[3] to return all those writings to their owners. She is ill
+and prepares for death."
+
+The last period of Stirner's life, from the time when his wife left him
+to his death, is as obscure as his childhood days. He moved from place
+to place, and since his income was very irregular creditors pressed him
+hard. His lot was tolerable because of the simple habits of his life,
+his only luxury consisting in smoking a good cigar. In 1853 we find
+him at least twice in debtor's prison, first 21 days, from March 5 to
+26,1853, and then 36 days, from New Year's eve until February 4 of the
+next year. In the meantime (September 7) he moved to Philippstrasse 19.
+It was Stirner's last home. He stayed with the landlady of this place,
+a kind-hearted woman who treated all her boarders like a mother, until
+June 25, 1856, when he died rather suddenly as the result of the bite
+of a poisonous fly. A few of his friends, among them Bruno Bauer and
+Ludwig Buhl, attended his funeral; a second-class grave was procured
+for one thaler 10 groats, amounting approximately to one American
+dollar.
+
+During this period Stirner undertook several literary labors from which
+he possibly procured some remuneration. He translated the classical
+authors on political economy from the French and from the English,
+which appeared under the title _Die National-Oekonomen der Franzosen
+und Engländer_ (Leipsic, Otto Wigand, 1845-1847).
+
+He also wrote a history of the Reaction which he explained to be a mere
+counter-revolution. This _Geschichte der Reaction_ was planned as a
+much more comprehensive work, but the two volumes which appeared were
+only two parts of the second volume as originally intended.
+
+The work is full of quotations, partly from Auguste Comte, partly from
+Edmund Burke. None of these works represent anything typically original
+or of real significance in the history of human thought.
+
+His real contribution to the world's literature remains his work
+_Der Einzige und sein Eigentum_, the title of which is rendered in
+English _The Ego and His Own_, and this, strange to say, enthrones
+the individual man, the ego, every personality, as a sovereign power
+that should not be subject to morality, rules, obligations, or duties
+of any kind. The appeal is made so directly that it will convince all
+those unscientific and half-educated minds who after having surrendered
+their traditional faith find themselves without any authority in
+either religion or politics. God is to them a fable and the state an
+abstraction. Ideas and ideals, such as truth, goodness, beauty, are
+mere phrases. What then remains but the concrete bodily personality
+of every man of which every one is the ultimate standard of right and
+wrong?
+
+
+[1] See also R. Schellwien, _Max Stirner und Friedrich Nietzsche_; V.
+Basch, _L'individualisme anarchiste, Max Stirner_, 1904.
+
+[2] _Max Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk_. Berlin, 1898.
+
+[3] The name of the gentleman she mentions is replaced by a dash at his
+express wish in the facsimile of her letter reproduced in Mr. Mackay's
+book (p. 255).
+
+
+
+
+EGO-SOVEREIGNTY
+
+
+Strange that neither of these philosophers of individuality,
+Nietzsche or Stirner, ever took the trouble to investigate what an
+individual is! Stirner halts before this most momentous question
+of his world-conception, and so he overlooks that his ego, his own
+individuality, this supreme sovereign standing beyond right and wrong,
+the ultimate authority of everything, is a hazy, fluctuating, uncertain
+thing which differs from day to day and Anally disappears.
+
+The individuality of any man is the product of communal life. No one
+of us could exist as a rational personality were he not a member
+of a social group from which he has imbibed his ideas as well as
+his language. Every word is a product of his intercourse with his
+fellow-beings. His entire existence consists in his relations toward
+others and finds expression in his attitude toward social institutions.
+We may criticize existent institutions but we can never do without any.
+A denial of either their existence or their significance proves an
+utter lack of insight into the nature of personality.
+
+We insert here a few characteristic sentences of Stirner's views, and
+in order to be fair we follow the condensation of John Henry Mackay
+(pp. 135-192) than whom certainly we could find no more sympathetic or
+intelligent student of this individualistic philosophy.
+
+Here are Stirner's arguments:
+
+The ancients arrived at the conclusion that man was spirit. They
+created a world of spirit, and in this world of spirit Christianity
+begins. But what is spirit? Spirit has originated from nothing. It
+is its own creation and man makes it the center of the world. The
+injunction was given, Thou shalt not live to thyself but to thy spirit,
+to thy ideas. Spirit is the God, the ego and the spirit are in constant
+conflict. Spirit dwells beyond the earth. It is in vain to force the
+divine into service here for I am neither God nor man, neither the
+highest being nor my being. The spirit is like a ghost whom no one has
+seen, but of whom there are innumerable creditable witnesses, such as
+grandmother can give account of. The whole world that surrounds thee
+is filled with spooks of thy imagination. The holiness of truth which
+hallows thee is a strange element. It is not thine own and strangeness
+is a characteristic of holiness. The specter is truly only in thine
+ownhood..... Right is a spleen conferred by a spook; might, that is
+myself. I am the mighty one and the owner of might.... Right is the
+royal will of society. Every right which exists is created right. I am
+expected to honor it where I find it and subject myself to it. But what
+to me is the right of society, the right of all? What do I care for
+equality of right, for the struggle for right, for inalienable rights?
+Right becomes word in law. The dominant will is the preserver of the
+states. My own will shall upset them. Every state is a despotism.
+All right and all power is claimed to belong to the community of the
+people. I, however, shall not allow myself to be bound by it, for I
+recognize no duty even though the state may call crime in me what
+it considers right for itself. My relation to the state is not the
+relation of one ego to another ego. It is the relation of the sinner
+to the saint, but the saint is a mere fixed idea from which crimes
+originate (Mackay, pages 154-5).
+
+It will sometimes be difficult to translate Stirner's declarations in
+their true meaning; for instance: "I am the owner of mankind, I am
+mankind and shall do nothing for the benefit of another mankind. The
+property of mankind is mine. I do not respect the property of mankind.
+Poverty originates when I can not utilize my own self as I want to. It
+is the state which hinders men from entering into a direct relation
+with others. On the mercy of right my private property depends. Only
+within prescribed limits am I allowed to compete. Only the medium of
+exchange, the money which the state makes, am I allowed to use. The
+forms of the state may change, the purpose of the state always remains
+the same. My property, however, is what I empower myself to. Let
+violence decide, I expect all from my own.
+
+"You shall not lure me with love, nor catch me with the promise of
+communion of possessions, but the question of property will be solved
+only through a war of all against all, and what a slave will do as
+soon as he has broken his fetters we shall have to see. I know no law
+of love. As every one of my sentiments is my property, so also is
+love. I give it, I donate it, I squander it merely because it makes me
+happy. Earn it if you believe you have a right to it. The measure of
+my sentiments can not be prescribed to me, nor the aim of my feelings
+determined. We and the world have only one relation toward each other,
+that of usefulness. Yea, I use the world and men." (Pp. 156-157.)
+
+As to promises made and confidence solicited Stirner would not allow
+a limitation of freedom. He says: "In itself an oath is no more
+sacred than a lie is contemptible." Stirner opposes the idea of
+communism. "The community of man creates laws for society. Communism
+is a communion in equality." Says Stirner, "I prefer to depend on the
+egotism of men rather than on their compassion." He feels himself
+swelled into a temporary, transient, puny deity. No man expresses him
+rightly, no concept defines him; he, the ego, is perfect. Stirner
+concludes his book: "Owner I am of my own power and I am such only when
+I know myself as the only one. In the only one even the owner returns
+into his creative nothingness from which he was born. Any higher being
+above, be it God or man, detracts from the feeling of my uniqueness and
+it pales before the sun of this consciousness. If I place my trust in
+myself, the only one, it will stand upon a transient mortal creator of
+himself, who feeds upon himself, and I can say,
+
+ "_Ich hab mein Sach' auf nichts gestellt._"
+ "My trust in nothingness is placed.'"
+
+We call attention to Stirner's book, "The Only One and His Ownhood,"
+not because we are strongly impressed by the profundity of his thought
+but because we believe that here is a man who ought to be answered,
+whose world-conception deserves a careful analysis which finally would
+lead to a justification of society, the state and the ideals of right
+and truth.
+
+Society is not, as Stirner imagines, an artificial product of men who
+band themselves together in order to produce a state for the benefit of
+a clique. Society and state, as well as their foundation the family,
+are of a natural growth. All the several social institutions (kind of
+spiritual organisms) are as much organisms as are plants and animals.
+The co-operation of the state with religious, legal, civic and other
+institutions, are as much realities as are individuals, and any one who
+would undertake to struggle against them or treat them as nonentities
+will be implicated in innumerable struggles.
+
+Stirner is the philosopher of individualism. To him the individual,
+this complicated and fluctuant being, is a reality, indeed the only
+true reality, while other combinations, institutions and social
+units are deemed to be mere nonentities. If from this standpoint the
+individualism of Stirner were revised, the student would come to
+radically different conclusions, and these conclusions would show that
+not without good reasons has the individual developed as a by-product
+of society, and all the possessions, intellectual as well as material,
+which exist are held by individuals only through the assistance and
+with the permission of the whole society or its dominant factors.
+
+Both socialism and its opposite, individualism, which is ultimately
+the same as anarchism, are extremes that are based upon an erroneous
+interpretation of communal life. Socialists make society, and
+anarchists the individual their ultimate principle of human existence.
+Neither socialism nor anarchism are principles; both are factors, and
+both factors are needed for preserving the health of society as well
+as comprehending the nature of mankind. By neglecting either of these
+factors, we can only be led astray and arrive at wrong conclusions.
+
+Poor Stirner wanted to exalt the ego, the sovereign individual, not
+only to the exclusion of a transcendent God and of the state or any
+other power, divine or social, but even to the exclusion of his
+own ideals, be it truth or anything spiritual; and yet he himself
+sacrificed his life for a propaganda of the ego as a unique and
+sovereign being. He died in misery and the recognition of his labors
+has slowly, very slowly, followed after his death. Yea, even after his
+death a rival individualist, Friedrich Nietzsche, stole his thunder and
+reaped the fame which Stirner had earned. Certainly this noble-minded,
+modest, altruistic egotist was paid in his own coin.
+
+Did Stirner live up to his principle of ego sovereignty? In one sense
+he did; he recognized the right of every one to be himself, even when
+others infringed upon his own well-being. His wife fell out with him
+but he respected her sovereignty and justified her irregularities.
+Apparently he said to himself, "She has as much right to her own
+personality as I have to mine." But in another sense, so far as he
+himself was concerned, he did not. What became of his own rights, his
+ownhood, and the sweeping claim that the world was his property, that
+he was entitled to use or misuse the world and all mankind as he saw
+fit; that no other human being could expect recognition, nay not even
+on the basis of contracts, or promises, or for the sake of love, or
+humaneness and compassion? Did Stirner in his poverty ever act on the
+principle that he was the owner of the world, that there was no tie of
+morality binding on him, no principle which he had to respect? Nothing
+of the kind. He lived and died in peace with all the world, and the
+belief in the great ego sovereignty with its bold renunciation of all
+morality was a mere Platonic idea, a tame theory which had not the
+slightest influence upon his practical life.
+
+Men of Stirner's type do not fare well in a world where the ego has
+come into its own. They will be trampled under foot, they will be
+bruised and starved, and they will die by the wayside. No, men of
+Stirner's type had better live in the protective shadow of a state; the
+worst and most despotic state will be better than none, for no state
+means mob rule or the tyranny of the bulldozer, the ruffian, the brutal
+and unprincipled self-seeker.
+
+Here Friedrich Nietzsche comes in. Like Stirner, Nietzsche was a
+peaceful man; but unlike Stirner, Nietzsche had a hankering for power.
+Being pathological himself, without energy, without strength and
+without a healthy appetite and a good stomach, Nietzsche longed to play
+the part of a bulldozer among a herd of submissive human creatures whom
+he would control and command. This is Nietzsche's ideal, and he calls
+it the "overman." Here Nietzsche modified and added his own notion to
+Stirner's philosophy.
+
+Individualistic philosophies are therefore based on an obvious error
+by misunderstanding the nature of the individual man, by forgetting
+the reality of society and its continued significance for the
+individual life. A careful investigation of the nature of the state
+as well as of our personality would have taught Stirner that both
+the state and the individual are realities. The state and society
+exist as much as the individuals of which they are composed,[1] and
+no individual can ignore in his maxims of life the rules of conduct,
+the moral principles, or whatever you may call that something which
+constitutes the conditions of his existence, of his physical and
+social surroundings. The dignity and divinity of personality does not
+exclude the significance of super-personalities; indeed, the two, super
+personal presences with their moral obligations and concrete human
+persons with their rights and duties, co-operate with each other and
+produce thereby all the higher values of life.
+
+Stirner is onesided but, within the field of his onesided view,
+consistent. Nietzsche spurns consistency but accepts the field
+of notions created by Stirner, and, glorying in the same extreme
+individualism, proclaims the gospel of that individual who on the basis
+of Stirner's philosophy would make the best of a disorganized state
+of society, who by taking upon himself the functions of the state
+would utilize the advantages thus gained for the suppression of his
+fellow beings; and this kind of individual is dignified with the title
+"overman."
+
+Nietzsche has been blamed for appropriating Stirner's thoughts and
+twisting them out of shape from the self-assertion of every ego
+consciousness into the autocracy of the unprincipled man of power; but
+we must concede that the common rules of literary ethics can not apply
+to individualists who deny all and any moral authority. Why should
+Nietzsche give credit to the author from whom he drew his inspiration
+if neither acknowledges any rule which he feels obliged to observe?
+Nietzsche uses Stirner as Stirner declares that it is the good right of
+every ego to use his fellows, and Nietzsche shows us what the result
+would be--the rise of a political boss, a brute in human shape, the
+overman.
+
+Nietzsche is a poet, not a philosopher, not even a thinker, but as a
+poet he exercises a peculiar fascination upon many people who would
+never think of agreeing with him. Most admirers of Nietzsche belong to
+the class which Nietzsche calls the "herd animals," people who have no
+chance of ever asserting themselves, and become hungry for power as a
+sick man longs for health.
+
+Individualism and anarchism continue to denounce the state, when they
+ought to reform it and improve its institutions. In the meantime the
+world wags on. The state exists, society exists, and innumerable social
+institutions exist. The individual grows under the influence of other
+individuals, his ideas--mere spooks of his brain--yet the factors of
+his life, right or wrong, guide him and determine his fate. There are
+as rare exceptions a few lawless societies in the wild West where a few
+outlaws meet by chance, revolver in hand, but even among them the state
+of anarchy does not last long, for by habit and precedent certain rules
+are established, and wherever man meets man, wherever they offer and
+accept one another's help, they co-operate or compete, they join hands
+or fight, they make contracts, form alliances, and establish rules, the
+result of which is society, the state, with all the institutions of the
+state, the administration, the legislature, the judiciary, with all the
+intricate machinery that regulates the interrelations of man to man.
+
+The truth is that man develops into a rational, human and humane being
+through society by his intercourse with other men. Man is not really an
+individual in the sense of Stirner and Nietzsche, a being by himself
+and for himself, having no obligations to his fellows. Man is a part
+of the society through which he originated and to which he belongs and
+to overlook, to neglect and to ignore his relations to society, not to
+recognize definite obligations or rules of conduct which we formulate
+as duties is the grossest mistake philosophers can make, and this
+becomes obvious if we consider the nature of man as a social being as
+Aristotle has defined it.
+
+
+[1] See the author's _The Nature of the State_, 1894, and
+_Personality_, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+ANOTHER NIETZSCHE
+
+
+The assertion of selfhood and the hankering after originality make
+Nietzsche the exponent of the absolute uniqueness of everything
+particular, and he goes to the extreme of denying all kinds of
+universality--even that of formal laws (the so-called uniformities
+of nature), reason, and especially its application in the field of
+practical life, morality. His ideal is "Be thyself! Be unique! Be
+original!" Properly speaking, we should not use the term ideal when
+speaking of Nietzsche's maxims of life, for the conception of an
+ideal is based upon a recognition of some kind of universality, and
+Nietzsche actually sneers at any one having ideals. The adherents of
+Nietzsche speak of their master as "_der Einzige_," i. e., "the unique
+one," and yet (in spite of the truth that every thing particular is in
+its way unique) the uniformities of nature are so real and unfailing
+that Nietzsche is simply the representative of a type which according
+to the laws of history and mental evolution naturally and inevitably
+appears whenever the philosophy of nominalism reaches its climax. He
+would therefore not be unique even if he were the only one that aspires
+after a unique selfhood; but the fact is that there are a number of
+Nietzsches, he happening to be the best known of his type. Other
+advocates of selfhood, of course, will be different from Nietzsche in
+many unimportant details, but they will be alike in all points that
+are essential and characteristic. One of these Nietzsches is George
+Moore, a Britain who is scarcely familiar with the writings of his
+German double, but a few quotations from his book, _Confessions of a
+Young Man_, will show that he can utter thoughts which might have been
+written by Friedrich Nietzsche himself. George Moore says:
+
+ "I was not dissipated, but I loved the abnormal" (p. 18).
+
+ "I was a model young man indeed" (p. 20).
+
+ "I boasted of dissipations" (p. 19).
+
+ "I say again, let general principles be waived; it
+ will suffice for the interest of these pages if it be
+ understood that brain-instincts have always been, and
+ still are, the initial and the determining powers of my
+ being" (p. 47).
+
+George Moore, like Nietzsche, is one of Schopenhauer's disciples who
+has become sick of pessimism. He says:
+
+ "That odious pessimism! How sick I am of it" (p. 310).
+
+When George Moore speaks of God he thinks of him in the old-fashioned
+way as a big self, an individual and particular being. Hence he denies
+him. God is as dead as any pagan deity. George Moore says:
+
+ "To talk to us, the legitimate children of the nineteenth
+ century, of logical proofs of the existence of God,
+ strikes us in just the same light as the logical proof of
+ the existence of Jupiter Ammon" (p. 137).
+
+George Moore is coarse in comparison with Nietzsche. Nietzsche is no
+cynic; he is pure-hearted and noble by nature. Moore is voluptuous
+and vulgar. Both are avowed immoralists, and if the principle of an
+unrestrained egotism be right, George Moore is as good as Nietzsche,
+and any criminal given to the most abominable vices would not be worse
+than either.
+
+Nietzsche feels the decadence of the age and longs for health; but he
+attributes the cause of his own decadence to the Christian ideals of
+virtue, love, and sympathy with others. George Moore cherishes the same
+views; he says:
+
+ "We are now in a period of decadence, growing steadily
+ more and more acute" (p. 239).
+
+ "Respectability ... continues to exercise a meretricious
+ and enervating influence on literature" (p. 240).
+
+ "Pity, that most vile of all vile virtues, has never been
+ known to me. The great pagan world I love knew it not" (p.
+ 200).
+
+ "The philanthropist is the Nero of modern times" (p. 185).
+
+Both Nietzsche and Moore long for limitless freedom; but Moore seems
+more consistent, for he lacks the ideal of the overman and extends
+freedom to the sex relation, saying:
+
+ "Marriage--what an abomination! Love--yes, but not
+ marriage...freedom limitless" (p. 168-169).
+
+Moore loves art, but his view of art is cynical, and here too he is
+unlike Nietzsche; he says:
+
+ "Art is not nature. Art is nature digested. Art is a
+ sublime excrement" (p. 178).
+
+Both believe in the coming of a great social deluge. George Moore says:
+
+ "The French revolution will compare with the revolution
+ that is to come, that must come, that is inevitable, as a
+ puddle on the road-side compares with the sea. Men will
+ hang like pears on every lamp-post, in every great quarter
+ of London, there will be an electric guillotine that will
+ decapitate the rich like hogs in Chicago" (p. 343).
+
+Ideals are regarded as superstitions, and belief in ideas is deemed
+hypocritical. George Moore says:
+
+ "In my heart of hearts I think myself a cut above you,
+ because I do not believe in leaving the world better than
+ I found it; and you, exquisitely hypocritical reader,
+ think that you are a cut above me because you say you
+ would leave the world better than you found it" (p. 354).
+
+The deeds of a man, his thoughts and aspirations, which constitute his
+spiritual self, count for nothing; the body alone is supposed to be
+real, and thus after death a pig is deemed more useful than a Socrates.
+Continues Moore:
+
+ "The pig that is being slaughtered as I write this line
+ will leave the world better than it found it, but you will
+ leave only a putrid carcass fit for nothing but the grave"
+ (p. 353).
+
+Wrong is idealized:
+
+ "Injustice we worship; all that lifts us out of the
+ miseries of life is the sublime fruit of injustice.
+
+ "Man would not be man but for injustice" (p. 203).
+
+ "Again I say that all we deem sublime in the world's
+ history are acts of injustice; and it is certain that if
+ mankind does not relinquish at once and for ever, its
+ vain, mad, and frantic dream of justice, the world will
+ lapse into barbarism" (p. 205).
+
+George Moore gives a moment's thought to the ideal of "a new art, based
+upon science, in opposition to the art of the old world that was based
+on imagination, an art that should explain all things and embrace
+modern life in its entirety, in its endless ramifications, be it, as it
+were, a new creed in a new civilization ... that would continue to a
+more glorious and legitimate conclusion the work that the prophets have
+begun"; but he turns his back upon it. It would be after all a product
+of development; it would be the tyranny of a past age, and he says, "as
+well drink the dregs of yesterday's champagne" (p. 128).
+
+
+
+
+NIETZSCHE'S DISCIPLES
+
+
+It is said that barking dogs do not bite, and this being true, we must
+look upon Nietzsche's philosophy as a harmless display of words and a
+burning desire for power without making any attempt to practice what
+he preached. His philosophy, so far as he is concerned, is a purely
+Platonic love of an unattainable star whose brilliance dazzled the
+imagination of a childlike peaceful weakling. Suppose, however, for
+argument's sake, that Nietzsche had been a man of robust health, and
+that he had been born at the time of great disturbances, offering
+unlimited chances to an unscrupulous ambition, would he under these
+circumstances have led the life he preached, and in case he had done
+so, would he have boldly and unreservedly admitted his principles while
+carrying out his plans? Did ever Cæsar or Napoleon or any usurper,
+such as Richard III, who unscrupulously aspired for power, own that he
+would shrink from nothing to attain his aim? Such a straightforward
+policy for any schemer would be the surest way of missing his aim.
+Such men, on the contrary, have played hypocrites, and have pretended
+to cherish ideals generally approved by the large masses of the people
+whom Nietzsche calls the herd. So it is obvious that the philosophy
+of Nietzsche if it were ever practically applied, would have become a
+secret doctrine known only to the initiated few, while the broad masses
+would be misguided by some demonstrative show of moral principles that
+might be pleasing to the multitudes and yet at the same time conceal
+the real tendency of the overman to gain possession of his superior
+position.
+
+Nietzsche's influence upon professional philosophers is comparatively
+weak. Whenever mentioned by them, it is in criticism, and he is
+generally set aside as onesided, and perhaps justly, because he was
+truly no philosopher in the strict sense of the word. He was no
+reasoner, no logician, and we can not, properly speaking, look upon
+his philosophy as a system or even a systematized view of the world.
+Nietzsche made himself the exponent of a tendency, and as such he has
+his followers among large masses of those very people whom he despised
+as belonging to the herds. As Nietzsche idealized this very quality
+in which he was lacking, so his followers recruit themselves from the
+ranks of those people who more than all others would be opposed to the
+rule of the overman. His most ardent followers are among the nihilists
+of Russia, the socialists and anarchists of all civilized countries.
+The secret reason of attraction, perhaps unknown to themselves, seems
+to be Nietzsche's defense of the blind impulse and the privilege which
+he claims for the overman to be himself in spite of law and order and
+morality, and also his contempt for rules, religious, philosophical,
+ethical or even logical, that would restrict the great sovereign
+passion for power.
+
+Nietzsche's philosophy has taken a firm hold of a number of souls
+who rebel against the social, the political, the religious, and even
+the scientific, conditions of our civilization. Nietzsche is the
+philosopher of protest, and, strange to say, while he himself is
+aristocratic in his instincts, he appeals most powerfully to the masses
+of the people.
+
+Nietzsche's disciples are not among the aristocrats, not among the
+scholars, not among the men of genius. His followers are among
+the people who believe in hatred and hail him as a prophet of the
+great deluge. His greatest admirers are anarchists, sometimes also
+socialists, and above all those geniuses who have failed to find
+recognition. Nietzsche's thought will prove veritable dynamite if it
+should happen to reach the masses of mankind, the disinherited, the
+uneducated, the proletariat, the Catilinary existences. Nietzsche's
+philosophy is an intoxicant to those whom he despised most; they see in
+him their liberator, and rejoice in his invectives.
+
+Invectives naturally appeal to those who are as unthinking as the
+brutes of the field, but feel the sufferings of existence as much as
+do the beasts of burden. They are impervious to argument, but being
+full of bitterness and envy they can be led most easily by any kind
+of denunciations of their betters. Nietzsche hated the masses, the
+crowd of the common people, the herd. He despised the lowly and had
+a contempt for the ideals of democracy. Nevertheless, his style of
+thought is such as to resemble the rant of the leaders of mobs, and
+it is quite probable that in the course of time he will become the
+philosopher of demagogues.
+
+A great number of Nietzsche's disciples share their master's
+eccentricities and especially his impetuosity. Having a contempt for
+philosophy as the work of the intellect, they move mainly in the field
+of political and social self-assertion; they are anarchists who believe
+that the overman is coming in labor troubles, strikes, and through a
+subversion of the authority of government in any form.
+
+The best known German expounders of Nietzsche's philosophy have been
+Rudolph Steiner and Alexander Tille.[1] Professor Henri Lichtenberger
+of the University of Nancy was his interpreter in France,[2] and the
+former editor of The Eagle and the Serpent, known under the pseudonym
+of Erwin McCall, in England. This periodical, which flourished for a
+short time only, characterized its own tendency as follows:
+
+"_The Eagle and the Serpent_ is a bi-monthly journal of egoistic
+philosophy and sociology which teaches that in social science altruism
+spells damnation and egoism spells salvation. In the war against their
+exploiters the exploited cannot hope to succeed till they act as a
+unit, an 'ego.'"
+
+A reader of _The Eagle and the Serpent_ humorously criticised the
+egoistic philosophy as follows:
+
+ "Dear Eagle and Serpent.--I am one of those unreasonable
+ persons who see no irreconcilable conflict between egoism
+ and altruism. The altruism of Tolstoy is the shortest
+ road to the egoism of Whitman. The unbounded love and
+ compassion of Jesus made him conscious of being the son
+ of God, and that he and the Father were one. Could egoism
+ go further than this? I believe that true egoism and true
+ altruism grow in precisely equal degree in the soul, and
+ that the alleged qualities which bear either name and
+ attempt to masquerade alone without their respective
+ make-weights are shams and counterfeits. The real
+ desideratum is balance, and that cannot be permanently
+ preserved on one leg. However, you skate surprisingly well
+ for the time being on one foot, and I have enjoyed the
+ first performance so well that I enclose 60 cents for a
+ season-ticket--ERNEST H. CROSBY. Rhinebeck, N. Y., U. S.
+ A."
+
+A German periodical _Der Eigene_, i. e., "he who is his own,"
+announced itself as "a journal for all and nobody," and sounded "the
+slogan of the egoists," by calling on them to "preserve their ownhood."
+
+Another anarchistic periodical that stood under the influence of
+Nietzsche appeared in Budapest,[3] Hungary, in German and Hungarian
+under the name Ohne Staat, ("Without Government") as "the organ of
+ideal anarchists," under the editorship of Karl Krausz.
+
+Perhaps the most worthy exponent of Nietzsche in England to-day is his
+translator Thomas Common. He does not consider himself an orthodox
+Nietzsche apostle but thinks that Nietzsche has given the world a very
+important revelation and that his new philosophy of history and his
+explanation of the role of Christianity are among the most wonderful
+discoveries since Darwin. At the same time Mr. Common pronounces
+Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal recurrence "very foolish" and believes
+his use of the terms "good" and "evil" so perverted that he was
+frequently confused about them and so misled superficial readers. Mr.
+Common published at regular intervals during the years 1903 to 1909
+ten numbers of a small periodical entitled variously _Notes for Good
+Europeans and The Good European Point of View_, and expects to resume
+its publication soon. Its motto is from Nietzsche, "In a word--and it
+shall be an honorable word--we are Good Europeans ... the heirs of
+thousands of years of the European spirit." Its purpose is expressed in
+its first number as follows: "Our general purpose is to spread the best
+and most important knowledge relating to human well-being among those
+who are worthy to receive it, with a view to reducing the knowledge
+to practice, after some degree of unanimity has been attained.... As
+Nietzsche's works, notwithstanding some limitations, exaggerations and
+minor errors, embody the foremost philosophical thought of the age, it
+will be one of our special objects to introduce these works to English
+readers."
+
+These numbers contain many bibliographical and other notes of interest
+to friends or critics of the Nietzsche propaganda. Mr. Common has
+published selections from Nietzsche's works under the title, _Nietzsche
+as Critic, Philosopher, Poet and Prophet_.[4]
+
+In America Nietzsche's philosophy is represented by a book of Ragnar
+Redbeard, entitled _Might is Right, the Survival of the Fittest._[5]
+The author characterizes his work as follows:
+
+[Illustration: BUST OF NIETZSCHE, BY KLINGER.]
+
+ "This book is a reasoned negation of the Ten
+ Commandments--the Golden Rule--the Sermon on the
+ Mount--Republican Principles--Christian Principles--and
+ Principles' in general.
+
+ "It proclaims upon scientific evolutionary grounds,
+ the unlimited absolutism of Might, and asserts that
+ cut-and-dried moral codes are crude and immoral
+ inventions, promotive of vice and vassalage."
+
+The author is a most ardent admirer of Nietzsche, as may be learned
+from his verses made after the pattern of Nietzsche's poetry. He sings:
+
+ "There is no 'law' in heaven or earth that man must needs
+ obey! Take what you can, and all you can; and take it
+ while you--may.
+
+ "Let not the Jew-born Christ ideal unnerve you in the
+ fight. You have no 'rights,' except the rights you win
+ by--might.
+
+ "There is no justice, right, nor wrong; no truth, no good,
+ no evil. There is no 'man's immortal soul,' no fiery,
+ fearsome Devil.
+
+ "There is no 'heaven of glory:' No!--no 'hell where
+ sinners roast' There is no 'God the Father,' No!--no Son,
+ no 'Holy Ghost.'
+
+ "This world is no Nirvâna where joy forever flows. It is a
+ grewsome butcher shop where dead 'lambs' hang in--rows.
+
+ "Man is the most ferocious of all the beasts of prey. He
+ rangeth round the mountains, to love, and feast, and--slay.
+
+ "He sails the stormy oceans, he gallops o'er the plains,
+ and sucks the very marrow-bones of captives held
+ in--chains.
+
+ "Death endeth all for every man,--for every 'son of
+ thunder'; then be a lion (not a 'lamb') and--don't be
+ trampled under."
+
+A valuable recent addition to the discussion of egoism is _The
+Philosophy of Egoism_ by James L. Walker, (Denver, 1905).
+
+We know of no American periodical which stands for Nietzsche's views,
+except, perhaps, _The Lion's Paw_ (Chicago) which claims to follow no
+one. In the last years of the nineteenth century Clarence L. Swartz
+published at Wellesley, Mass., an egoistic periodical called the _I_.
+This magazine is no longer in existence, but Mr. Swartz is very active
+in the International Intelligence Institute whose aims are universal
+language, universal nationality and universal peace. He still maintains
+the same philosophical view which he held as editor of the _I_, but his
+philosophical egoism has led him in far different paths from those of
+Nietzsche--into the paths of peace and not of struggle. He expresses
+his present conception as follows:
+
+"In the last analysis there is no right but might. Such is the common
+ordinary rule of every-day life, from which there is no escape, even
+were escape desirable. Any attempt to overthrow or circumvent or
+even dispute the exercise of this prerogative of the mighty is but to
+assert or oppose a greater might. Expediency always dictates how might
+should be exercised. Politically, I hold that the non-coercion of
+the non-invasive individual is the part of wisdom. The individual is
+supreme, and should be preserved as against society, for in no other
+way can evolution perform its perfect work."
+
+_The Free Comrade_ edited by J. Wm. Lloyd and Leonard Abbott, an
+avowedly socialistic and individualistic paper, originally under the
+sole editorship of Lloyd, stood for Nietzsche and his egoism, but can
+no longer be said to do so.
+
+
+[1] A. Tille, _Von Darwin bis Nietzsche_. R. Steiner, _Wahrheit und
+Wissenschaft_; _Die Philosophie der Freiheit; and F. Nietzsche, ein
+Kämpfer gegen seine Zeit_.
+
+We have already mentioned the biography of Nietzsche published by the
+philosopher's sister, Frau E. Förster-Nietzsche. A characterization,
+disavowed by Nietzsche's admirers, was written by Frau Lou Andreas
+Salome, under the title _F. Nietzsche in seinen Werken_. Other
+works kindred in spirit are Schellwien's _Der Geist der neueren
+Philosophie_, 1895, and Der Darwinismus, 1896; also Adolf Gerecke,
+_Die Aussichtslosigkeit des Moralismus_; Schmitt, _An der Grenzscheide
+zweier Weltalter_; Károly Krausz, _Nietzsche und seine Weltanschauung._
+
+[2] Henri Lichtenberger, _La Philosophie de Nietzsche_. Paris, Alcan,
+1898
+
+[3] We may mention incidentally that a contributor to _Ohne Staat_
+reproduced one of the Homilies of St Chrysostom, in which he harangues
+after the fashion of the early Christian preachers against wealth
+and power. The state's attorney, not versed in Christian patristic
+literature, seized the issue and placed the man who quoted the old
+Byzantine saint behind the prison bars. In the issue of Nov., 1898, Dr.
+Eugen Heinrich Schmitt mentions the case and says: "Thus we have an
+exact and historical proof that the liberty of speech and thought was
+incomparably greater in miserable, servile Byzantium than it is now in
+the much more miserable and more servile despotism of modern Europe."
+Does not Dr. Schmitt overlook the fact that in the days of Byzantine
+Christianity the saints were protected by the mob, which was much
+feared by the imperial government and was kept at bay only by a nominal
+recognition of its claims and beliefs?
+
+[4] Other recent English Nietzschean literature is as follows: Grace
+Neal Dolson, _The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche_, 1901; Oscar Levy,
+_The Revival of Aristocracy_, 1906; A. R. Orage, _Fried. Nietzsche,
+the Dionysion Spirit of the Age_, 1906; A. R. Orage, _Nietzsche in
+Outline and Alphorism_; Henry L. Mencken, _The Philosophy of Friedrich
+Nietzsche_; M. A. Mügge, _Friedrich Nietzsche: His Life and Work_;
+Anthony M. Ludovici, _Who Is to Be Master of the World_?
+
+[5] Published by Adolph Mueller, Chicago.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRINCIPLE OF VALUATION
+
+
+It may be interesting in this connection to mention the case of an
+American equivalent to Nietzsche's philosophy, which so far as I know
+has never yet seen publicity.
+
+Some time ago the writer of this little book became acquainted with a
+journalist who has worked out for his own satisfaction a new system of
+philosophy which he calls "Christian economics," the tendency of which
+would be to preach a kind of secret doctrine for the initiated few who
+would be clever enough to avail themselves of the good opportunity. He
+claims that the only thing worth while in life is the acquisition of
+power through the instrumentality of money. He who acquires millions
+can direct the destiny of mankind, and this tendency was first
+realized in the history of mankind in this Christian nation of ours,
+whose ostensible faith is Christianity. Our religion, he argues, is
+especially adapted to serve as a foil to protect and conceal the real
+issue, and so he calls his world-conception, "Christian economics."
+Emperors and kings are mere puppets who are exhibited to general
+inspection, and so are presidents and all the magistrates in office.
+Political government has to obey the behests of the financiers, and the
+most vital life of mankind resides in its economical conditions.
+
+The inventor of this new system of "Christian economics" would allow no
+other valuation except that of making money, on the sole ground that
+science, art and the pleasures of life are nothing to man unless he is
+in control of power which can be had only through the magic charm of
+the almighty dollar.
+
+I shall not comment upon his view, but shall leave it to the reader,
+and am here satisfied to point out its similarity to Nietzsche's
+philosophy. There is one point only which I shall submit here for
+criticism and that is the principle of valuation which is a weak point
+with both the originator of "Christian economics" and with Friedrich
+Nietzsche.
+
+Nietzsche proclaimed with great blast of trumpets, if we may so call
+his rhetorical display of phrases, that we need a revaluation of
+all values; but the best he could do was to establish a standard of
+valuation of his own. Every man in this world attains his mode of
+judging values according to his character, which is formed partly by
+inherited tendencies, partly by education and is modified by his own
+reflections and experiences. There are but few persons in this world
+who are clearsighted enough to formulate the ultimately guiding motive
+of their conduct. Most people follow their impulses blindly, but in
+all of them conduct forms a certain consistent system corresponding to
+their own idiosyncrasy. These impulses may sometimes be contradictory,
+yet upon the whole they will all agree, just as leaves and blossoms,
+roots and branches of the same tree will naturally be formed according
+to the secret plan that determines the growth of the whole organism.
+Those who work out a specially pronounced system of moral conduct do
+not always agree in practical life with their own moral principle,
+sometimes because they wilfully misrepresent it and more frequently
+because their maxims of morality are such as they themselves would
+like to be, while their conduct is such as they actually are. Such are
+the conditions of life and we will call that principle which as an
+ultimate _raison d'être_ determines the conduct of man, his standard of
+valuation. We will see at once that there is a different standard for
+each particular character.
+
+A scientist as a rule looks at the world through the spectacles of
+the scientist. His estimation of other people depends entirely on
+their accomplishments in his own line of science. Artist, musician, or
+sculptor does the same. To a professional painter scarcely any other
+people exist except his pupils, his master, his rivals and especially
+art patrons. The rest of the world is as indifferent as if it did not
+exist; it forms the background, an indiscriminate mass upon which all
+other values find their setting. All the professions and vocations,
+and all the workers along the various lines of life are alike in that
+every man has his own standard of valuation.
+
+A Napoleon or a Cæsar might have preached the doctrine that the
+sciences, the arts and other accomplishments are of no value if
+compared with the acquisition of power, but I feel sure that it would
+not have been much heeded by the mass of mankind, for no one would
+change his standard of value. A financier might publicly declare that
+the only way to judge people is according to the credit they have in
+banking, but it would scarcely change the standard of judgment in
+society. Beethoven knew as well as any other of his contemporaries the
+value of money and the significance of power, and yet he pursued his
+own calling, fascinated by his love for music. The same is true not
+only of every genius in all the different lines of art and science, but
+also of religious reformers and inventors of all classes. Tom, Dick and
+Harry in their hankering for pleasure and frivolous amusement are not
+less under the influence of the conditions under which they have been
+born than the great men whose names are written in the book of fame. It
+is difficult for every one of us to create for himself a new standard
+of valuation, for what Goethe says of man's destiny in a poem entitled
+_Daimon_, is true:[1]
+
+ "As on the day which has begotten thee
+ The sun and planets stood in constellation,
+ Thus growest and remainest thou to be,
+ For't is life's start lays down the regulation
+ How thou must be. Thyself thou canst not flee.
+ Such sibyl's is and prophet's proclamation.
+ For truly, neither force nor time dissolveth,
+ Organic form as, living, it evolveth."
+
+The original reads thus:
+
+ "Wie an dem Tag der dich der Welt verliehen,
+ Die Sonne stand zum Grusse der Planeten,
+ Bist alsobald and fort und fort gediehen
+ Nach dem Gesetz, wonach du angetreten.
+ So musst du sein, dir kannst du nicht entfliehen,
+ So sagten schon Sibyllen, so Propheten;
+ Und keine Zeit und keine Macht zerstückelt,
+ Geprägte Form, die lebend sich entwickelt."
+
+Our attitude in life depends upon our character, and the basic elements
+of character are the product of the circumstances that gave birth to
+our being. Our character enters unconsciously or consciously in the
+formulation of our standards of value which we will find to be the
+most significant factors of our destinies. Now the question arises, Is
+the standard of value which we set up, each one of us according to his
+character, purely subjective or is there any objective criterion of its
+worth?
+
+We must understand that to a great extent our choice of a profession
+and other preferences in our occupations or valuations are naturally
+different according to conditions; some men are fit to be musicians,
+or scholars, or traders, or farmers, or manufacturers, and others
+are not. The same profession would not be appropriate for every one.
+But there is a field common to all occupations which deals with man's
+attitude toward his fellow beings and, in fact, toward the whole
+universe in general. This it is with which we are mainly concerned
+in our discussion of a criterion of value because it is the field
+occupied by religion, philosophy and ethics. Tradition has sanctioned
+definite views on this very subject which have been codified in certain
+rules of conduct different in many details in different countries
+according to religion, national and climatic conditions, and the type
+of civilization; yet, after all, they agree in most remarkable and
+surprising coincidences in all essential points.
+
+Nietzsche, the most radical of radicals, sets up a standard of
+valuation of his own, placing it in the acquisition of power, and he
+claims that it alone is entitled to serve as a measure for judging
+worth because, says he, it alone deals with that which is real in the
+world; yet at the same time he disdains to recognize the existence of
+any objective criterion of the several standards of value. If he were
+consistent, he ought to give the palm of highest morality to the man
+who succeeds best in trampling under foot his fellowmen, and he does
+so by calling him the overman, but he does not call him moral. To be
+sure this would be a novel conception of morality and would sanction
+what is commonly execrated as one of the most devilish forms of
+immorality. Nietzsche takes morality in its accepted meaning, and so
+in contradiction to himself denies its justification in general.
+
+Considering that every one carries a standard of valuation in himself
+we propose the question, "Is there no objective criterion of valuation,
+or are all valuations purely subjective?" This question means whether
+the constitution of the objective world in which we all live, is such
+as to favor a definite mode of action determined by some definite
+criterion of value.
+
+We answer that subjective standards of valuation may be regarded as
+endorsed through experience by the course of events in the world
+whenever they meet with success, and thus subjective judgments become
+objectively justified. They are seen to be in agreement with the
+natural course of the world, and those who adhere to them will in the
+long run be rewarded by survival. Such an endorsement of standards can
+be determined by experience and has resulted in what is commonly called
+"morality." We may here take for granted that the moral valuation is a
+product of many millenniums and has been established, not only in one
+country and by one religion, nor in one kind of human society, but in
+perfect independence in many different countries, under the most varied
+conditions, and finds expression in the symbolism of the most divergent
+creeds. The beliefs of a Christian, of a Buddhist, of a Mussulman in
+Turkey, or a Taoist in the Celestial Empire, of a Parsee in Bombay, or
+Japanese Shintoist, are all as unlike as they can be, but all agree
+as to the excellency of moral behavior which has been formulated in
+these different religions in sayings incorporated in their literature.
+We find very little if anything contradictory in their standards of
+valuation, and if there is any objective norm for the subjective
+valuation of man it is this moral consensus in which all the great
+religious prophets and reformers of mankind agree.
+
+A transvaluation of all values is certainly needed, and it is taking
+place now. In fact it has always taken place whenever and wherever
+mankind grows or progresses or changes the current world-conception.
+
+The old morality has been negative and we feel the need of positive
+ideals. The old doctrines are formulated in rules which forbid certain
+actions and our commandments begin with the words "Thou shalt not...."
+Those folk are esteemed moral who obey these restrictions or at least
+do not ostensibly infringe upon them, and this practically limits
+morality to mediocrity. How often have great and noble people been
+condemned as immoral because some irregularities would not fit the
+Procrustean bed of customary respectability! Think only of George Eliot
+who had to suffer under the prejudices of Sunday-School morality! We
+need a higher standard in which we may set aside the paltry views
+of the old morality without losing our ideals. We need a positive
+norm, the norm which counts in the actual world and in history, where
+man is measured not by his sins of omission but by his positive
+accomplishments; not by the errors he has or has not committed, but by
+his deeds, by the work with which he has benefited mankind. Therefore
+the new morality does not waste much time with the several injunctions,
+"Thou shalt not ..." but impresses the growing generation with the
+demand: "Do something useful; show thyself efficient; be superior to
+others in nobility, in generosity, in energy; excel in one way or
+another"; and in this sense a transvaluation of the old values is being
+worked out at present.
+
+We will grant that Nietzsche's demand of a transvaluation of all values
+may mean to criticize the narrow doctrines and views of the religion
+of his surroundings. But as he expresses himself and according to his
+philosophical principle he goes so far as to condemn not only the husk
+of all these religious movements, but also their spirit. In spite of
+his subjectivism which denies the existence of anything ideal, and
+goes so far as to deny the right even of truth to have an objective
+value, Nietzsche establishes a new objectivism, and proposes his own,
+and indeed very crude, subjective standard of valuation as the only
+objective one worthy of consideration for the transvaluation of all
+values.
+
+Nietzsche's real world, or rather what he deemed to be the real world,
+is a dream, the dream of a sick man, to whom nothing possesses value
+save the boons denied him, physical health, strength, power to dare and
+to do.
+
+The transvaluation of all values which Nietzsche so confidently
+prophesied, will not take place, at least not in the sense that
+Nietzsche believed. There is no reason to doubt that in the future
+as in the past history will follow the old conservative line of
+development in which different people according to their different
+characters will adopt their own subjective standards, and nature, by a
+survival of the fittest will select those for preservation who are most
+in agreement with this real world in which we live, a world from which
+Nietzsche, according to the sickly condition of his constitution, was
+separated by a wide gulf. He thirsted for it in vain, and we believe
+that he had a wrong conception of the wealth of its possibilities and
+viewpoints.
+
+
+[1] So far as I know, these lines have never been translated before.
+
+
+
+
+INDIVIDUALISM
+
+
+Nietzsche is unquestionably a bold thinker, a Faust-like questioner,
+and a Titan among philosophers. He is a man who understands that the
+problem of all problems is the question, Is there an authority higher
+than myself? And having discarded belief in God, he finds no authority
+except pretensions.
+
+Nietzsche apparently is only familiar with the sanctions of morality
+and the criterion of good and evil as they are represented in the
+institutions and thoughts established by history, and seeing how
+frequently they serve as tools in the hands of the crafty for the
+oppression of the unsophisticated masses of the people, he discards
+them as utterly worthless. Hence his truly magnificent wrath, his
+disgust, his contempt for underling man, for the masses, this muddy
+stream of present mankind.
+
+If Nietzsche had dug deeper, he would have found that there is after
+all a deep significance in moral ideals, for there is an authority
+above the self by which the worth of the self must be measured. Truth
+is not a mere creature of the self, but is the comprehension of the
+immutable eternal laws of being which constitute the norm of existence.
+Our self, "that creating, willing, valuing 'I,' which (according to
+Nietzsche) is the measure and value of all things," is itself measured
+by that eternal norm of being, the existence of which Nietzsche does
+not recognize.
+
+What is true of Nietzsche applies in all fundamental questions also to
+his predecessor, Max Stirner. It applies to individualism in any form
+if carried to its consistent and most extreme consequences.
+
+Nietzsche is blind to the truth that there is a norm above the self,
+and that this norm is the source of duty and the object of religion;
+he therefore denies the very existence of duty, of conviction, of
+moral principles, of sympathy with the suffering, of authority in any
+shape, and yet he dares to condemn man in the shape of the present
+generation of mankind. What right has he, then, to judge the sovereign
+self of to-day and to announce the coming of another self in the
+overman? From the principles of his philosophical anarchism he has no
+right to denounce mankind of to-day, as an underling; for if there is
+no objective standard of worth, there is no sense in distinguishing
+between the underman of to-day and the overman of a nobler future.
+
+On this point, however, Nietzsche deviates from his predecessor
+Stirner. The latter is more consistent as an individualist, but the
+former appeals strongly to the egoism of the individual.
+
+Nietzsche is a Titan and he is truly Titanic in his rebellion against
+the smallness of everything that means to be an incarnation of what is
+great and noble and holy. But he does not protest against the smallness
+of the representatives of truth and right, he protests against truth
+and right themselves, and thus he is not merely Titanic, but a genuine
+Titan,--attempting to take the heavens by storm, a monster, not
+superhuman but inhuman in proportions, in sentiment and in spirit.
+Being ingenious, he is, in his way, a genius, but he is not evenly
+balanced; he is eccentric and, not recognizing the authority of reason
+and science, makes eccentricity his maxim. Thus his grandeur becomes
+grotesque.
+
+The spirit of negation, the mischief-monger Mephistopheles, says of
+Faust with reference to his despair of reason and science:
+
+ "Reason and Knowledge only thou despise,
+ The highest strength in man that lies!...
+ And I shall have thee fast and sure."
+ --_Tr. by Bayard Taylor._
+
+Being giant-like, the Titan Nietzsche has a sense only for things
+of large dimensions. He fails to understand the significance of the
+subtler relations of existence. He is clumsy like Gargantua; he is
+coarse in his reasoning; he is narrow in his comprehension; his horizon
+is limited. He sees only the massive effects of the great dynamical
+changes brought about by brute force; he is blind to the quiet and slow
+but more powerful workings of spiritual forces. The molecular forces
+that are invisible to the eye transform the world more thoroughly than
+hurricanes and thunderstorms; yet the strongest powers are the moral
+laws, the curses of wrong-doing and oppression, and the blessings of
+truthfulness, of justice, of good-will. Nietzsche sees them not; he
+ignores them. He measures the worth of the overman solely by his brute
+force.
+
+If Nietzsche were right, the overman of the future who is going to take
+possession of the earth will not be nobler and better, wiser and juster
+than the present man, but more gory, more tiger-like, more relentless,
+more brutal.
+
+Nietzsche has a truly noble longing for the advent of the overman, but
+he throws down the ladder on which man has been climbing up, and thus
+losing his foothold, he falls down to the place whence mankind started
+several millenniums ago.
+
+We enjoy the rockets of Nietzsche's genius, we understand his
+Faust-like disappointment as to the unavailableness of science such as
+he knew it; we sympathize with the honesty with which he offered his
+thoughts to the world; we recognize the flashes of truth which occur
+in his sentences, uttered in the tone of a prophet; but we cannot help
+condemning his philosophy as unsound in its basis, his errors being the
+result of an immaturity of comprehension.
+
+Nietzsche has touched upon the problem of problems, but he has not
+solved it. He weighs the souls of his fellowmen and finds them
+wanting; but his own soul is not less deficient. His philosophy is well
+worth studying, but it is not a good guide through life. It is great
+only as being the gravest error, boldly, conscientiously, and seriously
+carried to its utmost extremes and preached as the latest word of
+wisdom.
+
+It has been customary that man should justify himself before the
+tribunal of morality, but Nietzsche summons morality itself before
+his tribunal. Morality justifies herself by calling on truth, but
+the testimony of truth is ruled out, for truth--objective truth--is
+denounced as a superstition of the dark ages. Nietzsche knows truth
+only as a contemptible method of puny spirits to make existence
+conceivable--a hopeless task! Nietzsche therefore finds morality guilty
+as a usurper and a tyrant, and he exhorts all _esprits forts_ to shake
+off the yoke.
+
+We grant that the self should not be the slave of morality; it should
+not feel the "ought" as a command; it should identify itself with it
+and make its requirements the object of its own free will. Good-will on
+earth will render the law redundant; but when you wipe out the ideal
+of good-will itself together with its foundation, which is truth and
+the recognition of truth, the struggle for existence will reappear
+in its primitive fierceness, and mankind will return to the age of
+savagery. Let the _esprits forts of Nietzsche's_ type try to realize
+their master's ideal, and their attempts will soon lead to their own
+perdition.
+
+We read in _Der arme Teufel_,[1] a weekly whose radical editor would
+not have been prevented by conventional reasons from joining the new
+fad of Nietzscheanism, the following satirical comment on some modern
+poet of original selfhood:
+
+ "'I am against matrimony because I am a poet Wife,
+ children, family life,--well, well! they may be good
+ enough for the man possessed of the herding instinct But
+ I object to trivialities in my own life. I want something
+ stimulating, sensation, poetry 1 A wife would be prosaic
+ to me, simply on account of being my wife; and children
+ who would call me papa would be disgusting. Poetry I need!
+ Poetry!' Thus he spoke to a friend, and when the latter
+ was gone continued his letter reproaching a waitress for
+ again asking for money and at the same time reflecting
+ upon the purity of her relations to the bartender who, she
+ pretended, was her cousin only...."
+
+If marriage relations were abolished to-day, would not in the course of
+time some new form of marriage be established? Those who are too proud
+to utilize the experiences of past generations, will have to repeat
+them for themselves and must wade through their follies, sins, errors,
+and suffer all the consequences and undergo their penalties.
+
+Nietzsche tries to produce a Cæsar by teaching his followers to imitate
+the vices of a Catiline; he would raise gods by begetting Titans; he
+endeavors to give a nobler and better standard to mankind, not by
+lifting the people higher and rendering them more efficient, but by
+depriving them of all wisdom and making them more pretentious.
+
+If the ethics of Nietzsche were accepted to-day as authoritative, and
+if people at large acted accordingly, the world would be benefited
+in one respect, viz., hypocrisy would cease, and the selfishness of
+mankind would manifest itself in all its nude bestiality. Passions
+would have full sway; lust, robbery, jealousy, murder, and revenge
+would increase, and Death in all forms of wild outbursts would reap
+a richer harvest than he ever did in the days of prehistoric savage
+life. The result would be a pruning on a grand scale, and after a few
+bloody decades those only would survive who either by nature or by
+hypocritical self-control deemed it best to keep the lower passions
+and the too prurient instincts of their selfhood in proper check, and
+then the old-fashioned rules of morality, which Nietzsche declared
+antiquated, would be given a new trial in the new order of things. They
+might receive a different sanction, but they would find recognition.
+
+Nietzsche forgets that the present social order originated from that
+general free-for-all fight which he commends, and that if we begin at
+the start we should naturally run through the same or a similar course
+of development to the same or very similar conditions. Will it not be
+better to go on improving than to revert to the primitive state of
+savagery?
+
+There are superstitious notions about the nature of the sanction of
+ethics, but for that reason the moral ideals of mankind remain as
+firmly established as ever.
+
+The self is not the standard of measurement for good and evil, right
+and wrong, as Nietzsche claims in agreement with the sophists of old;
+the self is only the condition to which and under which it applies.
+There is no good and evil in the purely physical world, there is no
+suffering, no pain, no anguish--all this originates with the rise of
+organized animal life which is endowed with sentiency; and further
+there is no goodness and badness, no morality until the animal rises to
+the height of comprehending the nature of evil. The tiger is in himself
+neither good nor bad, but he makes himself a cause of suffering to
+others; and thus he is by them regarded as bad. Goodness and badness
+are relative, but they are not for that reason unreal.
+
+It is true that there is no "ought" in the world as an "ought"; nor are
+there metaphysical ghosts of divine commandments revealing themselves.
+But man learns the lesson how to avoid evil and reducing it to brief
+rules which are easily remembered, he calls them "commandments."
+
+Buddha was aware that there is no metaphysical ghost of an "ought," and
+being the first positivist before positivism was ever thought of, his
+decalogue is officially called "avoiding the ten evils," not "the ten
+commandments," the latter being a popular term of later origin.
+
+Granting that there is no metaphysical "ought" in the world and that
+it finds application only in the domain of animate life through the
+presence of the self or rather of many selves, we fail to see that
+the self is the creator of the norm of good and evil. Granting also
+that there are degrees of comprehending the nature of evil and that
+different applications naturally result under different conditions,
+we cannot for that reason argue that ethics are purely subjective and
+that there is no objective norm that underlies the moral evolution of
+mankind and comes out in the progress of civilization more and more in
+its purity.
+
+Nietzsche is like a schoolboy whose teacher is an inefficient pedant.
+He rebels against his authority and having had but poor instruction
+proclaims that the multiplication table is a mere superstition with
+which the old man tries to enslave the free minds of his scholars. Are
+there not different solutions possible of the same example and has not
+every one to regard his own solution as the right solution? How can the
+teacher claim that he is the standard of truth? Why, the very attempt
+at setting up a standard of any kind is tyranny and the recognition of
+it is a self-imposed slavery. There is no rightness save the rightness
+that can be maintained in a general hand-to-hand contest, for it is
+ultimately the fist that decides all controversies.
+
+Nietzsche calls himself an atheist; he denies the existence of God
+in any form, and thus carries atheism to an extreme where it breaks
+down in self-contradiction. We understand by God (whether personal,
+impersonal, or superpersonal) that something which determines the
+course of life; the factors that shape the world, including ourselves;
+the law to which we must adjust our conduct. Nietzsche enthrones the
+self in the place of God, but for all practical purposes his God is
+blunt success and survival of the fittest in the crude sense of the
+term; for according to his philosophy the self must heed survival in
+the struggle for existence alone, and that, therefore, is his God.
+
+Nietzsche's God is power, i. e., overwhelming force, which allows the
+wolf to eat the lamb. He ignores the power of the still small voice,
+the effectiveness of law in the world which makes it possible that man,
+the over-brute, is not the most ferocious, the most muscular, or the
+strongest animal. Nietzsche regards the cosmic order, in accommodation
+to which ethical codes have been invented, as a mere superstition. Thus
+it will come to pass that Nietzsche's type of the overman, should it
+really make its appearance on earth, would be wiped out as surely as
+the lion, the king of the beasts, the proud pseudo-overbrute of the
+animals, will be exterminated in course of time. The lion has a chance
+for survival only behind the bars of the zoölogical gardens or when he
+allows himself to be tamed by man, that weakling among the brutes whose
+power has been built up by a comprehension of the sway of the invisible
+laws of life, physical, mental and moral.
+
+What is the secret of Nietzsche's success? While other men of greater
+consistency, among them his predecessor Stirner, failed, he attained
+an unparalleled fame, and his philosophy exercised an extraordinary
+influence upon large classes of people not only in Germany but also
+abroad, in Russia, in France, in the United States and even in
+conservative England.
+
+We must concede that Nietzsche possesses a poetic power of oratory; he
+appeals to sentiment; he is not much of a thinker, not a philosopher,
+but a leader and a prophet, and as such he stands for the most extreme
+egoism. Nietzsche attempts to establish the absolute sovereignty of
+the individual and grants a most irresponsible freedom to the man who
+dares; and this principle of doing away with moral maxims has made him
+popular.
+
+The truth is that our moral sanctions are no longer accepted. People
+still believe in God, in the authority of church and state, but their
+belief is no longer a living faith. Whatever they may think of God, the
+old God, the God of traditional dogmatism, is gone. He is no longer a
+living power in the hearts of the people; and so, large masses rejoice
+to have the proclamation frankly stated that God is dead, that they
+need no longer fear hell, and that the chains of their slavery are
+broken.
+
+Nietzsche is consistent in his denial of the traditional sanctions. He
+understands not only that there are no gods, that the powers of nature
+as personifications do not exist, but that the laws of nature are mere
+abstract generalizations. We need no longer believe in Hephaestos, the
+god of fire; there is no use to bow the knee to him or do homage to his
+divinity. Nor is there any truth in the existence of a phlogiston, a
+metaphysical fire-stuff, or any fire essence; there are only scattered
+facts of burning. Everything else is mere superstition. Generalizations
+exist only in our imagination, and so we should get rid of the idea
+that there is any truth at all. Science is a pretender which is apt to
+make cowards of us. That man is wise who is not hampered by scruple or
+doubt of any kind and simply follows the bent of his mind, subjecting
+to himself every thing he finds, including his fellow human beings.
+
+This bold and reckless proposition appeals to egoism and it seems so
+true that abstract formulas and generalizations are empty. Weight
+exists; there is gravity; there are particular phenomena of masses in
+mutual attraction, but gravitation, the law of these actual happenings,
+is a mere formula, an imaginary quantity, a mere thought about which we
+need not worry. The law of gravitation is a human invention and has no
+real existence in the realm of facts.
+
+And the same would of course be true about the interrelations among
+human beings in their social intercourse, too. All the several maxims
+of conduct, which are called moral and constitute our code of ethics,
+are built upon generalizations. There is no sanction for them. The gods
+who were formerly supposed to be responsible for the several domains
+of facts have died long ago. The Jewish deity called Elohim, the
+Lord, entered upon the inheritance of the ancient gods, but he too had
+to die. Thereupon his place was taken by metaphysical essences, pale
+ghosts of a mysterious nature, but they too died and so the last shadow
+of anything authoritative is gone. We are _en face du rien_; therefore
+let us boldly enjoy our freedom. Let us be ourselves; let our passions
+take their course; let us do wrong if it suits us; let us live without
+consideration of anything, just as we please. There is no sanction of
+moral maxims to be respected; there is no authority of conduct; there
+is no judge; there is no evil, no wrong.
+
+This seems pretty plausible to our modern generation raised in the
+traditions of nominalism, but would we really ignore the law of
+gravitation because the Newtonian formula is a man-made abstraction
+and a mere generalization? Yet, if we do not give heed to it we fall,
+and the same is true of any law of nature. Our sciences are mental
+constructions; they are mind-made, and so far as they are built out
+of the material of our experience they tally with facts and we call
+them true. Our social interrelations, too, constitute conditions
+observable in experience; they can be formulated in Jaws and applied
+to practical life; they can be expressed in maxims of conduct and have
+received various sanctions successively, the sanctions of religion,
+the sanctions of metaphysics, the sanctions of science. In the age of
+savagery the sanction of moral maxims was offered us in a mythological
+dress. With the rise of monotheism our moral sanction came to us as
+the command of a supreme ruler of the universe; in the age of abstract
+philosophy as metaphysical principles, and in the age of science these
+should be recognized as lessons of experience.
+
+
+[1] May 13, 1809. Detroit, 949 Gratiot Ave.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+We will gladly grant that personifications are mythological fictions,
+that metaphysical entities are products of a philosophical imagination
+and that the scientific formulas are abstract generalizations, but
+we deny that generalizations are unmeaning; they signify some actual
+features of reality. Abstract ideas are not purely fictitious; they
+denote significant qualities or occurrences, and the relations in life,
+the forms of things, combinations, or in general the non-material
+configurations, co-operations, combinations and functions are the
+most important and the most significant aspects of existence. Indeed,
+matter and energy are only the clumsy conditions of being; they denote
+actuality and reality, but all things, all events, all facts are such
+as they are on account of their form--on account of that feature which
+is non-material and non-energetic.
+
+According to Nietzsche the whole history of mankind, especially the
+development of reason, knowledge and science, is a great blunder,
+and the dawn of day begins with a radical break with the past. We see
+in the evolution of life a gradual ascent with a slow but constant
+approximation to truth. In the history of religion we see in the dawn
+of civilization the beginning of a comprehension of truth. Mythology
+is not error pure and simple, not a conglomeration of superstitions;
+it is plainly characterized by a groping after great truths, and myths
+become foolish inventions only when the poetic character of the tale
+is misunderstood. So dogmas become dangerous errors when the symbol is
+taken literally, when the letter is exalted and the spirit forgotten.
+It is true that science has taken away the charm of many religious
+beliefs, but the great lesson of the doctrine of evolution is to show
+us that our onward march in the humanization of man does not stop, that
+the periods of mythology and dogma are stages in the progress of our
+recognition of the truth. There is no need to fear a collapse of past
+results but we may boldly build higher. We must search for truth and
+we shall have a clearer vision of it, and the future will bring new
+glories, new fulfilments of old hopes and grander realization of our
+fondest dreams.
+
+Verily, the overman will come, although he is not quite so near at
+hand as one might wish. He is at hand though, but he will not come, as
+Nietzsche announces him, in the storm of a catastrophe. The fire and
+the storm may precede the realization of a higher humanity; but the
+higher humanity will be found neither in the fire nor in the storm.
+The overman will be born of the present man, not by a contempt for the
+shortcomings of the present man, but by a recognition of the essential
+features of man's manhood, by developing and purifying the truly human
+by making man conform to the eternal norm of rationality, humaneness
+and rightness of conduct.
+
+What we need first is the standard of the higher man; and on
+this account we must purify our notions of the norm of truth and
+righteousness,--of God. Let us find first the over-God, and the overman
+will develop naturally. The belief in an individual God-being is giving
+way to the recognition of a superpersonal God, the norm of scientific
+truth, the standard of right and wrong, the standard of worth by
+which we measure the value of our own being; and the kingdom of the
+genuine overman will be established by the spread of the scientific
+comprehension of the world, in matters physical, social, intellectual,
+moral, and religious.
+
+
+
+
+ INDEX
+
+
+ Abbott, Leonard
+ Alexander
+ All-too-human
+ Ambition; for originality; for power
+ Anacreon
+ Anarchism
+ Anarchists
+ _Ancilla Voluntatis_, intellect
+ Animals superior to man
+ Aphorisms, no preference for
+ Aristocracy
+ Aristocratic tastes
+ Aristotle
+ Art; nature of
+ Assassins
+ Atheism
+ Authority of conduct
+ Average, the
+
+ Back-worlds-men
+ Ballerstedt, H. F. L.
+ Basch, V.
+ Bauer, Bruno
+ Beethoven
+ Bergson, Henri
+ Blood is spirit
+ Body, self is
+ Bruno, Edgar and Egbert
+ Buddha's Decalogue; gospel of love
+ Buhl, Ludwig
+ Burke, Edmund
+ Burtz, Agnes Clara Kunigunde
+ Byington, Stephen T.
+
+ Cæsar
+ Carus, _Foundation of Mathematics_;
+ _Lao-Tse's Too Teh King_;
+ _The Nature of the State,_; _Personality_
+ Catilinary existences
+ Catilene
+ Chaos, universe a
+ Change of views
+ _Chiün jen_
+ Christ, overman the
+ Christ's gospel of love
+ Christian economics
+ Christianity a rebellion of slaves
+ Classical taste
+ Commandments, negative
+ Common, Thomas; _Nietzsche as Critic, Philosopher, Poet
+ and Prophet_
+ Comte, Auguste
+ Confucius
+ Consistency, N. scorns; of N.; of Stirner
+ Contempt for, democratic ideals; man; past;
+ philosophy; the all-too-human; truth; world
+ Contradictions natural
+ Contrast between life and theory
+ Cosmic order
+ Cosmos, universe not a
+ Criterion of right action
+ Crosby, Ernest H.
+ Cynic, N. not a
+ Dähnhardt, Helmuth Ludwig
+ Dähnhardt, Marie
+ Damocles, sword of
+ Darwin
+ Decadence
+ Democracy
+ _Der arme Teufel_
+ _Der Eigene_
+ _Der Wanderer und sein Schatten_
+ Deussen, Paul; his opinion of N.
+ _Die Freien_
+ Dionysiac enthusiasm
+ Doctrine of the eternal return
+ Dolson, Grace Neal
+ Dream, N.'s real world a
+ Dreamers catching at shadows
+ _Drunken Song_
+ Duty not recognized
+
+ Eagle and Serpent
+ _Eagle and the Serpent, The_
+ Eliot, George
+ Elis, Coins of
+ Emerson
+ Emotional attitude
+ Engels, Friedrich
+ Error, a liberator; mythology not
+ Eternal return
+ Eternity, love for
+ Ethics, denial of; denounced; identical;
+ no sanction for; of the strong; result of N.'s;
+ test of philosophy. See also s. v. "Morality."
+ Evolution, defined; lesson of
+ Examination at school
+ Expediency
+
+ Faucher, Julius
+ Faust
+ Fichte, _Duties of the scholar_
+ Financier, standard of
+ _Flatus vocis_
+ Form, importance of
+ Forms in themselves
+ Förster-Nietzsche, Elisabeth, _Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's_
+ _Free Comrade_
+ Freedom fettered by convictions; limitless love of; spiritual
+
+ Garden of marriage
+ Gargantua
+ _Genealogy of morals_
+ Generalizations, abstract; not unmeaning
+ Genius not abnormal
+ Geometry
+ Gerecke, Adolph
+ German things, dislike of
+ Germany a philosophical storm center
+ God, a poet's lie; authority of conduct; created by man;
+ denial of; idea of; is dead; norm of truth; self in place of
+ Goethe; imitation of; quotations from,
+ Good, and evil; and evil, overman beyond; men never true
+ _Good Europeans, notes for_
+ Good will
+ Goody-goodyness
+ _Götzendämmerung_
+ Gravitation a human invention
+
+ Hammer and anvil
+ Health, N.'s desire for
+ Hegel
+ Herd animal (_Heerdentier_)
+ Hero, overman the
+ Hippel's
+ Homer
+ Hypocrisy, Plato accused of
+ Hypocrisy to obtain power
+
+ _I_
+ Ideal, Christianity incarnates
+ Ideals are superstitions; needed, positive; significance in
+ Identical ethics; world-conceptions
+ Idols of the past shattered
+ Imaginary, scientist's world
+ Immature minds, influence on
+ Immaturity; appeal of; of N.
+ Immortality, desire for
+ Individual defined
+ Individualism; aristocratic; error of extreme; ineffective
+ Influence of N.
+ Insanity
+ Instinct higher than reason; N. the philosopher of; self a bundle of
+ Intellect _ancilla voluntatis_
+ International Intelligence Institute
+ Intoxicants
+ Ionian physicist
+
+ James, William
+ "Joyful science"
+
+ Kant
+ Karma
+ Key to the universe, reason the
+ Kochius
+ Köppen, C. F.
+ Klein's statue
+ Kraust, Károly
+
+ _La Gaya Scienza_
+ Lange, _History of Materialism_
+ Lao-tze
+ Lauterbach
+ Leasing
+ Levy, Oscar
+ Lichtenberger, Henri
+ Life, truth for the sake of
+ Lightning, overman the
+ Lion and lamb
+ _Lion's Paw_
+ Lindlof, Hans
+ Lloyd, J. Wm.
+ Logic untrue
+ Lombroso
+ Love, freedom of; not your neighbor; Stirner's view of
+ Ludovici, Anthony M.
+
+ McCall, Erwin (pseud.)
+ Mackay, John Henry
+ Man, beast of prey; a muddy stream; a part of society;
+ animals' opinion of; contempt for; his own master;
+ humanization of; personality of
+ Marot
+ Marriage, a poet's objection to; an abomination; N.'s view of
+ Masses, are pragmatists; distinction for; enslaved by overman
+ Mathematics
+ Measure of truth
+ Mencken, Henry L.
+ Mephistopheles
+ Messiah, overman the
+ Meyen
+ Meyer, a fellow student
+ Mill, John Stuart
+ Moore, George, and N. compared; _Confessions of a Young Man_
+ "_Moral ist Nothlüge_,"
+ Morality, denial of; immoral; limited to mediocrity;
+ See also s. v. "Ethics."
+ _Morgenröthe_
+ Mozart
+ Mueller, Adolph
+ Müller, Dr. Arthur
+ Mügge, M. A.
+ Mussak
+ Mythology not an error
+
+ Napoleon
+ Nature, uniformities of
+ Negation, of will; spirit of
+ Negative, commandments
+ Neighbor, love not
+ Nietzsche, a model of virtue; a modern; a mystic;
+ abnormal, not a genius; ancestors of; and George Moore
+ compared; and Stirner compared; confirmation of;
+ consistency of; contrast between life and theory;
+ destroyer of morality; his doctrine of self; immaturity of;
+ insanity of, not an accident; nominalistic tendencies of;
+ philosophy of, agreement with; philosophy of, result of
+ nominalism; religious character of; requiem composed by;
+ subjectivity of; success of; tender-hearted
+ Nihilism
+ _Nomina_
+ Nominalism, and realism; of Lombroso; traditions of
+ Normal man the exception
+ Nothingness, trust in
+ Nurse, N. as a
+
+ Obedience
+ Objectivism, subjective
+ Objectivity of truth
+ Ocean, overman the
+ _Ohne Staat_
+ _Open Court, The_
+ Orage, A. R.
+ Order; cosmic
+ Originality; ambition for; hankering after
+ Overman
+ love of; the true
+
+ Particularism
+ Patriotism
+ Personality of man
+ Pessimism
+ Philologist, N. a
+ Philosophy as a science; contempt for; three features of
+ Pig, usefulness of
+ Plato; accused of hypocrisy; ideal of; ideas of
+ Platonism
+ Pleasure and pain
+ Poet, God the lie of
+ Poet, N. a; N. not really a
+ Positive ideals needed
+ Positivism
+ Power, acquisition of; desire for;
+ God is; hypocrisy to obtain; will for
+ Pragmatism
+ Pragmatists, masses are
+ Pride
+ Probability but no truth
+ Progress, evolution is; in epicycles; in the world
+ Protest, against himself; against truth; philosopher of;
+ philosophy of
+ Proudhon
+
+ Quarrels at school
+
+ Real world
+ Realism and nominalism
+ Reason, a blunder; key to the universe; origin of;
+ subjective; tool of body; universality of
+ Redbeard, Ragnar, _Might is Right_
+ Relativity
+ Religion, hatred of
+ Revaluation of values
+ Richard III
+ Right but might, no
+ Rules of N.'s philosophical warfare
+
+ Salome, Lou Andreas
+ Sandwich, anecdote
+ Schellwien, R.
+ Schiller
+ Schlegel
+ Schmidt, Albert Christian Heinrich
+ Schmidt, Johann Caspar. See
+ Stirner, Max.
+ Schmitt, Eugen Heinrich
+ Schopenhauer
+ Schulpforta; a pupil at
+ Schümm, George and Mrs. Emma H.
+ Science, a blunder; a means; a mental construction;
+ a pretender; despised; for its own sake, 3; triumph of;
+ unavailableness of; world of
+ Sciences of form, the
+ Scientist, standard of
+ Sebastopol, fall of
+ Self, an authority above; is body;
+ sovereignty of; truth creature of
+ Self-assertion, right of, 24; the ethics of the strong
+ Serpent; eagle and
+ Slavism
+ Smith, William Benjamin
+ Snuffing brotherhood
+ Socialism
+ Society; man a part of
+ Socrates
+ Soldier, N. as a
+ Sophists
+ Spectacles not the world
+ Spirit, blood is; Stirner on
+ Spoiled child
+ Standard, of measurement; of valuation; of values needed
+ State, a despotism; growth of
+ Steiner, Rudolph
+ Sticht, Johann Caspar
+ _Stimmungsbild_
+ Stirner, Max, and Nietzsche compared; arguments of;
+ consistent; contrast between life and theory; death of;
+ _Der Einzige und sein Eigentum_; description of;
+ life of; marriage of; pencil sketch of; the name;
+ works of
+ Straus, Richard
+ Subjective standard
+ Subjectivism
+ Subjectivity of N.
+ Superman
+ Superpersonal God
+ Superpersonalities
+ Swartz, Clarence L.
+ Switzerland, a citizen of
+
+ Things in themselves
+ Three, features of philosophy; periods in N.'s development;
+ rules of philosophical warfare
+ _Thus Spake Zarathustra_
+ Tieck
+ Tille, Alexander
+ Tolstoy
+ Tradition defied; opposed to; sanction of; sanction of denied
+ Tragic, element; figure
+ Transvaluation of values
+ True world
+ Truth, as authority; creature of self; defined; existence of;
+ flashes of; for the sake of life; need of; non-existent;
+ objectivity of; probability but no; protests against
+ Tucker, Benjamin R.
+ _Twilight of the Idols_
+ Tyrant, morality a; N. loves a; overman a
+
+ Ulfila's bible
+ Uniformities dominate existence
+ Universality of reason
+ Universe a chaos
+ Unmoralist; development into; the first
+ Unmoralism
+ Unmorality
+ Unseitgemässe Betrachtungen
+
+ Valuation, principle of
+ Vedantism interpreted by a materialist
+ Virtue, a model of
+
+ Wagner
+ Walker, James, L.; _The Philosophy of Egoism_
+ Warren, Josiah
+ Wenley, R. M.
+ Whitman
+ Will, ennoblement of; for power; intellect slave of; negation of
+ Woman; Stirner's attitude toward
+ World-conceptions identical
+
+ Zarathustra
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nietzsche and other Exponents of
+Individualism, by Paul Carus
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nietzsche and other Exponents of
+Individualism, by Paul Carus
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: Nietzsche and other Exponents of Individualism
+
+Author: Paul Carus
+
+Release Date: March 15, 2015 [EBook #48495]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NIETZSCHE AND OTHER EXPONENTS OF INDIVIDUALISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Annemie Arnst & Marc D'Hooghe at
+http://www.freeliterature.org (Images generously made
+available by the Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/title_p.jpg" width="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+<h1>NIETZSCHE</h1>
+
+<h4>AND OTHER EXPONENTS OF</h4>
+
+<h4>INDIVIDUALISM</h4>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>PAUL CARUS</h2>
+
+<h5>CHICAGO LONDON</h5>
+
+<h5>THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY</h5>
+
+<h5>1914</h5>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<a id="nietzschc001"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_001.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE<br />STATUE BY KLEIN</p></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p style="margin-left: 30%; font-size: 0.9em;">
+TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
+<a href="#ANTI-SCIENTIFIC_TENDENCIES">ANTI-SCIENTIFIC TENDENCIES</a>
+<a href="#DEUSSENS_RECOLLECTIONS">DEUSSEN'S RECOLLECTIONS</a><br />
+<a href="#EXTREME_NOMINALISM">EXTREME NOMINALISM</a><br />
+<a href="#A_PHILOSOPHY_OF_ORIGINALITY">A PHILOSOPHY OF ORIGINALITY</a><br />
+<a href="#THE_OVERMAN">THE OVERMAN</a><br />
+<a href="#ZARATHUSTRA">ZARATHUSTRA</a><br />
+<a href="#A_PROTEST_AGAINST_HIMSELF">A PROTEST AGAINST HIMSELF</a><br />
+<a href="#NIETZSCHES_PREDECESSOR">NIETZSCHE'S PREDECESSOR</a><br />
+<a href="#EGO-SOVEREIGNTY">EGO-SOVEREIGNTY</a><br />
+<a href="#ANOTHER_NIETZSCHE">ANOTHER NIETZSCHE</a><br />
+<a href="#NIETZSCHES_DISCIPLES">NIETZSCHE'S DISCIPLES</a><br />
+<a href="#THE_PRINCIPLE_OF_VALUATION">THE PRINCIPLE OF VALUATION</a><br />
+<a href="#INDIVIDUALISM">INDIVIDUALISM</a><br />
+<a href="#CONCLUSION">CONCLUSION.</a><br />
+<a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a>
+</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p style="margin-left: 30%; font-size: 0.9em;">
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS<br />
+<a href="#nietzschc001">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE. STATUE BY KLEIN.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc002">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS A PUPIL AT SCHULPFORTA IN THE YEAR 1861.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc003">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE FROM PHOTOGRAPH IN THE POSSESSION OF PROFESSOR DEUSSEN.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc004">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE IN THE PRIME OF LIFE.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc005">COINS OF ANCIENT ELIS.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc006">NIETZSCHE'S HANDWRITING.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc007">NIETZSCHE'S DRUNKEN SONG--ILLUSTRATION BY LINDLOF.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc008">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS A VOLUNTEER IN THE GERMAN ARTILLERY, 1868.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc009">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS PROFESSOR AT BASLE.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc010">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE—THE LATEST PORTRAIT, AFTER AN OIL PAINTING BY C. STOEVING.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc011">PENCIL SKETCH OF MAX STIRNER.</a><br />
+<a href="#nietzschc012">BUST OF NIETZSCHE, BY KLINGER.</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a id="ANTI-SCIENTIFIC_TENDENCIES"></a>ANTI-SCIENTIFIC TENDENCIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Philosophies are world-conceptions presenting three main features:
+(1) A systematic comprehension of the knowledge of their age; (2) An
+emotional attitude toward the cosmos; and (3) A principle that will
+serve as a basis for rules of conduct. The first feature determines the
+worth of the several philosophical systems in the history of mankind,
+being the gist of that which will last, and giving them strength and
+backbone. The second one, however, appeals powerfully to the sentiments
+of those who are imbued with the same spirit and thus constitutes its
+immediate acceptability; while the ethics of a philosophy becomes the
+test by which its use and practicability can be measured.</p>
+
+<p>The author's ideal has been to harmonize these three features by making
+the first the regulator of the second and a safe basis of the third.
+What we need is truth; our fundamental emotion must be truthfulness,
+and our ethics must be a living of the truth. Truth is not something
+that we can fashion according to our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> pleasure; it is not subjective;
+its very nature is objectivity. But we must render it subjective by a
+love of truth; we must make it our own, and by doing so our conduct in
+life will unfailingly adjust itself.</p>
+
+<p>Former philosophies made the subjective element predominant, and thus
+every philosopher worked out a philosophy of his own, endeavoring to
+be individual and original. The aim of our own philosophy has been
+to reduce the subjective to its proper sphere, and to establish, in
+agreement with the scientific spirit of the age, a philosophy of
+objective validity.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well known experience that the march of progress does not
+advance in a straight line but proceeds in epicycles. Man seems to tire
+of the rigor of truth. From time to time he wants fiction. A strict
+adherence to exact methods becomes monotonous to clever minds lacking
+the power of concentration, and they gladly hail vagaries. Truth, they
+claim, is relative, knowledge mere opinion, and poetry had better
+replace science. Then they say: Error, be thou our guide; Error, thou
+art a liberator from the tyranny of truth. Glory be to Error!</p>
+
+<p>Similar retrograde movements take place from time to time in art.
+Classical taste changes with romantic tendencies. Goethe, Schiller and
+Lessing are followed by Schlegel and Tieck, Mozart and Beethoven by
+Wagner.</p>
+
+<p>The last half-century has been an age of unprecedented progress in
+science and we would expect that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> with all the wonderful successes and
+triumphs of scientific invention this age of science ought to find its
+consummation in the adoption of a philosophy of science. But no! The
+mass of mankind is weary of science, and anti-scientific tendencies
+grow up like mushrooms, finding spokesmen in philosophers like William
+James and Henri Bergson who have the ear of large masses, proclaiming
+the superiority of subjectivism over objectivism, and the advantages of
+animal instinct over human reason.</p>
+
+<p>These subjective philosophies if considered as expressions of
+sentiment, as sentimental attitudes toward the world, as poetical
+effusions of a semi-philosophical nature, are perfectly legitimate and
+can be indulged in as well as the several religions which in allegories
+attune the minds of their followers toward the All of which they are
+parts. There is no need to condemn arts or emotions for they have a
+right to exist just as they are.</p>
+
+<p>We protest against subjectivism in philosophy only when it denies the
+possibility of an objective philosophy. We do not deny that the masses
+of the world are not, cannot be and never will be scientific thinkers.
+Science is the prerogative of the few, and the large masses of mankind
+will always be of a pragmatist type. If the pragmatist considered
+himself as a psychologist pure and simple showing how the majority
+of mankind argues, how people are influenced by their own interest
+and how their thoughts are warped by what they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> wish the facts to be,
+pragmatism would be a commendable branch of the science of the soul.
+Pragmatism explains the errors of philosophy and we can learn much from
+a consideration of its principles. It becomes objectionable only in so
+far as it claims to be philosophy in the strict sense of the word.</p>
+
+<p>The name philosophy is used in two senses, first as we defined it
+above, as a world-conception based upon critically sifted knowledge;
+and secondly it is used in a vague general sense as wisdom in the
+practical affairs of life. And if pragmatism claims to be a philosophy
+in this second sense it ought not to deny that philosophy as a science
+is possible.</p>
+
+<p>Philosophy as a science is philosophy <i>par excellence</i>. It is the only
+philosophy of objective validity. All other philosophies are effusions
+of subjective points of view, of attitudes, of sentiment. But we must
+insist that these two contrasts may exist side by side just as art does
+not render mathematics supererogatory, and as a physicist who in his
+profession devotes himself to a study of nature according to methods of
+an objective exactness may in his leisure hours paint a <i>Stimmungsbild</i>
+to give an artistic expression to a subjective mood.</p>
+
+<p>This world is not merely the object of science. There are innumerable
+tendencies which exist and have a right to exist, but they ought not to
+banish science, scientific enquiry and scientific ideals from the place
+they hold; for science is the mariners' compass which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> guides us over
+the ocean of life, and though the majority of the passengers do not
+and need not worry about it, science is after all the only means which
+makes for progress and lifts mankind to higher and higher levels.</p>
+
+<p>If we criticize men like James and Bergson and other philosophers of
+subjectivism we do it as a defence of the indispensable character of
+the objectivity of science as well as of philosophy as a science.</p>
+
+<p>James and Bergson were by no means the originators of their method of
+philosophizing. There have been many sages before them who deemed the
+spectacles through which they viewed the world to be the most important
+or even the only significant issue of life's problems. The Ionian
+physicists were outdone by the sophists, and in modern times Friedrich
+Nietzsche expressed the most sovereign contempt for science.</p>
+
+<p>Among all the philosophies of modern times there is perhaps none which
+in its inmost principle is more thoroughly opposed to our own than
+Nietzsche's, and yet there are some points of mutual contact which
+are well worth pointing out. The problem which is at the basis of
+Nietzsche's thought is the same as in our philosophy, but our solution
+is radically different from his.</p>
+
+<p>Friedrich Nietzsche is a philosopher who astonishes his readers by the
+boldness with which he rebels against every tradition, tearing down
+the holiest and dearest things, preaching destruction of all rule, and
+looking with disdain upon the heap of ruins in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> his revolutionary
+thoughts would leave the world.</p>
+
+<p>For more than a century Germany has been the storm-center of
+philosophical thought. The commotions that started in the Fatherland
+reached other countries, France, England, and the United States, after
+they had lost their force at home. Kant's transcendentalism and Hegel's
+phenomenalism began to flourish among the English-speaking races after
+having become almost extinct in the home of their founders. Prof. R.
+M. Wenley of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., expresses
+this truth with his native Scotch wit in the statement which I do
+not hesitate to endorse, that "German professors when they die go to
+Oxford," and we may add that from Oxford they travel west to settle for
+a while in Concord, Boston, Washington, or other American cities.</p>
+
+<p>Hegelianism had scarcely died out in the United States when
+Schopenhauer and Nietzsche began to become fashionable. The influence
+of the former has been felt in a quiet way for some time while the
+Nietzsche movement is of more recent date and also of a more violent
+character.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche represents a type of most modern date. His was a genius after
+the heart of Lombroso. He was eccentric and atypical.</p>
+
+<p>Lombroso's psychology is an outgrowth of nominalism which does not
+recognize an objective norm for truth, health, reason, or normality
+of any kind, and regards the average as the sole method of finding a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+norm. If, however, the average type is the standard of measurement, the
+unusually excellent specimens, being rare in number, must be classed
+together with all other deviations from the average, and thus a genius
+is regarded as abnormal as much as a criminal—a theory which has found
+many admirers in this age that is sicklied over with agnosticism, the
+modern offshoot of nominalism. The truth is that true genius (not
+the pseudo-genius of erratic minds, not the would-be genius of those
+who make a failure of life) is uncommonly normal—I had almost said
+"abnormally normal."</p>
+
+<p>A perfect crystal is rare; so the perfectly normal man is an exception;
+yet for all that he is a better representative of the ideal of his type
+than the average.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche was most assuredly very ingenious; he was unusually talented
+but he was not a genius in the full sense of the word. He was abnormal,
+titanic in his pretensions and aims, and erratic. Breaking down under
+the burden of his own thought, he ended his tragical career in an
+insane asylum.</p>
+
+<p>The mental derangement of Nietzsche may be an unhappy accident but
+it appears to have come as the natural result of his philosophy.
+Nietzsche, by nature modest and tractable, almost submissive, was, as a
+thinker, too proud to submit to anything, even to truth. Schopenhauer
+had taught him that the intellect, with its comprehension of truth,
+is a mere slave of the will, ancilla voluntatis. Our cognition of the
+truth has a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> purpose; it must accommodate itself to our own interest.
+But the self is sovereign; the self wants to assert itself; the self
+alone has a right to exist; and the self that does not dare to be
+itself is a servile, menial creature. Therefore Nietzsche preaches the
+ethics of self-assertion and pride. He is too proud to recognize the
+duty of inquiry, the duty of adapting his mind to the world, or of
+recognizing the cosmic order of the universe as superior to his self.
+He feels bigger than the cosmos; he is himself; and he wants to be
+himself. His own self is sovereign; and if the world is not satisfied
+to submit to his will, the world may go to ruin. If the world breaks to
+pieces, it will only cause him to laugh; on the other hand, if his very
+self is forced to the wall in this conflict, he will still, from sheer
+pride, not suffer himself to abandon his principle of the absolute
+sovereignty of selfhood. He will not be a man, human and humane, but
+an overman (<i>Uebermensch</i>), a superhuman despiser of humanity and
+humaneness. The multitudes are to him like cattle to be used, to be
+milked, fleeced and butchered, and Nietzsche calls them herds, animals
+of the flock, <i>Heerdentiere</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's philosophy is unique in being throughout the expression of
+an emotion—the proud sentiment of a self-sufficient sovereignty of
+self. It rejects with disdain both the methods of the intellect, which
+submit the problems of life to an investigation, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> demands of
+morality, which recognize the existence of duty.</p>
+
+<p>Other philosophers have claimed that rights imply duties and duties,
+rights. Nietzsche knows of rights only. Nietzsche claims that there is
+no objective science save by the permission of the sovereign self, nor
+is there any "ought," except for slaves and fools. He prides himself
+on being "the first Unmoralist," implying the absolute sovereignty of
+man—of the overman—and the foolishness as well as falsity of moral
+maxims.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="DEUSSENS_RECOLLECTIONS" id="DEUSSENS_RECOLLECTIONS">DEUSSEN'S RECOLLECTIONS</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>Professor Paul Deussen, Sanskritist and philosopher of Kiel, was
+Friedrich Nietzsche's most intimate friend. They were chums together in
+school in Schulpforta, and remained friends to the end of Nietzsche's
+life. Nietzsche had come to Schulpforta in 1858, and Deussen entered
+the next year in the same class. Once Nietzsche, who as the senior of
+the class had to keep order among his fellow scholars during working
+periods and prevent them from making a disturbance, approached Deussen
+while he sat in his seat peacefully chewing the sandwich he had brought
+for his lunch and said, "Don't talk so loud to your crust!" using
+here the boys' slang term for a sandwich. These were the first words
+Nietzsche had spoken to Deussen, and Deussen says:<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> "I see Nietzsche
+still before me, how with the unsteady glance peculiar to extremely
+near-sighted people, his eye wandered over the rows of his classmates
+searching in vain for an excuse to interfere."</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a id="nietzschc002"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_002.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE<br /> AS A PUPIL AT SCHULPFORTA<br /> IN THE
+YEAR 1861.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche and Deussen began to take walks together and soon became
+chums, probably on account of their common love for Anacreon, whose
+poems were interesting to both perhaps on account of the easy Greek in
+which they are written.</p>
+
+<p>In those days the boys of Schulpforta addressed each other by the
+formal <i>Sie</i>; but one day when Deussen happened to be in the dormitory,
+he discovered in the trunk under his bed a little package of snuff;
+Nietzsche was present and each took a pinch. With this pinch they swore
+eternal brotherhood. They did not drink brotherhood as is the common
+German custom, but, as Deussen humorously says, they "snuffed it"; and
+from that time they called each other by the more intimate <i>du</i>. This
+friendship continued through life with only one interruption, and on
+Laetare Sunday in 1861, they stepped to the altar together and side by
+side received the blessing at their confirmation. On that day both were
+overcome by a feeling of holiness and ecstasy. Thus their friendship
+was sealed in Christ, and though it may seem strange of Nietzsche who
+was later a most iconoclastic atheist, a supernatural vision filled
+their young hearts for many weeks afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>There was a third boy to join this friendship—a certain Meyer, a
+young, handsome and amiable youth distinguished by wit and the ability
+to draw excellent caricatures. But Meyer was in constant conflict with
+his teachers and generally in rebellion against the rules<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> of the
+school. He had to leave school before he finished his course. Nietzsche
+and Deussen accompanied him to the gate and returned in great sorrow
+when he had disappeared on the highway. What has become of Meyer is
+not known. Deussen saw him five years later in his home at Oberdreis,
+but at that time he was broken in health and courage, disgruntled with
+God, the world and himself. Later he held a subordinate position in the
+custom house, and soon after that all trace of him was lost. Probably
+he died young.</p>
+
+<p>This Meyer was attached to Nietzsche for other reasons than Deussen.
+While Deussen appreciated more the intellectuality and congeniality of
+his friend, Meyer seems to have been more attracted by his erratic and
+wayward tendencies and this for some time endeared him to Nietzsche.
+Thus it came to pass that the two broke with Deussen for a time.</p>
+
+<p>The way of establishing a state of hostility in Schulpforta was to
+declare oneself "mad" at another, and to some extent this proved to be
+a good institution, for since the boys came in touch with each other
+daily and constantly in the school, those who could not agree would
+have easily come to blows had it not been for this tabu which made
+it a rule that they were not on speaking terms. This state of things
+lasted for six weeks, and was only broken by an incidental discussion
+in a Latin lesson, when Nietzsche proposed one of his highly improbable
+conjectures for a verse of Virgil. The discussion grew heated, and
+when the professor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> after a long Latin disquisition finally asked
+whether any one had something to say on the subject, Deussen rose and
+extemporized a Latin hexameter which ran thus:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"<i>Nietzschius erravit, neque coniectura probanda est</i>"</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>On account of the declared state of "mad"-ness, the debate was carried
+on through the teacher, addressing him each time with the phrase: "Tell
+Nietzsche," "Tell Deussen," "Tell Meyer," etc., but in the heat of
+the controversy they forgot to speak in the third person, and finally
+addressed their adversaries directly. This broke the spell of being
+"mad" and they came to an understanding and a definite reconciliation.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche never had another friend with whom he became so intimate as
+with Deussen. Deussen says (page 9): "At that time we understood each
+other perfectly. In our lonely walks we discussed all possible subjects
+of religion, philosophy, poetry, art and music. Often our thoughts ran
+wild and when words failed us we would look into each other's eyes,
+and one would say to the other: 'We understand each other.' These
+words became a standing phrase which forthwith we decided to avoid as
+trivial, and we had to laugh when occasionally it escaped our lips in
+spite of us. The great ordeal of the final examination came. We had to
+pass first through our written tests. In German composition, on the
+'advantages and dangers of wealth' Nietzsche passed with No. 1; also in
+a Latin exercise <i>de bello Punico primo</i>; but in mathematics<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> he failed
+with the lowest mark, No. 4. This upset him and in fact he who was
+almost the most gifted of us all was compelled to withdraw."</p>
+
+<p>While the two were strolling up and down in front of the schoolhouse,
+Nietzsche unburdened his grief to his friend, and Deussen tried to
+comfort him. "What difference does it make," said he, "if you pass
+badly, if only you pass at all? You are and will always be more gifted
+than all the rest of us, and will soon outstrip even me whom you now
+envy. You must increase but I must decrease."</p>
+
+<p>The course of events was as Deussen had predicted, for Nietzsche
+though not passing with as much distinction as he may have deserved
+nevertheless received his diploma.</p>
+
+<p>When Deussen with his wife visited Nietzsche in August 1907 at
+Sils-Maria, Nietzsche showed him a requiem which he had composed for
+his own funeral, and he added: "I do not believe that I will last much
+longer. I have reached the age at which my father died, and I fear
+that I shall fall a victim to the same disease as he." Though Deussen
+protested vigorously against this sad prediction and tried to cheer him
+up, Nietzsche indeed succumbed to his sad fate within two years.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a id="nietzschc003"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_003.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE FROM PHOTOGRAPH<br /> IN THE POSSESSION OF
+PROFESSOR DEUSSEN.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Professor Deussen, though Nietzsche's most intimate friend, is by no
+means uncritical in judging his philosophy. It is true he cherishes
+the personal character<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> and the ideal tendencies of his old chum, but
+he is not blind to his faults. Deussen says of Nietzsche: "He was
+never a systematic philosopher.... The great problems of epistemology,
+of psychology, of æsthetics and ethics are only tentatively touched
+upon in his writings.... There are many pearls of worth upon which he
+throws a brilliant side light, as it were in lightning flashes....
+His overwhelming imagination is always busy. His thoughts were
+always presented in pleasant imagery and in language of dazzling
+brilliancy, but he lacked critical judgment and was not controlled by a
+consideration of reality. Therefore the creation of his pen was never
+in harmony with the actual world, and among the most valuable truths
+which he revealed with ingenious profundity there are bizarre and
+distorted notions stated as general rules although they are merely rare
+exceptions, as is also frequently the case in sensational novels. Thus
+Nietzsche produced a caricature of life which means no small danger for
+receptive and inexperienced minds. His readers can escape this danger
+only when they do what Nietzsche did not do, when they confront every
+thought of his step by step by the actual nature of things, and retain
+only what proves to be true under the touchstone of experience."</p>
+
+<p>Between the negation of the will and its affirmation Nietzsche granted
+to Deussen while still living in Basel, that the ennoblement of the
+will should be man's aim. The affirmation of the will is the pagan
+ideal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> with the exception of Platonism. The negation of the will is the
+Christian ideal, and according to Nietzsche the ennoblement of the will
+is realized in his ideal of the overman. Deussen makes the comment that
+Nietzsche's notion of the overman is in truth the ideal of all mankind,
+whether this highest type of manhood be called Christ or overman; and
+we grant that such an ideal is traceable everywhere. It is called
+"Messiah" among the Jews; "hero" among the Greeks, "Christ" among
+the Christians, and chiün, the superior man, or to use Nietzsche's
+language, "the overman," among the Chinese; but the characteristics
+with which Nietzsche endows his overman are unfortunately mere brutal
+strength and an unscrupulous will to play the tyrant. Here Professor
+Deussen halts. It appears that he knew the peaceful character of his
+friend too well to take his ideal of the overman seriously.</p>
+
+<p>We shall discuss Nietzsche's ideal of the overman more fully further
+down in a discussion of his most original thoughts, the typically
+Nietzschean ideas.</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See Dr. Paul Deussen's <i>Erinnerungen an Friedrich
+Nietzsche.</i> Leipsic, 1901.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+<h4><a name="EXTREME_NOMINALISM" id="EXTREME_NOMINALISM">EXTREME NOMINALISM</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>According to Nietzsche, the history of philosophy from Plato to his
+own time is a progress of the idea that objective truth (a conception
+of "the true world") is not only not attainable, but does not exist
+at all. He expresses this idea in his Twilight of the Idols (English
+edition, pp. 122-123) under the caption, "How the 'True World' Finally
+Became a Fable," which describes the successive stages as follows:</p>
+
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"1. The true world attainable by the wise, the pious, and
+the virtuous man,—he lives in it, he embodies it.</p>
+
+<p>"(Oldest form of the idea, relatively rational, simple,
+and convincing. Transcription of the proposition, 'I,
+Plato, am the truth,')</p>
+
+<p>"2. The true world unattainable at present, but promised
+to the wise, the pious, and the virtuous man (to the
+sinner who repents).</p>
+
+<p>"(Progress of the idea: it becomes more refined, more
+insidious, more incomprehensible,—it becomes feminine, it
+becomes Christian.)</p>
+
+<p>"3. The true world unattainable, undemonstrable, and
+unable to be promised; but even as conceived, a comfort,
+an obligation, and an imperative.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"(The old sun still, but shining only through mist and
+scepticism; the idea becomes sublime, pale, northerly,
+Koenigsbergian.)</p>
+
+<p>"4. The true world—unattainable? At any rate unattained.
+And being unattained also unknown. Consequently also
+neither comforting, saving nor obligatory: what obligation
+could anything unknown lay upon us?</p>
+
+<p>"(Gray morning. First dawning of reason. Cock-crowing of
+Positivism.)</p>
+
+<p>"5. The 'true world'—an idea neither good for anything,
+nor even obligatory any longer,—an idea become useless
+and superfluous; consequently a refuted idea; let us do
+away with it!</p>
+
+<p>"(Full day; breakfast; return of <i>bon sens</i> and
+cheerfulness; Plato blushing for shame; infernal noise of
+all free intellects,)</p>
+
+<p>"6. We have done away with the true world: what world is
+left? perhaps the seeming?... But no! in doing away with
+the true, we have also done away with the seeming world!</p>
+
+<p>"(Noon; the moment of the shortest shadow; end of the
+longest error; climax of mankind; <i>Incipit Zarathustra!</i>)"</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The reader will ask, "What next?" Probably afternoon and evening, and
+then night. In the night presumably "the old sun," i. e., the idea of
+Plato's true world, which (according to Nietzsche) grew pale in the
+morning, will shine again.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's main desire was to live the real life and make his home not
+in an imaginary Utopia but in this actual world of ours. He reproached
+the philosophers as well as the religious leaders and ethical teachers
+for trying to make mankind believe that the teal world is purely
+phenomenal, for replacing it by the world of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> thought which they called
+"the true world" or the world of truth. To Nietzsche the typical
+philosopher is Plato. He and all his followers are accused of hypocrisy
+for making people believe that "the true world" of their own fiction is
+real and that man's ambition should be to attain to this "true world"
+(the world of philosophy, of science, of art, of ethical ideals) built
+above the real world. Nietzsche means to shatter all the idols of the
+past, and he has come to the conclusion that even the scientists were
+guilty of the same fault as the philosophers. They erected a world of
+thought, of subjective conception from the materials of the real world,
+and so he denounces even their attempts at constructing a "true world"
+as either a self-mystification or a lie. It is as imaginary as the
+world of the priest. In order to lead a life worthy of the "overman,"
+we should assert ourselves and feel no longer hampered by rules of
+conduct or canons of logic or by any consideration for truth.</p>
+
+<p>With all his hatred of religion, Nietzsche was nevertheless an
+intensely religious character, and knowing that he could not clearly
+see a connection between his so-called "real world" and his actual
+surroundings, he developed all the symptoms of religious fanaticism
+which characterizes religious leaders of all ages. He indulged in
+a mystic ecstacy, preaching it as the essential feature of his
+philosophy, and his Dionysiac enthusiasm is not the least of the
+intoxicants which are contained in his thought and bring so many
+poetical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> and talented but immature minds under his control.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that "the real world" of Nietzsche is more unreal than
+"the true world" of philosophy and of religion which he denounces as
+fictitious, but he was too naive and philosophically crude to see this.
+Nietzsche's "real world" is a fabric of his own personal imagination,
+while the true world of science is at least a thought-construction
+of the world which pictures facts with objective exactness; it is
+controlled by experience and can be utilized in practical life; it is
+subject to criticism and its propositions are being constantly tested
+either to be refuted or verified. Nietzsche's "real world" is the hope
+(and perhaps not even a desirable hope) of a feverish brain whose
+action is influenced by a decadent body.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's so-called "real world" is one ideal among many others. It
+is as much subjective as the ideals of other mortals,—of men who seek
+happiness in wealth, or in pleasures, or in fame, or in scholarship,
+or in a religious life—all of them imagine that the world of their
+thoughts is real and the goal which they endeavor to reach is the only
+thing that possesses genuine worth. In Nietzsche's opinion all are
+dreamers catching at shadows, but the shadow of his own fancy appeared
+to him as real.</p>
+
+<p>According to Nietzsche the universe is not a cosmos but a chaos. He
+says (<i>La Gaya Scienza</i>, German edition, p. 148):</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p><blockquote>
+
+<p>"The astral order in which we live is an exception. This
+order and the relative stability which is thereby caused,
+made the exception' of exceptions possible,—the formation
+of organisms. The character-total of the world is into all
+eternity chaos, not in the sense of a missing necessity,
+but of missing order, articulation, form, beauty, wisdom,
+and as all our æsthetic humanities may be called."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In agreement with this conception of order, Nietzsche says of man, the
+rational animal:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"I fear that animals look upon man as a being of their own
+kind, which in a most dangerous way has lost the sound
+animal-sense,—as a lunatic animal, a laughing animal, a
+crying animal, a miserable animal." (<i>La Gaya Scienza</i>,
+German edition, p. 196.)</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>If reason is an aberration, the brute must be superior to man and
+instinct must range higher than logical thought. Man's reason,
+according to this consistent nominalist view, is purely subjective and
+has no prototype in the objective world. This is a feature common to
+all nominalistic philosophies. John Stuart Mill regards the theorems
+of logic and mathematics, not only not as truths, but as positive
+untruths. He says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"The points, lines, circles, and squares, which any one
+has in his mind, are (I apprehend) simply copies of the
+points, lines, circles, and squares which he has known in
+his experience. Our idea of a point, I apprehend to be
+simply our idea of the <i>minimum visibile</i>, the smallest
+portion of surface which we can see. A line, as defined
+by geometers, is wholly inconceivable. We can reason
+about a line as if it had no breadth; because we have a
+power, which is the foundation of all the control we can
+exercise over the operations of our minds; the power, when
+a perception is present to our senses,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> or a conception
+to our intellects, of attending to a part only of that
+perception or conception, instead of the whole. But we
+cannot conceive a line without breadth; we can form no
+mental picture of such a line: all the lines which we have
+in our minds are lines possessing breadth."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Nietzsche shows his nominalistic tendencies by repeatedly pronouncing
+the same propositions in almost literally the same words,<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> without,
+however, acknowledging the school in which he picked up this error.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite true that mathematical lines and circles are human
+conceptions, but they are not purely subjective conceptions, still
+less untruths; they are great and important discoveries. They are
+not arbitrarily devised but constructed according to the laws of the
+uniformities that dominate existence. They represent actual features
+of the factors which shape the objective universe, and thus only is it
+possible that the astronomer through the calculation of mathematical
+curves can predict the motion of the stars.<a name="FNanchor_2_3" id="FNanchor_2_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_3" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Reason is the key to the universe, because it is the reflex of cosmic
+order, and the cosmic order, the intrinsic regularity and immanent
+harmony of the uniformities of nature, is not a subjective illusion but
+an objective reality.</p>
+
+<p>When Goethe claims that all things transitory are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> symbols of that
+which is intransitory and eternal, Nietzsche answers that the idea of
+anything intransitory is a mere symbol, and God (the idea of anything
+eternal) a poet's lie.</p>
+
+<p>Like a mocking-bird, the nominalist philosopher imitates the ring of
+Goethe's well-known lines at the conclusion of the second part of
+"Faust," in which the "real world" of transient things is considered as
+a mere symbol of the true world of eternal verities:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Das Unvergangliche<br />
+Ist nur dein Glcichniss.<br />
+Gott der Verfängliche<br />
+Ist Dichter-Erschleichniss.<br />
+Weltspiel, das herrische,<br />
+Mischt Sein und Schein:—<br />
+Das Ewig-Närrische<br />
+Mischt uns—hinein."<br />
+<br />
+"The non-deciduous<br />
+Is a symbol of <i>thy</i> sense,<br />
+God ever invidious,<br />
+A poetical license.<br />
+World-play domineeringly<br />
+Mixes semblance and fact,<br />
+And between them us sneeringly<br />
+The Ever-Foolish has packed."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In spite of Nietzsche's hunger for the realities of life, that is
+to say for objectivity, he was in fact the most subjective of all
+philosophers—so much so that he was incapable of formulating any
+thought as an objectively precise statement. He did not believe in
+truth: "There is probability, but no truth," says he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> in <i>Der Wanderer
+und sein Schatten</i>, p. 190; and he adds concerning the measure of the
+value of truth (ibid., Aphorism 4): "The trouble in ascending mountains
+is no measure of their height, and should it be different in science?"</p>
+
+<p>It is true that such words as "long" and "short" are relative, because
+dependent on subjective needs and valuations. But must we for that
+reason give up all hope of describing facts in objective terms? Are not
+meters and foot-measures definite magnitudes, whether or not they be
+long for one purpose and short for another? Relativity itself admits
+of a description in objective terms; but if a statement of facts in
+objective terms were impossible, the ideals of exact science (as all
+ideals) would be a dream.</p>
+
+<p>That Nietzsche prefers the abrupt style of aphorisms to dispassionate
+inquisitions is a symptom that betrays the nature of his philosophy.
+His ideas, thus expressed, are easily understood. They are but very
+loosely connected, and we find them frequently contradictory. They are
+not presented in a logical, orderly way, but sound like reiterated
+challenges to battle. They are appeals to all wild impulses and a
+clamor for the right of self-assertion.</p>
+
+<p>While Nietzsche's philosophy is in itself inconsistent and illogical,
+it is yet born of the logic of facts; it is the consistent result and
+legitimate conclusion of principles uttered centuries ago and which
+were slowly matured in the historical development of thought.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The old nominalistic school is the father of Nietzsche's philosophy.
+A consistent nominalist will be driven from one conclusion to another
+until he reaches the stage of Nietzsche, which is philosophical
+anarchism and extreme individualism.</p>
+
+<p>The nominalist denies the reality of reason; he regards the existence
+of universals as a fiction, and looks upon the world as a heap of
+particulars. He loses sight of the unity of the world and forgets that
+form is a true feature of things. It is form and the sameness of the
+laws of form which makes universality of reason possible.</p>
+
+<p>Nominalism rose in opposition to the medieval realism of the schoolmen
+who looked upon universals as real and concrete things, representing
+them as individual beings that existed <i>ante res, in rebus</i>, and
+<i>post res</i>, i. e., in the particulars, before them and after them.
+The realists were wrong in so far as they conceived universals as
+substances or distinct essences, as true realities (hence the name
+"realism"); only they were supposed to be of a more spiritual nature
+than material things but, after all, they were concrete existences.
+They were said to have been created by God as an artisan would make
+patterns or molds for the things which he proposes to produce.
+According to Plato, ideas serve the Creator as models of concrete
+objects of which they are deemed to be the prototypes. The realists
+were mistaken in regarding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> ideal as concrete and real, but the
+nominalists, on the other hand, also went too far in denying the
+objective significance of universals and declaring that universals were
+mere names (<i>nomina</i> and <i>flatus vocis</i>), i. e., words invented for the
+sake of conveniently thinking things and serving no other purpose.</p>
+
+<p>At the bottom of the controversy lies the problem as to the nature of
+things. The question arises, What are things in themselves? Do things,
+or do they not, possess an independence of their own? Kant's reply is,
+that things in themselves can not be known; but our reply is, that
+the nature of a thing consists in its form; a thing is such as it is
+because it has a definite form. Therefore "things in themselves" do not
+exist; but there are "forms in themselves."</p>
+
+<p>Form is not a non-entity but the most important feature of reality,
+and the pure laws of form are the determinative factors of the world.
+The sciences of the laws of pure form, logic, arithmetic, algebra,
+geometry, etc., are therefore the key to a comprehension of the world,
+and morality is the realization of ideals, i. e., of the conceptions of
+pure forms, which are higher, nobler, and better than those which have
+been actualized.</p>
+
+<p>From our standpoint, evolution is a process in which the eternal laws
+of being manifest themselves in a series of regular transformations,
+reaching a point at which sentiency appears. And then evolution takes
+the shape of progress, that is to say, sentient beings develop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+mind; sentiments become sensations, i. e., representative images;
+and words denote the universals. Then reason originates as a reflex
+of the eternal laws of pure form. Human reason is deepened in a
+scientific world-conception, and becoming aware of the moral aspect of
+universality it broadens out into comprehensive sympathy with all forms
+of existence that like ourselves aspire after a fuller comprehension of
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the personality of man is the reflex of that system of
+eternalities which sways the universe, and humanity is found to be a
+revelation of the core of the cosmos, an incarnation of Godhood. This
+revelation, however, is not closed. The appearance of the religions of
+good-will and mutual sympathy merely marks the beginning of a new era,
+and we may expect that the future of mankind will surpass the present,
+as much as the present surpasses savagery. Such is the higher humanity,
+the true "overman," representing a higher species of mankind, whom we
+expect.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's philosophy of "unmorality" looms on the horizon of human
+thought as a unique conception apparently ushered into this world
+without any preparation and without any precedent. It sets itself up
+against tradition. Schopenhauer, Nietzsche's immediate predecessor,
+regarded history as the desolate dream of mankind, and Nietzsche
+exhibits a remorseless contempt for everything that comes to us as a
+product of history. Nietzsche scorns not only law and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> order, church
+and state, but also reason, argument, and rule; he scorns consistency
+and logic which are regarded as toys for weaklings or as tools of the
+crafty.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is a nominalist with a vengeance. His philosophy is
+particularism carried to extremes. There is no unity of existence to
+him. The God-idea is dead—not only the old metaphysical notion of a
+God-individual, but also God in the sense of the ultimate ground of
+being, the supreme norm of the cosmos. Nietzsche's world is split up
+into particular selves. He does not ask how they originated; he only
+knows that they are here. Above all, he knows that his own self is
+here, and there is no bond of sympathy between it and other selves. The
+higher self is that which assumes dominion over the world. His ideal
+is brutal strength, his overman the tyrant who tramples under foot his
+fellowmen. Democracy is an abomination to him, and he despises the
+gospel of love as it is preached by both Christ and Buddha. This is
+the key to his anti-moralism and to the doctrine of the autonomy of
+selfhood.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's philosophy might be called philosophical nihilism, if
+he did not object to the word. He calls it positivism, but it is
+particularism, or rather an aristocratic individualism which in the
+domain of thought plays the same role that political nihilism plays
+in Russia. It would dethrone the hereditary Czar, the ruler by God's
+grace, but it would not establish a republic. It would set on the
+throne a ruthless demagogue, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> self-made political boss—the overman.
+It is the philosophy of protest, and Nietzsche is conscious of being
+Slavic in thought and aspiration. Nor does he forget that his ancestors
+belonged to the nobility. He claims to have been descended from a
+Polish nobleman by the name of Niëtzki, a Protestant who came to
+Germany in the eighteenth century as a religious refugee.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's love of Slavism manifested itself in his childhood, for
+when the news of the fall of Sebastopol became known, Nietzsche, at
+that time a mere boy, was so dejected that he could not eat and gave
+expression to his chagrin in mournful strains of verse.</p>
+
+<p>He who has faith in truth accepts truth as authority; he who accepts
+truth as authority recognizes duty; he who recognizes duty beholds
+a goal of life. He has found a purpose for which life appears worth
+living, and reaches out beyond the bounds of his narrow individuality
+into the limitless cosmos. He transcends himself, he grows in truth, he
+increases in power, he widens in his sympathies.</p>
+
+<p>Here we touch upon the God problem. In denning God as the ultimate
+authority of conduct, we are confronted by the dilemma, Is there, or
+is there not a norm of morality, a standard of right and wrong, to
+which the self must submit? And this question is another version of
+the problem as to the existence of truth. Is there truth which we
+must heed, or is truth a fiction and is the self not bound to respect
+anything? We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> answer this question as to the existence of truth in the
+affirmative, Nietzsche in the negative.</p>
+
+<p>But he who rejects truth cuts himself loose from the fountain-head of
+the waters of life. He may deify selfhood, but his own self will die of
+its self-apotheosis. His divinity is not a true God-incarnation, it is
+a mere assumption and the self-exaltation of a pretender.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's philosophy is more consistent than it appears on its face.
+Being the negation of the right of consistency, its lack of consistency
+is its most characteristic feature. If the intellect is truly, as
+Schopenhauer suggests, the servant of the will, then there is no
+authority in reason, and arguments have no strength. All quarrels are
+simply questions of power. Then, there is might, but not right; right
+is simply the <i>bon plaisir</i> of might. Then there is no good nor evil;
+good is that which I will, bad is that which threatens to thwart my
+will. Good and evil are distinctions invented for the enslavement of
+the masses, but the free man, the genius, the aristocrat, who craftily
+tramples the masses under foot, knows no difference. He is beyond good
+and evil.</p>
+
+<p>This, indeed, is the consequence which Nietzsche boldly draws. It is a
+consistent anarchism; it is unmoralism, a courageous denial of ethical
+rule; and a proud aristocratism, the ruthless shout of triumph of the
+victor who hails the doctrine of the survival of the strongest and
+craftiest as a "joyful science."</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche would not refute the arguments of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> who differ from
+him; for refutation of other views does not befit a positive mind that
+posits its own truth. "What have I to do with refutations!" exclaims
+Nietzsche in the Preface to his Genealogy of Morals. The self is
+lord. There is no law for the lord, and so he denounces the ethics of
+Christianity as slave-morality, and preaches the lord-morality of the
+strong which is self-assertion.</p>
+
+<p>Morality itself is denounced by Nietzsche as immoral. Morality is the
+result of evolution, and man's moral ideas are products of conditions
+climatic, social, economical, national, religious, and what not. Why
+should we submit to the tyranny of a rule which after all proves to be
+a relic of barbarism? Nietzsche rejects morality as incompatible with
+the sovereignty of selfhood, and, pronouncing our former judgment a
+superstition, he proposes "a transvaluation of all values." The self
+must be established as supreme ruler, and therefore all rules, maxims,
+principles, must go, for the very convictions of a man are mere chains
+that fetter the freedom of his soul.</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>La Gaya Scienza</i>, German edition, p. 154; and <i>passim</i> in
+<i>Menschliches</i>, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_3" id="Footnote_2_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_3"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For further details of a refutation of this wrong
+conception of geometry, see the author's <i>Foundation of Mathematics</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<h4><a name="A_PHILOSOPHY_OF_ORIGINALITY" id="A_PHILOSOPHY_OF_ORIGINALITY">A PHILOSOPHY OF ORIGINALITY</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>One might expect that Nietzsche, who glories in the triumph of the
+strong over the weak in the struggle for life, red in tooth and claw,
+would look up to Darwin as his master. But Nietzsche recognizes no,
+master, and he emphasizes this by speaking in his poetry of Darwin
+as "this English joker," whose "mediocre reason" is accepted for
+philosophy.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> To Nietzsche that which exists is the mere incidental
+product of blind forces. Instead of working for a development of the
+better from the best of the present, which is the method of nature,
+he shows his contempt for the human and all-too-human; he prophesies
+a deluge and hopes that from its floods the overman will emerge whose
+seal of superiority will be the strength of the conqueror that enables
+him to survive in the struggle for existence.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche has looked deeply into the apparent chaos of life that
+according to Darwin is a ruthless struggle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> for survival. He avoids
+the mistake of those sentimentalists who believe that goody-goodyness
+can rule the world, who underrate the worth of courage and over-rate
+humility, and who would venture to establish peace on earth by
+grounding arms. He sees the differences that exist between all things,
+the antagonism that obtains everywhere, and preferring to play the part
+of the hammer, he showers expressions of contempt upon the anvil.</p>
+
+<p>And Nietzsche's self-assertion is immediate and direct. He does not
+pause to consider what his self is, neither how it originated nor what
+will become of it. He takes it as it is and opposes it to the authority
+of other powers, the state, the church, and the traditions of the past.
+An investigation of the nature of the self might have dispelled the
+illusion of his self-glorification, but he never thinks of analysing
+its constitution. Bluntly and without any reflection or deliberation he
+claims the right of the sovereignty of self. He seems to forget that
+there are different selves, and that what we need most is a standard by
+which we can gauge their respective worth, and not an assertion of the
+rights of the self in general.</p>
+
+<p>We do not intend to quarrel with Nietzsche's radicalism. Nor do we
+underrate the significance of the self. We, too, believe that every
+self has the liberty to choose its own position and may claim as many
+rights as it pleases provided it can maintain them. If it cannot
+maintain them it will be crushed; otherwise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> it may conquer its rivals
+and suppress counter-claims; but therefore the wise man looks before he
+leaps. Reckless self-assertion is the method of brute creation. Neither
+the lion nor the lamb meditate on their fate; they simply follow their
+instincts. They are carnivorous or herbivorous by nature through the
+actions of their ancestors. This is what Buddhists call the law of
+deeds or <i>Karma</i>. Man's karma leads higher. Man can meditate on his
+own fate, and he can discriminate. His self is a personality, i. e.,
+a self-controlled commonwealth of motor ideas. Man does not blindly
+follow his impulses but establishes rules of action. He can thus
+abbreviate the struggle and avoid unnecessary friction; he can rise
+from brute violence to a self-contained and well-disciplined strength.
+Self-control (i. e., ethical guidance) is the characteristic feature
+of the true "overman"; but Nietzsche knows nothing of self-control;
+he would allow the self blindly to assert itself after the fashion of
+animal instincts.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is the philosopher of instinct. He spurns all logical order,
+even truth itself. He has a contempt for every one who learns from
+others, for he regards such a man as a slave to other people's thought.
+His ambition for originality is expressed in these four lines which he
+inserted as a motto to the second edition of <i>La Gaya Scienza</i>:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Ich wohne in meinem eignen Haus,<br />
+Hab' niemandem nie nichts nachgemacht<br />
+Und—lachte noch jeden Meister aus,<br />
+Der nicht sich selber ausgelacht."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We translate faithfully, preserving even the ungrammatical use of the
+double negative, as follows:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"In my own house do I reside,<br />
+Did never no one imitate,<br />
+And every master I deride,<br />
+Save if himself he'd derogate."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>We wonder that Nietzsche did not think of Goethe's little rhyme, which
+seems to suit his case exactly:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"A fellow says: 'I own no school or college;<br />
+No master lives whom I acknowledge;<br />
+And pray don't entertain the thought<br />
+That from the dead I e'er learned aught.'<br />
+This, if I rightly understand,<br />
+Means: 'I'm a fool by own command.'"<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche observes that the thoughts of most philosophers are secretly
+guided by instincts. He feels that all thought is at bottom a "will for
+power," and the will for truth has no right to exist except it serve
+the will for power. He reproaches philosophers for glorifying truth.</p>
+
+<p>Fichte in his <i>Duties of the Scholar</i> says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"My life and my fate are nothing; but the results of my
+life are of great importance. I am a priest of Truth; I am
+in the service of Truth; I feel under obligation to do, to
+risk, and to suffer anything for truth."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Nietzsche declares that this is shallow. Will for truth, he says,
+should be called "will to make being thinkable." Here, it seems to us,
+Nietzsche simply replaces the word "truth" by one of its functions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+Truth is a systematic representation of reality, a comprehensive
+description of facts; the result being that "existence is made
+thinkable."</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is in a certain sense right when he says that truth in itself
+is nothing; for every representation of reality must serve a purpose,
+otherwise it is superfluous and useless. And the purpose of truth is
+the furtherance of life. Nietzsche instinctively hits the right thing
+in saying that at the bottom of philosophy there is the will for power.
+In spite of our school-philosopher's vain declamations of "science
+for its own sake," genuine philosophy will never be anything else
+than a method for the acquisition of power. But this method is truth.
+Nietzsche errs when he declares that "the head is merely the intestine
+of the heart." The head endeavors to find out the truth, and the truth
+is not purely subjective. It is true that truth is of no use to a man
+unless he makes it his own; he must possess it; it must be part of
+himself, but he cannot create it. Truth cannot be made; it must be
+discovered. Since the scholar's specialized business is the elucidation
+of the method of discovering the truth—not its purpose, not its
+application in practical life—Fichte's ideal of the aim of scholarship
+remains justified.</p>
+
+<p>Omit the ideal of truth in a philosophy, and it becomes an <i>ignis
+fatuus</i>, a will-o'-the-wisp, that will lead people astray. Truth makes
+existence thinkable, but thinkableness alone is not as yet a test of
+truth. The ultimate test of truth is its practical application. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+is something wrong with a theory that does not work, and thus the self
+has a master, which is reality, the world in which it lives, with its
+laws and actualities. The subjective self must measure its worth by the
+objective standard of truth—to be obtained through exact inquiry and
+scientific investigation.</p>
+
+<p>The will for power, in order to succeed, must be clarified by a
+methodical comprehension of facts and conditions. The contradictory
+impulses in one's own self must be systematized so that they will not
+collide and mutually annihilate themselves; and the comprehension of
+this orderly disposition is called reason.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is on the right track when he ridicules such ideals as
+"virtue for virtue's sake," and even "truth for truth's sake." Virtue
+and truth are for the sake of life. They have not their purpose in
+themselves, but their nature consists in serving the expansion and
+further growth of the human soul. This is a truth which we have always
+insisted upon and which becomes apparent when those people who speak of
+virtue for its own sake try to define virtue, or determine the ultimate
+standard of right and wrong, of goodness and badness. We say, that
+whatever enhances soulgrowth, thus producing higher life and begetting
+a superior humanity, is good; while whatever cripples or retards those
+aspirations is bad. Further, truth is not holy in itself. It becomes
+holy in the measure that it serves man's holiest aspirations. We
+sometimes meet among scientists, and especially among philologists,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+men who with the ideal of "truth for truth's sake," pursue some very
+trivial investigations, such, for example, as the use of the accusative
+after certain prepositions in Greek, or how often Homer is guilty of a
+hiatus. They resemble Faust's famulus Wagner, whom Faust characterizes
+as a fool</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+".... whose choice is<br />
+To stick in shallow trash for ever more,<br />
+Who digs with eager hand for buried ore,<br />
+And when he finds an angle-worm rejoices."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Thus there are many trivial truths of no importance, the investigation
+of which serves no useful purpose. For instance, whether the correct
+pronunciation of the Greek letter <i>η</i>; was <i>ee</i> or <i>ay</i> need not
+concern us much, and the philologist who devotes all his life and his
+best strength to its settlement is rather to be pitied than admired.
+Various truths are very different in value, for life and truth become
+holy according to their importance. All this granted, we need not, with
+Nietzsche, discard truth, reason, virtue, and all moral aspirations.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche apparently is under the illusion that reason, systematic
+thought, moral discipline and self-control, are external powers, and
+in his love of liberty he objects to their authority. Did he ever
+consider that thought is not an external agent, but a clarification of
+man's instincts, and that discipline is, or at least in its purpose
+and final aim ought to be, self-regulation, so that our contradictory
+thoughts would not wage an internecine war? Thus, Nietzsche, the
+instinct-philosopher,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> appears as an ingenious boy whose very
+immaturity is regarded by himself as the highest blossom of his
+existence. Like an intoxicated youth, he revels in his irresponsibility
+and laughs at the man who has learned to take life seriously. Because
+the love of truth originates from instincts, Nietzsche treats it as a
+mere instinct, and nothing else. He forgets that in the evolution of
+man's soul all instincts develop into something higher than instinct,
+and the love of truth develops into systematic science.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche never investigated what his own self consisted of. He never
+analyzed his individuality. Other-wise he would have learned that he
+received the most valuable part of his being from others, and that the
+bundle of instincts which he called his sovereign self was nothing but
+the heirloom of the ages that preceded him. In spite of his repudiation
+of any debt to others, he was but the continuation of others. But he
+boldly carried his individualism, if not to its logical conclusions,
+yet to its moral applications. When speaking of the Order of Assassins
+of the times of the Crusades, he said with enthusiasm: "The highest
+secret of their leaders was, 'Nothing is true, everything is allowed!'"
+And Nietzsche adds: "That indeed, was liberty of spirit; that dismissed
+even the belief in truth." The philosopher of instinct even regards
+the adherence to truth as slavery and the proclamation of truth as
+dogmatism.</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See Nietzsche's poems in the appendix to <i>A Genealogy of
+Morals</i>, Eng. ed., Macmillan, p. 248.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_OVERMAN" id="THE_OVERMAN">THE OVERMAN</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>He quintessence of Nietzsche's philosophy is the "overman." What is the
+overman?</p>
+
+<p>The word (<i>Uebermensch</i>) comes from a good mint; it is of Goethe's
+coinage, and he used it in the sense of an awe-inspiring being, almost
+in the sense of <i>Unmensch</i>, to characterize Faust, the titanic man of
+high aims and undaunted courage,—the man who would not be moved in the
+presence of hell and pursued his aspirations in spite of the forbidding
+countenance of God and the ugly grin of Satan. But the same expression
+was used in its proper sense about two and a half millenniums ago
+in ancient China, where at the time of Lao-tze the term <i>chiün jen</i>
+[Chin. chars], "superior man," or <i>chiün tse</i>, "superior sage," was in
+common usage. But the overman or <i>chiün jen</i> of Lao-tze, of Confucius
+and other Chinese sages is not a man of power, not a Napoleon, not
+an unprincipled tyrant, not a self-seeker of domineering will, not a
+man whose ego and its welfare is his sole and exclusive aim, but a
+Christlike figure, who puts his self behind and thus makes his self—a
+nobler and better self—come to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> front, who does not retaliate, but
+returns good for evil,<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> a man (as the Greek sage describes him) who
+would rather suffer wrong than commit wrong.<a name="FNanchor_2_6" id="FNanchor_2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_6" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>This kind of higher man is the very opposite of Nietzsche's overman,
+and it is the spirit of this nobler conception of a higher humanity
+which furnishes the best ideas of all the religions of the world, of
+Lao-tze's Taoism, of Buddhism and of Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander Tille, the English translator of Nietzsche's <i>Thus Spake
+Zarathustra</i>, translates the word <i>Uebermensch</i> by "beyond-man." But
+"beyond" means <i>jenseits</i>; and Nietzsche wrote <i>über</i>, i. e., superior
+to, over, or higher than, and the literal translation "overman" appears
+to be the best. It is certainly better than the barbaric combination of
+"superman" in which Latin and Saxon are mixed against one of the main
+rules for the construction of words. Say "superhuman" and "overman,"
+but not "overhuman" or "superman." Emerson in a similar vein, when
+attempting to characterize that which is higher than the soul, invented
+the term "oversoul," and I can see no objection to the word "overman."</p>
+
+<p>The overman is the higher man, the superhuman man of the future, a
+higher, nobler, more powerful, a better being than the present man!
+What a splendid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> idea! Since evolution has been accepted as a truth, we
+may fairly trust that we all believe in the overman. All our reformers
+believe in the possibility of realizing a higher mankind. We Americans
+especially have faith in the coming of the kingdom of the overman, and
+our endeavor is concentrated in hastening his arrival. The question is
+only, What is the overman and how can we make this ideal of a higher
+development actual?</p>
+
+<p>Happy Nietzsche! You need not trouble yourself about consistency;
+you reject all ideals as superstitions, and then introduce an ideal
+of your own. "There you see," says an admirer of Nietzsche, "what a
+splendid principle it is not to own any allegiance to logic, or rule,
+or consistency. The best thought of Nietzsche's would never have been
+uttered if he had remained faithful to his own principles."</p>
+
+<p>However ingenious the idea of an overman may be, Nietzsche carries his
+propositions to such extremes that in spite of many flashes of truth
+they become in the end ridiculous and even absurd. His ideal is good,
+but he utterly fails to comprehend its nature and also the mode in
+which alone the overman can be realized.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche proclaims the coming of the "overman," but his overman is not
+superior by intellect, wisdom, or nobility of character, but by vigor,
+by strength, by an unbending desire for power and an unscrupulous
+determination. The blond barbarian of the north who tramples under
+foot the citizens of Greece and Rome,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> Napoleon I, and the Assyrian
+conqueror,—such are his heroes in whom this higher manhood formerly
+manifested itself.</p>
+
+<p>He saw in the history of human thought, the development of the notion
+of the "true world," which to him was a mere subjective phantom, a
+superstition; but a reaction must set in, and he prophesied that the
+doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying the
+torch to its temples, churches and institutions. Upon the ruins of
+the old world the real man, the overman, would rise and establish his
+own empire, an empire of unlimited power in which the herds, i. e.,
+the common people, would become subservient. The "herd animal" (so
+Nietzsche called any one foolish enough to recognize morality and
+truth) is born to obey. He is destined to be trodden under foot by the
+overman who is strong, and also unscrupulous enough to use the herds
+and govern them.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche was by no means under the illusion that the rule of the
+overman would be lasting, but he took comfort in the thought that
+though there would be periods in which the slaves would assert
+themselves and establish an era of the herd animals, the overman
+would nevertheless assert himself from time to time, and this was
+what he called his "doctrine of the eternal return"—the gospel of
+his philosophy. The highest summit of existence is reached in those
+phases of the denouement of human life when the overman has full
+control over the herds which are driven into the field,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> sheared
+and butchered for the sole benefit of him who knows the secret that
+this world has no moral significance beyond being a prey to his good
+pleasure. Nietzsche's hope is certainly not desirable for the mass
+of mankind, but even the fate of the overman himself would appear as
+little enviable a condition as that of the tyrant Dionysius under the
+sword of Damocles, or the Czar of Russia living in constant fear of the
+anarchistic bomb.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche, feeling that his thoughts were untimely, lived in the
+hope of "the coming of the great day" on which his views would find
+recognition. He looked upon the present as a rebellion against the
+spirit of strength and vigor; Christianity especially, and its doctrine
+of humility and love for the down-trodden was hateful to him. He speaks
+of it as a rebellion of slaves and places in the same category the
+democraticism that now characterizes the tendency of human development
+which he denounces as a pseudo-civilization.</p>
+
+<p>He insists that the overman is beyond good and evil; and yet it
+is obvious that though he claims to be the first philosopher who
+maintained the principle of unmorality, he was only the first
+philosopher boldly to proclaim it. His maxim (or lack of maxims) has
+been stealthily and secretly in use among all those classes whom he
+calls "overmen," great and small. The great overmen are conquerors
+and tyrants, who meteorlike appear and disappear, the small ones are
+commonly characterized as the criminal classes; but there is this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+difference between the two, that the former, at least so far as they
+have succeeded, recognize the absolute necessity of establishing law
+and order, and though they may temporarily have infringed upon the
+rules of morality themselves, they have finally come always to the
+conclusion that in order to maintain their position they must enforce
+upon others the usual rules of morality.</p>
+
+<p>Both Alexander and Cæsar were magnanimous at the right moment. They
+showed mercy to the vanquished, they exercised justice frequently
+against their own personal likes or dislikes, and were by no means men
+of impulse as Nietzsche would have his overman be. The same is true
+of Napoleon whose success is mainly due to making himself subservient
+to the needs of his age. As soon as he assumed the highest power in
+France, Napoleon replaced the frivolous tone at his court, to which his
+first wife Josephine had been accustomed, by an observance of so-called
+<i>bourgeois</i> decency, and he enforced it against her inclinations and
+his own.</p>
+
+<p>Further, Napoleon served the interests of Germany more than is
+commonly acknowledged by sweeping out of existence the mediæval
+system of innumerable sovereigns, ecclesiastical as well as secular,
+who in conformity with the conservative tenor of the German people
+had irremediably ensconced themselves in their hereditary rights
+to the disadvantage of the people. Moreover, the <i>Code Napoleon</i>,
+the new law book, perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> the most enduring work of Napoleon, was
+compiled by the jurists of the time, not because Napoleon cared for
+justice, but because he saw that the only way of establishing a stable
+government was by acknowledging rules of equity and by enforcing
+their recognition. It is true that Napoleon made his service in the
+cause of right and justice a pedestal for himself, but in contrast to
+Nietzsche's ideas we must notice that this recognition of principle
+was the only way of success to a man whose natural tendency was an
+unbounded egotism, an unlimited desire for power.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of his enthusiasm in announcing the advent of an overman,
+Nietzsche would be a poor adviser for a rising usurper. He would be
+able to cause a great upheaval, to bring about a Volcanic eruption,
+or to raise a thunderstorm wherever restlessness prevails, but his
+philosophy lacks the principle of using discretion, or advising
+self-discipline, of applying scientific methods—all of which is
+indispensable for success. He preaches boldness, not wisdom; and a hero
+after Nietzsche's heart would be like a navigator who courageously
+ventures into the storm but scorns a chart and leaves the mariners'
+compass behind; he would steer not as circumstances demand but
+according to his own sweet will, and would be wrecked before ever
+reaching the harbor of overmanhood.</p>
+
+<p>How much greater is the ideal of the overman as taught by the ancient
+philosopher of China! He, the <i>chiün jen</i>, the superior man, does not
+need power either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> political or financial to be great; he does not need
+a pedestal of oppressed slaves to stand on; he is great in himself,
+because he has a great compassionate heart and a broad comprehensive
+mind. He is simple, and, as we read in the <i>Tao Teh King</i>, "He wears
+wool [is not dressed in silk and purple] and wears his jewel concealed
+in his bosom."</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Lao-tse's Tao Teh King</i>, Chaps. 49 and 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_6" id="Footnote_2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_6"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For a collection of Greek quotations on the ethics of
+returning good for evil, see <i>The Open Court</i>, Vol. XV, 1901, pp.
+9-12.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+<h4><a name="ZARATHUSTRA" id="ZARATHUSTRA">ZARATHUSTRA</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>To those who have not the time to wade through the twelve volumes of
+Nietzsche's works and yet wish to become acquainted with him at his
+best, we recommend a perusal of his book <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i>.
+It is original and interesting, full of striking passages, sometimes
+flashes with deep truths, then again is sterile and unprofitable, or
+even tedious, and sometimes absurd; but at any rate it presents the
+embodiment of Nietzsche's grandest thoughts in their most attractive
+and characteristic form. We need scarcely warn the reader that
+Zarathustra is only another name for Friedrich Nietzsche and has
+nothing to do with the historical person of that name, the great
+Iranian prophet, the founder of Mazdaism.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's Zarathustra is a hermit philosopher who, weary of his
+wisdom, leaves his cave and comes to mingle with men, to teach them the
+overman. He meets a saint who loves God, and Zarathustra leaving him
+says: "Is it possible? This old saint in his forest has not yet heard
+that God is dead!"</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a id="nietzschc004"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_004.jpg" width="300" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE<br /> IN THE PRIME OF LIFE.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>Zarathustra preaches to a crowd in the market:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"I teach you the overman. Man is a something that shall be
+surpassed. What have ye done to surpass him?</p>
+
+<p>"All beings hitherto have created something beyond
+themselves: and are ye going to be the ebb of this great
+tide and rather revert to the animal than surpass man?</p>
+
+<p>"What with man is the ape? A joke or a sore shame. Man
+shall be the same for the overman, a joke or a sore shame.</p>
+
+<p>"Behold, I teach you the overman!</p>
+
+<p>"The overman is the significance of the earth. Your will
+shall say; the overman shall be the significance of the
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>"I conjure you, my brethren, remain faithful to the
+earth and do not believe those who speak unto you of
+superterrestrial hopes! Poisoners they are whether they
+know it or not.</p>
+
+<p>"Verily, a muddy stream is man. One must be the ocean to
+be able to receive a muddy stream without becoming unclean.</p>
+
+<p>"Behold, I teach you the overman: he is that ocean, in him
+your great contempt can sink.</p>
+
+<p>"What is the greatest thing ye can experience? That is
+the hour of great contempt. The hour in which not only
+your happiness, but your reason and virtue as well, turn
+loathsome.</p>
+
+<p>"I love him who is of a free spirit and of a free heart:
+thus his head is merely the intestine of his heart, but
+his heart driveth him to destruction.</p>
+
+<p>"I love all those who are like heavy drops falling one by
+one from the dark cloud lowering over men: they announce
+the coming of the lightning and perish in the announcing.</p>
+
+<p>"Behold, I am an announcer of the lightning and a heavy
+drop from the clouds; that lightning's name it the
+overman."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Zarathustra comes as an enemy of the good and the just. He says:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Lo, the good and just! Whom do they hate most? Him
+who breaketh to pieces their tables of values,—the
+law-breaker, the criminal:—but he is the creator.</p>
+
+<p>"The destroyer of morality I am called by the good and
+just: my tale is immoral."</p></blockquote>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a id="nietzschc005"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_005.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">COINS OF ANCIENT ELIS.<br /> Each is worth two drachmæ. One
+shows on the<br /> obverse a Zeus head with a laurel wreath,<br /> the other a
+winged Victory.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>Nietzsche's favorite animals are the proud eagle and the cunning
+serpent, the former because it typifies aristocracy, the latter as
+the wisest among all creatures of the earth. It is a strange and
+exceptional combination, for these two animals are commonly represented
+as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> enemies. The eagle and serpent was the emblem of ancient Elis and
+is at present the coat-of-arms of Mexico, but in both cases the eagle
+is interpreted to be the conqueror of the serpent, not its friend,
+carrying it as his prey in his claws.</p>
+
+<p>Zarathustra's philosophy is a combination of the eagle's pride and the
+serpent's wisdom, which Nietzsche describes thus:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Lo! an eagle swept through the air in wide circles,
+a serpent hanging from it not like a prey, but like a
+friend: coiling round its neck.</p>
+
+<p>"They are mine animals,' said Zarathustra and rejoiced
+heartily.</p>
+
+<p>"The proudest animal under the sun, and the wisest animal
+under the sun have set out to reconnoitre.</p>
+
+<p>"They wish to learn whether Zarathustra still liveth.
+Verily, do I still live.</p>
+
+<p>"More dangerous than among animals I found it among men.
+Dangerous ways are taken by Zarathustra. Let mine animals
+lead me!"</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Here is a sentence worth quoting:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Of all that is written I love only that which the writer
+wrote with his blood. Write with blood, and thou wilt
+learn that blood is spirit."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In another chapter on the back-worlds-men Nietzsche writes:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Once Zarathustra threw his spell beyond man, like all
+back-worlds-men. Then the world seemed to me the work of a
+suffering and tortured God.</p>
+
+<p>"Alas! brethren, that God whom I created was man's work
+and man's madness, like all Gods!</p>
+
+<p>"Man he was, and but a poor piece of man and the I.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> From
+mine own ashes and flame it came unto me, that ghost yea
+verily! It did not come unto me from beyond!</p>
+
+<p>"What happened, brethren? I overcame myself, the sufferer,
+and carrying mine own ashes unto the mountains invented
+for myself a brighter flame. And lo! the ghost departed
+from me!</p>
+
+<p>"Now to me, the convalescent, it would be suffering and
+pain to believe in such ghosts: suffering it would be for
+me and humiliation. Thus spake I unto the back-worlds-men."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's self is not ideal but material; it is not thought, not even
+the will, but the body. The following passage sounds like Vedantism as
+interpreted by a materialist:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"He who is awake and knoweth saith: Body I am throughout,
+and nothing besides; and soul is merely a word for a
+something in body.</p>
+
+<p>"Body is one great reason, a plurality with one sense, a
+war and a peace, a flock and a herdsman.</p>
+
+<p>"Also thy little reason, my brother, which thou callest
+'spirit'—it is a tool of thy body, a little tool and toy
+of thy great reason.</p>
+
+<p>"T, thou sayest and art proud of that word. But the
+greater thing is—which thou wilt not believe—thy body
+and its great reason. It doth not say T, but it is the
+acting 'I.'</p>
+
+<p>"The self ever listeneth and seeketh: it compareth,
+subdueth, conquereth, destroyeth. It ruleth and is the
+ruler of the 'I' as well.</p>
+
+<p>"Behind thy thoughts and feelings, my brother, standeth a
+mighty lord, an unknown wise man—whose name is self. In
+thy body he dwelleth, thy body he is.</p>
+
+<p>"There is more reason in thy body than in thy best wisdom.
+And who can know why thy body needeth thy beat wisdom?</p>
+
+<p>"Thy self laugheth at thine 'I' and its prancings: What
+are these boundings and flights of thought? it saith
+unto<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> itself. A round-about way to my purpose. I am the
+leading-string of the I and the suggester of its concepts.</p>
+
+<p>"The creative self created for itself valuing and
+despising, it created for itself lust and woe. The
+creative body created for itself the spirit to be the hand
+of its will."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>One of the best passages in Zarathustra's sermons is Nietzsche's
+command to love the overman, the man of the distant future:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"I tell you, your love of your neighbor is your bad love
+of yourselves.</p>
+
+<p>"Ye flee from yourselves unto your neighbor and would
+fain make a virtue thereof; but I see through your
+unselfishness.'</p>
+
+<p>"The thou is older than the I; the thou hath been
+proclaimed holy, but the I not yet; man thus thrusteth
+himself upon his neighbor.</p>
+
+<p>"Do I counsel you to love your neighbor? I rather counsel
+you to flee from your neighbor and to love the most remote.</p>
+
+<p>"Love unto the most remote future man is higher than love
+unto your neighbor. And I consider love unto things and
+ghosts to be higher than love unto men.</p>
+
+<p>"This ghost which marcheth before thee, my brother, is
+more beautiful than thou art. Why dost thou not give him
+thy flesh and thy bones? Thou art afraid and fleest unto
+thy neighbor.</p>
+
+<p>"Unable to endure yourselves and not loving yourselves
+enough, you seek to wheedle your neighbor into loving you
+and thus to gild you with his error.</p>
+
+<p>"My brethren, I counsel you not to love your neighbor; I
+counsel you to love those who are the most remote."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In perfect agreement with the ideal of the overman is Nietzsche's view
+of marriage, and verily it contains a very true and noble thought:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Thou shalt build beyond thyself. But first thou must be
+built thyself square in body and soul.</p>
+
+<p>"Thou shalt not only propagate thyself but propagate
+thyself upwards! Therefore the garden of marriage may help
+thee!</p>
+
+<p>"Thou shalt create a higher body, a prime motor, a wheel
+of self-rolling,—thou shalt create a creator.</p>
+
+<p>"Marriage: thus I call the will of two to create that one
+which is more than they who created it I call marriage
+reverence unto each other as unto those who will such a
+will.</p>
+
+<p>"Let this be the significance and the truth of thy
+marriage. But that which the much-too-many call marriage,
+those superfluous—alas, what call I that?</p>
+
+<p>"Alas! that soul's poverty of two! Alas! that soul's dirt
+of two! Alas! that miserable ease of two!</p>
+
+<p>"Marriage they call that; and they say marriage is made in
+heaven.</p>
+
+<p>"Well, I like it not that heaven of the superfluous!"</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Nietzsche takes a Schopenhauerian view of womankind, excepting from the
+common condemnation his sister alone, to whom he once said, "You are
+not a woman, you are a friend." He says of woman:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Too long a slave and a tyrant have been hidden in woman.
+Therefore woman is not yet capable of friendship; she
+knoweth love only."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is not aware that the self changes and that it grows by the
+acquisition of truth. He treats the self as remaining the same, and
+truth as that which our will has made conceivable. Truth to him is a
+mere creature of the self. Here is Zarathustra's condemnation of man's
+search for truth:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"'Will unto truth' ye call, ye wisest men, what inspireth
+you and maketh you ardent?</p>
+
+<p>"'Will unto the conceivableness of all that is,'—thus I
+call your will!</p>
+
+<p>"All that is ye are going to make conceivable. For with
+good mistrust ye doubt whether it is conceivable.</p>
+
+<p>"But it hath to submit itself and bend before yourselves!
+Thus your will willeth. Smooth it shall become and subject
+unto spirit as its mirror and reflected image.</p>
+
+<p>"That is your entire will, ye wisest men, as a will
+unto power; even when ye speak of good and evil and of
+valuations.</p>
+
+<p>"Ye will create the world before which to kneel down. Thus
+it is your last hope and drunkenness."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Recognition of truth is regarded as submission:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"To be true,—few are able to be so! And he who is able
+doth not want to be so. But least of all the good are able.</p>
+
+<p>"Oh, these good people! <i>Good men never speak the truth</i>.
+To be good in that way is a sickness for the mind.</p>
+
+<p>"They yield, these good men, they submit themselves;
+their heart saith what is said unto it, their foundation
+obeyeth. But whoever obeyeth doth not hear <i>himself</i>!"</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Nietzsche despises science. He must have had sorry experiences with
+scientists who offered him the dry bones of scholarship as scientific
+truth.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"When I lay sleeping, a sheep ate at the ivy-wreath of my
+head,—ate and said eating: 'Zarathustra is no longer a
+scholar.'</p>
+
+<p>"Said it and went off clumsily and proudly. So a child
+told me.</p>
+
+<p>"This is the truth: I have departed from the house of
+scholars, and the door I have shut violently behind me.</p>
+
+<p>"Too long sat my soul hungry at their table. Not, as they,
+am I trained for perceiving as for cracking nuts.</p>
+
+<p>"Freedom I love, and a breeze over a fresh soil. And<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> I
+would rather sleep on ox-skins then on their honors and
+respectabilities.</p>
+
+<p>"I am too hot and am burnt with mine own thoughts, so as
+often to take my breath away. Then I must go into the open
+air and away from all dusty rooms.</p>
+
+<p>"Like millworks they work, and like corn-crushers. Let
+folk only throw their grain into them! They know only too
+well how to grind corn and make white dust out of it.</p>
+
+<p>"They look well at each other's fingers and trust each
+other not over-much. Ingenious in little stratagems, they
+wait for those whose knowledge walketh on lame feet; like
+spiders they wait.</p>
+
+<p>"They also know how to play with false dice; and I found
+them playing so eagerly that they perspired from it.</p>
+
+<p>"We are strangers unto each other, and their virtues are
+still more contrary unto my taste than their falsehoods
+and false dice."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Even if all scientists were puny sciolists, the ideal of science would
+remain, and if all the professed seekers for truth were faithless to
+and unworthy of their high calling, truth itself would not be abolished.</p>
+
+<p>So far as we can see, Nietzsche never became acquainted with any one of
+the exact sciences. He was a philologist who felt greatly dissatisfied
+with the loose methods of his colleagues, but he has not done much
+in his own specialty to attain to a greater exactness of results.
+His essays on Homer, on the Greek tragedy, and similar subjects,
+have apparently not received much recognition among philologists and
+historians.</p>
+
+<p>Having gathered a number of followers in his cave, one of them, called
+the conscientious man, said to the others:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"We seek different things, even up here, ye and I.
+For I seek more security. Therefore have I come unto
+Zarathustra. For he is the firmest tower and will—</p>
+
+<p>"Fear—that is man's hereditary and fundamental feeling.
+By fear everything is explained, original sin and original
+virtue. Out of fear also hath grown my virtue, which is
+called Science.</p>
+
+<p>"Such long, old fears, at last become refined, spiritual,
+intellectual, to-day, methinketh, it is called <i>Science</i>."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This conception of science is refuted by Nietzsche in this fashion:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Thus spake the conscientious one. But Zarathustra, who
+had just returned into his cave and had heard the last
+speech and guessed its sense, threw a handful of roses at
+the conscientious one, laughing at his 'truths.' 'What?'
+he called. 'What did I hear just now? Verily, methinketh,
+thou art a fool, or I am one myself. And thy "truth" I
+turn upside down with one blow, and that quickly.'</p>
+
+<p>"'For fear is our exception. But courage and adventure,
+and the joy of what is uncertain, what hath never been
+dared—courage, methinketh, is the whole prehistoric
+development of man.</p>
+
+<p>"'From the wildest, most courageous beasts he hath, by his
+envy and his preying, won all their virtues. Only thus
+hath he become a man.</p>
+
+<p>"'<i>This</i> courage, at last become refined, spiritual,
+intellectual, this human courage with an eagle's wings and
+a serpent's wisdom—it, methinketh, is called to-day—'</p>
+
+<p>"'<i>Zarathustra</i>!' cried all who sat together there, as
+from one mouth making a great laughter withal."</p>
+
+<p>In spite of identifying the self with the body, which is
+mortal, Nietzsche longs for the immortal. He says:</p>
+
+<p>"Oh! how could I fail to be eager for eternity, and for
+the marriage-ring of rings, the ring of recurrence?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Never yet have I found the woman by whom I should like to
+have had children, unless it be this woman I love—for I
+love thee, O Eternity!"</p></blockquote>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
+<a id="nietzschc006"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_006.jpg" width="325" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">NIETZSCHE'S HANDWRITING.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>The best known of Nietzsche's poems forms the conclusion of Thus Spake
+Zarathustra, the most impressive work of Nietzsche, and is called
+by him "The Drunken Song." The thoughts are almost incoherent and
+it is difficult to say what is really meant by it. Nothing is more
+characteristic of Nietzsche's attitude and the vagueness of his fitful
+mode of thought. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> has been illustrated by Hans Lindlof, in the same
+spirit in which Richard Strauss has written a musical composition on
+the theme of Nietzsche's <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra.</i></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a id="nietzschc007"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_007.jpg" width="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">NIETZSCHE'S DRUNKEN SONG<br />—ILLUSTRATION BY LINDLOF.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>"The Drunken Song" reads in our translation as follows:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Man, listen, pray!<br />
+What the deep midnight has to say:<br />
+'I lay asleep,<br />
+'But woke from dreams deep and distraught<br />
+The world is deep,<br />
+'E'en deeper than the day e'er thought.<br />
+'Deep's the world's pain,—<br />
+'Joy deeper still than heartache's burning.<br />
+'Pain says, Life's vain!<br />
+'But for eternity Joy's yearning.<br />
+'For deep eternity Joy's yearning!'"<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Prof. William Benjamin Smith has translated this same song, and we
+think it will be interesting to our readers to compare his translation
+with our rendering. It reads as follows:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Oh Man! Give ear!<br />
+What saith the midnight deep and drear?<br />
+'From sleep, from sleep<br />
+'I woke as from a dream profound.<br />
+'The world is deep<br />
+'And deeper than the day can sound.<br />
+'Deep is its woe,—<br />
+'Joy, deeper still than heart's distress.<br />
+'Woe saith, Forego!<br />
+'But Joy wills everlastingness,—<br />
+'Wills deep, deep everlastingness.'"<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h4><a name="A_PROTEST_AGAINST_HIMSELF" id="A_PROTEST_AGAINST_HIMSELF">A PROTEST AGAINST HIMSELF</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>Nietzsche is far from regarding his philosophy as timely. He was
+a proud and aristocratic character, spoiled from childhood by an
+unfaltering admiration on the part of both his mother and sister.
+It was unfortunate for him that his father had died before he could
+influence the early years of his son through wholesome discipline.
+Not enjoying a vigorous constitution Nietzsche was greatly impressed
+with the thought that a general decadence was overshadowing mankind.
+The truth was that his own bodily system was subject to many ailments
+which hampered his mental improvement. He was hungering for health, he
+envied the man of energy, he longed for strength and vigor, but all
+this was denied him, and so these very shortcomings of his own bodily
+strength—his own decadence—prompted in him a yearning for bodily
+health, for an unbounded exercise of energy, and for success. These
+were his dearest ideals, and his desire for power was his highest
+ambition. He saw in the history of human thought, the development of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> notion of the "true world," which to him was a mere subjective
+phantom, a superstition; but a reaction would set in, and he prophesied
+that the doom of nihilism would sweep over the civilized world applying
+the torch to its temples, churches and institutions. Upon the ruins of
+the old world the real man, the overman, would rise and establish his
+own empire, an empire of unlimited power in which the herds, i. e., the
+common people would become subservient.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's philosophy forms a strange contrast to his own habits of
+life. A model of virtue, he made himself the advocate of vice, and
+gloried in it. He encouraged the robber<a name="FNanchor_1_7" id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_7" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> to rob, but he himself was
+honesty incarnate; he incited the people to rebel against authority of
+all kinds, but he himself was a "model child" in the nursery, a "model
+scholar" in school, and a "model soldier" while serving in the German
+army. His teachers as well as the officers of his regiment fail to find
+words enough to <i>praise Nietzsche's obedience</i>.<a name="FNanchor_2_8" id="FNanchor_2_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_8" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's professors declare that he distinguished himself "<i>durch
+pünktlichen Gehorsam</i>" (p. 3); his sister tells us that she and her
+brother were "<i>ungeheuer artig, wahre Musterkinder</i>" (p. 36). He makes
+a good soldier, and, in spite of his denunciations of posing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> displays
+theatrical vanity in having himself photographed with drawn sword (the
+scabbard is missing). His martial mustache almost anticipates the
+tonsorial art of the imperial barber of the present Kaiser; and yet
+his spectacled eyes and good-natured features betray the peacefulness
+of his intentions. He plays the soldier only, and would have found
+difficulty in killing even a fly.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche disclaims ever having learned anything in any school, but
+there never was a more grateful German pupil in Germany. He composed
+fervid poems on his school—the well known institution Schulpforta,
+which on account of its severe discipline he praises, not in irony but
+seriously, as the "narrow gate."<a name="FNanchor_3_9" id="FNanchor_3_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_9" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a id="nietzschc008"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_008.jpg" width="275" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE AS<br /> A VOLUNTEER IN THE GERMAN
+ARTILLERY, 1868.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>Nietzsche denounces the German character, German institutions, and
+the German language, his mother-tongue, and is extremely unfair in
+his denunciations. He takes pleasure in the fact that <i>Deutsch</i> (see
+Ulfila's Bible translation) originally means "pagans or heathen," and
+hopes that the dear German people will earn the honor of being called
+pagans. (<i>La Gaya Scienza</i>, p. 176.) A reaction against his patriotism
+set in immediately after the war, when he became acquainted with the
+brutality of some vulgar specimens of the victorious nation,—most of
+them non-combatants.<a name="FNanchor_4_10" id="FNanchor_4_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_10" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche not only wrote in German and made the most involved
+constructions, but when the war broke out he asked his adopted country
+Switzerland, in which he had acquired citizenship after accepting
+a position as professor of classical languages at the University
+of Basel, for leave of absence to join the German army. In the
+Franco-Prussian war he might have had a chance to live up to his
+theories of struggle, but unfortunately the Swiss authorities did
+not allow him to join the army, and granted leave of absence only on
+condition that he would serve as a nurse. Such is the irony of fate.
+While Nietzsche stood up for a ruthless assertion of strength and for
+a suppression of sympathy which he denounced as a relic of the ethics<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+of a negation of life, his own tender soul was so over-sensitive that
+his sister feels justified in tracing his disease back to the terrible
+impressions he received during the war.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche speaks of the king as "the dear father of the country."<a name="FNanchor_5_11" id="FNanchor_5_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_11" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+If there was a flaw in Nietzsche's moral character, it was
+goody-goodyness; and his philosophy is a protest against the principles
+of his own nature. While boldly calling himself "the first unmoralist,"
+justifying even license itself and defending the coarsest lust,<a name="FNanchor_6_12" id="FNanchor_6_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_12" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> his
+own life might have earned him the name of sissy, and he shrank in
+disgust from moral filth wherever he met with it in practical life.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche denounced pessimism, and yet his philosophy was, as he
+himself confesses, the last consequence of pessimism. Hegel declared
+(says Nietzsche in <i>Morgenröthe</i>, p. 8), "Contradiction moves the
+world, all things are self-contradictory"; "we (adds Nietzsche) carry
+pessimism even into logic." He proposes to vivisect morality; "but
+(adds he) you cannot vivisect a thing without killing it." Thus his
+"unmoralism" is simply an expression of his earnestness to investigate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+the moral problem, and he expresses the result in the terse sentence;
+<i>Moral ist Nothlüge</i> (<i>Menschliches</i>, p. 63.)</p>
+
+<p>He preached struggle and hatred, and yet was so tender-hearted that
+in an hour of dejection he confessed to his sister with a sigh: "I
+was not at all made to hate or be an enemy."<a name="FNanchor_7_13" id="FNanchor_7_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_13" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The decadence which
+he imputes to mankind is a mere reflection of his own state of mind,
+and the strength which he praises is that quality in which he is most
+sorely lacking. Nietzsche himself had the least possible connection
+with active life. He was unmarried, had no children, nor any interests
+beyond his ambition, and having served as professor of the classical
+languages for some time at the small university of Basel, he was for
+the greater part of his life without a calling, without duties, without
+aims. He never ventured to put his own theories into practice. He did
+not even try to rise as a prophet of his own philosophy, and remained
+in isolation to the very end of his life.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche must have felt the contradiction between his theories and
+his habits of life, and it appears that he suffered under it more than
+can be estimated by an impartial reader of his books. He was like the
+bird in the cage who sings of liberty, or an apoplectic patient who
+dreams of deeds of valor as a knight in tournament or as a wrestler in
+the prize ring. Never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> was craving for power more closely united with
+impotence!</p>
+
+<p>It is characteristic of him that he said, "If there were a God, how
+should I endure not to be God?" and so his ambition impelled him at
+least to prophesy the coming of his ideal, i. e., robust health, full
+of bodily vigor and animal spirits, unchecked by any rule of morality,
+and an unstinted use of power.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche had an exaggerated conception of his vocation and he saw
+in himself the mouthpiece of that grandest and deepest truth, viz.,
+that man should dare to be himself without any regard of morality
+or consideration for his fellow beings. And here we have the tragic
+element of his life. Nietzsche, the atheist, deemed himself a God
+incarnate, and the despiser of the Crucified, suffered a martyr's fate
+in offering his own life to the cause of his hope. The earnestness
+with which he preached his wild and untenable doctrines appeals to
+us and renders his figure sympathetic, which otherwise would be
+grotesque. Think of a man who in his megalomania preaches a doctrine
+that justifies an irresponsible desire for power! Would he not be
+ridiculous in his impotence to actualize his dream? and on the other
+hand, if he were strong enough to practice what he preached, if like
+another Napoleon, he would make true his dreams of enslaving the world,
+would not mankind in self-defense soon rise in rebellion and treat
+him as a criminal, rendering him and his followers incapable of doing
+harm? But Nietzsche's personality, weak and impotent and powerless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> to
+appear as the overman and to subjugate the world to his will, suffered
+excruciating pains in his soul and tormented himself to death, which
+came to him in the form of decadence—a softening of the brain.</p>
+
+<p>Poor Nietzsche! what a bundle of contradictions! None of these
+contradictions are inexplicable. All of them are quite natural. They
+are the inevitable reactions against a prior enthusiasm, and he swings,
+according to the law of the pendulum, to the opposite extreme of his
+former position.</p>
+
+<p>How did Nietzsche develop into an unmoralist? Simply by way of
+reaction against the influence of Schopenhauer in combination with the
+traditional Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche passed through three periods in his development. He was
+first a follower of Schopenhauer and an admirer of Wagner, but he
+shattered his idols and became a convert to Auguste Comte's positivism.
+Schopenhauer was the master at whose feet Nietzsche sat; from him
+he learned boldness of thought and atheism, that this world is a
+world of misery and struggle. He accepted for a time Schopenhauer's
+pessimism but rebelled in his inmost soul against the ethical doctrine
+of the negation of the will. He retained Schopenhauer's contempt for
+previous philosophers (presumably he never tried to understand them)
+yet he resented the thought of a negation of life and replaced it by
+a most emphatic assertion. He thus recognized the reactionary spirit
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> Schopenhauer, whose system is a Christian metaphysics. Nietzsche
+denounces the ethics of a negation of the will as a disease, and since
+nature in the old system is regarded as the source of moral evil the
+idea dawns on him that he himself, trying to establish a philosophy of
+nature, is an immoralist. He now questions morality itself from the
+standpoint of an affirmation of the will, and at last goes so far as to
+speak of ideals as a symptom of shallowness.<a name="FNanchor_8_14" id="FNanchor_8_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_14" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<a id="nietzschc009"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_009.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE<br /> AS PROFESSOR AT BASLE.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>Nietzsche argued that our conception of truth and our ideal world
+is but a phantasmagoria, and the picture of the universe in our
+consciousness a distorted image of real life. Our pleasures and pains,
+too, are both transient and subjective. Accordingly it would be a gross
+mistake for us to exaggerate their importance. What does it matter if
+we endure a little more or less pain, or of what use are the pleasures
+in which we might indulge? The realities of life consist in power, and
+in our dominion over the forces that dominate life. Knowledge and truth
+are of no use unless they become subservient to this realistic desire
+for power. They are mere means to an end which is the superiority of
+the overman, the representative of Nietzsche's philosophy by whom
+the mass of mankind are to be enslaved. This view constitutes his
+third<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> period, in which he wrote those works that are peculiarly
+characteristic of his own philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche must not be taken too seriously. He was engaged with the
+deepest problems of life, and published his opinions as to their
+solution before he had actually attempted to investigate them. He
+criticised and attacked like the Irishman who hits a head wherever he
+sees it. Here are the first three rules of his philosophical warfare:</p>
+
+<p>"First: I attack only those causes which are victorious, sometimes I
+wait till they are victorious. Secondly: I attack them only when I
+would find no allies, when I stand isolated, when I compromise myself
+alone. Thirdly: I have never taken a step in public which did not
+compromise me. That is my criterion of right action."</p>
+
+<p>A man who adopts this strange criterion of right conduct must produce
+a strange philosophy. His soul is in an uproar against itself. Says
+Nietzsche in his <i>Götzendämmerung</i>, Aphorism 45:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Almost every genius knows as one phase of his development
+the 'Catilinary existence,' so-called, which is a feeling
+of hatred, of vengeance, of revolution against everything
+that is, which no longer needs to become ... Catiline—the
+form of Cæsar's pre-existence."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Nietzsche changed his views during his life-time, and the unmoralist
+Nietzsche originated in contradiction to his habitual moralism. He was
+a man of extremes. As soon as a new thought dawned on him, it took
+possession of his soul to the exclusion of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> prior views, and his
+later self contradicts his former self.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche says:</p>
+
+<p>"The serpent that cannot slough must die. In the same way, the spirits
+which are prevented from changing their opinions cease to be spirits."</p>
+
+<p>So we must expect that if Nietzsche had been permitted to continue
+longer in health, he would have cast off the slough of his immoralism
+and the negative conceptions of his positivism. His <i>Zarathustra</i> was
+the last work of his pen, but it is only the most classical expression
+of the fermentation of his soul, not the final purified result of his
+philosophy; it is not the solution of the problem that stirred his
+heart.</p>
+
+<p>While writing his <i>Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen</i>, Nietzsche
+characterizes his method of work thus:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"That I proceed with my outpourings considerably like a
+dilettante and in an immature manner, I know very well,
+but I am anxious first of all to get rid of the whole
+polemico-negative material. I wish undisturbedly to sing
+off, up and down and truly dastardly, the whole gamut
+of my hostile feelings, 'that the vaults shall echo
+back.'<a name="FNanchor_9_15" id="FNanchor_9_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_15" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Later on, i. e., within five years, I shall
+discard all polemics and bethink myself of a really 'good
+work,' But at present my breast is oppressed with disgust
+and tribulation. I must expectorate, decorously and
+indecorously, but radically and for good" [<i>endgültig</i>].</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The writings of Nietzsche will make the impression of a youthful
+immaturity upon any half-way serious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> reader. There is a hankering
+after originality which of necessity leads to aberrations and a
+sovereign contempt for the merits of the past. The world seems
+endangered, and yet any one who would seriously try to live up to
+Nietzsche's ideal must naturally sober down after a while, and we may
+apply to him what Mephistopheles says of the baccalaureus:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Yet even from him we're not in special peril<br />
+He will, ere long, to other thoughts incline.<br />
+The must may foam absurdly in the barrel.<br />
+Nathless, it turns at last to wine."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8.5em;"><i>Tr. by Bayard Taylor.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche did not live long enough to experience a period of matured
+thought. He died before the fermentation of his mind had come to its
+normal close, and so his life will remain forever a great torso,
+without intrinsic worth, but suggestive and appealing only to the
+immature, including the "herd animal" who would like to be an overman.</p>
+
+<p>The very immaturity of Nietzsche's view becomes attractive to
+immature minds. He wrote while his thoughts were still in a state of
+fermentation, and he died before the wine of his soul was clarified.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is an almost tragic figure that will live in art as a
+brooding thinker, a representative of the dissatisfied, a man of an
+insatiable love of life, with wild and unsteady looks, proud in his
+indomitable self-assertion, but broken in body and spirit. Such he was
+in his last disease when his mind was wrapt in the eternal night of
+dementia, the oppressive consciousness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> of which made him exclaim in
+lucid moments the pitiable complaint. "<i>Mutter, ich bin dumm</i>" As such
+he is represented in Klein's statue,<a name="FNanchor_10_16" id="FNanchor_10_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_16" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which in its pathetic posture
+is a psychological masterpiece.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<a id="nietzschc010"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_010.jpg" width="450" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE—THE LATEST PORTRAIT,<br /> AFTER AN OIL
+PAINTING BY C. STOEVING.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>Nietzsche's works are poetic effusions more than philosophical
+expositions and yet we would hesitate to call him a poet. His poems are
+not poetical in the usual sense. They lack poetry and yet they appeal
+not only to his admirers, but also to his critics and enemies. Most
+of them are artificial yet they are so characteristic that they are
+interesting specimens of a peculiar kind of taste. They strike us as
+ingenious, because they reflect his eccentricities.</p>
+
+<p>In a poem entitled "Ecce Homo"<a name="FNanchor_11_17" id="FNanchor_11_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_17" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> he characterizes himself:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Yea, I know from whence I came!<br />
+Never satiate, like the flame<br />
+Glow I and consume me too<br />
+Into light turns what I find,<br />
+Cinders do I leave behind,<br />
+Flame am I, 'tis surely true."<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_7" id="Footnote_1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_7"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> E.g.:
+<br />
+"Bitte nie! Lass dies Gewimmer!<br />
+Nimm, ich bitte dich, nimm immer!"<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_8" id="Footnote_2_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_8"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Compare <i>Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's</i> by his sister,
+Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_9" id="Footnote_3_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_9"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Leben, pp. 90-97.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_10" id="Footnote_4_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_10"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> (See, e. g., Leben, II., 1, pp. 108-111.) "Nach dem Kriege
+missfiel mir der Luxus, die Franzosenverachtung," etc., p. 108. "Ich
+halte das jetzige Preussen für eine der Cultur höchst gefährliche
+Macht." Nietzsche ridicules the German language as barbarous in
+sound (<i>La Gaya Scienza</i>, pp. 138-140), "wälderhaft, heiser, wie aus
+räucherigen Stuben und unhöflichen Gegenden." Unique is the origin of
+the standard style of modern high German from the bureaucratic slang,
+"kanzleimässig schreiben, das war etwas Vornehmes" (<i>La Gaya Scienza</i>,
+p. 138), and at present the German changes into an "Offizierdeutsch"
+(ibid., p. 139). Nietzsche suspects, "the German depth," "die deutsche
+Tiefe," to be a mere mental dyspepsia (see "Jenseits von Gut und Böse,"
+p. 211), saying, "Der Deutsche verdaut seine Ereignisse schlecht, or
+wird nie damit fertig; die deutsche Tiefe ist oft nur eine schwere,
+zögernde Verdauung." Nevertheless, he holds that the old-fashioned
+German depth is better than modern Prussian "Schneidigkeit und Berliner
+Witz und Sand." He prefers the company of the Swiss to that of his
+countrymen. (See also "Was den Deutschen abgeht," Vol. 8, p. 108.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_11" id="Footnote_5_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_11"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> "Unser lieber König," "der Landesvater," etc. See <i>Leben</i>,
+I., p. 24, and IL, 1, p. 248, "Unser lieber alter Kaiser Wilhelm,"
+and "wir Preussen waren wirklich stolz." These expressions occur in
+Nietzsche's description of the Emperor's appearance at Bayreuth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_12" id="Footnote_6_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_12"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, "Auch der schädlichste Mensch ist vielleicht immer
+noch der allernützlichste in Hinsicht auf Erhaltung der Art," etc. <i>La
+Gaya Scienza</i>, p. 3 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_13" id="Footnote_7_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_13"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "Ich bin so gar nicht zum Hassen und zum Feind sein
+gemacht!"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_14" id="Footnote_8_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_14"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See, e. g., <i>Leben</i>, I., p. 135, where he speaks of a new
+"Freigeisterei," denouncing the "libres penseurs" as "unverbesserliche
+Flachköpfe und Hanswürste," adding, "Sie glauben allesammt noch an's
+'Ideal.'"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_15" id="Footnote_9_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_15"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> "Dass das Gewölbe wiederhallt,"—a quotation from Goethe's
+"Faust."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_16" id="Footnote_10_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_16"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Reproduced as the frontispiece of this book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_17" id="Footnote_11_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_17"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+"Ja, ich weiss woher ich stamme!<br />
+Ungesättigt gleich der Flamme,<br />
+Glühe und verzehr ich mich,<br />
+licht wird alles was ich fasse,<br />
+Kohle alles was ich lasse:<br />
+Flamme bin ich sicherlich!"<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="NIETZSCHES_PREDECESSOR" id="NIETZSCHES_PREDECESSOR">NIETZSCHE'S PREDECESSOR</a></h4>
+
+<p>Friedrich Nietzsche, the author of <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i> and the
+inventor of the new ideal called the "overman," is commonly regarded
+as the most extreme egotist, to whom morality is non-existent and who
+glories in the coming of the day in which a man of his liking—the
+overman—would live au grand jour. His philosophy is an individualism
+carried to its utmost extreme, sanctioning egotism, denouncing altruism
+and establishing the right of the strong to trample the weak under
+foot. It is little known, however, that he followed another thinker,
+Johann Caspar Schmidt, whose extreme individualism he adopted. But this
+forerunner who preached a philosophy of the sovereignty of self and an
+utter disregard of our neighbors' rights remained unheeded; he lived in
+obscurity, he died in poverty, and under the pseudonym "Max Stirner" he
+left behind a book entitled <i>Der Einzige und sein Eigentum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The historian Lange briefly mentioned him in his <i>History of
+Materialism</i>, and the novelist John Henry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> Mackay followed up the
+reference which led to the discovery of this lonely comet on the
+philosophical sky.<a name="FNanchor_1_18" id="FNanchor_1_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_18" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The strangest thing about this remarkable book consists in the many
+coincidences with Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy. It is commonly
+deemed impossible that the famous spokesman of the overman should not
+have been thoroughly familiar with this failure in the philosophical
+book market; but while Stirner was forgotten the same ideas
+transplanted into the volumes of the author of <i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i>
+found an echo first in Germany and soon afterwards all over the world.</p>
+
+<p>Stirner's book has been Englished by Stephen T. Byington with an
+introduction by J. L. Walker at the instigation of Benjamin R. Tucker,
+the representative of American peaceful anarchism, under the title
+<i>The Ego and His Own</i>. They have been helped by Mr. George Schumm and
+his wife, Mrs. Emma Heller Schümm. These five persons, all interested
+in this lonely and unique thinker, must have had much trouble in
+translating the German original and though the final rendering of the
+title is not inappropriate, the translator and his advisers agree
+that it falls short of the mark. For the accepted form Mr. B. R.
+Tucker is responsible, and he admits in the preface that it is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+an exact equivalent of the German. <i>Der Einzige</i> means "the unique
+man," a person of a definite individuality, but in the book itself our
+author modifies and enriches the meaning of the term. The unique man
+becomes the ego and an owner (<i>ein Eigener</i>), a man who is possessed of
+property, especially of his own being. He is a master of his own and
+he prides himself on his ownhood, as well as his ownership. As such he
+is unique, and the very term indicates that the thinker who proposes
+this view-point is an extreme individualist. In Stirner's opinion
+Christianity pursued the ideal of liberty from the world; and in this
+sense Christians speak of spiritual liberty. To become free from
+anything that oppresses us we must get rid of it, and so the Christian
+to rid himself of the world becomes a prey to the idea of a contempt
+of the world. Stirner declares that the future has a better lot in
+store for man. Man shall not merely be free, which is a purely negative
+quality, but he shall be his own master; he shall become an owner of
+his own personality and whatever else he may have to control. His
+end and aim is he himself. There is no moral duty above him. Stirner
+explains in the very first sentence of his book:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"What is not supposed to be my concern! First and
+foremost, the good cause, then God's cause, the cause of
+mankind, of truth, of freedom, of humanity, of justice;
+further, the cause of my people, my prince, my fatherland;
+finally, even the cause of mind, and a thousand other
+causes. Only my cause is never to be my concern. 'Shame on
+the egoist who thinks only of himself!"</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Stirner undertakes to refute this satirical explanation in his book
+on the unique man and his own, and a French critic according to
+Paul Lauterbach (p. 5) speaks of his book as <i>un livre qu'on quitte
+monarque</i>, "a book which one lays aside a king."</p>
+
+<p>Stirner is opposed to all traditional views. He is against church and
+state. He stands for the self-development of every individual, and
+insists that the highest duty of every one is to stand up for his
+ownhood.</p>
+
+<p>J. L. Walker in his Introduction contrasts Stirner with Nietzsche and
+gives the prize of superiority to the former, declaring him to be a
+genuine anarchist not less than Josiah Warren, the leader of the small
+band of New England anarchists. He says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"In Stirner we have the philosophical foundation for
+political liberty. His interest in the practical
+development of egoism to the dissolution of the state
+and the union of free men is clear and pronounced, and
+harmonizes perfectly with the economic philosophy of
+Josiah Warren. Allowing for difference of temperament
+and language, there is a substantial agreement between
+Stirner and Proudhon. Each would be free, and sees in
+every increase of the number of free people and their
+intelligence an auxiliary force against the oppressor.
+But, on the other hand, will any one for a moment
+seriously contend that Nietzsche and Proudhon march
+together in general aim and tendency—that they have
+anything in common except the daring to profane the shrine
+and sepulcher of superstition?</p>
+
+<p>"Nietzsche has been much spoken of as a disciple of
+Stirner, and, owing to favorable cullings from Nietzsche's
+writings, it has occurred that one of his books has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+supposed to contain more sense than it really does—so
+long as one had read only the extracts.</p>
+
+<p>"Nietzsche cites scores or hundreds of authors. Had he
+read everything, and not read Stirner?</p>
+
+<p>"But Nietzsche is as unlike Stirner as a tight-rope
+performance is unlike an algebraic equation.</p>
+
+<p>"Stirner loved liberty for himself, and loved to see any
+and all men and women taking liberty, and he had no lust
+of power. Democracy to him was sham liberty, egoism the
+genuine liberty.</p>
+
+<p>"Nietzsche, on the contrary, pours out his contempt
+upon democracy because it is not aristocratic. He is
+predatory to the point of demanding that those who must
+succumb to feline rapacity shall be taught to submit with
+resignation. When he speaks of 'anarchistic dogs' scouring
+the streets of great civilized cities, it is true, the
+context shows that he means the communists; but his
+worship of Napoleon, his bathos of anxiety for the rise
+of an aristocracy that shall rule Europe for thousands
+of years, his idea of treating women in the Oriental
+fashion, show that Nietzsche has struck out in a very
+old path—doing the apotheosis of tyranny. We individual
+egoistic anarchists, however, may say to die Nietzsche
+school, so as not to be misunderstood: We do not ask of
+the Napoleons to have pity, nor of the predatory barons
+to do justice. They will find it convenient for their own
+welfare to make terms with men who have learned of Stirner
+what a man can be who worships nothing, bears allegiance
+to nothing. To Nietzsche's rhodomontade of eagles in
+baronial form, born to prey on industrial lambs, we rather
+tauntingly oppose the ironical question: Where are your
+claws? What if the 'eagles' are found to be plain barnyard
+fowls on which more silly fowls have fastened steel spurs
+to hack the victims, who, however, have the power to
+disarm the sham 'eagles' between two suns?</p>
+
+<p>"Stirner shows that men make their tyrants as they make
+their gods, and his purpose is to unmake tyrants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Nietzsche dearly loves a tyrant.</p>
+
+<p>"In style Stirner's work offers the greatest possible
+contrast to the puerile, padded phraseology of Nietzsche's
+<i>Zarathustra</i> and its false imagery. Who ever imagined
+such an unnatural conjuncture as an eagle 'toting' a
+serpent in friendship? which performance is told of in
+bare words, but nothing comes of it. In Stirner we are
+treated to an enlivening and earnest discussion addressed
+to serious minds, and every reader feels that the word
+is to him, for his instruction and benefit, so far as he
+has mental independence and courage to take it and use it
+The startling intrepidity of this book is infused with
+a whole-hearted love for all mankind, as evidenced by
+the fact that the author shows not one iota of prejudice
+or any idea of division of men into ranks. He would lay
+aside government, but would establish any regulation
+deemed convenient, and for this only <i>our</i> convenience
+is consulted. Thus there will be general liberty only
+when the disposition toward tyranny is met by intelligent
+opposition that will no longer submit to such a rule.
+Beyond this the manly sympathy and philosophical bent of
+Stirner are such that rulership appears by contrast a
+vanity, an infatuation of perverted pride. We know not
+whether we more admire our author or more love him.</p>
+
+<p>"Stirner's attitude toward woman is not special. She is
+an individual if she can be, not handicapped by anything
+he says, feels, thinks, or plans. This was more fully
+exemplified in his life than even in this book; but there
+is not a line in the book to put or keep woman in an
+inferior position to man, neither is there anything of
+caste or aristocracy in the book."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>It is not our intention to enter here into a detailed criticism of
+Stirner's book. We will only point out that society will practically
+remain the same whether we consider social arrangements as voluntary
+contracts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> or as organically developed social institutions, or as
+imposed upon mankind by the divine world-order, or even if czars and
+kings claim to govern "by the grace of God." Whatever religious or
+natural sanction any government may claim to possess, the method of
+keeping order will be the same everywhere. Wrongs have been done and in
+the future may still be committed in the name of right, and injustice
+may again and again worst justice in the name of the law. On the other
+hand, however, we can notice a progress throughout the world of a slow
+but steady improvement of conditions. Any globe-trotter will find by
+experience that his personal safety, his rights and privileges are
+practically the same in all civilized countries, whether they are
+republics like Switzerland, France and the United States, or monarchies
+like Sweden, Germany and Italy. At the same time murders, robberies,
+thefts and other crimes are committed all over the world, even in
+the homes of those who pride themselves on being the most civilized
+nations. The world-conception lying behind our different social
+theories is the same wherever the same kind of civilization prevails.
+Where social evils prevail, dissatisfaction sets in which produces
+theories and reform programs, and when they remain unheeded, a climax
+is reached which leads to revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Stirner's book begins with a short exhortation headed with Goethe's
+line,</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"My trust in nothingness is placed."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He discusses the character of human life (Chap. I) and contrasts men
+of the old and the new eras (Chap. II). He finds that the ancients
+idealized bodily existence while Christianity incarnates the ideal.
+Greek artists transfigure actual life; in Christianity the divine takes
+abode in the world of flesh, God becomes incarnate in man. The Greeks
+tried to go beyond the world and Christianity came; Christian thinkers
+are pressed to go beyond God, and there they find spirit. They are
+led to a contempt of the world and will finally end in a contempt of
+spirit. But Stirner believes that the ideal and the real can never be
+reconciled, and we must free ourselves from the errors of the past. The
+truly free man is not the one who has become free, but the one who has
+come into his own, and this is the sovereign ego.</p>
+
+<p>As Achilles had his Homer so Stirner found his prophet in a German
+socialist of Scotch Highlander descent, John Henry Mackay. The reading
+public should know that Mackay belongs to the same type of restless
+reformers, and he soon became an egoistic anarchist, a disciple of
+Stirner. His admiration is but a natural consequence of conditions.
+Nevertheless Mackay's glorification of Stirner proves that in Stirner
+this onesided world-conception has found its classical, its most
+consistent and its philosophically most systematic presentation.
+Whatever we may have to criticize in anarchism, Stirner is a man of
+uncommon distinction, the leader of a party, and the standard-bearer
+of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> cause distinguished by the extremeness of its propositions which
+from the principle of individualism are carried to their consistent
+ends.</p>
+
+<p>Mackay undertook the difficult task of unearthing the history of a man
+who, naturally modest and retired, had nowhere left deep impressions.
+No stone remained unturned and every clue that could reveal anything
+about his hero's life was followed up with unprecedented devotion. He
+published the results of his labors in a book entitled "Max Stirner,
+His Life and His Work."<a name="FNanchor_2_19" id="FNanchor_2_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_19" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The report is extremely touching not so
+much on account of the great significance of Stirner's work which to
+impartial readers appears exaggerated, but through the personal tragedy
+of a man who towers high above his surroundings and suffers the misery
+of poverty and failure.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Mackay describes Stirner as of medium height, rather less so than
+more, well proportioned, slender, always dressed with care though
+without pretension, having the appearance of a teacher, and wearing
+silver-or steel-rimmed spectacles. His hair and beard were blonde
+with a tinge of red, his eyes blue and clear, but neither dreamy nor
+penetrating. His thin lips usually wore a sarcastic smile, which,
+however, had nothing of bitterness; his general appearance was
+sympathetic. No portrait of Stirner is in existence except one pencil
+sketch which was made from memory in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> 1892 by the London socialist,
+Friedrich Engels, but the criticism is made by those who knew Stirner
+that his features, especially his chin and the top of his head, were
+not so angular though nose and mouth are said to have been well
+portrayed, and Mackay claims that Stirner never wore a coat and collar
+of that type.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<a id="nietzschc011"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_011.jpg" width="375" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">PENCIL SKETCH OF MAX STIRNER.<br /> The only portrait in
+existence.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p>Stirner was of purely Frankish blood. His ancestors lived for centuries
+in or near Baireuth. His father, Albert Christian Heinrich Schmidt of
+Anspach, a maker of wind-instruments, died of consumption in 1807 at
+the age of 37, half a year after the birth of his son. His mother,
+Sophie Eleanora, née Reinlein of the city of Erlangen, six months later
+married H. F.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> L. Ballerstedt, the assistant in an apothecary shop in
+Helmstedt, and moved with him to Kulm on the Vistula. In 1818 the boy
+was sent back to his native city where his childless god-father and
+uncle, Johann Caspar Martin Sticht, and his wife took care of him.</p>
+
+<p>Young Johann Caspar passed through school with credit, and his
+schoolmates used to call him "Stirner" on account of his high forehead
+(<i>Stirn</i>) which was the most conspicuous feature of his face. This name
+clung to him throughout life. In fact his most intimate friends never
+called him by any other, his real name being almost forgotten through
+disuse and figuring only in official documents.</p>
+
+<p>Stirner attended the universities of Erlangen, Berlin and Königsberg,
+and finally passed his examination for admission as a teacher in
+gymnasial schools. His stepfather died in the summer of 1837 in Kulm at
+the age of 76. It is not known what became of his mother who had been
+mentally unsound for some time.</p>
+
+<p>Neither father nor stepfather had ever been successful, and if Stirner
+ever received any inheritance it must have been very small. On December
+12 of 1837 Stirner married Agnes Clara Kunigunde Burtz, the daughter of
+his landlady.</p>
+
+<p>Their married life was brief, the young wife dying in a premature
+child-birth on August 29th. We have no indication of an ardent love
+on either side. He who wrote with passionate fire and with so much
+insistence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> in his philosophy, was calm and peaceful, subdued and quiet
+to a fault in real life.</p>
+
+<p>Having been refused appointment in one of the public or royal schools
+Stirner accepted a position in a girls' school October 1, 1839.
+During the political fermentation which preceded the revolutionary
+year of 1848, he moved in the circle of those bold spirits who called
+themselves <i>Die Freien</i> and met at Hippel's, among whom were Ludwig
+Buhl, Meyen, Friedrich Engels, Mussak, C. F. Köppen, the author of a
+work on Buddha, Dr. Arthur Müller and the brothers Bruno, Egbert and
+Edgar Bauer. It was probably among their associates that Stirner met
+Marie Dähnhardt of Gadebusch near Schwerin, Mecklenberg, the daughter
+of an apothecary, Helmuth Ludwig Dähnhardt. She was as different from
+Stirner as a dashing emancipated woman can be from a gentle meek man,
+but these contrasts were joined together in wedlock on October 21,
+1843. Their happiness did not last long, for Marie Dähnhardt left her
+husband at the end of three years.</p>
+
+<p>The marriage ceremony of this strange couple has been described in the
+newspapers and it is almost the only fact of Stirner's life that stands
+out boldly as a well-known incident. That these descriptions contain
+exaggerations and distortions is not improbable, but it cannot be
+denied that much contained in the reports must be true.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of October 21, a clergyman of extremely liberal
+views, Rev. Marot, a member of the Consistory, was called to meet
+the witnesses of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> ceremony at Stirner's room. Bruno Bauer, Buhl,
+probably also Julius Faucher, Assessor Kochius and a young English
+woman, a friend of the bride, were present. The bride was in her
+week-day dress. Mr. Marot asked for a Bible, but none could be found.
+According to one version the clergyman was obliged to request Herr Buhl
+to put on his coat and to have the cards removed. When the rings were
+to be exchanged the groom discovered that he had forgotten to procure
+them, and according to Wilhelm Jordan's recollection Bauer pulled out
+his knitted purse and took off the brass rings, offering them as a
+substitute during the ceremony. After the wedding a dinner with cold
+punch was served to which Mr. Marot was invited. But he refused, while
+the guests remained and the wedding carousal proceeded in its jolly
+course.</p>
+
+<p>In order to understand how this incident was possible we must know that
+in those pre-revolutionary years the times were out of joint and these
+heroes of the rebellion wished to show their disrespect and absolute
+indifference to a ceremony that to them had lost all its sanctity.</p>
+
+<p>Stirner's married life was very uneventful, except that he wrote the
+main book of his life and dedicated it to his wife after a year's
+marriage, with the words,</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Meinem Liebchen<br />
+Marie Dähnhardt."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Obviously this form which ignores the fact that they were married,
+and uses a word of endearment which in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> this connection is rather
+trivial, must be regarded as characteristic of their relation and their
+life principles. Certain it is that she understood only the negative
+features of her husband's ideals and had no appreciation of the genius
+that stirred within him. Lauterbach, the editor of the Reclam edition
+of Stirner's book, comments ironically on this dedication with the
+Spanish motto <i>Da Dios almendras al que no tiene muelas</i>, "God gives
+almonds to those who have no teeth."</p>
+
+<p>Marie Dähnhardt was a graceful blonde woman rather under-sized, with
+heavy hair which surrounded her head in ringlets according to the
+fashion of the time. She was very striking and became a favorite of
+the round table of the <i>Freien</i> who met at Hippel's. She smoked cigars
+freely and sometimes donned male attire, in order to accompany her
+husband and his friends on their nightly excursions. It appears that
+Stirner played the most passive part in these adventures, but true
+to his principle of individuality we have no knowledge that he ever
+criticized his wife.</p>
+
+<p>Marie Dähnhardt had lost her father early and was in possession of a
+small fortune of 10,000 thalers, possibly more. At any rate it was
+considered quite a sum in the circle of Stirner's friends, but it did
+not last long. Having written his book, Stirner gave up his position
+so as to prevent probable discharge and now they looked around for new
+resources. Though Stirner had studied political economy he was a most
+unpractical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> man; but seeing there was a dearth of milk-shops, he and
+his wife started into business. They made contracts with dairies but
+did not advertise their shop, and when the milk was delivered to them
+they had large quantities of milk on hand but no patrons, the result
+being a lamentable failure with debts.</p>
+
+<p>In the circle of his friends Stirner's business experience offered
+inexhaustible material for jokes, while at home it led rapidly to the
+dissolution of his marriage. Frau Schmidt complained in later years
+that her husband had wasted her property, while no complaints are known
+from him. One thing is sure that they separated. She went to England
+where she established herself as a teacher under the protection of Lady
+Bunsen, the wife of the Prussian ambassador.</p>
+
+<p>Frau Schmidt's later career is quite checkered. She was a well-known
+character in the colony of German exiles in London. One of her friends
+there was a Lieutenant Techow. When she was again in great distress she
+emigrated with other Germans, probably in 1852 or 1853, to Melbourne,
+Australia. Here she tasted the misery of life to the dregs. She made a
+living as a washerwoman and is reported to have married a day laborer.
+Their bitter experiences made her resort to religion for consolation,
+and in 1870 or 1871 she became a convert to the Catholic Church. At her
+sister's death she became her heir and so restored her good fortune to
+some extent. She returned to London where Mr. Mackay to his great joy
+discovered that she was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> still alive at the advanced age of eighty.
+What a valuable resource her reminiscences would be for his inquiries!
+But she refused to give any information and finally wrote him a letter
+which literally reads as follows: "Mary Smith <i>solemnly avowes</i> that
+she will have <i>no more</i> correspondence on the subject, and authorizes
+Mr. ———-<a name="FNanchor_3_20" id="FNanchor_3_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_20" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> to return all those writings to their owners. She is ill
+and prepares for death."</p>
+
+<p>The last period of Stirner's life, from the time when his wife left him
+to his death, is as obscure as his childhood days. He moved from place
+to place, and since his income was very irregular creditors pressed him
+hard. His lot was tolerable because of the simple habits of his life,
+his only luxury consisting in smoking a good cigar. In 1853 we find
+him at least twice in debtor's prison, first 21 days, from March 5 to
+26,1853, and then 36 days, from New Year's eve until February 4 of the
+next year. In the meantime (September 7) he moved to Philippstrasse 19.
+It was Stirner's last home. He stayed with the landlady of this place,
+a kind-hearted woman who treated all her boarders like a mother, until
+June 25, 1856, when he died rather suddenly as the result of the bite
+of a poisonous fly. A few of his friends, among them Bruno Bauer and
+Ludwig Buhl, attended his funeral; a second-class<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> grave was procured
+for one thaler 10 groats, amounting approximately to one American
+dollar.</p>
+
+<p>During this period Stirner undertook several literary labors from which
+he possibly procured some remuneration. He translated the classical
+authors on political economy from the French and from the English,
+which appeared under the title <i>Die National-Oekonomen der Franzosen
+und Engländer</i> (Leipsic, Otto Wigand, 1845-1847).</p>
+
+<p>He also wrote a history of the Reaction which he explained to be a mere
+counter-revolution. This <i>Geschichte der Reaction</i> was planned as a
+much more comprehensive work, but the two volumes which appeared were
+only two parts of the second volume as originally intended.</p>
+
+<p>The work is full of quotations, partly from Auguste Comte, partly from
+Edmund Burke. None of these works represent anything typically original
+or of real significance in the history of human thought.</p>
+
+<p>His real contribution to the world's literature remains his work
+<i>Der Einzige und sein Eigentum</i>, the title of which is rendered in
+English <i>The Ego and His Own</i>, and this, strange to say, enthrones
+the individual man, the ego, every personality, as a sovereign power
+that should not be subject to morality, rules, obligations, or duties
+of any kind. The appeal is made so directly that it will convince all
+those unscientific and half-educated minds who after having surrendered
+their traditional faith find themselves without any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> authority in
+either religion or politics. God is to them a fable and the state an
+abstraction. Ideas and ideals, such as truth, goodness, beauty, are
+mere phrases. What then remains but the concrete bodily personality
+of every man of which every one is the ultimate standard of right and
+wrong?</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_18" id="Footnote_1_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_18"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See also R. Schellwien, <i>Max Stirner und Friedrich
+Nietzsche</i>; V. Basch, <i>L'individualisme anarchiste, Max Stirner</i>, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_19" id="Footnote_2_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_19"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Max Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk</i>. Berlin, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_20" id="Footnote_3_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_20"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The name of the gentleman she mentions is replaced by a
+dash at his express wish in the facsimile of her letter reproduced in
+Mr. Mackay's book (p. 255).</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<h4><a name="EGO-SOVEREIGNTY" id="EGO-SOVEREIGNTY">EGO-SOVEREIGNTY</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>Strange that neither of these philosophers of individuality,
+Nietzsche or Stirner, ever took the trouble to investigate what an
+individual is! Stirner halts before this most momentous question
+of his world-conception, and so he overlooks that his ego, his own
+individuality, this supreme sovereign standing beyond right and wrong,
+the ultimate authority of everything, is a hazy, fluctuating, uncertain
+thing which differs from day to day and Anally disappears.</p>
+
+<p>The individuality of any man is the product of communal life. No one
+of us could exist as a rational personality were he not a member
+of a social group from which he has imbibed his ideas as well as
+his language. Every word is a product of his intercourse with his
+fellow-beings. His entire existence consists in his relations toward
+others and finds expression in his attitude toward social institutions.
+We may criticize existent institutions but we can never do without any.
+A denial of either their existence or their significance proves an
+utter lack of insight into the nature of personality.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We insert here a few characteristic sentences of Stirner's views, and
+in order to be fair we follow the condensation of John Henry Mackay
+(pp. 135-192) than whom certainly we could find no more sympathetic or
+intelligent student of this individualistic philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Here are Stirner's arguments:</p>
+
+<p>The ancients arrived at the conclusion that man was spirit. They
+created a world of spirit, and in this world of spirit Christianity
+begins. But what is spirit? Spirit has originated from nothing. It
+is its own creation and man makes it the center of the world. The
+injunction was given, Thou shalt not live to thyself but to thy spirit,
+to thy ideas. Spirit is the God, the ego and the spirit are in constant
+conflict. Spirit dwells beyond the earth. It is in vain to force the
+divine into service here for I am neither God nor man, neither the
+highest being nor my being. The spirit is like a ghost whom no one has
+seen, but of whom there are innumerable creditable witnesses, such as
+grandmother can give account of. The whole world that surrounds thee
+is filled with spooks of thy imagination. The holiness of truth which
+hallows thee is a strange element. It is not thine own and strangeness
+is a characteristic of holiness. The specter is truly only in thine
+ownhood..... Right is a spleen conferred by a spook; might, that is
+myself. I am the mighty one and the owner of might.... Right is the
+royal will of society. Every right which exists is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> created right. I am
+expected to honor it where I find it and subject myself to it. But what
+to me is the right of society, the right of all? What do I care for
+equality of right, for the struggle for right, for inalienable rights?
+Right becomes word in law. The dominant will is the preserver of the
+states. My own will shall upset them. Every state is a despotism.
+All right and all power is claimed to belong to the community of the
+people. I, however, shall not allow myself to be bound by it, for I
+recognize no duty even though the state may call crime in me what
+it considers right for itself. My relation to the state is not the
+relation of one ego to another ego. It is the relation of the sinner
+to the saint, but the saint is a mere fixed idea from which crimes
+originate (Mackay, pages 154-5).</p>
+
+<p>It will sometimes be difficult to translate Stirner's declarations in
+their true meaning; for instance: "I am the owner of mankind, I am
+mankind and shall do nothing for the benefit of another mankind. The
+property of mankind is mine. I do not respect the property of mankind.
+Poverty originates when I can not utilize my own self as I want to. It
+is the state which hinders men from entering into a direct relation
+with others. On the mercy of right my private property depends. Only
+within prescribed limits am I allowed to compete. Only the medium of
+exchange, the money which the state makes, am I allowed to use. The
+forms of the state may change, the purpose of the state always remains
+the same. My property, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> is what I empower myself to. Let
+violence decide, I expect all from my own.</p>
+
+<p>"You shall not lure me with love, nor catch me with the promise of
+communion of possessions, but the question of property will be solved
+only through a war of all against all, and what a slave will do as
+soon as he has broken his fetters we shall have to see. I know no law
+of love. As every one of my sentiments is my property, so also is
+love. I give it, I donate it, I squander it merely because it makes me
+happy. Earn it if you believe you have a right to it. The measure of
+my sentiments can not be prescribed to me, nor the aim of my feelings
+determined. We and the world have only one relation toward each other,
+that of usefulness. Yea, I use the world and men." (Pp. 156-157.)</p>
+
+<p>As to promises made and confidence solicited Stirner would not allow
+a limitation of freedom. He says: "In itself an oath is no more
+sacred than a lie is contemptible." Stirner opposes the idea of
+communism. "The community of man creates laws for society. Communism
+is a communion in equality." Says Stirner, "I prefer to depend on the
+egotism of men rather than on their compassion." He feels himself
+swelled into a temporary, transient, puny deity. No man expresses him
+rightly, no concept defines him; he, the ego, is perfect. Stirner
+concludes his book: "Owner I am of my own power and I am such only when
+I know myself as the only one. In the only one even the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> owner returns
+into his creative nothingness from which he was born. Any higher being
+above, be it God or man, detracts from the feeling of my uniqueness and
+it pales before the sun of this consciousness. If I place my trust in
+myself, the only one, it will stand upon a transient mortal creator of
+himself, who feeds upon himself, and I can say,</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"<i>Ich hab mein Sach' auf nichts gestellt.</i>"<br />
+"My trust in nothingness is placed.'"<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>We call attention to Stirner's book, "The Only One and His Ownhood,"
+not because we are strongly impressed by the profundity of his thought
+but because we believe that here is a man who ought to be answered,
+whose world-conception deserves a careful analysis which finally would
+lead to a justification of society, the state and the ideals of right
+and truth.</p>
+
+<p>Society is not, as Stirner imagines, an artificial product of men who
+band themselves together in order to produce a state for the benefit of
+a clique. Society and state, as well as their foundation the family,
+are of a natural growth. All the several social institutions (kind of
+spiritual organisms) are as much organisms as are plants and animals.
+The co-operation of the state with religious, legal, civic and other
+institutions, are as much realities as are individuals, and any one who
+would undertake to struggle against them or treat them as nonentities
+will be implicated in innumerable struggles.</p>
+
+<p>Stirner is the philosopher of individualism. To him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> the individual,
+this complicated and fluctuant being, is a reality, indeed the only
+true reality, while other combinations, institutions and social
+units are deemed to be mere nonentities. If from this standpoint the
+individualism of Stirner were revised, the student would come to
+radically different conclusions, and these conclusions would show that
+not without good reasons has the individual developed as a by-product
+of society, and all the possessions, intellectual as well as material,
+which exist are held by individuals only through the assistance and
+with the permission of the whole society or its dominant factors.</p>
+
+<p>Both socialism and its opposite, individualism, which is ultimately
+the same as anarchism, are extremes that are based upon an erroneous
+interpretation of communal life. Socialists make society, and
+anarchists the individual their ultimate principle of human existence.
+Neither socialism nor anarchism are principles; both are factors, and
+both factors are needed for preserving the health of society as well
+as comprehending the nature of mankind. By neglecting either of these
+factors, we can only be led astray and arrive at wrong conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>Poor Stirner wanted to exalt the ego, the sovereign individual, not
+only to the exclusion of a transcendent God and of the state or any
+other power, divine or social, but even to the exclusion of his
+own ideals, be it truth or anything spiritual; and yet he himself
+sacrificed his life for a propaganda of the ego as a unique<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> and
+sovereign being. He died in misery and the recognition of his labors
+has slowly, very slowly, followed after his death. Yea, even after his
+death a rival individualist, Friedrich Nietzsche, stole his thunder and
+reaped the fame which Stirner had earned. Certainly this noble-minded,
+modest, altruistic egotist was paid in his own coin.</p>
+
+<p>Did Stirner live up to his principle of ego sovereignty? In one sense
+he did; he recognized the right of every one to be himself, even when
+others infringed upon his own well-being. His wife fell out with him
+but he respected her sovereignty and justified her irregularities.
+Apparently he said to himself, "She has as much right to her own
+personality as I have to mine." But in another sense, so far as he
+himself was concerned, he did not. What became of his own rights, his
+ownhood, and the sweeping claim that the world was his property, that
+he was entitled to use or misuse the world and all mankind as he saw
+fit; that no other human being could expect recognition, nay not even
+on the basis of contracts, or promises, or for the sake of love, or
+humaneness and compassion? Did Stirner in his poverty ever act on the
+principle that he was the owner of the world, that there was no tie of
+morality binding on him, no principle which he had to respect? Nothing
+of the kind. He lived and died in peace with all the world, and the
+belief in the great ego sovereignty with its bold renunciation of all
+morality was a mere Platonic idea, a tame theory which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> not the
+slightest influence upon his practical life.</p>
+
+<p>Men of Stirner's type do not fare well in a world where the ego has
+come into its own. They will be trampled under foot, they will be
+bruised and starved, and they will die by the wayside. No, men of
+Stirner's type had better live in the protective shadow of a state; the
+worst and most despotic state will be better than none, for no state
+means mob rule or the tyranny of the bulldozer, the ruffian, the brutal
+and unprincipled self-seeker.</p>
+
+<p>Here Friedrich Nietzsche comes in. Like Stirner, Nietzsche was a
+peaceful man; but unlike Stirner, Nietzsche had a hankering for power.
+Being pathological himself, without energy, without strength and
+without a healthy appetite and a good stomach, Nietzsche longed to play
+the part of a bulldozer among a herd of submissive human creatures whom
+he would control and command. This is Nietzsche's ideal, and he calls
+it the "overman." Here Nietzsche modified and added his own notion to
+Stirner's philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Individualistic philosophies are therefore based on an obvious error
+by misunderstanding the nature of the individual man, by forgetting
+the reality of society and its continued significance for the
+individual life. A careful investigation of the nature of the state
+as well as of our personality would have taught Stirner that both
+the state and the individual are realities. The state and society
+exist as much as the individuals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> of which they are composed,<a name="FNanchor_1_21" id="FNanchor_1_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_21" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and
+no individual can ignore in his maxims of life the rules of conduct,
+the moral principles, or whatever you may call that something which
+constitutes the conditions of his existence, of his physical and
+social surroundings. The dignity and divinity of personality does not
+exclude the significance of super-personalities; indeed, the two, super
+personal presences with their moral obligations and concrete human
+persons with their rights and duties, co-operate with each other and
+produce thereby all the higher values of life.</p>
+
+<p>Stirner is onesided but, within the field of his onesided view,
+consistent. Nietzsche spurns consistency but accepts the field
+of notions created by Stirner, and, glorying in the same extreme
+individualism, proclaims the gospel of that individual who on the basis
+of Stirner's philosophy would make the best of a disorganized state
+of society, who by taking upon himself the functions of the state
+would utilize the advantages thus gained for the suppression of his
+fellow beings; and this kind of individual is dignified with the title
+"overman."</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche has been blamed for appropriating Stirner's thoughts and
+twisting them out of shape from the self-assertion of every ego
+consciousness into the autocracy of the unprincipled man of power; but
+we must concede that the common rules of literary ethics can not apply
+to individualists who deny all and any moral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> authority. Why should
+Nietzsche give credit to the author from whom he drew his inspiration
+if neither acknowledges any rule which he feels obliged to observe?
+Nietzsche uses Stirner as Stirner declares that it is the good right of
+every ego to use his fellows, and Nietzsche shows us what the result
+would be—the rise of a political boss, a brute in human shape, the
+overman.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is a poet, not a philosopher, not even a thinker, but as a
+poet he exercises a peculiar fascination upon many people who would
+never think of agreeing with him. Most admirers of Nietzsche belong to
+the class which Nietzsche calls the "herd animals," people who have no
+chance of ever asserting themselves, and become hungry for power as a
+sick man longs for health.</p>
+
+<p>Individualism and anarchism continue to denounce the state, when they
+ought to reform it and improve its institutions. In the meantime the
+world wags on. The state exists, society exists, and innumerable social
+institutions exist. The individual grows under the influence of other
+individuals, his ideas—mere spooks of his brain—yet the factors of
+his life, right or wrong, guide him and determine his fate. There are
+as rare exceptions a few lawless societies in the wild West where a few
+outlaws meet by chance, revolver in hand, but even among them the state
+of anarchy does not last long, for by habit and precedent certain rules
+are established, and wherever man meets man, wherever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> they offer and
+accept one another's help, they co-operate or compete, they join hands
+or fight, they make contracts, form alliances, and establish rules, the
+result of which is society, the state, with all the institutions of the
+state, the administration, the legislature, the judiciary, with all the
+intricate machinery that regulates the interrelations of man to man.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is that man develops into a rational, human and humane being
+through society by his intercourse with other men. Man is not really an
+individual in the sense of Stirner and Nietzsche, a being by himself
+and for himself, having no obligations to his fellows. Man is a part
+of the society through which he originated and to which he belongs and
+to overlook, to neglect and to ignore his relations to society, not to
+recognize definite obligations or rules of conduct which we formulate
+as duties is the grossest mistake philosophers can make, and this
+becomes obvious if we consider the nature of man as a social being as
+Aristotle has defined it.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_21" id="Footnote_1_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_21"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See the author's <i>The Nature of the State</i>, 1894, and
+<i>Personality</i>, 1911.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<h4><a name="ANOTHER_NIETZSCHE" id="ANOTHER_NIETZSCHE">ANOTHER NIETZSCHE</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>The assertion of selfhood and the hankering after originality make
+Nietzsche the exponent of the absolute uniqueness of everything
+particular, and he goes to the extreme of denying all kinds of
+universality—even that of formal laws (the so-called uniformities
+of nature), reason, and especially its application in the field of
+practical life, morality. His ideal is "Be thyself! Be unique! Be
+original!" Properly speaking, we should not use the term ideal when
+speaking of Nietzsche's maxims of life, for the conception of an
+ideal is based upon a recognition of some kind of universality, and
+Nietzsche actually sneers at any one having ideals. The adherents of
+Nietzsche speak of their master as "<i>der Einzige</i>," i. e., "the unique
+one," and yet (in spite of the truth that every thing particular is in
+its way unique) the uniformities of nature are so real and unfailing
+that Nietzsche is simply the representative of a type which according
+to the laws of history and mental evolution naturally and inevitably
+appears whenever the philosophy of nominalism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> reaches its climax. He
+would therefore not be unique even if he were the only one that aspires
+after a unique selfhood; but the fact is that there are a number of
+Nietzsches, he happening to be the best known of his type. Other
+advocates of selfhood, of course, will be different from Nietzsche in
+many unimportant details, but they will be alike in all points that
+are essential and characteristic. One of these Nietzsches is George
+Moore, a Britain who is scarcely familiar with the writings of his
+German double, but a few quotations from his book, <i>Confessions of a
+Young Man</i>, will show that he can utter thoughts which might have been
+written by Friedrich Nietzsche himself. George Moore says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"I was not dissipated, but I loved the abnormal" (p. 18).</p>
+
+<p>"I was a model young man indeed" (p. 20).</p>
+
+<p>"I boasted of dissipations" (p. 19).</p>
+
+<p>"I say again, let general principles be waived; it
+will suffice for the interest of these pages if it be
+understood that brain-instincts have always been, and
+still are, the initial and the determining powers of my
+being" (p. 47).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>George Moore, like Nietzsche, is one of Schopenhauer's disciples who
+has become sick of pessimism. He says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"That odious pessimism! How sick I am of it" (p. 310).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>When George Moore speaks of God he thinks of him in the old-fashioned
+way as a big self, an individual and particular being. Hence he denies
+him. God is as dead as any pagan deity. George Moore says:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p><blockquote>
+
+<p>"To talk to us, the legitimate children of the nineteenth
+century, of logical proofs of the existence of God,
+strikes us in just the same light as the logical proof of
+the existence of Jupiter Ammon" (p. 137).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>George Moore is coarse in comparison with Nietzsche. Nietzsche is no
+cynic; he is pure-hearted and noble by nature. Moore is voluptuous
+and vulgar. Both are avowed immoralists, and if the principle of an
+unrestrained egotism be right, George Moore is as good as Nietzsche,
+and any criminal given to the most abominable vices would not be worse
+than either.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche feels the decadence of the age and longs for health; but he
+attributes the cause of his own decadence to the Christian ideals of
+virtue, love, and sympathy with others. George Moore cherishes the same
+views; he says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"We are now in a period of decadence, growing steadily
+more and more acute" (p. 239).</p>
+
+<p>"Respectability ... continues to exercise a meretricious
+and enervating influence on literature" (p. 240).</p>
+
+<p>"Pity, that most vile of all vile virtues, has never been
+known to me. The great pagan world I love knew it not" (p.
+200).</p>
+
+<p>"The philanthropist is the Nero of modern times" (p. 185).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Both Nietzsche and Moore long for limitless freedom; but Moore seems
+more consistent, for he lacks the ideal of the overman and extends
+freedom to the sex relation, saying:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Marriage—what an abomination! Love—yes, but not
+marriage...freedom limitless" (p. 168-169).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Moore loves art, but his view of art is cynical, and here too he is
+unlike Nietzsche; he says:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Art is not nature. Art is nature digested. Art is a
+sublime excrement" (p. 178).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Both believe in the coming of a great social deluge. George Moore says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"The French revolution will compare with the revolution
+that is to come, that must come, that is inevitable, as a
+puddle on the road-side compares with the sea. Men will
+hang like pears on every lamp-post, in every great quarter
+of London, there will be an electric guillotine that will
+decapitate the rich like hogs in Chicago" (p. 343).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Ideals are regarded as superstitions, and belief in ideas is deemed
+hypocritical. George Moore says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"In my heart of hearts I think myself a cut above you,
+because I do not believe in leaving the world better than
+I found it; and you, exquisitely hypocritical reader,
+think that you are a cut above me because you say you
+would leave the world better than you found it" (p. 354).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The deeds of a man, his thoughts and aspirations, which constitute his
+spiritual self, count for nothing; the body alone is supposed to be
+real, and thus after death a pig is deemed more useful than a Socrates.
+Continues Moore:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"The pig that is being slaughtered as I write this line
+will leave the world better than it found it, but you will
+leave only a putrid carcass fit for nothing but the grave"
+(p. 353).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Wrong is idealized:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Injustice we worship; all that lifts us out of the
+miseries of life is the sublime fruit of injustice.</p>
+
+<p>"Man would not be man but for injustice" (p. 203).</p>
+
+<p>"Again I say that all we deem sublime in the world's
+history are acts of injustice; and it is certain that if
+mankind does not relinquish at once and for ever, its
+vain, mad, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> frantic dream of justice, the world will
+lapse into barbarism" (p. 205).</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>George Moore gives a moment's thought to the ideal of "a new art, based
+upon science, in opposition to the art of the old world that was based
+on imagination, an art that should explain all things and embrace
+modern life in its entirety, in its endless ramifications, be it, as it
+were, a new creed in a new civilization ... that would continue to a
+more glorious and legitimate conclusion the work that the prophets have
+begun"; but he turns his back upon it. It would be after all a product
+of development; it would be the tyranny of a past age, and he says, "as
+well drink the dregs of yesterday's champagne" (p. 128).</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="NIETZSCHES_DISCIPLES" id="NIETZSCHES_DISCIPLES">NIETZSCHE'S DISCIPLES</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>It is said that barking dogs do not bite, and this being true, we must
+look upon Nietzsche's philosophy as a harmless display of words and a
+burning desire for power without making any attempt to practice what
+he preached. His philosophy, so far as he is concerned, is a purely
+Platonic love of an unattainable star whose brilliance dazzled the
+imagination of a childlike peaceful weakling. Suppose, however, for
+argument's sake, that Nietzsche had been a man of robust health, and
+that he had been born at the time of great disturbances, offering
+unlimited chances to an unscrupulous ambition, would he under these
+circumstances have led the life he preached, and in case he had done
+so, would he have boldly and unreservedly admitted his principles while
+carrying out his plans? Did ever Cæsar or Napoleon or any usurper,
+such as Richard III, who unscrupulously aspired for power, own that he
+would shrink from nothing to attain his aim? Such a straightforward
+policy for any schemer would be the surest way of missing his aim.
+Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> men, on the contrary, have played hypocrites, and have pretended
+to cherish ideals generally approved by the large masses of the people
+whom Nietzsche calls the herd. So it is obvious that the philosophy
+of Nietzsche if it were ever practically applied, would have become a
+secret doctrine known only to the initiated few, while the broad masses
+would be misguided by some demonstrative show of moral principles that
+might be pleasing to the multitudes and yet at the same time conceal
+the real tendency of the overman to gain possession of his superior
+position.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's influence upon professional philosophers is comparatively
+weak. Whenever mentioned by them, it is in criticism, and he is
+generally set aside as onesided, and perhaps justly, because he was
+truly no philosopher in the strict sense of the word. He was no
+reasoner, no logician, and we can not, properly speaking, look upon
+his philosophy as a system or even a systematized view of the world.
+Nietzsche made himself the exponent of a tendency, and as such he has
+his followers among large masses of those very people whom he despised
+as belonging to the herds. As Nietzsche idealized this very quality
+in which he was lacking, so his followers recruit themselves from the
+ranks of those people who more than all others would be opposed to the
+rule of the overman. His most ardent followers are among the nihilists
+of Russia, the socialists and anarchists of all civilized countries.
+The secret reason of attraction, perhaps unknown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> to themselves, seems
+to be Nietzsche's defense of the blind impulse and the privilege which
+he claims for the overman to be himself in spite of law and order and
+morality, and also his contempt for rules, religious, philosophical,
+ethical or even logical, that would restrict the great sovereign
+passion for power.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's philosophy has taken a firm hold of a number of souls
+who rebel against the social, the political, the religious, and even
+the scientific, conditions of our civilization. Nietzsche is the
+philosopher of protest, and, strange to say, while he himself is
+aristocratic in his instincts, he appeals most powerfully to the masses
+of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's disciples are not among the aristocrats, not among the
+scholars, not among the men of genius. His followers are among
+the people who believe in hatred and hail him as a prophet of the
+great deluge. His greatest admirers are anarchists, sometimes also
+socialists, and above all those geniuses who have failed to find
+recognition. Nietzsche's thought will prove veritable dynamite if it
+should happen to reach the masses of mankind, the disinherited, the
+uneducated, the proletariat, the Catilinary existences. Nietzsche's
+philosophy is an intoxicant to those whom he despised most; they see in
+him their liberator, and rejoice in his invectives.</p>
+
+<p>Invectives naturally appeal to those who are as unthinking as the
+brutes of the field, but feel the sufferings of existence as much as
+do the beasts of burden.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> They are impervious to argument, but being
+full of bitterness and envy they can be led most easily by any kind
+of denunciations of their betters. Nietzsche hated the masses, the
+crowd of the common people, the herd. He despised the lowly and had
+a contempt for the ideals of democracy. Nevertheless, his style of
+thought is such as to resemble the rant of the leaders of mobs, and
+it is quite probable that in the course of time he will become the
+philosopher of demagogues.</p>
+
+<p>A great number of Nietzsche's disciples share their master's
+eccentricities and especially his impetuosity. Having a contempt for
+philosophy as the work of the intellect, they move mainly in the field
+of political and social self-assertion; they are anarchists who believe
+that the overman is coming in labor troubles, strikes, and through a
+subversion of the authority of government in any form.</p>
+
+<p>The best known German expounders of Nietzsche's philosophy have been
+Rudolph Steiner and Alexander Tille.<a name="FNanchor_1_22" id="FNanchor_1_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_22" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Professor Henri Lichtenberger
+of the University<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> of Nancy was his interpreter in France,<a name="FNanchor_2_23" id="FNanchor_2_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_23" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and the
+former editor of The Eagle and the Serpent, known under the pseudonym
+of Erwin McCall, in England. This periodical, which flourished for a
+short time only, characterized its own tendency as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"<i>The Eagle and the Serpent</i> is a bi-monthly journal of egoistic
+philosophy and sociology which teaches that in social science altruism
+spells damnation and egoism spells salvation. In the war against their
+exploiters the exploited cannot hope to succeed till they act as a
+unit, an 'ego.'"</p>
+
+<p>A reader of <i>The Eagle and the Serpent</i> humorously criticised the
+egoistic philosophy as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"Dear Eagle and Serpent.—I am one of those unreasonable
+persons who see no irreconcilable conflict between egoism
+and altruism. The altruism of Tolstoy is the shortest
+road to the egoism of Whitman. The unbounded love and
+compassion of Jesus made him conscious of being the son
+of God, and that he and the Father were one. Could egoism
+go further than this? I believe that true egoism and true
+altruism grow in precisely equal degree in the soul, and
+that the alleged qualities which bear either name and
+attempt to masquerade alone without their respective
+make-weights are shams and counterfeits. The real
+desideratum is balance, and that cannot be permanently
+preserved on one leg. However, you skate surprisingly well
+for the time being on one foot, and I have enjoyed the
+first performance so well that I enclose 60 cents for a
+season-ticket—ERNEST H. CROSBY. Rhinebeck, N. Y., U. S.
+A."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A German periodical <i>Der Eigene</i>, i. e., "he who is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> his own,"
+announced itself as "a journal for all and nobody," and sounded "the
+slogan of the egoists," by calling on them to "preserve their ownhood."</p>
+
+<p>Another anarchistic periodical that stood under the influence of
+Nietzsche appeared in Budapest,<a name="FNanchor_3_24" id="FNanchor_3_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_24" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Hungary, in German and Hungarian
+under the name Ohne Staat, ("Without Government") as "the organ of
+ideal anarchists," under the editorship of Karl Krausz.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most worthy exponent of Nietzsche in England to-day is his
+translator Thomas Common. He does not consider himself an orthodox
+Nietzsche apostle but thinks that Nietzsche has given the world a very
+important revelation and that his new philosophy of history and his
+explanation of the role of Christianity are among the most wonderful
+discoveries since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> Darwin. At the same time Mr. Common pronounces
+Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal recurrence "very foolish" and believes
+his use of the terms "good" and "evil" so perverted that he was
+frequently confused about them and so misled superficial readers. Mr.
+Common published at regular intervals during the years 1903 to 1909
+ten numbers of a small periodical entitled variously <i>Notes for Good
+Europeans and The Good European Point of View</i>, and expects to resume
+its publication soon. Its motto is from Nietzsche, "In a word—and it
+shall be an honorable word—we are Good Europeans ... the heirs of
+thousands of years of the European spirit." Its purpose is expressed in
+its first number as follows: "Our general purpose is to spread the best
+and most important knowledge relating to human well-being among those
+who are worthy to receive it, with a view to reducing the knowledge
+to practice, after some degree of unanimity has been attained.... As
+Nietzsche's works, notwithstanding some limitations, exaggerations and
+minor errors, embody the foremost philosophical thought of the age, it
+will be one of our special objects to introduce these works to English
+readers."</p>
+
+<p>These numbers contain many bibliographical and other notes of interest
+to friends or critics of the Nietzsche propaganda. Mr. Common has
+published selections from Nietzsche's works under the title, <i>Nietzsche
+as Critic, Philosopher, Poet and Prophet</i>.<a name="FNanchor_4_25" id="FNanchor_4_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_25" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In America Nietzsche's philosophy is represented by a book of Ragnar
+Redbeard, entitled <i>Might is Right, the Survival of the Fittest.</i><a name="FNanchor_5_26" id="FNanchor_5_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_26" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+The author characterizes his work as follows:</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a id="nietzschc012"></a>
+<img src="images/nietzsch_c_012.jpg" width="350" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">BUST OF NIETZSCHE, BY KLINGER.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"This book is a reasoned negation of the Ten
+Commandments—the Golden Rule—the Sermon on the
+Mount—Republican Principles—Christian Principles—and
+Principles' in general.</p>
+
+<p>"It proclaims upon scientific evolutionary grounds,
+the unlimited absolutism of Might, and asserts that
+cut-and-dried moral codes are crude and immoral
+inventions, promotive of vice and vassalage."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The author is a most ardent admirer of Nietzsche, as may be learned
+from his verses made after the pattern of Nietzsche's poetry. He sings:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"There is no 'law' in heaven or earth that man must needs
+obey! Take what you can, and all you can; and take it
+while you—may.</p>
+
+<p>"Let not the Jew-born Christ ideal unnerve you in the
+fight. You have no 'rights,' except the rights you win
+by—might.</p>
+
+<p>"There is no justice, right, nor wrong; no truth, no good,
+no evil. There is no 'man's immortal soul,' no fiery,
+fearsome Devil.</p>
+
+<p>"There is no 'heaven of glory:' No!—no 'hell where
+sinners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> roast' There is no 'God the Father,' No!—no Son,
+no 'Holy Ghost.'</p>
+
+<p>"This world is no Nirvâna where joy forever flows. It is a
+grewsome butcher shop where dead 'lambs' hang in—rows.</p>
+
+<p>"Man is the most ferocious of all the beasts of prey. He
+rangeth round the mountains, to love, and feast, and—slay.</p>
+
+<p>"He sails the stormy oceans, he gallops o'er the plains,
+and sucks the very marrow-bones of captives held
+in—chains.</p>
+
+<p>"Death endeth all for every man,—for every 'son of
+thunder'; then be a lion (not a 'lamb') and—don't be
+trampled under."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A valuable recent addition to the discussion of egoism is <i>The
+Philosophy of Egoism</i> by James L. Walker, (Denver, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>We know of no American periodical which stands for Nietzsche's views,
+except, perhaps, <i>The Lion's Paw</i> (Chicago) which claims to follow no
+one. In the last years of the nineteenth century Clarence L. Swartz
+published at Wellesley, Mass., an egoistic periodical called the <i>I</i>.
+This magazine is no longer in existence, but Mr. Swartz is very active
+in the International Intelligence Institute whose aims are universal
+language, universal nationality and universal peace. He still maintains
+the same philosophical view which he held as editor of the <i>I</i>, but his
+philosophical egoism has led him in far different paths from those of
+Nietzsche—into the paths of peace and not of struggle. He expresses
+his present conception as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"In the last analysis there is no right but might. Such is the common
+ordinary rule of every-day life, from which there is no escape, even
+were escape desirable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> Any attempt to overthrow or circumvent or
+even dispute the exercise of this prerogative of the mighty is but to
+assert or oppose a greater might. Expediency always dictates how might
+should be exercised. Politically, I hold that the non-coercion of
+the non-invasive individual is the part of wisdom. The individual is
+supreme, and should be preserved as against society, for in no other
+way can evolution perform its perfect work."</p>
+
+<p><i>The Free Comrade</i> edited by J. Wm. Lloyd and Leonard Abbott, an
+avowedly socialistic and individualistic paper, originally under the
+sole editorship of Lloyd, stood for Nietzsche and his egoism, but can
+no longer be said to do so.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_22" id="Footnote_1_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_22"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> A. Tille, <i>Von Darwin bis Nietzsche</i>. R. Steiner,
+<i>Wahrheit und Wissenschaft</i>; <i>Die Philosophie der Freiheit; and F.
+Nietzsche, ein Kämpfer gegen seine Zeit</i>.
+</p>
+<p>
+We have already mentioned the biography of Nietzsche published by the
+philosopher's sister, Frau E. Förster-Nietzsche. A characterization,
+disavowed by Nietzsche's admirers, was written by Frau Lou Andreas
+Salome, under the title <i>F. Nietzsche in seinen Werken</i>. Other
+works kindred in spirit are Schellwien's <i>Der Geist der neueren
+Philosophie</i>, 1895, and Der Darwinismus, 1896; also Adolf Gerecke,
+<i>Die Aussichtslosigkeit des Moralismus</i>; Schmitt, <i>An der Grenzscheide
+zweier Weltalter</i>; Károly Krausz, <i>Nietzsche und seine Weltanschauung.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_23" id="Footnote_2_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_23"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Henri Lichtenberger, <i>La Philosophie de Nietzsche</i>. Paris,
+Alcan, 1898</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_24" id="Footnote_3_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_24"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> We may mention incidentally that a contributor to <i>Ohne
+Staat</i> reproduced one of the Homilies of St Chrysostom, in which he
+harangues after the fashion of the early Christian preachers against
+wealth and power. The state's attorney, not versed in Christian
+patristic literature, seized the issue and placed the man who quoted
+the old Byzantine saint behind the prison bars. In the issue of Nov.,
+1898, Dr. Eugen Heinrich Schmitt mentions the case and says: "Thus
+we have an exact and historical proof that the liberty of speech and
+thought was incomparably greater in miserable, servile Byzantium than
+it is now in the much more miserable and more servile despotism of
+modern Europe." Does not Dr. Schmitt overlook the fact that in the days
+of Byzantine Christianity the saints were protected by the mob, which
+was much feared by the imperial government and was kept at bay only by
+a nominal recognition of its claims and beliefs?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_25" id="Footnote_4_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_25"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Other recent English Nietzschean literature is as follows:
+Grace Neal Dolson, <i>The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche</i>, 1901;
+Oscar Levy, <i>The Revival of Aristocracy</i>, 1906; A. R. Orage, <i>Fried.
+Nietzsche, the Dionysion Spirit of the Age</i>, 1906; A. R. Orage,
+<i>Nietzsche in Outline and Alphorism</i>; Henry L. Mencken, <i>The Philosophy
+of Friedrich Nietzsche</i>; M. A. Mügge, <i>Friedrich Nietzsche: His Life
+and Work</i>; Anthony M. Ludovici, <i>Who Is to Be Master of the World</i>?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_26" id="Footnote_5_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_26"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Published by Adolph Mueller, Chicago.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+
+<h4><a name="THE_PRINCIPLE_OF_VALUATION" id="THE_PRINCIPLE_OF_VALUATION">THE PRINCIPLE OF VALUATION</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>It may be interesting in this connection to mention the case of an
+American equivalent to Nietzsche's philosophy, which so far as I know
+has never yet seen publicity.</p>
+
+<p>Some time ago the writer of this little book became acquainted with a
+journalist who has worked out for his own satisfaction a new system of
+philosophy which he calls "Christian economics," the tendency of which
+would be to preach a kind of secret doctrine for the initiated few who
+would be clever enough to avail themselves of the good opportunity. He
+claims that the only thing worth while in life is the acquisition of
+power through the instrumentality of money. He who acquires millions
+can direct the destiny of mankind, and this tendency was first
+realized in the history of mankind in this Christian nation of ours,
+whose ostensible faith is Christianity. Our religion, he argues, is
+especially adapted to serve as a foil to protect and conceal the real
+issue, and so he calls his world-conception, "Christian economics."
+Emperors and kings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> are mere puppets who are exhibited to general
+inspection, and so are presidents and all the magistrates in office.
+Political government has to obey the behests of the financiers, and the
+most vital life of mankind resides in its economical conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The inventor of this new system of "Christian economics" would allow no
+other valuation except that of making money, on the sole ground that
+science, art and the pleasures of life are nothing to man unless he is
+in control of power which can be had only through the magic charm of
+the almighty dollar.</p>
+
+<p>I shall not comment upon his view, but shall leave it to the reader,
+and am here satisfied to point out its similarity to Nietzsche's
+philosophy. There is one point only which I shall submit here for
+criticism and that is the principle of valuation which is a weak point
+with both the originator of "Christian economics" and with Friedrich
+Nietzsche.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche proclaimed with great blast of trumpets, if we may so call
+his rhetorical display of phrases, that we need a revaluation of
+all values; but the best he could do was to establish a standard of
+valuation of his own. Every man in this world attains his mode of
+judging values according to his character, which is formed partly by
+inherited tendencies, partly by education and is modified by his own
+reflections and experiences. There are but few persons in this world
+who are clearsighted enough to formulate the ultimately guiding motive
+of their conduct. Most people follow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> their impulses blindly, but in
+all of them conduct forms a certain consistent system corresponding to
+their own idiosyncrasy. These impulses may sometimes be contradictory,
+yet upon the whole they will all agree, just as leaves and blossoms,
+roots and branches of the same tree will naturally be formed according
+to the secret plan that determines the growth of the whole organism.
+Those who work out a specially pronounced system of moral conduct do
+not always agree in practical life with their own moral principle,
+sometimes because they wilfully misrepresent it and more frequently
+because their maxims of morality are such as they themselves would
+like to be, while their conduct is such as they actually are. Such are
+the conditions of life and we will call that principle which as an
+ultimate <i>raison d'être</i> determines the conduct of man, his standard of
+valuation. We will see at once that there is a different standard for
+each particular character.</p>
+
+<p>A scientist as a rule looks at the world through the spectacles of
+the scientist. His estimation of other people depends entirely on
+their accomplishments in his own line of science. Artist, musician, or
+sculptor does the same. To a professional painter scarcely any other
+people exist except his pupils, his master, his rivals and especially
+art patrons. The rest of the world is as indifferent as if it did not
+exist; it forms the background, an indiscriminate mass upon which all
+other values find their setting. All the professions and vocations,
+and all the workers along the various lines of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> life are alike in that
+every man has his own standard of valuation.</p>
+
+<p>A Napoleon or a Cæsar might have preached the doctrine that the
+sciences, the arts and other accomplishments are of no value if
+compared with the acquisition of power, but I feel sure that it would
+not have been much heeded by the mass of mankind, for no one would
+change his standard of value. A financier might publicly declare that
+the only way to judge people is according to the credit they have in
+banking, but it would scarcely change the standard of judgment in
+society. Beethoven knew as well as any other of his contemporaries the
+value of money and the significance of power, and yet he pursued his
+own calling, fascinated by his love for music. The same is true not
+only of every genius in all the different lines of art and science, but
+also of religious reformers and inventors of all classes. Tom, Dick and
+Harry in their hankering for pleasure and frivolous amusement are not
+less under the influence of the conditions under which they have been
+born than the great men whose names are written in the book of fame. It
+is difficult for every one of us to create for himself a new standard
+of valuation, for what Goethe says of man's destiny in a poem entitled
+<i>Daimon</i>, is true:<a name="FNanchor_1_27" id="FNanchor_1_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_27" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"As on the day which has begotten thee<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>The sun and planets stood in constellation,<br />
+Thus growest and remainest thou to be,<br />
+For't is life's start lays down the regulation<br />
+How thou must be. Thyself thou canst not flee.<br />
+Such sibyl's is and prophet's proclamation.<br />
+For truly, neither force nor time dissolveth,<br />
+Organic form as, living, it evolveth."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The original reads thus:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Wie an dem Tag der dich der Welt verliehen,<br />
+Die Sonne stand zum Grusse der Planeten,<br />
+Bist alsobald and fort und fort gediehen<br />
+Nach dem Gesetz, wonach du angetreten.<br />
+So musst du sein, dir kannst du nicht entfliehen,<br />
+So sagten schon Sibyllen, so Propheten;<br />
+Und keine Zeit und keine Macht zerstückelt,<br />
+Geprägte Form, die lebend sich entwickelt."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Our attitude in life depends upon our character, and the basic elements
+of character are the product of the circumstances that gave birth to
+our being. Our character enters unconsciously or consciously in the
+formulation of our standards of value which we will find to be the
+most significant factors of our destinies. Now the question arises, Is
+the standard of value which we set up, each one of us according to his
+character, purely subjective or is there any objective criterion of its
+worth?</p>
+
+<p>We must understand that to a great extent our choice of a profession
+and other preferences in our occupations or valuations are naturally
+different according to conditions; some men are fit to be musicians,
+or scholars, or traders, or farmers, or manufacturers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> and others
+are not. The same profession would not be appropriate for every one.
+But there is a field common to all occupations which deals with man's
+attitude toward his fellow beings and, in fact, toward the whole
+universe in general. This it is with which we are mainly concerned
+in our discussion of a criterion of value because it is the field
+occupied by religion, philosophy and ethics. Tradition has sanctioned
+definite views on this very subject which have been codified in certain
+rules of conduct different in many details in different countries
+according to religion, national and climatic conditions, and the type
+of civilization; yet, after all, they agree in most remarkable and
+surprising coincidences in all essential points.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche, the most radical of radicals, sets up a standard of
+valuation of his own, placing it in the acquisition of power, and he
+claims that it alone is entitled to serve as a measure for judging
+worth because, says he, it alone deals with that which is real in the
+world; yet at the same time he disdains to recognize the existence of
+any objective criterion of the several standards of value. If he were
+consistent, he ought to give the palm of highest morality to the man
+who succeeds best in trampling under foot his fellowmen, and he does
+so by calling him the overman, but he does not call him moral. To be
+sure this would be a novel conception of morality and would sanction
+what is commonly execrated as one of the most devilish forms of
+immorality. Nietzsche takes morality in its accepted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> meaning, and so
+in contradiction to himself denies its justification in general.</p>
+
+<p>Considering that every one carries a standard of valuation in himself
+we propose the question, "Is there no objective criterion of valuation,
+or are all valuations purely subjective?" This question means whether
+the constitution of the objective world in which we all live, is such
+as to favor a definite mode of action determined by some definite
+criterion of value.</p>
+
+<p>We answer that subjective standards of valuation may be regarded as
+endorsed through experience by the course of events in the world
+whenever they meet with success, and thus subjective judgments become
+objectively justified. They are seen to be in agreement with the
+natural course of the world, and those who adhere to them will in the
+long run be rewarded by survival. Such an endorsement of standards can
+be determined by experience and has resulted in what is commonly called
+"morality." We may here take for granted that the moral valuation is a
+product of many millenniums and has been established, not only in one
+country and by one religion, nor in one kind of human society, but in
+perfect independence in many different countries, under the most varied
+conditions, and finds expression in the symbolism of the most divergent
+creeds. The beliefs of a Christian, of a Buddhist, of a Mussulman in
+Turkey, or a Taoist in the Celestial Empire, of a Parsee in Bombay, or
+Japanese Shintoist,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> are all as unlike as they can be, but all agree
+as to the excellency of moral behavior which has been formulated in
+these different religions in sayings incorporated in their literature.
+We find very little if anything contradictory in their standards of
+valuation, and if there is any objective norm for the subjective
+valuation of man it is this moral consensus in which all the great
+religious prophets and reformers of mankind agree.</p>
+
+<p>A transvaluation of all values is certainly needed, and it is taking
+place now. In fact it has always taken place whenever and wherever
+mankind grows or progresses or changes the current world-conception.</p>
+
+<p>The old morality has been negative and we feel the need of positive
+ideals. The old doctrines are formulated in rules which forbid certain
+actions and our commandments begin with the words "Thou shalt not...."
+Those folk are esteemed moral who obey these restrictions or at least
+do not ostensibly infringe upon them, and this practically limits
+morality to mediocrity. How often have great and noble people been
+condemned as immoral because some irregularities would not fit the
+Procrustean bed of customary respectability! Think only of George Eliot
+who had to suffer under the prejudices of Sunday-School morality! We
+need a higher standard in which we may set aside the paltry views
+of the old morality without losing our ideals. We need a positive
+norm, the norm which counts in the actual world and in history, where
+man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> is measured not by his sins of omission but by his positive
+accomplishments; not by the errors he has or has not committed, but by
+his deeds, by the work with which he has benefited mankind. Therefore
+the new morality does not waste much time with the several injunctions,
+"Thou shalt not ..." but impresses the growing generation with the
+demand: "Do something useful; show thyself efficient; be superior to
+others in nobility, in generosity, in energy; excel in one way or
+another"; and in this sense a transvaluation of the old values is being
+worked out at present.</p>
+
+<p>We will grant that Nietzsche's demand of a transvaluation of all values
+may mean to criticize the narrow doctrines and views of the religion
+of his surroundings. But as he expresses himself and according to his
+philosophical principle he goes so far as to condemn not only the husk
+of all these religious movements, but also their spirit. In spite of
+his subjectivism which denies the existence of anything ideal, and
+goes so far as to deny the right even of truth to have an objective
+value, Nietzsche establishes a new objectivism, and proposes his own,
+and indeed very crude, subjective standard of valuation as the only
+objective one worthy of consideration for the transvaluation of all
+values.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's real world, or rather what he deemed to be the real world,
+is a dream, the dream of a sick man, to whom nothing possesses value
+save the boons denied him, physical health, strength, power to dare and
+to do.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The transvaluation of all values which Nietzsche so confidently
+prophesied, will not take place, at least not in the sense that
+Nietzsche believed. There is no reason to doubt that in the future
+as in the past history will follow the old conservative line of
+development in which different people according to their different
+characters will adopt their own subjective standards, and nature, by a
+survival of the fittest will select those for preservation who are most
+in agreement with this real world in which we live, a world from which
+Nietzsche, according to the sickly condition of his constitution, was
+separated by a wide gulf. He thirsted for it in vain, and we believe
+that he had a wrong conception of the wealth of its possibilities and
+viewpoints.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_27" id="Footnote_1_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_27"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> So far as I know, these lines have never been translated
+before.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+<h4><a name="INDIVIDUALISM" id="INDIVIDUALISM">INDIVIDUALISM</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>Nietzsche is unquestionably a bold thinker, a Faust-like questioner,
+and a Titan among philosophers. He is a man who understands that the
+problem of all problems is the question, Is there an authority higher
+than myself? And having discarded belief in God, he finds no authority
+except pretensions.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche apparently is only familiar with the sanctions of morality
+and the criterion of good and evil as they are represented in the
+institutions and thoughts established by history, and seeing how
+frequently they serve as tools in the hands of the crafty for the
+oppression of the unsophisticated masses of the people, he discards
+them as utterly worthless. Hence his truly magnificent wrath, his
+disgust, his contempt for underling man, for the masses, this muddy
+stream of present mankind.</p>
+
+<p>If Nietzsche had dug deeper, he would have found that there is after
+all a deep significance in moral ideals, for there is an authority
+above the self by which the worth of the self must be measured. Truth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+is not a mere creature of the self, but is the comprehension of the
+immutable eternal laws of being which constitute the norm of existence.
+Our self, "that creating, willing, valuing 'I,' which (according to
+Nietzsche) is the measure and value of all things," is itself measured
+by that eternal norm of being, the existence of which Nietzsche does
+not recognize.</p>
+
+<p>What is true of Nietzsche applies in all fundamental questions also to
+his predecessor, Max Stirner. It applies to individualism in any form
+if carried to its consistent and most extreme consequences.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is blind to the truth that there is a norm above the self,
+and that this norm is the source of duty and the object of religion;
+he therefore denies the very existence of duty, of conviction, of
+moral principles, of sympathy with the suffering, of authority in any
+shape, and yet he dares to condemn man in the shape of the present
+generation of mankind. What right has he, then, to judge the sovereign
+self of to-day and to announce the coming of another self in the
+overman? From the principles of his philosophical anarchism he has no
+right to denounce mankind of to-day, as an underling; for if there is
+no objective standard of worth, there is no sense in distinguishing
+between the underman of to-day and the overman of a nobler future.</p>
+
+<p>On this point, however, Nietzsche deviates from his predecessor
+Stirner. The latter is more consistent as an individualist, but the
+former appeals strongly to the egoism of the individual.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is a Titan and he is truly Titanic in his rebellion against
+the smallness of everything that means to be an incarnation of what is
+great and noble and holy. But he does not protest against the smallness
+of the representatives of truth and right, he protests against truth
+and right themselves, and thus he is not merely Titanic, but a genuine
+Titan,—attempting to take the heavens by storm, a monster, not
+superhuman but inhuman in proportions, in sentiment and in spirit.
+Being ingenious, he is, in his way, a genius, but he is not evenly
+balanced; he is eccentric and, not recognizing the authority of reason
+and science, makes eccentricity his maxim. Thus his grandeur becomes
+grotesque.</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of negation, the mischief-monger Mephistopheles, says of
+Faust with reference to his despair of reason and science:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 20%;">
+"Reason and Knowledge only thou despise,<br />
+The highest strength in man that lies!...<br />
+And I shall have thee fast and sure."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 11em;">—<i>Tr. by Bayard Taylor.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Being giant-like, the Titan Nietzsche has a sense only for things
+of large dimensions. He fails to understand the significance of the
+subtler relations of existence. He is clumsy like Gargantua; he is
+coarse in his reasoning; he is narrow in his comprehension; his horizon
+is limited. He sees only the massive effects of the great dynamical
+changes brought about by brute force; he is blind to the quiet and slow
+but more powerful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> workings of spiritual forces. The molecular forces
+that are invisible to the eye transform the world more thoroughly than
+hurricanes and thunderstorms; yet the strongest powers are the moral
+laws, the curses of wrong-doing and oppression, and the blessings of
+truthfulness, of justice, of good-will. Nietzsche sees them not; he
+ignores them. He measures the worth of the overman solely by his brute
+force.</p>
+
+<p>If Nietzsche were right, the overman of the future who is going to take
+possession of the earth will not be nobler and better, wiser and juster
+than the present man, but more gory, more tiger-like, more relentless,
+more brutal.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche has a truly noble longing for the advent of the overman, but
+he throws down the ladder on which man has been climbing up, and thus
+losing his foothold, he falls down to the place whence mankind started
+several millenniums ago.</p>
+
+<p>We enjoy the rockets of Nietzsche's genius, we understand his
+Faust-like disappointment as to the unavailableness of science such as
+he knew it; we sympathize with the honesty with which he offered his
+thoughts to the world; we recognize the flashes of truth which occur
+in his sentences, uttered in the tone of a prophet; but we cannot help
+condemning his philosophy as unsound in its basis, his errors being the
+result of an immaturity of comprehension.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche has touched upon the problem of problems, but he has not
+solved it. He weighs the souls of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> his fellowmen and finds them
+wanting; but his own soul is not less deficient. His philosophy is well
+worth studying, but it is not a good guide through life. It is great
+only as being the gravest error, boldly, conscientiously, and seriously
+carried to its utmost extremes and preached as the latest word of
+wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>It has been customary that man should justify himself before the
+tribunal of morality, but Nietzsche summons morality itself before
+his tribunal. Morality justifies herself by calling on truth, but
+the testimony of truth is ruled out, for truth—objective truth—is
+denounced as a superstition of the dark ages. Nietzsche knows truth
+only as a contemptible method of puny spirits to make existence
+conceivable—a hopeless task! Nietzsche therefore finds morality guilty
+as a usurper and a tyrant, and he exhorts all <i>esprits forts</i> to shake
+off the yoke.</p>
+
+<p>We grant that the self should not be the slave of morality; it should
+not feel the "ought" as a command; it should identify itself with it
+and make its requirements the object of its own free will. Good-will on
+earth will render the law redundant; but when you wipe out the ideal
+of good-will itself together with its foundation, which is truth and
+the recognition of truth, the struggle for existence will reappear
+in its primitive fierceness, and mankind will return to the age of
+savagery. Let the <i>esprits forts of Nietzsche's</i> type try to realize
+their master's ideal, and their attempts will soon lead to their own
+perdition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We read in <i>Der arme Teufel</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1_28" id="FNanchor_1_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_28" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> a weekly whose radical editor would
+not have been prevented by conventional reasons from joining the new
+fad of Nietzscheanism, the following satirical comment on some modern
+poet of original selfhood:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>"'I am against matrimony because I am a poet Wife,
+children, family life,—well, well! they may be good
+enough for the man possessed of the herding instinct But
+I object to trivialities in my own life. I want something
+stimulating, sensation, poetry 1 A wife would be prosaic
+to me, simply on account of being my wife; and children
+who would call me papa would be disgusting. Poetry I need!
+Poetry!' Thus he spoke to a friend, and when the latter
+was gone continued his letter reproaching a waitress for
+again asking for money and at the same time reflecting
+upon the purity of her relations to the bartender who, she
+pretended, was her cousin only...."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>If marriage relations were abolished to-day, would not in the course of
+time some new form of marriage be established? Those who are too proud
+to utilize the experiences of past generations, will have to repeat
+them for themselves and must wade through their follies, sins, errors,
+and suffer all the consequences and undergo their penalties.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche tries to produce a Cæsar by teaching his followers to imitate
+the vices of a Catiline; he would raise gods by begetting Titans; he
+endeavors to give a nobler and better standard to mankind, not by
+lifting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> the people higher and rendering them more efficient, but by
+depriving them of all wisdom and making them more pretentious.</p>
+
+<p>If the ethics of Nietzsche were accepted to-day as authoritative, and
+if people at large acted accordingly, the world would be benefited
+in one respect, viz., hypocrisy would cease, and the selfishness of
+mankind would manifest itself in all its nude bestiality. Passions
+would have full sway; lust, robbery, jealousy, murder, and revenge
+would increase, and Death in all forms of wild outbursts would reap
+a richer harvest than he ever did in the days of prehistoric savage
+life. The result would be a pruning on a grand scale, and after a few
+bloody decades those only would survive who either by nature or by
+hypocritical self-control deemed it best to keep the lower passions
+and the too prurient instincts of their selfhood in proper check, and
+then the old-fashioned rules of morality, which Nietzsche declared
+antiquated, would be given a new trial in the new order of things. They
+might receive a different sanction, but they would find recognition.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche forgets that the present social order originated from that
+general free-for-all fight which he commends, and that if we begin at
+the start we should naturally run through the same or a similar course
+of development to the same or very similar conditions. Will it not be
+better to go on improving than to revert to the primitive state of
+savagery?</p>
+
+<p>There are superstitious notions about the nature of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> the sanction of
+ethics, but for that reason the moral ideals of mankind remain as
+firmly established as ever.</p>
+
+<p>The self is not the standard of measurement for good and evil, right
+and wrong, as Nietzsche claims in agreement with the sophists of old;
+the self is only the condition to which and under which it applies.
+There is no good and evil in the purely physical world, there is no
+suffering, no pain, no anguish—all this originates with the rise of
+organized animal life which is endowed with sentiency; and further
+there is no goodness and badness, no morality until the animal rises to
+the height of comprehending the nature of evil. The tiger is in himself
+neither good nor bad, but he makes himself a cause of suffering to
+others; and thus he is by them regarded as bad. Goodness and badness
+are relative, but they are not for that reason unreal.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that there is no "ought" in the world as an "ought"; nor are
+there metaphysical ghosts of divine commandments revealing themselves.
+But man learns the lesson how to avoid evil and reducing it to brief
+rules which are easily remembered, he calls them "commandments."</p>
+
+<p>Buddha was aware that there is no metaphysical ghost of an "ought," and
+being the first positivist before positivism was ever thought of, his
+decalogue is officially called "avoiding the ten evils," not "the ten
+commandments," the latter being a popular term of later origin.</p>
+
+<p>Granting that there is no metaphysical "ought" in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> the world and that
+it finds application only in the domain of animate life through the
+presence of the self or rather of many selves, we fail to see that
+the self is the creator of the norm of good and evil. Granting also
+that there are degrees of comprehending the nature of evil and that
+different applications naturally result under different conditions,
+we cannot for that reason argue that ethics are purely subjective and
+that there is no objective norm that underlies the moral evolution of
+mankind and comes out in the progress of civilization more and more in
+its purity.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is like a schoolboy whose teacher is an inefficient pedant.
+He rebels against his authority and having had but poor instruction
+proclaims that the multiplication table is a mere superstition with
+which the old man tries to enslave the free minds of his scholars. Are
+there not different solutions possible of the same example and has not
+every one to regard his own solution as the right solution? How can the
+teacher claim that he is the standard of truth? Why, the very attempt
+at setting up a standard of any kind is tyranny and the recognition of
+it is a self-imposed slavery. There is no rightness save the rightness
+that can be maintained in a general hand-to-hand contest, for it is
+ultimately the fist that decides all controversies.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche calls himself an atheist; he denies the existence of God
+in any form, and thus carries atheism to an extreme where it breaks
+down in self-contradiction. We understand by God (whether personal,
+impersonal,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> or superpersonal) that something which determines the
+course of life; the factors that shape the world, including ourselves;
+the law to which we must adjust our conduct. Nietzsche enthrones the
+self in the place of God, but for all practical purposes his God is
+blunt success and survival of the fittest in the crude sense of the
+term; for according to his philosophy the self must heed survival in
+the struggle for existence alone, and that, therefore, is his God.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche's God is power, i. e., overwhelming force, which allows the
+wolf to eat the lamb. He ignores the power of the still small voice,
+the effectiveness of law in the world which makes it possible that man,
+the over-brute, is not the most ferocious, the most muscular, or the
+strongest animal. Nietzsche regards the cosmic order, in accommodation
+to which ethical codes have been invented, as a mere superstition. Thus
+it will come to pass that Nietzsche's type of the overman, should it
+really make its appearance on earth, would be wiped out as surely as
+the lion, the king of the beasts, the proud pseudo-overbrute of the
+animals, will be exterminated in course of time. The lion has a chance
+for survival only behind the bars of the zoölogical gardens or when he
+allows himself to be tamed by man, that weakling among the brutes whose
+power has been built up by a comprehension of the sway of the invisible
+laws of life, physical, mental and moral.</p>
+
+<p>What is the secret of Nietzsche's success? While other men of greater
+consistency, among them his predecessor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> Stirner, failed, he attained
+an unparalleled fame, and his philosophy exercised an extraordinary
+influence upon large classes of people not only in Germany but also
+abroad, in Russia, in France, in the United States and even in
+conservative England.</p>
+
+<p>We must concede that Nietzsche possesses a poetic power of oratory; he
+appeals to sentiment; he is not much of a thinker, not a philosopher,
+but a leader and a prophet, and as such he stands for the most extreme
+egoism. Nietzsche attempts to establish the absolute sovereignty of
+the individual and grants a most irresponsible freedom to the man who
+dares; and this principle of doing away with moral maxims has made him
+popular.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is that our moral sanctions are no longer accepted. People
+still believe in God, in the authority of church and state, but their
+belief is no longer a living faith. Whatever they may think of God, the
+old God, the God of traditional dogmatism, is gone. He is no longer a
+living power in the hearts of the people; and so, large masses rejoice
+to have the proclamation frankly stated that God is dead, that they
+need no longer fear hell, and that the chains of their slavery are
+broken.</p>
+
+<p>Nietzsche is consistent in his denial of the traditional sanctions. He
+understands not only that there are no gods, that the powers of nature
+as personifications do not exist, but that the laws of nature are mere
+abstract generalizations. We need no longer believe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> in Hephaestos, the
+god of fire; there is no use to bow the knee to him or do homage to his
+divinity. Nor is there any truth in the existence of a phlogiston, a
+metaphysical fire-stuff, or any fire essence; there are only scattered
+facts of burning. Everything else is mere superstition. Generalizations
+exist only in our imagination, and so we should get rid of the idea
+that there is any truth at all. Science is a pretender which is apt to
+make cowards of us. That man is wise who is not hampered by scruple or
+doubt of any kind and simply follows the bent of his mind, subjecting
+to himself every thing he finds, including his fellow human beings.</p>
+
+<p>This bold and reckless proposition appeals to egoism and it seems so
+true that abstract formulas and generalizations are empty. Weight
+exists; there is gravity; there are particular phenomena of masses in
+mutual attraction, but gravitation, the law of these actual happenings,
+is a mere formula, an imaginary quantity, a mere thought about which we
+need not worry. The law of gravitation is a human invention and has no
+real existence in the realm of facts.</p>
+
+<p>And the same would of course be true about the interrelations among
+human beings in their social intercourse, too. All the several maxims
+of conduct, which are called moral and constitute our code of ethics,
+are built upon generalizations. There is no sanction for them. The gods
+who were formerly supposed to be responsible for the several domains
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> facts have died long ago. The Jewish deity called Elohim, the
+Lord, entered upon the inheritance of the ancient gods, but he too had
+to die. Thereupon his place was taken by metaphysical essences, pale
+ghosts of a mysterious nature, but they too died and so the last shadow
+of anything authoritative is gone. We are <i>en face du rien</i>; therefore
+let us boldly enjoy our freedom. Let us be ourselves; let our passions
+take their course; let us do wrong if it suits us; let us live without
+consideration of anything, just as we please. There is no sanction of
+moral maxims to be respected; there is no authority of conduct; there
+is no judge; there is no evil, no wrong.</p>
+
+<p>This seems pretty plausible to our modern generation raised in the
+traditions of nominalism, but would we really ignore the law of
+gravitation because the Newtonian formula is a man-made abstraction
+and a mere generalization? Yet, if we do not give heed to it we fall,
+and the same is true of any law of nature. Our sciences are mental
+constructions; they are mind-made, and so far as they are built out
+of the material of our experience they tally with facts and we call
+them true. Our social interrelations, too, constitute conditions
+observable in experience; they can be formulated in Jaws and applied
+to practical life; they can be expressed in maxims of conduct and have
+received various sanctions successively, the sanctions of religion,
+the sanctions of metaphysics, the sanctions of science. In the age of
+savagery the sanction of moral maxims was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> offered us in a mythological
+dress. With the rise of monotheism our moral sanction came to us as
+the command of a supreme ruler of the universe; in the age of abstract
+philosophy as metaphysical principles, and in the age of science these
+should be recognized as lessons of experience.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_28" id="Footnote_1_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_28"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> May 13, 1809. Detroit, 949 Gratiot Ave.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p></div>
+
+
+<h4><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION">CONCLUSION.</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>We will gladly grant that personifications are mythological fictions,
+that metaphysical entities are products of a philosophical imagination
+and that the scientific formulas are abstract generalizations, but
+we deny that generalizations are unmeaning; they signify some actual
+features of reality. Abstract ideas are not purely fictitious; they
+denote significant qualities or occurrences, and the relations in life,
+the forms of things, combinations, or in general the non-material
+configurations, co-operations, combinations and functions are the
+most important and the most significant aspects of existence. Indeed,
+matter and energy are only the clumsy conditions of being; they denote
+actuality and reality, but all things, all events, all facts are such
+as they are on account of their form—on account of that feature which
+is non-material and non-energetic.</p>
+
+<p>According to Nietzsche the whole history of mankind, especially the
+development of reason, knowledge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> and science, is a great blunder,
+and the dawn of day begins with a radical break with the past. We see
+in the evolution of life a gradual ascent with a slow but constant
+approximation to truth. In the history of religion we see in the dawn
+of civilization the beginning of a comprehension of truth. Mythology
+is not error pure and simple, not a conglomeration of superstitions;
+it is plainly characterized by a groping after great truths, and myths
+become foolish inventions only when the poetic character of the tale
+is misunderstood. So dogmas become dangerous errors when the symbol is
+taken literally, when the letter is exalted and the spirit forgotten.
+It is true that science has taken away the charm of many religious
+beliefs, but the great lesson of the doctrine of evolution is to show
+us that our onward march in the humanization of man does not stop, that
+the periods of mythology and dogma are stages in the progress of our
+recognition of the truth. There is no need to fear a collapse of past
+results but we may boldly build higher. We must search for truth and
+we shall have a clearer vision of it, and the future will bring new
+glories, new fulfilments of old hopes and grander realization of our
+fondest dreams.</p>
+
+<p>Verily, the overman will come, although he is not quite so near at
+hand as one might wish. He is at hand though, but he will not come, as
+Nietzsche announces him, in the storm of a catastrophe. The fire and
+the storm may precede the realization of a higher humanity; but the
+higher humanity will be found neither in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> the fire nor in the storm.
+The overman will be born of the present man, not by a contempt for the
+shortcomings of the present man, but by a recognition of the essential
+features of man's manhood, by developing and purifying the truly human
+by making man conform to the eternal norm of rationality, humaneness
+and rightness of conduct.</p>
+
+<p>What we need first is the standard of the higher man; and on
+this account we must purify our notions of the norm of truth and
+righteousness,—of God. Let us find first the over-God, and the overman
+will develop naturally. The belief in an individual God-being is giving
+way to the recognition of a superpersonal God, the norm of scientific
+truth, the standard of right and wrong, the standard of worth by
+which we measure the value of our own being; and the kingdom of the
+genuine overman will be established by the spread of the scientific
+comprehension of the world, in matters physical, social, intellectual,
+moral, and religious.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10%;">
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em; font-weight: bold;"><a id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</span><br />
+<br />
+Abbott, Leonard, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.<br />
+Alexander, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.<br />
+All-too-human, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.<br />
+Ambition, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>; for originality, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; for power, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.<br />
+Anacreon, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+Anarchism, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.<br />
+Anarchists, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+<i>Ancilla Voluntatis</i>, intellect, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.<br />
+Animals superior to man, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.<br />
+Aphorisms, no preference for, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br />
+Aristocracy, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.<br />
+Aristocratic tastes, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.<br />
+Aristotle, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.<br />
+Art, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; nature of, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.<br />
+Assassins, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.<br />
+Atheism, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.<br />
+Authority of conduct, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.<br />
+Average, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Back-worlds-men, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br />
+Ballerstedt, H. F. L., <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.<br />
+Basch, V., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.<br />
+Bauer, Bruno, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.<br />
+Beethoven, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.<br />
+Bergson, Henri, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+Blood is spirit, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.<br />
+Body, self is, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br />
+Bruno, Edgar and Egbert, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.<br />
+Buddha's Decalogue, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>; gospel of love, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+Buhl, Ludwig, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.<br />
+Burke, Edmund, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.<br />
+Burtz, Agnes Clara Kunigunde, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.<br />
+Byington, Stephen T., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cæsar, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.<br />
+Carus, <i>Foundation of Mathematics</i>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Lao-Tse's Too Teh King</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>The Nature of the State,</i> <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; <i>Personality</i>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</span><br />
+Catilinary existences, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.<br />
+Catilene, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.<br />
+Chaos, universe a, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br />
+Change of views, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br />
+<i>Chiün jen</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.<br />
+Christ, overman the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.<br />
+Christ's gospel of love, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+Christian economics, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>-<a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.<br />
+Christianity a rebellion of slaves, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.<br />
+Classical taste, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br />
+Commandments, negative, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.<br />
+Common, Thomas, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>; <i>Nietzsche as Critic, Philosopher, Poet</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>and Prophet</i>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</span><br />
+Comte, Auguste, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.<br />
+Confucius, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.<br />
+Consistency, N. scorns, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>; of N., <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>; of Stirner, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.<br />
+Contempt for, democratic ideals, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>; man, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; past, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">philosophy, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; the all-too-human, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>; truth, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>; world, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</span><br />
+Contradictions natural, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.<br />
+Contrast between life and theory, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br />
+Cosmic order, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.<br />
+Cosmos, universe not a, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br />
+Criterion of right action, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br />
+Crosby, Ernest H., <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br />
+Cynic, N. not a, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dähnhardt, Helmuth Ludwig, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.<br />
+Dähnhardt, Marie. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>-<a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.<br />
+Damocles, sword of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.<br />
+Darwin, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.<br />
+Decadence, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.<br />
+Democracy, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+<i>Der arme Teufel</i>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.<br />
+<i>Der Eigene</i>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br />
+<i>Der Wanderer und sein Schatten</i>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br />
+Deussen, Paul, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; his opinion of N., <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.<br />
+<i>Die Freien</i>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.<br />
+Dionysiac enthusiasm, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+Doctrine of the eternal return, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.<br />
+Dolson, Grace Neal, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+Dream, N.'s real world a, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.<br />
+Dreamers catching at shadows, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br />
+<i>Drunken Song</i>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>-<a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+Duty not recognized, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eagle and Serpent, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>-<a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br />
+<i>Eagle and the Serpent, The</i>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br />
+Eliot, George, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.<br />
+Elis, Coins of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.<br />
+Emerson, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.<br />
+Emotional attitude, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>.<br />
+Engels, Friedrich, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.<br />
+Error, a liberator, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; mythology not, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.<br />
+Eternal return, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.<br />
+Eternity, love for, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.<br />
+Ethics, denial of, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; denounced, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; identical, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">no sanction for, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>; of the strong, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>; result of N.'s, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">test of philosophy, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>. See also s. v. "Morality."</span><br />
+Evolution, defined, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>; lesson of, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.<br />
+Examination at school, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>-<a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.<br />
+Expediency, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Faucher, Julius, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br />
+Faust, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.<br />
+Fichte, <i>Duties of the scholar</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.<br />
+Financier, standard of, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.<br />
+<i>Flatus vocis</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.<br />
+Form, importance of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.<br />
+Forms in themselves, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.<br />
+Förster-Nietzsche, Elisabeth, <i>Das Leben Friedrich Nietzsche's</i>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+<i>Free Comrade</i>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.<br />
+Freedom fettered by convictions, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>; limitless, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">love of, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>; spiritual, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Garden of marriage, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.<br />
+Gargantua, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.<br />
+<i>Genealogy of morals</i>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.<br />
+Generalizations, abstract, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>; not unmeaning, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.<br />
+Genius not abnormal, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.<br />
+Geometry, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.<br />
+Gerecke, Adolph, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+German things, dislike of, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.<br />
+Germany a philosophical storm center, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.<br />
+God, a poet's lie, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; authority of conduct, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>; created by man, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denial of, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>; idea of, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>; is dead, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>; norm of truth, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">self in place of, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</span><br />
+Goethe, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>; imitation of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotations from, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>-<a href='#Page_121'>121</a>; <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</span><br />
+Good, and evil, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>; and evil, overman beyond, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">men never true, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</span><br />
+<i>Good Europeans, notes for</i>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.<br />
+Good will, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.<br />
+Goody-goodyness, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.<br />
+<i>Götzendämmerung</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br />
+Gravitation a human invention, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hammer and anvil, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.<br />
+Health, N.'s desire for, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.<br />
+Hegel, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.<br />
+Herd animal (<i>Heerdentier</i>), <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+Hero, overman the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.<br />
+Hippel's, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.<br />
+Homer, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br />
+Hypocrisy, Plato accused of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+Hypocrisy to obtain power, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>I</i>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.<br />
+Ideal, Christianity incarnates, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br />
+Ideals are superstitions, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">needed, positive, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>; significance in, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</span><br />
+Identical ethics, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>; world-conceptions, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.<br />
+Idols of the past shattered, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+Imaginary, scientist's world, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+Immature minds, influence on, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br />
+Immaturity, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>; appeal of, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>; of N., <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.<br />
+Immortality, desire for, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.<br />
+Individual defined, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.<br />
+Individualism, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>; aristocratic, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; error of, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extreme, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>; ineffective, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</span><br />
+Influence of N., <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.<br />
+Insanity, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.<br />
+Instinct higher than reason, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; N. the philosopher of, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">self a bundle of, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</span><br />
+Intellect <i>ancilla voluntatis</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.<br />
+International Intelligence Institute, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.<br />
+Intoxicants, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.<br />
+Ionian physicist, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+James, William, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+"Joyful science," <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Kant, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.<br />
+Karma, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.<br />
+Key to the universe, reason the, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.<br />
+Kochius, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.<br />
+Köppen, C. F., <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.<br />
+Klein's statue, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.<br />
+Kraust, Károly, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>La Gaya Scienza</i>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.<br />
+Lange, <i>History of Materialism</i>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.<br />
+Lao-tze, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.<br />
+Lauterbach, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.<br />
+Leasing, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br />
+Levy, Oscar, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+Lichtenberger, Henri, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br />
+Life, truth for the sake of, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.<br />
+Lightning, overman the, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+Lion and lamb, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.<br />
+<i>Lion's Paw</i>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.<br />
+Lindlof, Hans, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+Lloyd, J. Wm., <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.<br />
+Logic untrue, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.<br />
+Lombroso, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.<br />
+Love, freedom of, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>; not your neighbor, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; Stirner's view of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.<br />
+Ludovici, Anthony M., <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+McCall, Erwin (pseud.), <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br />
+Mackay, John Henry, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>ff, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.<br />
+Man, beast of prey, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>; a muddy stream, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>; a part of society, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">animals' opinion of, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; contempt for, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; his own master, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">humanization of, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>; personality of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</span><br />
+Marot, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>-85.<br />
+Marriage, a poet's objection to, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>; an abomination, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.'s view of, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</span><br />
+Masses, are pragmatists, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; distinction for, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; enslaved by overman, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br />
+Mathematics. <a href='#Page_21'>21</a> f.<br />
+Measure of truth, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br />
+Mencken, Henry L., <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+Mephistopheles, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.<br />
+Messiah, overman the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.<br />
+Meyen, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.<br />
+Meyer, a fellow student, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>-<a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.<br />
+Mill, John Stuart, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.<br />
+Moore, George, and N. compared, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>-<a href='#Page_104'>104</a>; <i>Confessions of a Young Man</i>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.<br />
+"<i>Moral ist Nothlüge</i>," <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.<br />
+Morality, denial of, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>-<a href='#Page_123'>123</a>; immoral, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>; limited to mediocrity, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also s. v. "Ethics."</span><br />
+<i>Morgenröthe</i>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.<br />
+Mozart, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br />
+Mueller, Adolph, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+Müller, Dr. Arthur, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.<br />
+Mügge, M. A., <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+Mussak, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.<br />
+Mythology not an error, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Napoleon, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>f, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.<br />
+Nature, uniformities of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.<br />
+Negation, of will, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; spirit of, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.<br />
+Negative, commandments, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.<br />
+Neighbor, love not, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.<br />
+Nietzsche, a model of virtue, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>; a modern, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; a mystic, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abnormal, not a genius, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; ancestors of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>; and George Moore</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compared, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>-<a href='#Page_104'>104</a>; and Stirner compared, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>-<a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confirmation of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; consistency of, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; contrast between life</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and theory, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>; destroyer of morality, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>; his doctrine</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of self, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>; immaturity of, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>; insanity of, not an accident, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominalistic tendencies of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>; philosophy of, agreement with, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">philosophy of, result of nominalism, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>; religious character of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">requiem composed by, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>; subjectivity of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; success of, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>-<a href='#Page_137'>137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tender-hearted, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</span><br />
+Nihilism, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.<br />
+<i>Nomina</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.<br />
+Nominalism, and realism, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>; of Lombroso, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; traditions of, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.<br />
+Normal man the exception, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.<br />
+Nothingness, trust in, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.<br />
+Nurse, N. as a, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Obedience, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.<br />
+Objectivism, subjective, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.<br />
+Objectivity of truth, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br />
+Ocean, overman the, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.<br />
+<i>Ohne Staat</i>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.<br />
+<i>Open Court, The</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.<br />
+Orage, A. R., <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+Order, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; cosmic, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.<br />
+Originality, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>; ambition for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; hankering after, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.<br />
+Overman, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>ff, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">love of, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; the true, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Particularism, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+Patriotism, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.<br />
+Personality of man, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.<br />
+Pessimism, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.<br />
+Philologist, N. a, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.<br />
+Philosophy as a science, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; contempt for, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; three features of, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>.<br />
+Pig, usefulness of, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.<br />
+Plato, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>; accused of hypocrisy, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>; ideal of, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>; ideas of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.<br />
+Platonism, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.<br />
+Pleasure and pain, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br />
+Poet, God the lie of, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.<br />
+Poet, N. a, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>; N. not really a, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.<br />
+Positive ideals needed, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.<br />
+Positivism, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.<br />
+Power, acquisition of, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>; desire for, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">God is, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>; hypocrisy to obtain, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>; will for, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>-<a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</span><br />
+Pragmatism, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.<br />
+Pragmatists, masses are, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.<br />
+Pride, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.<br />
+Probability but no truth, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.<br />
+Progress, evolution is, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>; in epicycles, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; in the world, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.<br />
+Protest, against himself, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>ff; against truth, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">philosopher of, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>; philosophy of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</span><br />
+Proudhon, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Quarrels at school, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Real world, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>-<a href='#Page_20'>20</a>. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.<br />
+Realism and nominalism, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.<br />
+Reason, a blunder, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>; key to the universe, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>; origin of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjective, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; tool of body, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>; universality of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</span><br />
+Redbeard, Ragnar, <i>Might is Right</i>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.<br />
+Relativity, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.<br />
+Religion, hatred of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+Revaluation of values, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.<br />
+Richard III, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.<br />
+Right but might, no, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.<br />
+Rules of N.'s philosophical warfare, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Salome, Lou Andreas, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+Sandwich, anecdote, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.<br />
+Schellwien, R., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+Schiller, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br />
+Schlegel, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br />
+Schmidt, Albert Christian Heinrich, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.<br />
+Schmidt, Johann Caspar. See<br />
+Stirner, Max.<br />
+Schmitt, Eugen Heinrich, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.<br />
+Schopenhauer, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.<br />
+Schulpforta, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>; a pupil at, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<br />
+Schümm, George and Mrs. Emma H., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.<br />
+Science, a blunder, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>; a means, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; a mental construction, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a pretender, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>; despised, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>; for its own sake, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>; triumph of, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unavailableness of, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>; world of, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>-<a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</span><br />
+Sciences of form, the, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.<br />
+Scientist, standard of, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.<br />
+Sebastopol, fall of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.<br />
+Self, an authority above, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; is body, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sovereignty of, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>ff, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>; truth creature of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</span><br />
+Self-assertion, right of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>; the ethics of the strong, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.<br />
+Serpent, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>; eagle and, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>-<a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br />
+Slavism, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.<br />
+Smith, William Benjamin, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+Snuffing brotherhood, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.<br />
+Socialism, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.<br />
+Society, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>; man a part of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.<br />
+Socrates, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.<br />
+Soldier, N. as a, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.<br />
+Sophists, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+Spectacles not the world, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.<br />
+Spirit, blood is, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>; Stirner on, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.<br />
+Spoiled child, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.<br />
+Standard, of measurement, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; of valuation, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of values needed, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</span><br />
+State, a despotism, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; growth of, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.<br />
+Steiner, Rudolph, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+Sticht, Johann Caspar, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.<br />
+<i>Stimmungsbild</i>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.<br />
+Stirner, Max, and Nietzsche compared, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>-<a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>; arguments of, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>ff;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">consistent, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; contrast between life and theory, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>; death of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Der Einzige und sein Eigentum</i>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>; description of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>ff; marriage of, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>f; pencil sketch of, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>; the name, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</span><br />
+Straus, Richard, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.<br />
+Subjective standard, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.<br />
+Subjectivism, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.<br />
+Subjectivity of N., <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.<br />
+Superman, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.<br />
+Superpersonal God, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.<br />
+Superpersonalities, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.<br />
+Swartz, Clarence L., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.<br />
+Switzerland, a citizen of, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Things in themselves, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.<br />
+Three, features of philosophy, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; periods in N.'s development, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rules of philosophical warfare, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</span><br />
+<i>Thus Spake Zarathustra</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>ff, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br />
+Tieck, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.<br />
+Tille, Alexander, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.<br />
+Tolstoy, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br />
+Tradition defied, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; opposed to, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; sanction of, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sanction of denied, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</span><br />
+Tragic, element, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>; figure, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.<br />
+Transvaluation of values, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.<br />
+True world, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>-<a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.<br />
+Truth, as authority, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>; creature of self, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>; defined, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">existence of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>-<a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; flashes of, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>; for the sake of life, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">need of, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; non-existent, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>; objectivity of, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; probability but no, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests against, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</span><br />
+Tucker, Benjamin R., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.<br />
+<i>Twilight of the Idols</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.<br />
+Tyrant, morality a, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>; N. loves a, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>; overman a, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ulfila's bible, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.<br />
+Uniformities dominate existence, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.<br />
+Universality of reason, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.<br />
+Universe a chaos, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<br />
+Unmoralist, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; development into, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; the first, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.<br />
+Unmoralism, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.<br />
+Unmorality, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.<br />
+Unseitgemässe Betrachtungen, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Valuation, principle of, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>ff.<br />
+Vedantism interpreted by a materialist, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.<br />
+Virtue, a model of, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wagner, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.<br />
+Walker, James, L., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; <i>The Philosophy of Egoism</i>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.<br />
+Warren, Josiah, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.<br />
+Wenley, R. M., <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.<br />
+Whitman, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.<br />
+Will, ennoblement of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; for power, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>-<a href='#Page_37'>37</a>; intellect slave of, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negation of, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</span><br />
+Woman, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>; Stirner's attitude toward, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br />
+World-conceptions identical, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Zarathustra, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>ff, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nietzsche and other Exponents of
+Individualism, by Paul Carus
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