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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text @@ -0,0 +1,14958 @@ +*The Project Gutenberg Etext of James Nasmyth's Autobiography* + +[Life in Edinburgh in the 18th and 19th Cent. His artist father. +Travels in England and Europe. His factory and inventions including +the Steam Hammer. Pursuit of astronomy after an early retirement] + + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + + +James Nasmyth: Engineer, An Autobiography. + +Edited by Samuel Smiles + +March, 1996 [Etext #476] + + +*The Project Gutenberg Etext of James Nasmyth's autobiography* +*****This file should be named 476.txt or 476.zip****** + + +This etext (jnasm10.txt) is the plain text taken from the HTML +which I produced and put on the Internet, back in October 1995. +Apart from some minor punctuation corrections, and the removal +of a duplicated footnote in chapter 10. 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Some twenty years since (in April 1863), when I applied +to him for information respecting his mechanical inventions, he +replied: "My life presents no striking or remarkable incidents, +and would, I fear, prove but a tame narrative. The sphere to which my +endeavours have been confined has been of a comparatively quiet order; +but, vanity apart, I hope I have been able to leave a few marks of my +existence behind me in the shape of useful contrivances, which are in +many ways helping on great works of industry." + +Mr. Nasmyth, nevertheless, kindly furnished me with information +respecting himself, as well as his former master and instructor, +Henry Maudslay, of London, for the purpose of being inserted in +Industrial Biography, or Ironworkers and Toolmakers, which was +published at the end of 1863. He was of opinion that the outline of +his life there presented was sufficiently descriptive of his career as +a mechanic and inventor. + +During the years that have elapsed since then, Mr. Nasmyth has been +prevailed upon by some of his friends more especially by Sir John +Anderson, late of Woolwich Arsenal--to note down the reminiscences of +his life, with an account of his inventions, and to publish them for +the benefit of others. He has accordingly spent some of his well +earned leisure during the last two years in writing out his +recollections. Having consulted me on the subject, I recommended that +they should be published in the form of an Autobiography, and he has +willingly given his consent. + +Mr. Nasmyth has furnished me with abundant notes of his busy life, +and he has requested me, in preparing them for publication, to +"make use of the pruning-knife." I hope, however, that in editing the +book I have not omitted anything that is likely to be interesting or +instructive. I must add that everything has been submitted to his +correction and received his final approval. + +The narrative abundantly illustrates Mr. Nasmyth's own definition of +engineering; namely, common sense applied to the use of materials. +In his case, common sense has been more especially applied to +facilitating and perfecting work by means of Machine Tools. +Civilisation began with tools; and every step in advance has been +accomplished through their improvement. Handicraft labour, in bone, +stone, or wood, was the first stage in the development of man's power; +and tools or machines, in iron or steel, are the last and most +efficient method of economising it, and enabling him to intelligently +direct the active and inert forces of nature. + +It will be observed that Mr. Nasmyth, on his first start in life, +owed much to the influence of his father, who was not only an admirable +artist--"the founder," as Sir David Wilkie termed him, "of the +landscape painting school of Scotland"--but an excellent mechanic. +His "bow-and-string" roofs and bridges show his original merits as a +designer; and are sufficient to establish his ability as a mechanical +engineer. Indeed, one of Mr. Nasmyth's principal objects in preparing +the notes of the following work, has been to introduce a Memorial to +the memory of his father, to whom he owed so much, and to whom he was +so greatly attached through life. Hence the numerous references to him, +and the illustrations from his works of art, of architecture, +as well as of mechanics, given in the early part of the book. + +I might point out that Mr. Nasmyth's narrative has a strong bearing +upon popular education; not only as regards economical use of time, +careful observation, close attention to details, but as respects the +uses of Drawing. The observations which he makes as to the accurate +knowledge of this art are very important. In this matter he concurs +with Mr. Herbert Spencer in his work on Education. "It is very strange," +Mr. Nasmyth said some years ago, "that amidst all our vaunted +improvements in education, the faculty of comparison by sight, or what +may be commonly called the correctness of eye, has been so little +attended to" He accordingly urges the teaching of rudimentary drawing in +all public schools. "Drawing is," he says, "the Education of the Eye. +It is more interesting than words. It is graphic language." + +The illustrations given in the course of the following book will serve +to show his own mastery of drawing whether as respects Mechanical +details, the Moon's surface, or the fairyland of Landscape. +It is perhaps not saying too much to aver that had he not devoted his +business life to Mechanics, he would, like his father, his brother +Patrick, and his sisters, have taken a high position as an artist. +In the following Memoir we have only been able to introduce a few +specimens of his drawings; but "The Fairies," "The Antiquary," +and others, will give the reader a good idea of Mr. Nasmyth's artistic +ability. Since his retirement from business life, at the age of +forty-eight, Mr. Nasmyth's principal pursuit has been Astronomy. +His Monograph on "The Moon," published in 1874, exhibits his ardent and +philosophic love for science in one of its sublimest aspects. +His splendid astronomical instruments, for the most part made entirely +by his own hands, have enabled him to detect the "willow leaf-shaped" +objects which form the structural element of the Sun's luminous +surface. The discovery was shortly after verified by Sir John Herschel +and other astronomers, and is now a received fact in astronomical +science. + +A Chronological List of some of Mr. Nasmyth's contrivances and +inventions is given at the end of the volume, which shows, so far, +what he has been enabled to accomplish during his mechanical career. +These begin at a very early age, and were continued for about thirty +years of a busy and active life. Very few of them were patented; +many of them, though widely adopted, are unacknowledged as his +invention. They, nevertheless, did much to advance the mechanical arts, +and still continue to do excellent service in the engineering world. + +The chapter relating to the origin of the Cuneiform Character, +and of the Pyramid or Sun-worship in its relation to Egyptian +Architecture, is placed at the end, so as not to interrupt the personal +narrative. That chapter, it is believed, will be found very +interesting, illustrated, as it is, by Mr. Nasmyth's drawings. + +S.S. + +LONDON, October 1885. + + +CONTENTS + +Preface + +List of Illustrations [omitted in this Etext] + +CHAPTER 1 My Ancestry +Sentiment of Ancestry +Origin of the name of Naesmyth +Naesmyth of Posso +Naesmyth of Netherton +Battle of Bothwell Brig +Estate confiscated +Elspeth Naesmyth +Michael Naesmyth builder and architect +Fort at Inversnaid +Naesmyth family tomb +Former masters and men +Michael Naesmyth's son +New Edinburgh +Grandmother Naesmyth +Uncle Michael + + +CHAPTER 2 Alexander Nasmyth +Born 1758--Grassmarket +Edinburgh--Education +The Bibler's Seat +The brothers Erskine +Apprenticed to a coachbuilder +The Trustees' Academy +Huguenot artisans +Alexander Runciman +Copy of "The Laocoon" +Assistant to Allan Ramsay +Faculty of resourcefulness +Begins as portrait painter +Friendship with Miller of Dalswinton +Miller and the first steamboat +Visit to Italy +Marriage to Barbara Foulis +Burns the poet +Edinburgh clubs +Landscape beauty +Abandons portrait for landscape painting +David Roberts, R.A. +Dean Bridge +St. Bernard's Well +Nelson's Monument +Bow-and-string bridges +Sunday rivet + + +CHAPTER 3 An Artist's Family +Sir James Hall +Geology of Edinburgh +Friends of the family +Henry Raeburn +Evenings at home +Society of artists +"Caller Aon" +Management of the household +The family +Education of six sisters +The Nasmyth classes +Pencil drawing +Excursions round Edinburgh +Graphic memoranda +Patrick Nasmyth, sketch of his life +Removes to London +Visit to Hampshire +Original prices of his works +His friends +His death + + +CHAPTER 4 My Early Years +Born 1808 +Mary Peterkin +The brilliant red poppies +Left-handed +Patrick's birthday +Vocal performance +A wonderful escape +Events of the war +The French prisoners +Entry of the 42d into Edinburgh +Bleaching "claes" on the Calton +The Greenside workshops +The chimes of St. Giles' +The Edinburgh Market +The caddies +The fishwives +The "floore" +Traditional fondness for cats +A Nasmyth prayer + + +CHAPTER 5 My School-days +My first schoolmaster +"Preter pluperfect tense" +The "penny pig" +Country picnics +Pupil at the High School +Dislike of Latin +Love of old buildings +Their masonry +Sir Walter Scott +"The Heart of Midlothian" +John Linnell +The collecting period +James Watt +My father's workshop +Make peeries, cannon, and "steels" +School friendships +Paterson's ironfoundry +His foremen +Johnie Syme +Tom Smith and chemical experiments +Kid gloves and technical knowledge + + +CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Beginnings +Study arithmetic and geometry +Practise art of drawing +Its important uses +Make tools and blowpipe +Walks round Edinburgh +Volcanic origin of the neighbourhood +George the Fourth's visit +The Radical Road +Destructive fires +Journey to Stirling +The Devon Ironworks +Robert Bald +Carron Ironworks +Coats of mail found at Bannockburn +Models of condensing steam-engine +Professor Leslie +Edinburgh School of Arts +Attend University classes +Brass-casting in the bedroom +George Douglass +Make a working steam-engine +Sympathy of activity +The Expansometer +Make a road steam-carriage +Desire to enter Maudslay's factory + + +CHAPTER 7 Henry Maudslay, London +Voyage to London with specimens of workmanship +First walk through London +Visit to Henry Maudslay +The interview +Exhibit my specimens +Taken on as assistant +The private workshop +Maudslay's constructive excellence +His maxims +Uniformity of screws +Meeting with Henry Brougham +David Wilkie +Visit to the Admiralty Museum +The Block machinery +The Royal Mint +Steam yacht trip to Richmond +Lodgings taken +"A clean crossing" + + +CHAPTER 8 Maudslay's Private Assistant +Enter Maudslay's service +Rudimentary screw generator +The guide screw +Interview with Faraday +Rate of wages +Economical living +My cooking stove +Make model of marine steam-engine +My collar-nut cutting machine +Maudslay's elements of high-class workmanship +Flat filing +Standard planes +Maudslay's "Lord Chancellor" +Maudslay's Visitors +General Bentham, Barton, Donkin and Chantrey +The Cundell brothers +Walks round London +Norman architecture + + +CHAPTER 9 Holiday in the Manufacturing Districts +Coaching trip to Liverpool +Coventry +English scenery +'The Rocket' +The two Stephensons +Opening of the railway +William Fawcett +Birkenhead +Walk back to London +Patricroft +Manchester +Edward Tootal +Sharp, Roberts and Co. +Manchester industry +Coalbrookdale +The Black Country +Dudley Castle +Wren's Nest Hill +Birmingham +Boulton and Watt +William Murdoch +John Drain +Kenilworth--Warwick--Oxford--Windsor--London + + +CHAPTER 10 Begin Business at Manchester +Stamping machine improved +Astronomical instruments +A reflecting telescope proposed +Death of Maudslay +Joshua Field +'Talking books' +Leave Maudslay and Field +Take temporary workshop in Edinburgh +Archie Torry +Construct a rotary steam-engine +Prepare a stock of machine tools +Visit to Liverpool +John Cragg +Visit to Manchester +John Kennedy +Grant Brothers +Take a workshop +Tools removed to Manchester +A prosperous business begun +Story of the brothers Grant +Trip to Elgin and Castle Grant +The brothers Cowper +The printing machine +Edward Cowper + + +CHAPTER 11 Bridgewater Foundry--Partnership +Demand for skilled labour +Machine tools in request +My flat overloaded +A crash among the decanters +The land at Patricroft +Lease from Squire Trafford +Bridgewater Foundary begun +Trip to Londonderry +The Giant's Causeway +Cottage at Barton +The Bridgewater canal +Lord Francis Egerton +Safety foundry ladle +Holbrook Gaskell taken as partner +His eventual retirement + + +CHAPTER 12 Free Trade in Ability--The Strike--Death of my Father +Hugo de Lupus +The Peter Stubb's files +Worsley labourers +Promotion from the ranks +Free trade in ability +Foreman lieutenants, Archie Torry +James Hutton +John Clarke +Thomas Crewdson +Trades' Union interference +A strike ordered +Workman advertised for +A reinforcement of Scotch mechanics +The strike scotched +Millwrights and engineers +Indenture-bound apprentices +Visits of my father +Enthusiastic reception +His last work +His death +Testimony of Sir David Wilkie + + +CHAPTER 13 My Marriage--The Steam Hammer +Preparations for a home +Influence of chance occurrences +Visit to Mr. Hartop's near Barnsley +Important interview +Eventual marriage +Great Western Railway locomotives +Mr. Humphries and 'Great Western' steamship +Forging of paddle-shaft +Want of range of existing hammers +The first steam hammer sketched +Its arrangement +The paddle shaft abandoned +My sketch copied and adopted +My visit to Creuzot +Find steam hammer in operation +A patent taken out +First steam hammer made in England +Its general adoption +Patent secured for United States + + +CHAPTER 14 Travels in France and Italy +The French Minister of Marine at Paris +Rouen--Bayeux--Cherbourg--Brest--Rochefort--Indret +M. Rosine +Architecture of Nismes +Marseilles--Toulon--Voyage to Naples--Genoa--Pisa +Bay of Naples +The National Museum +Visit to Vesuvius +The edge of the crater +Volcanic commotion +Overflows of burning lava +Wine-shop at Rosina +Return ride to Naples + + +CHAPTER 15 Steam Hammer Pile-driver +The Royal Dockyards +Steam hammer for Devonport +Scene at the first stroke +My Lords of the Admiralty +Steam hammer pile-driver required +The new docks at Devonport +The pile-driver delivered +Its description +Trail against the old method +Its general adoption +Happy thoughts +Testing of chain cables and anchors +Causes of failure +Punctilliousness of officials at royal dockyards +Egyptian workman employed +Affiffi Lalli +Letter from Faraday + + +CHAPTER 16 Nuremberg--St. Petersburg--Dannemora. +Visit to Nuremberg +Albert Durer +Adam Krafft +Visit to St. Petersburg +General Wilson +General Greg +Struve the astronomer +Palaces and shops +Ivy ornamentation +The Emperor Nicholas a royal salute +Francis Baird +Work of Russian serfs +The Izak Church +Voyage to Stokholm +Visit to Upsala +The iron mines of Dannemora +To Gottenburg by steamer +Motala +Trollhatten Falls +Sweedish people +Copenhagen +Tycho Brahe; +Zeland and Holstein +Holland, and return + + +CHAPTER 17 More about Bridgewater Foundry--Woolwich Arsenal +Increased demand for self-acting tools +Promotions of lads +The Trades' Union again +Strike against Platt Brothers +Edward Tootal's advice +Friendliness between engineering firms +Small high-pressure engines +Uses of waste steam +Improvements in calico-printing +Improvements at Woolwich Arsenal +Enlargement of workshops +Improved machine tools +The gun foundry and laboratories +Orders for Spain and Russia +Rope factory machinery +Russian Officers +Grand Duke Constantine +Lord Ellesmere's visitors +Admiral Kornileff + + +CHAPTER 18 Astronomical pursuits +Hobbies at home +Drawing +Washington Irving +Pursuit of astronomy +Wonders of the heavens +Construction of a new speculum +William Lassell +Warren de la Rue +Home-made reflecting telescope +A ghost at Patricroft +Twenty-inch diameter speculum +Drawings of the moon's surface +Structure of the moon +Lunar craters +Pico +Wrinkles of age +Extinct craters +Landscape scenery of the moon +Meeting of British Association at Edinburgh +The Bass Rock +Professor Owen +Robert Chambers +The grooved rocks +Hugh Miller and boulder clay +Lecture on the moon +Visit the Duke of Argyll +Basaltic formation at Mull +The Giant's Causeway +The great exhibition +Steam hammer engine +Prize medals +Interview with the Queen and Prince Consort +Lord Cockburn +Visit to Bonally +D. O. Hill + + +CHAPTER 19 More about Astronomy +Sir David Brewster +Edward Cowper's lecture +Cause of the sun's light +Lord Murray +Sir T. Mitchell +The Milky Way +Countless suns +Infusoria in Bridgewater Canal +Rotary movements of heavenly bodies +Geological Society meeting +Dr Vaugham +Improvement of Small Arms Factory, Enfield +Generosity of United States Government +The Enfield Rifle + + +CHAPTER 20 Retirement from Business +Letter from David Roberts, R. A. +Puddling iron by steam +The process tried +Sir Henry Bessemer's invention +Discussion at Cheltenham +Bessemer's account +Prepare to retire from business +The Countess of Ellesmere +The "Cottage in Kent" +The "antibilious stock" +Hammerfield, Penshurst +Planting and gardening +The Crystal Palace +Music +Tools and telescopes +The greenhouse + + +CHAPTER 21 Active leisure + Astronomy +Lecture on the Moon +Edinburgh +Old friends +Visit to the Continent--Paris, Chartres, Nismes, Chamounix +Art of photography +Sir John Herschel +Spots on the sun's surface +E.J. Stone +De la Rue +Visit from Sir John Herschel +Cracking glass globe +A million spots and letters +Geological diagram +Father Secchi at Rome +Lord Lyndhurst +Visit to Herschel +His last letter +Publication of The Moon +Philip H. Calderon +Cardinal Manning +Miss Herschel +William Lassell +Windmill grinding of speculum +The dial of life +End of recollections + +List of Inventions and Contrivances + +Articles on the Sun-Ray origin of the Pyramids and Cuneiform Character + + +[Image] Edinburgh Castle, From the Vennel + +AUTOBIOGRAPHY. + + +CHAPTER 1. My Ancestry + +Our history begins before we are born. We represent the hereditary +influences of our race, and our ancestors virtually live in us. +The sentiment of ancestry seems to be inherent in human nature, +especially in the more civilised races. At all events, we cannot help +having a due regard for the history of our forefathers. Our curiosity +is stimulated by their immediate or indirect influence upon ourselves. +It may be a generous enthusiasm, or, as some might say, a harmless +vanity, to take pride in the honour of their name. The gifts of nature, +however, are more valuable than those of fortune; and no line of +ancestry, however honourable, can absolve us from the duty of diligent +application and perseverance, or from the practice of the virtues of +self-control and self-help. + +Sir Bernard Burke, in his Peerage and Baronetage Ed 1879 Pp 885-6, +gives a faithful account of the ancestors from whom I am lineally +descended. "The family of Naesymth, he says, "is one of remote +antiquity in Tweeddale, and has possessed lands there since the 13th +century." They fought in the wars of Bruce and Baliol, which ended in +the independence of Scotland. + +The following is the family legend of the origin of the name of +Naesymth: -- + +In the troublous times which prevailed in Scotland before the union of +the Crowns, the feuds between the King and the Barons were almost +constant. In the reign of James III. the House of Douglas was the +most prominent and ambitious. The Earl not only resisted his liege +lord, but entered into a combination with the King of England, from +whom he received a pension. He was declared a rebel, and his estates +were confiscated. He determined to resist the royal power, and crossed +the Border with his followers. He was met by the Earl of Angus, the +Maxwells, the Johnstons, and the Scotts. In one of the engagements +which ensued the Douglases appeared to have gained the day, when an +ancestor of the Naesmyths, who fought under the royal standard, took +refuge in the smithy of a neighbouring village. The smith offered him +protection, disguised him as a hammerman, with a leather apron in +front, and asked him to lend a hand at his work. + +While thus engaged a party of the Douglas partisans entered the smithy. +They looked with suspicion on the disguised hammerman, who, in his +agitation, struck a false blow with the sledge hammer, which broke the +shaft in two. Upon this, one of the pursuers rushed at him, calling +out, "Ye're nae smyth!" The stalwart hammerman turned upon his +assailant, and, wrenching a dagger from him, speedily overpowered him. +The smith himself, armed with a big hammer, effectually aided in +overpowering and driving out the Douglas men. A party of the royal +forces made their appearance, when Naesmyth rallied them, led them +against the rebels, and converted what had been a temporary defeat into +a victory. A grant of lands was bestowed upon him for his service. +His armorial bearings consisted of a hand dexter with a dagger, between +two broken hammer-shafts, and there they remain to this day. The motto +was, Non arte sect marte, "Not by art but by war" In my time I have +reversed the motto (Non marte sed arte); and instead of the broken +hammer-shafts, I have adopted, not as my "arms" but as a device, +the most potent form of mechanical art--the Steam Hammer. + +[Image] Origin of the Name. By James Nasmyth. + +Sir Michael Naesmyth, Chamberlain of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, +obtained the lands of Posso and Glenarth in 1544, by right of his wife, +Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of John Baird of Posso. The Bairds +have ever been a loyal and gallant family. Sir Gilbert, father of John +Baird, fell at Flodden in 1513, in defence of his king. + +The royal eyrie of Posso Crag is on the family estate; +and the Lure worn by Queen Mary, and presented by her son James VI. to +James Naesmyth, the Royal Falconer, is still preserved as a family +heirloom. + +During the intestine troubles in Scotland, in the reign of Mary, +Sir Michael Naesmyth espoused the cause of the unfortunate Queen. +He fought under her banner at Langside in 1568. He was banished, +and his estates were seized by the Regent Moray. But after the +restoration of peace, the Naesmyths regained their property. +Sir Michael died at an advanced age. + +He had many sons. The eldest, James, married Joana, daughter of +William Veitch or Le Veitch of Dawick. By this marriage the lands of +Dawick came into the family. He predeceased his father, and was +succeeded by his son James, the Royal Falconer above referred to. +Sir Michael's second son, John, was chief chirurgeon to James VI. of +Scotland, afterwards James I. of England, and to Henry, Prince of +Wales. He died in London in 1613, and in his testament he leaves +"his herb to his young master, the Prince's grace." Charles I., +in his instructions to the President of the Court of Session, enjoins +"that you take special notice of the children of John Naesmyth, so +often recommended by our late dear father and us." Two of Sir Michael's +other sons were killed at Edinburgh in 1588, in a deadly feud between +the Scotts and the Naesmyths. In those days a sort of Corsican +vendetta was carried on between families from one generation to +another. + +Sir Michael Naesmyth, son of the Royal Falconer, succeeded to the +property. His eldest son James was appointed to serve in Claverhouse's +troop of horse in 1684. Among the other notable members of the family +was James Naesmyth, a very clever lawyer. He was supposed to be so +deep that he was generally known as the "Deil o' Dawyk". His eldest +son was long a member of Parliament for the county of Peebles; he was, +besides, a famous botanist, having studied under Linnaeus, Among the +inter-marriages of the family were those with the Bruces of Lethen, the +Stewarts of Traquhair, the Murrays of Stanhope, the Pringles of Clifton, +the Murrays of Philiphaugh, the Keiths (of the Earl Marischal's family), +the Andersons of St. Germains, the Marjoribanks of Lees, and others. + +In the fourteenth century a branch of the Naesmyths of Posso settled at +Netherton, near Hamilton. They bought an estate and built a residence. +The lands adjoined part of the Duke of Hamilton's estate, and the house +was not far from the palace. There the Naesmyths remained until the +reign of Charles II. The King, or his advisers, determined to +introduce Episcopacy, or, as some thought, Roman Catholicism, into the +country, and to enforce it at the point of the sword. + +The Naesmyths had always been loyal until now. But to be cleft by +sword and pricked by spear into a religion which they disbelieved, was +utterly hateful to the Netherton Naesmyths. Being Presbyterians, they +held to their own faith. They were prevented from using their +churches,* + [footnote... +In the reign of James II. of England and James VII. of Scotland a law +was enacted, "that whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof, +or should attend, either as a preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in +the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of +property." + ...] +and they accordingly met on the moors, or in unfrequented places for +worship. The dissenting Presbyterians assumed the name of Covenanters. +Hamilton was almost the centre of the movement. The Covenanters met, +and the King's forces were ordered to disperse them. Hence the +internecine war that followed. There were Naesmyths on both sides-- +Naesmyths for the King, and Naesmyths for the Covenant. + +In an early engagement at Drumclog, the Covenanters were victorious. +They beat back Claverhouse and his dragoons. A general rising took +place in the West Country. About 6000 men assembled at Hamilton, +mostly raw and undisciplined countrymen. The King's forces assembled +to meet them, -- 10,000 well-disciplined troops, with a complete train +of field artillery. What chance had the Covenanters against such a +force? Nevertheless, they met at Bothwell Bridge, a few miles west of +Hamilton. It is unnecessary to describe the action.* + [footnote... +See the account of a Covenanting Officer in the Appendix to the Scots +Worthies. See also Sir Waiter Scott's Old Mortality, where the battle +of Bothwell Brig is described. + ...] + +The Covenanters, notwithstanding their inferior force, resisted the +cannonade and musketry of the enemy with great courage. They defended +the bridge until their ammunition failed. When the English Guards and +the artillery crossed the bridge, the battle was lost. The Covenanters +gave way, and fled in all directions; Claverhouse, burning with revenge +for his defeat at Drumclog, made a terrible slaughter of the +unresisting fugitives. One of my ancestors brought from the +battlefield the remnant of the standard; a formidable musquet-- +"Gun Bothwell" we afterwards called it; an Andrea Ferrara; and a +powder-horn. I still preserve these remnants of the civil war. + +My ancestor was condemned to death in his absence, and his property at +Netherton was confiscated. What became of him during the remainder of +Charles II.'s reign, and the reign of that still greater tormentor, +James II., I do not know. He was probably, like many others, wandering +about from place to place, hiding "in wildernesses or caves, destitute, +afflicted, and tormented." The arrival of William III. restored +religious liberty to the country, and Scotland was again left in +comparative peace. + +My ancestor took refuge in Edinburgh, but he never recovered his +property at Netherton. The Duke of Hamilton, one of the trimmers of +the time, had long coveted the possession of the lands, as Ahab had +coveted Naboth's vineyard. He took advantage of the conscription of +the men engaged in the Bothwell Brig conflict, and had the lands +forfeited in his favour. I remember my father telling me that, on one +occasion when he visited the Duke of Hamilton in reference to some +improvement of the grounds adjoining the palace, he pointed out to the +Duke the ruined remains of the old residence of the Naesmyths. As the +first French Revolution was then in full progress, when ideas of +society and property seemed to have lost their bearings, the Duke +good-humouredly observed, "Well, well, Naesmyth, there's no saying but +what, some of these days, your ancestors' lands may come into your +possession again!" + +Before I quit the persecutions of "the good old times," I must refer to +the burning of witches. One of my ancient kinswomen, Elspeth Naesmyth, +who lived at Hamilton, was denounced as a witch. The chief evidence +brought against her was that she kept four black cats, and read her +Bible with two pairs of spectacles! a practice which shows that she +possessed the spirit of an experimental philosopher. + +In doing this she adopted a mode of supplementing the power of +spectacles in restoring the receding power of the eyes. She was in all +respects scientifically correct. She increased the magnifying power of +the glasses; a practice which is preferable to using single glasses of +the same power, and which I myself often follow. Notwithstanding this +improved method of reading her Bible, and her four black cats, she was +condemned to be burned alive! She was about the last victim in +Scotland to the disgraceful superstition of witchcraft. + +The Naesmyths of Netherton having lost their ancestral property, had to +begin the world again. They had to begin at the beginning. +But they had plenty of pluck and energy. I go back to my +great-great-grandfather, Michael Naesmyth, who was born in 1652. +He occupied a house in the Grassmarket, Edinburgh, which was afterwards +rebuilt, in 1696. His business was that of a builder and architect. +His chief employment was in designing and erecting new mansions, +principally for the landed gentry and nobility. Their old castellated +houses or towers were found too dark and dreary for modern uses. +The drawbridges were taken down, and the moats were filled up. +Sometimes they built the new mansions as an addition to the old. +But oftener they left the old castles to go to ruin; or, what was +worse, they made use of the stone and other materials of the old +romantic buildings for the construction of their new residences. + +Michael Naesmyth acquired a high reputation for the substantiality of +his work. His masonry was excellent, as well as his woodwork. +The greater part of the latter was executed in his own workshops at the +back of his house in the Grassmarket. His large yard was situated +between the back of the house and the high wall that bounded the +Greyfriars Churchyard,to the east of the flight of steps which forms +the main approach to George Heriot's Hospital. + +[Image] Michael Naesmyth's House, Grassmarket.The lower building at the + right hand corner of the engraving, with the three projecting + gable ends + +The last work that Michael Naesmyth was engaged in cost him his life. +He had contracted with the Government to build a fort at Inversnaid, +at the northern end of Loch Lomond. It was intended to guard the +Lowlands, and keep Rob Roy and his caterans within the Highland Border. +A promise was given by the Government that during the progress of the +work a suitable force of soldiers should be quartered close at hand to +protect the builder and his workmen. + +[Image] Inversnaid Fort. After a drawing by Alexander Nasmyth + +Notwithstanding many whispered warnings as to the danger of undertaking +such a hazardous work, Michael Naesmyth and his men encamped upon the +spot, though without the protection of the Government force. Having +erected a temporary residence for their accommodation, he proceeded +with the building of the fort. The work was well advanced by the end +of 1703, although the Government had treated all Naesmyth's appeals for +protection with evasion or contempt. + +Winter set in with its usual force in those northern regions. +One dark and snowy night, when Michael and his men had retired to rest, +a loud knocking was heard at the door. "Who's there?" asked Michael. +A man outside replied, "A benighted traveller overt aken by the storm" +He proceeded to implore help, and begged for God's sake that he might +have shelter for the night. Naesmyth, in the full belief that the +traveller's tale was true, unbolted and unbarred the door, when in +rushed Rob Roy and his desperate gang. The men, with the dirks of the +Macgregors at their throats, begged hard for their lives. This was +granted on condition that they should instantly depart, and take an +oath that they should never venture within the Highland border again. + +Michael Naesmyth and his men had no alternative but to submit, and they +at once left the bothy with such scanty clothing as the Macgregors +would allow them to carry away. They were marched under an armed +escort through the snowstorm to the Highland border, and were there +left with the murderous threat that, if they ever returned to the fort, +they would meet with certain death. + +Another attempt was made to build the fort at Inversnaid. But Rob Roy +again surprised the small party of soldiers who were in charge. +They were disarmed and sent about their business. Finally, the fort +was rebuilt, and placed under the command of Captain (afterwards +General) Wolfe. When peace fell upon the Highlands and Rob Roy's +country became the scene of picnics, the fort was abandoned and allowed +to go to ruin. + +Poor Michael never recovered from the cold which he caught during his +forced retreat from Inversnaid. The effects of this, together with the +loss and distress of mind which he experienced from the Government's +refusal to pay for his work--notwithstanding their promise to protect +him and his workmen from the Highland freebooters--so preyed upon his +mind that he was never again able to devote himself to business. +One evening, whilst sitting at his fireside with his grandchild on his +knee, a death-like faintness came over him; he set the child down +carefully by the side of his chair, and then fell forward dead on his +hearthstone. + +Thus ended the life of Michael Naesmyth in 1705, at the age of +fifty-three. He was buried by the side of his ancestors in the old +family tomb in the Greyfriars Churchyard. + +[Image] The Naesmyth Tomb in Greyfriars Churchyard + +This old tomb, dated 1614, though much defaced, is one of the most +remarkable of the many which surround the walls of that ancient and +memorable burying-place. + +Greyfriars Churchyard is one of the most interesting places in +Edinburgh. The National Covenant was signed there by the Protestant +nobles and gentry of Scotland in 1638. The prisoners taken at the +battle of Bothwell Brig were shut up there in 1679, and, after enduring +great privations, a portion of the survivors were sent off to +Barbadoes. When I first saw the tombstone, an ash tree was growing out +of the top of the main body of it, though that has since been removed. +In growing, the roots had pushed out the centre stone, which has not +been replaced. The tablet over it contains the arms of the family, +the broken hammer-shafts, and the motto "Non arte sed marte." There are +the remains of a very impressive figure, apparently rising from her +cerements. The body and extremities remain, but the head has been +broken away. There is also a remarkable motto on the tablet above the +tombstone--"Ars mihi vim contra Fortunce; which I take to be, +"Art is my strength in contending against Fortune,"--a motto which is +appropriate to my ancestors as well as to myself. + +The business was afterwards carried on by Michael's son, my +great-grandfather. He was twenty-seven years old at the time of his +father's death, and lived to the age of seventy-three. He was a man of +much ability and of large experience. + +One of his great advantages in carrying on his business was the support +of a staff of able and trustworthy foremen and workmen. The times were +very different then from what they are now. Masters and men lived +together in mutual harmony. There was a kind of loyal family +attachment among them, which extended through many generations. +Workmen had neither the desire nor the means to shift about from place +to place. On the contrary, they settled down with their wives and +families in houses of their own, close to the workshops of their +employers. Work was found for them in the dull seasons when trade was +slack, and in summer they sometimes removed to jobs at a distance from +headquarters. Much of this feeling of attachment and loyalty between +workmen and their employers has now expired. Men rapidly remove from +place to place. Character is of little consequence. The mutual +feeling of goodwill and zealous attention to work seems to have passed +away. + +My grandfather, Michael Naesmyth, succeeded to the business in 1751. +He more than maintained the reputation of his predecessors. +The collection of first-class works on architecture which he possessed, +such as the folio editions of Vitruvius and Palladio, which were at +that time both rare and dear, showed the regard he had for impressing +into his designs the best standards of taste. The buildings he +designed and erected for the Scotch nobility and gentry were well +arranged, carefully executed, and thoroughly substantial. He was also +a large builder in Edinburgh. Amongst the houses he erected in the +Old Town were the principal number of those in George Square. In one +of these, No. 25, Sir Walter Scott spent his boyhood and youth. +They still exist, and exhibit the care which he took in the elegance +and substantiality of his works. + +I remember my father pointing out to me the extreme care and attention +with which he finished his buildings. He inserted small fragments of +basalt into the mortar of the external joints of the stones, at close +and regular distances, in order to protect the mortar from the adverse +action of the weather. And to this day they give proof of their +efficiency. The basalt protects the joints, and at the same time gives +a neat and pleasing effect to what would otherwise have been merely the +monotonous line of mason-work. + +A great change was about to take place in the residences of the +principal people of Edinburgh. The cry was for more light and more +air. The extension of the city to the south and west was not +sufficient. There was a great plateau of ground on the north side of +the city, beyond the North Loch. But it was very difficult to reach; +being alike steep on both sides of the Loch. At length, in 1767, +an Act was obtained to extend the royalty of the city over the northern +fields, and powers were obtained to erect a bridge to connect them with +the Old Town. + +The magistrates had the greatest difficulty in inducing the inhabitants +to build dwellings on the northern side of the city. A premium was +offered to the person who should build the first house; and #20 was +awarded to Mr. John Young on account of a mansion erected by him close +to George Street. Exemption from burghal taxes was also granted to a +gentleman who built the first house in Princes Street. My grandfather +built the first house in the south-west corner of St. Andrew Square, +for the occupation of David Hume the historian, as well as the two most +important houses in the centre of the north side of the same square. +One of these last was occupied by the venerable Dr. Hamilton, a very +conspicuous character in Edinburgh. He continued to wear the cocked +hat, the powdered pigtail, tights, and large shoe buckles, for about +sixty years after this costume had become obsolete. All these houses +are still in perfect condition, after resisting the ordinary tear and +wear of upwards of a hundred and ten northern winters. The opposition +to building houses across the North Loch soon ceased; and the New Town +arose, growing from day to day, until Edinburgh became one of the most +handsome and picturesque cities in Europe. + +There is one other thing that I must again refer to the highly-finished +character of my grandfather's work. Nothing merely moderate would do. +The work must be of the very best. He took special pride in the sound +quality of the woodwork and its careful workmanship. He chose the best +Dantzic timber because of its being of purer grain and freer from knots +than other wood. In those days the lower part of the walls of the +apartments were wainscoted--that is, covered by timber framed in +large panels. They were from three to four feet wide, and from six to +eight feet high. To fit these in properly required the most careful +joiner-work. + +It was always a holiday treat to my father, when a boy, to be permitted +to go down to Leith to see the ships discharge their cargoes of timber. +My grandfather had a Wood-yard at Leith, where the timber selected by +him was piled up to he seasoned and shrunk, before being worked into +its appropriate uses. He was particularly careful in his selection of +boards or stripes for floors, which must be perfectly level, so as to +avoid the destruction of the carpets placed over them. The hanging of +his doors was a matter that he took great pride in--so as to prevent +any uneasy action in opening or closing. His own chamber doors were so +well hung that they were capable of being opened and closed by the +slight puff of a hand-bellows. + +The excellence of my grandfather's workmanship was a thing that my own +father always impressed upon me when a boy. It stimulated in me the +desire to aim at excellence in everything that I undertook; and in all +practical matters to arrive at the highest degree of good workmanship. +I believe that these early lessons had a great influence upon my future +career. + +I have little to record of my grandmother. From all accounts she was +everything that a wife and mother should be. My father often referred +to her as an example of the affection and love of a wife to her +husband, and of a mother to her children. The only relic I possess of +her handiwork is a sampler, dated 1743, the needlework of which is so +delicate and neat, that to me it seems to excel everything of the kind +that I have seen. + +I am fain to think that her delicate manipulation in some respects +descended to her grandchildren, as all of them have been more or less +distinguished for the delicate use of their fingers--which has so +much to do with the effective transmission of the artistic faculty into +visible forms. The power of transmitting to paper or canvas the +artistic conceptions of the brain through the fingers, and out at the +end of the needle, the pencil, the pen, the brush, or even the +modelling tool or chisel, is that which, in practical fact, constitutes +the true artist. + +This may appear a digression; though I cannot look at my grandmother's +sampler without thinking that she had much to do with originating the +Naesmyth love of the Fine Arts, and their hereditary adroitness in the +practice of landscape and portrait painting, and other branches of the +profession. + +My grandfather died in 1803, at the age of eighty-four, and was buried +by his father's side in the Naesmyth ancestral tomb in Greyfriars +Churchyard. His wife, Mary Anderson, who died before him, was buried +in the same place. + +Michael Naesmyth left two sons--Michael and Alexander. The eldest +was born in 1754. It was intended that he should have succeeded to the +business; and, indeed, as soon as he reached manhood he was his +father's right-hand man. He was a skilful workman, especially in the +finer parts of joiner-work. He was also an excellent accountant and +bookkeeper. But having acquired a taste for reading books about +voyages and travels, of which his father's library was well supplied, +his mind became disturbed, and he determined to see something of the +world. He was encouraged by one of his old companions, who had been to +sea, and realised some substantial results by his voyages to foreign +parts. Accordingly Michael, notwithstanding the earnest remonstrances +of his father, accompanied his friend on the next occasion when he went +to sea. + +After several voyages to the West Indies and other parts of the world, +which both gratified and stimulated his natural taste for adventures, +and also proved financially successful, his trading ventures at last +met with a sad reverse, and he resolved to abandon commerce, and enter +the service of the Royal Navy. He was made purser, and in this +position he entered upon a new series of adventures. He was present at +many naval engagements. But he lost neither life nor limb. At last he +was pensioned, and became a resident at Greenwich Hospital. +He furnished his apartments with all manner of curiosities, such as his +roving naval life had enabled him to collect. His original skill as a +worker in wood came to life again. The taste of the workman and the +handiness of the seaman enabled him to furnish his rooms at the +Hospital in a most quaint and amusing manner. + +My father had a most affectionate regard for Michael, and usually spent +some days with him when he had occasion to visit London. One bright +summer day they went to have a stroll together on Blackheath; and while +my uncle was enjoying a nap on a grassy knoll, my father made a sketch +of him, which I still preserve. Being of a most cheerful disposition, +and having a great knack of detailing the incidents of his adventurous +life, he became a great favourite with the resident officers of the +Hospital; and was always regarded by them as real good company. +He ended his days there in peace and comfort, in 1819, at the age of +sixty-four. + + +CHAPTER 2. Alexander Nasmyth + +My father, Alexander Nasmyth, was the second son of Michael Nasmyth. +He was born in his father's house in the Grassmarket on the 9th of +September 1758. The Grassmarket was then a lively place. On certain +days of the week it was busy with sheep and cattle fairs. It was the +centre of Edinburgh traffic. Most of the inns were situated there, +or in the street leading up to the Greyfriars Church gate. + +The view from my grandfather's house was very grand. Standing up, +right opposite, was the steep Castle rock, with its crown buildings and +circular battery towering high overhead. They seemed almost to hang +over the verge of the rock. The houses on the opposite side of the +Grassmarket were crowded under the esplanade of the Castle Hill. + +There was an inn opposite the house where my father was born, from +which the first coach started from Edinburgh to Newcastle. The public +notice stated that "The Coach would set out from the Grass Market ilka +Tuesday at Twa o'clock in the day, GOD WULLIN', but whether or no on +Wednesday." The "whether or no" was meant, I presume, as a precaution to +passengers, in case all the places on the coach might be taken, or not, +on Wednesday, + +[Image] Plan of the Grassmarket + +The Grassmarket was also the place for public executions. The gibbet +stone was at the east end of the Market. It consisted of a mass of +solid sandstone, with a quadrangular hole in the middle, which served +as a socket for the gallows. Most of the Covenanters who were executed +for conscience' sake in the reigns of Charles II. and James II. +breathed their last at this spot. The Porteous mob, in 1736, had its +culmination here. When Captain Porteous was dragged out of the +Tolbooth in the High Street and hurried down the West Bow, the gallows +was not in its place; but the leaders of the mob hanged him from a +dyer's pole, nearly opposite the gallows stone, on the south side of +the street, not far from my grandfather's door* + [footnote... +See Heart of Midlothian + ...] + +I have not much to say about my father's education. For the most part, +he was his own schoolmaster. I have heard him say that his mother +taught him his A B C; and that he afterwards learned to read at Mammy +Smith's. This old lady kept a school for boys and girls at the top of +a house in the Grassmarket. There my father was taught to rear his +Bible, and to repeat his Carritch.* + [footnote... +The Shorter Catechism. + ...] + +As it was only the bigger boys who could read the Bible, the strongest +of them consummated the feat by climbing up the Castle rock, and +reaching what they called "The Bibler's Seat." It must have been a +break-neck adventure to get up to the place. The seat was almost +immediately under the window of the room in which James VI was born. +My father often pointed it out to me as one of the most dangerous bits +of climbing in which he had been engaged in his younger years. + +[Image] The Bibler's seat + +The annexed illustration is from his own slight sepia drawing; +the Bibler's Seat is marked + Not so daring, but much more mischievous, +was a trick which he played with some of his companions on the tops of +the houses on the north side of the Grassmarket. The boys took a +barrel to the Castlehill, filled it with small stones, and then shot it +down towards the roofs of the houses in the Grassmarket. The barrel +leapt from rock to rock, burst, and scattered a shower of stones far +and wide. The fun was to see the "boddies" look out of their garret +windows with their lighted lamps or candles, peer into the dark, +and try to see what was the cause of the mischief. + +Sir David Baird, the hero of Seringapatam, played a trick of the same +kind before he went to India. + +Among my father's favourite companions were the two sons of Dr. John +Erskine, minister of Old Greyfriars, in conjunction with the equally +celebrated Dr. Robertson. Dr. Erskine* + [footnote... +Dr. Erskine is well described by Scott in Guy Mannering, on the +occasion when Pleydell and Mannering went to hear him preach a famous +sermon. + ...] +was a man of great influence in his day, well known for his literary +and theological works, as well as for his piety and practical +benevolence. On one occasion, when my father was at play with his +sons, one of them threw a stone, which smashed a neighbour's window. +A servant of the house ran out, and seeing the culprit, called out, +"Very wee!, Maister Erskine, I'll tell yeer faither wha broke the +windae!" On which the boy, to throw her off the scent, said to his +brother loudly, "Eh, keist! she thinks we're the boddy Erskine's sons." + +The boddy Erskine! Who ever heard of such an irreverent nickname +applied to that good and great man? "The laddies couldna be his sons," +thought the woman. She made no further inquiry, and the boys escaped +scot free. The culprit afterwards entered the service of the East +India Company. "The boy was father to the man." He acquired great +reputation at the siege of Seringapatam, where he led the forlorn hope. +Erskine was promoted, until in course of time he returned to his native +city a full-blown general. To return to my father's education. +After he left "Mammy Smith's, he went for a short time to the original +High School. It was an old establishment, founded by James VI. before +he succeeded to the English throne, It was afterwards demolished to +make room for the University buildings; and the new High School was +erected a little below the old Royal Infirmary. After leaving the High +School, Alexander Nasmyth was taught by his father, first arithmetic +and mensuration, next geometry and mathematics, so far as the first +three books of Euclid were concerned. After that, his own innate +skill, ability, and industry enabled him to complete the rest of his +education. + +At a very early period my father exhibited a decided natural taste for +art. He used his pencil freely in sketching from nature; and in course +of time he showed equal skill in the use of oil colour. At his own +earnest request he was bound apprentice to Mr. Crighton, then the +chief coachbuilder in Edinburgh. He was employed in that special +department where artistic taste was necessary--that is, in decorating +the panels of the highest class of carriages, and painting upon them +coats of arms, with their crests and supporters. He took great +pleasure in this kind of work. It introduced him to the practical +details of heraldry, and gave him command over his materials. + +Still further to improve himself in the art of drawing, my father +devoted his evenings to attending the Edinburgh Drawing Academy. +This institution, termed "The Trustees' Academy of Fine Art," had been +formed and supported by the funds arising from the estates confiscated +after the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Part of these funds was set +apart by Government for the encouragement of drawing, and also for the +establishment of the arts of linen weaving, carpet manufacture, +and other industrial occupations. + +These arts were introduced into Scotland by the French Protestants, +who had been persecuted for conscience' sake out of their own country, +and settled in England, Ireland, and Scotland, where they prosecuted +their industrial callings. The Corporation was anxious to afford an +asylum for these skilled and able workmen. The emigrants settled down +with their families, and pursued their occupations of damask, linen, +and carpet weaving. They were also required to take Scotch apprentices, +and teach them the various branches of their trade. The Magistrates +caused cottages and workshops to be erected on a piece of unoccupied +land near Edinburgh, where the street appropriately called Picardy +Place now stands,--the greater number of the weavers having come from +Picardy in France. + +In connection with the establishment of these industrial artisans, +it was necessary to teach the young Scotch apprentices drawing, for the +purpose of designing new patterns suitable for the market. Hence the +establishment by the Trustees of the Forfeited Estate Funds of +"The Academy of Fine Art." From the designing of patterns, the +institution advanced to the improvement of the fine arts generally. +Young men who had given proofs of their natural taste for drawing were +invited to enter the school and participate in its benefits. + +At the time that my father was apprenticed to the coach painter, +the Trustees' Academy was managed by Alexander Runciman. He had +originally been a house painter, from which business he proceeded to +landscape painting. "Other artists," said one who knew him, "talked +meat and drink; but Runciman talked landscape." He went to Rome and +studied art there. He returned to Edinburgh, and devoted himself to +historical painting. He was also promoted to the office of master of +the Trustees' Academy. When my father called upon him with his +drawings from nature, Runciman found them so satisfactory that he was +at once admitted as a student. After his admission he began to study +with intense eagerness. The young men who had been occupied at their +business during the day could only attend in the evening. And thus the +evenings were fixed for studying drawing and design. The Trustees' +Academy made its mark upon the art of Scotland: it turned out many +artists of great note -- such as Raeburn, Wilkie, my father, and many +more. + +At the time when my father entered as a student, the stock of casts +from the antique, and the number of drawings from the old masters, +were very small; so much so, indeed, that Runciman was under the +necessity of setting the students to copy them again and again. +This became rather irksome to the more ardent pupils. My father had +completed his sixth copy of a fine chalk drawing of "The Laocoon." +It was then set for him to copy again. He begged Mr. Runciman for +another subject. The quick-tempered man at once said,"l'll give you +another subject." And turning the group of the Laocoon upside down, he +added, "Now, then, copy that!" The patient youth set to work, and in a +few evenings completed a perfect copy. It was a most severe test; but +Runciman was so proud of the skill of his pupil that he had the drawing +mounted and framed, with a note of the circumstances under which it had +been produced. It continued to hang there for many years, and the +story of its achievement became traditional in the school. + +During all this time my father remained in the employment of Crighton +the carriage builder. He improved in his painting day by day. But at +length an important change took place in his career. Allan Ramsay, +son of the author of The Gentle Shepherd, and then court painter to +George III., called upon his old friend Crighton one day, to look over +his works. There he found young Nasmyth painting a coat of arms on the +panel of a carriage. He was so much surprised with the lad's artistic +workmanship--for he was then only sixteen--that he formed a strong +desire to take him into his service. After much persuasion, backed by +the offer of a considerable sum of money, the coachbuilder was at +length induced to transfer my father's indentures to Allan Ramsay. + +It was, of course, a great delight to my father to be removed to London +under such favourable auspices. Ramsay had a large connection as a +portrait painter. His object in employing my father was that he should +assist him in the execution of the subordinate parts, or dress +portions, of portraits of courtiers, or of diplomatic personages. +No more favourable opportunity for advancement could have presented +itself. But all this was entirely due to my father's perseverance and +advancing skill as an artist--the results of his steady application +and labour. + +Ramsay possessed a very fine collection of drawings by the old masters, +all of which were free for my father to study. Ramsay was exceedingly +kind to his young pupil. He was present at all the discussions in the +studio, even when the sitters were present. Fellow-artists visited +Ramsay from time to time. Among them was his intimate friend Philip +Reinagle--an agreeable companion, and an excellent artist. Reinagle +was one day so much struck with my father's earnestness in filling up +some work, that he then and there got up a canvas and made a capital +sketch-portrait of him in oil. It only came into my father's +possession some years after Ramsay's death, and is now in my possession. + +[Image] Alexander Nasmyth. After Reinagle's Portrait + +Among the many amusing recollections of my father's life in London, +there is one that I cannot resist narrating, because it shows his +faculty of resourcefulness--a faculty which served him very usefully +during his course through life. He had made an engagement with a +sweetheart to take her to Ranelagh, one of the most fashionable places +of public amusement in London. Everybody went in full dress, and the +bucks and swells wore long striped silk stockings. My father, on +searching, found that he had only one pair of silk stockings left. +He washed them himself in his lodging-room, and hung them up before the +fire to dry. When he went to look at them, they were so singed and +burnt that he could not put them on. They were totally useless. +In this sad dilemma his resourcefulness came to his aid. The happy +idea occurred to him of painting his legs so as to resemble stockings. +He went to his water-colour box, and dexterously painted them with +black and white stripes. When the paint dried, which it soon did, +he completed his toilet, met his sweetheart and went to Ranelagh. +No one observed the difference, except, indeed, that he was +complimented on the perfection of the fit, and was asked "where he +bought his stockings?" Of course he evaded the question, and left the +gardens without any one discovering his artistic trick. + +My father remained in Allan Ramsay's service until the end of 1778, +when he returned to Edinburgh to practise on his own behalf the +profession of portrait painter. He took with him the kindest +good-wishes of his master, whose friendship he retained to the end of +Ramsay's life. The artistic style of my father's portraits, and the +excellent likenesses of his sitters, soon obtained for him ample +employment. His portraits were for the most part full-lengths, but of +a small or cabinet size. They generally consisted of family groups, +with the figures about twelve to fourteen inches high. The groups were +generally treated and arranged as if the personages were engaged in +conversation with their children; and sometimes a favourite servant was +introduced, so as to remove any formal aspect in the composition of the +picture. In order to enliven the background, some favourite view from +the garden or grounds, or a landscape, was given; which was painted +with as much care as if it was the main feature of the picture. +Many of these paintings are still to be found in the houses of the +gentry in Scotland. Good examples of his art are to be seen at Minto +House, the seat of the Earl of Minto, and at Dalmeny Park, the seat of +the Earl of Rosebery. + +Among my father's early employers was Patrick Miller, Esq., of +Dalswinton, in Dumfriesshire. He painted Mr. Miller's portrait as +well as those of several members of his family. This intercourse +eventually led to the establishment of a very warm personal friendship +between them. Miller had made a large fortune in Edinburgh as a +banker; and after he had partially retired from business, he devoted +much of his spare time to useful purposes. He was a man of great +energy of character, and was never idle. At first he applied himself +to the improvement of agriculture, which he did with great success on +his estate of Dalswinton. Being one of the largest shareholders in the +Carron Ironworks near Stirling, he also devoted much of his time to the +improvement of guns for the Royal Navy. He was the inventor of that +famous gun the Carronade. The handiness of these short and effective +guns, which were capable of being loaded and fired nearly twice as +quickly as the long small-bore guns, gave England the victory in many a +naval battle, where the firing was close and quick, yardarm to yardarm. + +But Mr. Miller's greatest claim to fame arises from his endeavours to +introduce steam-power as an agent in the propulsion of ships at sea. +Mr. Clerk of Eldin had already invented the system of "breaking the +line" in naval engagements--a system that was first practised with +complete success by Lord Rodney in his engagement off Martinico in +1780. The subject interested Mr. Miller so much that he set himself +to work to contrive some mechanical method by means of which ships of +war might be set in motion, independently of wind, tide, or calms, so +that Clerk's system of breaking the line might be carried into effect +under all circumstances. + +It was about this time that my father was often with Miller; and the +mechanical devices by means of which the method of breaking the line +could be best accomplished was the subject of many of their +conversations. Miller found that my father's taste for mechanical +contrivances, and his ready skill as a draughtsman, were likely to be +of much use to him, and he constantly visited the studio. My father +reduced Miller's ideas to a definite form, and prepared a series of +drawings, which were afterwards engraved and published. Miller's +favourite design was, to divide the vessel into twin or triple hulls, +with paddles between them, to be worked by the crew. The principal +experiment was made in the Firth of Forth on the 2d of June 1787. +The vessel was double-hulled, and was worked by a capstan of five bars. +The experiment was on the whole successful. But the chief difficulty +was in the propulsive power. After a spurt of an hour or so, the men +became tired with their laborious work. Mr. Taylor, student of +divinity, and tutor of Mr. Miller's sons, was on board, and seeing the +exhausted state of the men at the capstan, suggested the employment of +steam-power. Mr. Miller was pleased with the idea, and resolved to +make inquiry upon the subject. + +At that time William Symington, a young engineer from Wanlockhead, +was exhibiting a road locomotive in Edinburgh. He was a friend of +Taylor's, and Mr. Miller went to see the Symington model. In the +course of his conversation with the inventor, he informed the latter of +his own project, and described the difficulty he had experienced in +getting his paddle-wheels turned round. On which Symington immediately +asked, "Why don't you use the steam-engine?" The model which Symington +exhibited, produced rotary motion by the employment of ratchet-wheels. +The rectilinear motion of the piston-rod was thus converted into rotary +motion. Mr. Miller was pleased with the action of the ratchet-wheel +contrivance, and gave Symington an order to make a pair of engines of +that construction. They were to be used on a small pleasure-boat on +Dalswinton Lake. + +The boat was constructed on the double-hull or twin plan, so that the +paddle should be used in the space between the hulls.* + [footnote... + This steam twin boat was in fact the progenitor of the Castalia, +constructed about a hundred years later for the conveyance of +passengers between Calais and Dover. + ...] + +After much vexatious delay, arising from the entire novelty of the +experiment, the boat and engines were at length completed, and removed +to Dalswinton Lake. This, the first steamer that ever "trod the waters +like a thing of life," the herald of a new and mighty power, was tried +on the 14th of October 1788. The vessel steamed delightfully, at the +rate of from four to five miles an hour, though this was not her +extreme rate of speed. I give, on the next page, a copy of a sketch +made by my father of this the first actual steamboat, with her +remarkable crew. + +[Image] The first steamboat. By Alexander Nasmyth* + [footnote... +The original drawing of the steamer was done by my father, and lent by +me to Mr. Woodcroft, Who inserted it in his Origin and Progress of +Steam Navigation. He omitted my father's name, and inserted only that +of the lithographer, although it is a document of almost national +importance in the history of Steam Navigation. + +P.S.-- since the above paragraph was written for the first edition, +I have been enabled to find the drawing, with another remarkable pencil +sketch of my father's, in the Gallery of the Museum of Naval +Architecture at South Kensington. It will henceforward belong to that +interesting collection. + +The remarkable pencil sketch to which I have referred, is that of a +screw propeller, drawn by my father, dated 1819. It was the result of +many discussions as to the proper mode of propelling a vessel. First, +he had drawn Watt's idea of a "spiral oar"; then, underneath, he has +drawn his own idea, of a disk of six. blades, like a screw-jack, +immediately behind the rudder. There is a crank shown on the screw +shaft, by which the propeller was driven direct, showing that he was +the first to indicate that method of propulsion of steamboats. + ...] + +The persons on board consisted of Patrick Miller, William Symington, +Sir William Monteith, Robert Burns (the poet, then a tenant of +Mr. Miller's), William Taylor, and Alexander Nasmyth. There were also +three of Mr. Miller's servants, who acted as assistants. On the edge +of the lake was a young gentleman, then on a visit to Dalswinton. +He was no less a person than Henry Brougham, afterwards Lord Chancellor +of England. The assemblage of so many remarkable men was well worthy +of the occasion. + +Taking into account the extraordinary results which have issued from +this first trial of an actual steamboat, it may well be considered that +this was one of the most important circumstances which ever occurred in +the history of navigation. It ought, at the same time, to be +remembered that all that was afterwards done by Symington, Fulton, and +Bell, followed long after the performance of this ever-memorable +achievement. + +I may also mention, as worthy of special record, that the hull of this +first steamboat was of iron. It was constructed of tinned iron plate. +It was therefore the first iron steamboat, if not the first iron ship, +that had ever been made. I may also add that the engines, constructed +by Symington, which propelled this first iron steamboat are now +carefully preserved at the Patent Museum at South Kensington, where +they may be seen by everybody.* + [footnote... + The original engines of the boat, with the ratchet-wheel contrivance +of Symington, are there: the very engine that propelled the first +steamer on Dalswinton Lake. It may be added that Mr. Miller expended +about #30,000 on naval improvements, and, as is often the case, he was +wholly neglected by the Government. + ...] + +To return to my father's profession as a portrait painter. He had +given so much assistance to Mr. Miller, while acting as his chief +draughtsman in connection with the triple and twin ships, and also +while attending him at Leith and elsewhere, that it had considerably +interfered with his practice; though everything was done by him con +amore, in the best sense of the term. In return for this, however, +Mr. Miller made my father the generous offer of a loan to enable him to +visit Italy, and pursue his studies there. It was the most graceful +mode in which Mr. Miller could express his obligations. It was an +offer pure and simple, without security, and as such was thankfully +accepted by my father. + +In those days an artist was scarcely considered to have completed his +education until he had studied the works of the great masters at +Florence and Rome. My father left England for Italy on the 30th of +December 1782. He reached Rome in safety, and earnestly devoted +himself to the study of art. He remained in Italy for the greater part +of two years. He visited Florence, Bologna, Padua, and other cities +where the finest artistic works were to be found. He made studies and +drawings of the best of them, besides making sketches from nature of +the most remarkable places he had visited. He returned to Edinburgh at +the end of 1784, and immediately resumed his profession of a portrait +painter. He was so successful that in a short time he was enabled to +repay his excellent friend Miller the #500 which he had so generously +lent him a few years before. + +The satisfactory results of his zealous practice, and of his skill and +industry in his profession, together with the prospect of increasing +artistic work, enabled him to bring to a happy conclusion an engagement +he had entered into before leaving Edinburgh for Italy. I mean his +marriage to my mother--one of the greatest events of his life which +took place on the 3rd of January 1786. Barbara Foulis was a distant +relation of his own. She was the daughter of William Foulis, Esq., of +Woodhall and Colinton, near Edinburgh. Her brother, the late Sir James +Foulis, my uncle, succeeded to the ancient baronetcy of the family. +See Burkes's Peerage and Baronetage* + [footnote... +In Burke's Peerage and Baronetage an account is given of the Foulis +family. They are of Norman origin. A branch settled in Scotland in +the reign of Malcolm Canmore. By various intermarriages, the Foulises +are connected with the Hopetoun, Bute, and Rosebery families. +The present holder of the title represents the houses of Colinton, +Woodhall, and Ravelstone. + ...] + +My mother did not bring with her any fortune, so to speak, in the way +of gold or acres; but she brought something far better into my father's +home,--a sweetness of disposition, and a large measure of common +sense, which made her, in all respects, the devoted helpmate of her +husband. Her happy cheerful temperament, and her constant industry and +attention, shed an influence upon all around her. By her example she +inbred in her children the love of truth, excellence, and goodness. +That was indeed the best fortune she could bring into a good man's +home. + +During the first year of my father's married life, when he lived in +St. James's Square, he painted the well-known portrait of Robert Burns +the poet. Burns had been introduced to him by Mr. Miller at +Dalswinton. An intimate friendship sprang up between the artist and +the poet. The love of nature and of natural objects was common to +both. They also warmly sympathised in their political views. +When Burns visited Edinburgh my father often met him. Burns had a +strange aversion to sit for his portrait, though often urgently +requested to do so. But when at my father's studio, Burns at last +consented, and his portrait was rapidly painted. It was done in the +course of a few hours, and my father made a present of it to +Mrs. Burns. + +A mezzotint engraving of it was afterwards published by William Walker, +son-in-law of the famous Samuel Reynolds. When the first proof +impression was submitted to my father, he said to Mr. Walker: +"I cannot better express to you my opinion of your admirable engraving, +than by telling you that it conveys to me a more true and lively +remembrance of Burns than my own picture of him does; it so perfectly +renders the spirit of his expression, as well as the details of his +every feature." + +While Burns was in Edinburgh, my father had many interesting walks with +him in the neighbourhood of the city. The Calton Hill, Arthur's Seat, +Salisbury Crags. Habbie's How, and the nooks in the Pentlands, were +always full of interest; and Burns, with his brilliant and humorous +conversation, made the miles very short as they strode along. Lockhart +says, in his Life of Burns, that "the magnificent scenery of the +Scottish capital filled the poet with extraordinary delight. In the +spring mornings he walked very often to the top of Arthur's Seat, and, +lying prostrate on the turf, surveyed the rising of the sun out of the +sea in silent admiration; his chosen companion on such occasions being +that learned artist and ardent lover of nature, Alexander Nasmyth." + +A visit which the two paid to Roslin Castle is worthy of commemoration. +On one occasion my father and a few choice spirits had been spending a +"nicht wi' Burns." The place of resort was a tavern in the High Street, +Edinburgh. As Burns was a brilliant talker, full of spirit and humour, +time fled until the "wee sma' hours ayont the twal'" arrived. +The party broke up about three o'clock. At that time of the year +(the 13th of June) the night is very short, and morning comes early. +Burns, on reaching the street, looked up to the sky. It was perfectly +clear, and the rising sun was beginning to brighten the mural crown of +St. Giles's Cathedral. + +Burns was so much struck with the beauty of the morning that he put his +hand on my father's arm and said, "It'll never do to go to bed in such +a lovely morning as this! Let's awa' to Roslin Castle." No sooner said +than done. The poet and the painter set out. Nature lay bright and +lovely before them in that delicious summer morning. After an +eight-miles walk they reached the castle at Roslin. Burns went down +under the great Norman arch, where he stood rapt in speechless +admiration of the scene. The thought of the eternal renewal of youth +and freshness of nature, contrasted with the crumbling decay of man's +efforts to perpetuate his work, even when founded upon a rock, as +Roslin Castle is, seemed greatly to affect him. + +My father was so much impressed with the scene that, while Burns was +standing under the arch, he took out his pencil and a scrap of paper +and made a hasty sketch of the subject. This sketch was highly +treasured by my father, in remembrance of what must have been one of +the most memorable days of his life. + +Talking of clubs reminds me that there was a good deal of club life in +Edinburgh in those days. The most notable were those in which the +members were drawn together by occupations, habits, or tastes. They +met in the evenings, and conversed upon congenial subjects. The clubs +were generally held in one or other of the taverns situated in or near +the High Street. Every one will remember the Lawyers' Club, held in an +Edinburgh close, presided over by Pleydell, so well described by Scott +in Guy Mannering. + +In my father's early days he was a member of a very jovial club, called +the Poker Club. It was so-called because the first chairman, +immediately on his election, in a spirit of drollery, laid hold of the +poker at the fireplace, and adopted it as his insignia of office. He +made a humorous address from the chair, or "the throne," as he called +it, with sceptre or poker in hand; and the club was thereupon styled by +acclamation "The Poker Club." I have seen my father's diploma of +membership; it was tastefully drawn on parchment, with the poker duly +emblazoned on it as the regalia of the club. + +In my own time, the club that he was most connected with was the +Dilettanti Club. Its meetings were held every fortnight, on Thursday +evenings, in a commodious tavern in the High Street. The members were +chiefly artists, or men known for their love of art. Among then were +Henry Raeburn, Hugh Williams (the Grecian), Andrew Geddes, +William Thomson, John Shetkay, William Nicholson, William Allan, +Alexander Nasmyth, the Rev. John Thomson of Duddingston, +George Thomson, Sir Walter Scott, John Lockhart, Dr. Brewster, +David Wilkie, Henry Cockburn, Francis Jeffrey, John A. Murray, +Professor Wilson, John Ballantyne, James Ballantyne, James Hogg (the +Ettrick Shepherd), and David Bridges, the secretary.* + [footnote... +Davie Bridges was a character. In my early days he was a cloth +merchant in the High Street. His shop was very near that gigantic +lounge, the old Parliament House, and was often resorted to by +non-business visitors. Bridges had a good taste for pictures. He had +a small but choice collection by the Old Masters, which he kept +arranged in the warehouse under his shop. He took great pride in +exhibiting them to his visitors, and expatiating upon their excellence. +I remember being present in his warehouse with my father when a very +beautiful small picture by Richard Wilson was under review. Davie +burst out emphatically with, "Eh, man, did ye ever see such glorious +buttery touches as on these clouds!" His joking friends clubbed him +"Director-General of the Fine Arts for Scotland," a title which he +complacently accepted. Besides showing off his pictures, Davie was an +art critic, and wrote articles for the newspapers and magazines. +Unfortunately, however, his attention to pictures prevented him from +attending to his shop, and his customers (who were not artists) forsook +him, and bought their clothes elsewhere. He accordingly shut up his +shop, and devoted himself to art criticism, in which, for a time, he +possessed a monopoly. + ...] + +The drinks were restricted to Edinburgh ale and whisky toddy. + +An admirable picture of the club in full meeting was painted by William +Allan, in which characteristic portraits of all the leading members +were introduced in full social converse. Among the more prominent +portraits is one of my father, who is represented as illustrating some +subject he is describing, by drawing it on the part of the table before +him, with his finger dipped in toddy. Other marked and well-known +characteristics of the members are skilfully introduced in the picture. +The artist afterwards sold it to Mr. Horrocks of Preston, in Lancashire. + +Besides portrait painting, my father was much employed in assisting the +noblemen and landed gentry of Scotland in improving the landscape +appearance of their estates, especially when seen from their mansion +windows. His fine taste, and his love of natural scenery, gave him +great advantages in this respect. He selected the finest sites for the +new mansions, when they were erected in lieu of the old towers and +crenellated castles. Or, he designed alterations of the old buildings +so as to preserve their romantic features, and at the same time to fit +them for the requirements of modern domestic life. + +In those early days of art-knowledge, there scarcely existed any +artistic feeling for the landscape beauty of nature. There was an +utter want of appreciation of the dignified beauty of the old castles +and mansions, the remnants of which were in too many instances carted +away as material for now buildings. There was also at that time an +utter ignorance of the beauty and majesty of old trees. A forest of +venerable oaks or beeches was a thing to be done away with. They were +merely cut down as useless timber; even when they so finely embellished +the landscape. My father exerted himself successfully to preserve +these grand old forest trees. His fine sketches served to open the +eyes of their possessors to the priceless treasures they were about to +destroy; and he thus preserved the existence of many a picturesque old +tree. He even took the pains in many cases to model the part of the +estate he was dealing with; and he also modelled the old trees he +wished to preserve. Thus, by a judicious clearing out of the +intercepting young timber, he opened out distant views of the +landscape, and at the same time preserved many a monarch of the +forest.* + [footnote... +It is even now to be deeply deplored that those who inherit or come +into possession of landed estates do not feel sufficiently impressed +with the possession of such grand memorials of the past. Alas! how +often have we to lament the want of taste that leads to the sacrifice +of these venerable treasures. Would that the young men at our +universities especially those likely to inherit estates--were +impressed with the importance of preserving them. They would thus +confer an inestimable benefit to thousands. About forty years ago Lord +Cockburn published a pamphlet on How to Destroy the Beauty of +Edinburgh! He enforced the charm of green foliage in combination with +street architecture. The burgesses were then cutting down trees. +His lordship went so far as to say "that he would as soon cut down a +burgess as a tree!" Since then the growth of trees in Edinburgh, +especially in what was once the North Loch, has been greatly improved; +and might be still further improved if that famous tree, "The London +plane," were employed. + ...] + +[Image] The Family Tree + +My father modelled old castles, old trees, and such like objects as he +wished to introduce into his landscapes. The above illustration, may +perhaps give a slight idea of his artistic skill as a modeller. +I specially refer to this, which he called "The Family Tree," as he +required each member of his family to assist in its production. +We each made a twig or small branch, which he cleverly fixed into its +place as a part of the whole. The model tree in question was +constructed of wire slightly twisted together, so as to form the main +body of a branch. It was then subdivided into branchlets, and finally +into individual twigs. All these, combined together by his dexterous +hand, resulted in the model of an old leafless tree, so true and +correct, that any one would have thought that it had been modelled +direct from nature. + +The Duke of Athol consulted my father as to the improvements which he +desired to make in his woodland scenery near Dunkeld. The Duke was +desirous that a rocky crag, called Craigybarns, should be planted with +trees, to relieve the grim barrenness of its appearance. But it was +impossible for any man to climb the crag in order to set seeds or +plants in the clefts of the rocks. A happy idea struck my father. +Having observed in front of the castle a pair of small cannon used for +firing salutes, it occurred to him to turn them to account. His object +was to deposit the seeds of the various trees amongst the soil in the +clefts of the crag. A tinsmith in the village was ordered to make a +number of canisters with covers. The canisters were filled with all +sorts of suitable tree seeds. A cannon was loaded, and the canisters +were fired up against the high face of the rock. They burst and +scattered the seed in all directions. Some years after, when my father +revisited the place, he was delighted to find that his scheme of +planting by artillery had proved completely successful; for the trees +were flourishing luxuriantly in all the recesses of the cliff. This was +another instance of my father's happy faculty of resourcefulness. + +Certain circumstances about this time compelled my father almost +entirely to give up portrait painting and betake himself to another +branch of the fine arts. The earnest and lively interest which he took +in the state of public affairs, and the necessity which then existed +for reforming the glaring abuses of the State, led him to speak out his +mind freely on the subject. Edinburgh was then under the reign of the +Dundases; and scarcely anybody dared to mutter his objections to +anything perpetrated by the "powers that be." The city was then a much +smaller place than it is now. There was more gossip, and perhaps more +espionage, among the better classes, who were few in number. At all +events, my father's frank opinions on political subjects began to be +known. He attended Fox dinners. He was intimate with men of known +reforming views. All this was made the subject of general talk. +Accordingly, my father received many hints from aristocratic and +wealthy personages, that "if this went on any longer they would +withdraw from him their employment." My father did not alter his +course; it was right and honest. But he suffered nevertheless. +His income from portrait painting fell off rapidly. + +At length he devoted himself to landscape painting. It was a freer and +more enjoyable life. Instead of painting the faces of those who were +perhaps without character or attractiveness, he painted the fresh and +ever-beautiful face of nature. The field of his employment in this +respect was almost inexhaustible. His artistic talent in this +delightful branch of art was in the highest sense congenial to his mind +and feelings; and in course of time the results of his new field of +occupation proved thoroughly satisfactory. In fact, men of the highest +rank with justice entitled him the "Father of landscape painting in +Scotland." + +[Image] No. 47 York Place, Edinburgh + +At the same time, when changing his branch of art, he opened a class in +his own house forgiving practical instruction in the art of landscape +painting. He removed his house and studio from St. James's Square to +No. 47 York Place. There was at the upper part of this house a noble +and commodious room. There he held his class. The house was his own, +and was built after his own designs. A splendid prospect was seen from +the upper windows; and especially from the Belvidere, which he had +constructed on the summit of the roof. The view extended from Stirling +in the west to the Bass Rock in the east. In fine summer evenings the +sun was often seen setting behind Ben Lomond and the more conspicuous +of the Perthshire mountains. + +My father did not confine himself to landscape painting, or to the +instruction of his classes. He was an all-round man. He had something +of the Universal about him. He was a painter, an architect, and a +mechanic. Above all, he possessed a powerful store of common sense. +Of course, I am naturally a partial judge of my father's character; but +this I may say, that during my experience of over seventy years I have +never known a more incessantly industrious man. His hand and mind were +always at work from morn till night. During the time that he was +losing his business in portrait painting, he set to work and painted +scenery for the theatres. The late David Roberts--himself a scene +painter of the highest character--said that his style was founded +upon that of Nasmyth.* + [footnote... +David Roberts, R,A., in his Autobiography, gives the following +recollections of Alexander Nasmyth: -- "In 1819 I commenced my career as +principal scene painter in the Theatre Royal, Glasgow. This theatre +was immense in its size and appointments--in magnitude exceeding +Drury Lane and Covent Garden. The stock scenery had been painted by +Alexander Nasmyth, and consisted of a series of pictures far surpassing +anything of the kind I had ever seen. These included chambers, +palaces, streets, landscapes, and forest scenery. One, I remember +particularly, was the outside of a Norman castle, and another of a +cottage charmingly painted, and of which I have a sketch. But the act +scene, which was a view on the Clyde looking towards the Highland +mountains with Dumbarton Castle in the middle distance, was such a +combination of magnificent scenery, so wonderfully painted, that it +excited universal admiration. These productions I studied incessantly; +and on them my style, if I have any, was originally founded." + ...] + +Stanfield was another of his friends. On one occasion Stanfield showed +him his sketch-book, observing that he wished to form a style of his +own. "Young man," said Nasmyth, "there's but one style an artist +should endeavour to attain, and that is the style of nature; the nearer +you can get to that the better." + +My father was greatly interested in the architectural beauty of his +native city, and he was professionally consulted by the authorities +about the laying out of the streets of the New Town. The subject +occupied much of his time and thought, especially when resting from the +mental fatigue arising from a long sitting at the easel. It was his +regular practice to stroll about where the building work was in +progress, or where new roads were being laid out, and carefully watch +the proceedings. This was probably due to the taste which he had +inherited from his forebears--more especially from his father, who +had begun the buildings of the New Town. My father took pleasure in +modelling any improvement that occurred to him; and in discussing the +subject with the architects and builders who were professionally +engaged in the works. His admirable knack of modelling the contour of +the natural surface of the ground, and applying it to the proposed new +roads or new buildings, was striking and characteristic. His efforts +in this direction were so thoroughly disinterested that those in office +were all the more anxious to carry out his views. He sought for no +reward; but his excellent advice was not unrecognised. In testimony of +the regard which the Magistrates of Edinburgh had for his counsel and +services, they presented him in 1815 with a sum of #200, together with +a most complimentary letter acknowledging the value of his +disinterested advice. It was addressed to him under cover, directed to +"Alexander Nasmyth, Architect." + +He was, indeed, not unworthy of the name. He was the architect of the +Dean Bridge, which spans the deep valley of the Water of Leith, +north-west of the New Town. Sir John Nesbit, the owner of the property +north of the stream, employed my father to make a design for the +extension of the city to his estate. The result was the construction +of the Dean Bridge, and the roads approaching it from both sides. +The Dean Estate was thus rendered as easy and convenient to reach as +any of the level streets of Edinburgh. The construction of the bridge +was superintended by the late James Jardine, C.E. Mr Telford was +afterwards called upon to widen the bridge. He threw out parapets on +each side, but they did not improve the original design. + +[Image] St Bernard's Well + +From the Dean Bridge another of my father's architectural buildings may +be seen, at St. Bernard's Well. It was constructed at the instance of +his friend Lord Gardenstone. The design consists of a graceful +circular temple, built over a spring of mineral water, which issues +from the rock below. It was dedicated to Hygeia, the Goddess of +Health. The whole of the details are beautifully finished, and the +basement of the design will be admired by every true artist. It is +regarded as a great ornament, and is thoroughly in keeping with the +beauty of the surrounding scenery. + +Shortly after the death of Lord Nelson it was proposed to erect a +monument to his memory on the Calton Hill. My father supplied a +design, which was laid before the Monument Committee. It was so much +approved that the required sum was rapidly subscribed. But as the +estimated cost of this erection was found slightly to exceed the amount +subscribed, a nominally cheaper design was privately adopted. It was +literally a job. The vulgar, churn-like monument was thus thrust on +the public and actually erected; and there it stands to this day, a +piteous sight to beholders. It was eventually found greatly to exceed +in cost the amount of the estimate for my father's design. I give a +sketch of my father's memorial; and I am led to do this because it is +erroneously alleged that he was the architect of the present inverted +spy glass, called "Nelson's Monument" + +[Image] Nelson's Monument as it should have been. + +Then, with respect to my father's powers as a mechanic. This was an +inherited faculty, and I leave my readers to infer from the following +pages whether I have not had my fair share of this inheritance. Besides +his painting room, my father had a workroom fitted up with all sorts of +mechanical tools. It was one of his greatest pleasures to occupy +himself there as a relief from sitting at the easel, or while within +doors from the inclemency of the weather. The walls and shelves of his +workroom were crowded with a multitude of artistic and ingenious +mechanical objects, nearly all of which were the production of his own +hands. Many of them were associated with the most eventful incidents +in his life. He only admitted his most intimate friends, or such as +could understand and appreciate the variety of objects connected with +art and mechanism, to his workroom. His natural taste for neatness and +arrangement gave it a very orderly aspect, however crowded its walls +and shelves might be. Everything was in its place, and there was a +place for everything. It was in this workroom that I first began to +handle mechanical tools. It was my primary technical school--the +very foreground of my life. + +[Image] Bow-and-string Roofs and Bridges + +I may mention one or two of my father's mechanical efforts, or rather +his inventions in applied science. One of the most important was the +"bow-and-string bridge," as he first called it, to which he early +directed his attention. He invented this important method of +construction about the year 1794. The first bow-and-string bridge was +erected in the island of St. Helena over a deep ravine. + +Many considered, from its apparent slightness, that it was not fitted +to sustain any considerable load. A remarkable and convincing proof +was, however, given of its stability by the passage over it of a herd +of wild oxen, that rushed across without the slightest damage to its +structure. After so severe a test it was for many succeeding years +employed as a most valuable addition to the accessibility of an +important portion of the island. The bow-and-string bridge has since +been largely employed in spanning wide spaces over which suburban and +other railways pass, and in roofing over such stations as those at +Birmingham, Charing Cross, and other Great Metropolitan centres, as +well as in bow-and-string bridges over rivers. I give the fac-simile +of his original drawings* + [footnote... + The original drawings of these bow-and-string bridges, of various +spans, are now deposited at the Gallery of the Museum of Naval +Architecture at South Kensington, and are signed "Alexander Nasmyth +1796." + ...] +for the purpose of showing our great railway engineers the originator +of the graceful and economical method of spanning wide spaces, now +practised in every part of the civilised world. + +Another of his inventions was the method of riveting by compression +instead of by blows of the hammer. It originated in a slight +circumstance. One wet, wintry Sunday morning he went into his +workroom. There were some slight mechanical repairs to be performed +upon a beautiful little stove of his own construction. To repair it, +iron rivets were necessary to make it serviceable. But as the +hammering of the hot rivets would annoy his neighbours by the unwelcome +sound of the hammer, he solved the difficulty by using the jaws of his +bench vice to squeeze in the hot rivets when put into their places. +The stove was thus quickly repaired in the most perfect silence. + +This was, perhaps, the first occasion on which a squeeze or compressive +action was substituted for the percussive action of the hammer, +in closing red-hot rivets, for combining together pieces of stout sheet +or plate iron. This system of riveting was long afterwards patented by +Smith of Deanston in combination with William Fairbairn of Manchester; +and it was employed in riveting the plates used in the construction of +the bridges over the River Conway and the Menai Straits. + +It is also universally used in boiler and girder making, and in all +other wrought-iron structures in which thorough sound riveting is +absolutely essential; and by the employment of hydraulic power in a +portable form a considerable portion of iron shipbuilding is effected +by the silent squeeze system in place of hammers, much to the +advantage of the soundness of the work. My father frequently, +in aftertimes, practised this mode of riveting by compression in place +of using the blow of a hammer; and in remembrance of the special +circumstances under which he contrived this silent and most effective +method of riveting, he named it "The Sunday Rivet." + + +CHAPTER 3. An Artist's Family. + +Although Alexander Nasmyth had to a considerable extent lost his +aristocratic connection as a portrait painter, yet many kind and +generous friends gathered round him. During his sojourn in Italy, +in 1783, he had the good fortune to make the acquaintance of Sir James +Hall of Dunglass, Haddingtonshire. The acquaintance afterwards ripened +into a deeply-rooted friendship. + +During the winter season Sir James resided with his family in his town +house in George Street. He was passionately attached to the pursuit of +art and science. He practised the art of painting in my father's room, +and was greatly helped by him in the requisite manipulative skill. +Sir James was at that time engaged in writing his well-known essay +"On the Origin of Gothic Architecture," and in this my father was of +important use to him. He executed the greater number of the +illustrations for this beautiful work. The book when published had a +considerable influence in restoring the taste of architects to a style +which they had heretofore either neglected or degraded. + +Besides his enthusiasm in art and architecture, Sir James devoted a +great deal of time to the study of geology. The science was then in +its infancy. Being an acute observer, Hall's attention was first +attracted to the subject by the singular geological features of the +sea-coast near his mansion at Dunglass. The neighbourhood of Edinburgh +also excited his interest. The upheaval of the rocks by volcanic heat +--as seen in the Castle Hill, the Calton Hill, and Arthur's Seat-- +formed in a great measure the foundation of the picturesque beauty of +the city. Those were the days of the Wernerian and Huttonian +controversy as to the origin of the changes on the surface of the +earth. Sir James Ball was President of the Edinburgh Royal Society, +and necessarily took an anxious interest in the discussions. +He observed and experimented, and established the true volcanic nature +of the composition and formation of the rocks and mountains which +surround Edinburgh. + +I have been led to speak of this subject, because when a boy I was +often present at the discussions of these great principles. +My father, Sir James Hall, Professors Playfair and Leslie, took their +accustomed walks round Edinburgh, and I clung eagerly to their words. +Though unable to understand everything that was said, these walks had a +great influence upon my education. Indeed, what education can compare +with that of listening attentively to the conversation and interchange +of thought of men of the highest intelligence? It is on such occasions +that ideas, not mere words, take hold of the memory, and abide there +until the close of life. + +Besides mixing in the society of scientific men, my father enjoyed a +friendly intercourse with the artists of his day. He was often able to +give substantial help and assistance to young students; and he was most +liberal in giving them valuable practical instruction, and in assisting +them over the manipulative difficulties which lay in their way. He was +especially assiduous when he saw them inspired by the true spirit of +art, and full of application and industry,--without which nothing can +be accomplished. Amongst these young men were David Wilkie, Francis +Grant, David Roberts, Clarkson Stanfield, William Allan, Andrew Geddes, +"Grecian" Williams, Lizars the engraver, and the Rev. John Thomson of +Duddingston. + +Henry Raeburn was one of his most intimate friends and companions. +He considered Raeburn's broad and masterly style of portrait painting +as an era in Scottish art. Raeburn, with innate tact, discerned the +character of his sitters, and he imparted so much of their +individuality into his portraits as to make them admirable likenesses +in the highest sense. In connection with Raeburn, I may mention that +when he was knighted by George IV. in 1822, my father, who was then at +the head of his profession in Scotland, was appointed chairman at the +dinner held to do honour to the great Scottish portrait painter. + +Raeburn often joined my father in his afternoon walks round Edinburgh +--a relaxation so very desirable after hours of close attention to +artistic work. They took delight in the wonderful variety of +picturesque scenery by which the city is surrounded. The walks about +Arthur's Seat were the most enjoyable of all. When a boy I had often +the pleasure of accompanying them, and of listening to their +conversation. I thus picked up many an idea that served me well in +after life. Indeed, I may say, after a long experience, that there is +no class of men whose company I more delight in than that of artists. +Their innate and highly-cultivated power of observation, not only as +regards the ever-varying aspects of nature, but also as regards the +quaint, droll, and humorous varieties of character, concur in rendering +their conversation most delightful. I look back on these walks as +among the brightest points in my existence. I have been led to digress +on this subject. Although more correctly belonging to my father's +life, yet it is so amalgamated with my own that it almost forms part of +it, and it is difficult for me to separate the one from the other. + +And then there were the pleasant evenings at home. When the day's work +was over, friends looked in to have a fireside crack--sometimes +scientific men, sometimes artists, often both. They were all made +welcome. There was no formality about their visits. Had they been +formal, there would have been comparatively little pleasure. +The visitor came in with his "Good e'en", and seated himself. +The family went on with their work as before. The girls were usually +busy with their needles, and others with pen and pencil. My father +would go on with the artistic work he had in hand, for his industry was +incessant. He would model a castle or a tree, or proceed with some +proposed improvement of the streets or approaches of the rapidly +expanding city. Among the most agreeable visitors were Professor +Leslie, James Jardine, C.E., and Dr. Brewster. Their conversation was +specially interesting. They brought up the last new thing in science, +in discovery, in history, or in campaigning, for the war was then +raging throughout Europe. + +The artists were a most welcome addition to the family group. +Many a time did they set the table in a roar with their quaint and +droll delineations of character. These unostentatious gatherings of +friends about our fireside were a delightful social institution. +The remembrance of them lights up my recollection of the happiest +period of a generally happy life. Could I have been able to set forth +the brightness and cheerfulness of these happy evenings at my father's +house, I am fain to think that my description might have been well +worth reading. But all the record of them that remains is a most +cherished recollection of their genial tone and harmony, which makes me +think that, although in these days of rapid transit over earth and +ocean, and surrounded as we are with the results of applied scientific +knowledge, we are not a bit more happy than when all the vaunted +triumphs of science and so-called education were in embryo. + +The supper usually followed, for my father would not allow his visitors +to go away supperless. The meal did not amount to much. Rizard or +Finnan harddies, or a dish of oysters, with a glass of Edinburgh ale, +and a rummer of toddy, concluded these friendly evenings. The cry of +"Caller Aou" was constantly heard in the streets below of an evening. +When the letter r was in the name of the month, the supply of oysters +was abundant. The freshest oysters, of the most glorious quality, were +to be had at 2s. 6d. the hundred! And what could be more refreshing +food for my father's guests? These unostentatious and inexpensive +gatherings of friends were a most delightful social institution among +the best middle-class people of Edinburgh some sixty or seventy years +ago. What they are now I cannot tell. But I fear they have +disappeared in the more showy and costly tastes that have sprung up in +the progress of what is called "modern society." + +No part of my father's character was more admirable than his utter +unselfishness. He denied himself many things, that he might give the +greater pleasure to his wife and children. He would scarcely take part +in any enjoyment, unless they could have their fair share of it. In all +this he was faithfully followed by my mother. The admirable example of +well-sustained industry that was always before her, sustained her in +her efforts for the good of her family. She was intelligently +interested in all that related to her husband's business and interests, +as well as in his recreative enjoyments. The household affairs were +under her skilful guidance. She conducted them with economy, and yet +with generous liberality, free from the least taint of ostentation or +extravagance. The home fireside was a scene of cheerfulness. +And most of our family have been blest with this sunny gift. Indeed, +a merrier family circle I have never seen. There were twelve persons +round the table to be provided for, besides two servants. +This required, on my mother's part, a great deal of management, +as every housekeeper will know. Yet everything was provided and paid +for within the year's income. + +The family result of my father and mother's happy marriage was four +sons and seven daughters. Patrick, the eldest, was born in 1787. +He was called after my father's dear and constant friend, Patrick +Miller of Dalswinton. I will speak by and by of his artistic +reputation. Then followed a long succession of daughters-- +Jane, the eldest', was born in 1788; Barbara 1790; Margaret in 1791; +Elizabeth in 1793; Anne in 1798; Charlotte in 1804. +Then came a succession of three sons--Alexander, George,and James. +There followed another daughter, Mary; but as she only lived for about +eighteen months, I remained the youngest of the family. + +My sisters all possessed, in a greater or less degree, an innate love +of art, and by their diligent application they acquired the practice of +painting landscape in oils. My father's admirable system and method of +teaching rendered them expert in making accurate sketches from nature, +which, as will afterwards be seen, they turned to good account. +My eldest sister, Jane, was in all respects a most estimable character, +and a great help to my mother in the upbringing of the children. +Jane was full of sound common sense; her judgment seemed to be beyond +her years. Because of this the younger members of the family jokingly +nicknamed her "Old Solid"!--Even my father consulted her in every +case of importance in reference to domestic and financial affairs. +I had the great good fortune, when a child, to be placed under her +special protection, and I have reason to be thankful for the +affectionate care which she took of me during the first six years of +my life. + +Besides their early education in art, my mother was equally earnest in +her desire to give her daughters a thorough practical knowledge in +every department and detail of household management. When they had +attained a suitable age they were in succession put in charge of all +the household duties for two weeks at a time. The keys were given over +to them, together with the household books, and at the end of their +time their books were balanced to a farthing. They were then passed on +to the next in succession. One of the most important branches of +female education--the management of the domestic affairs of a family, +the superintendence of the cooking so as to avoid waste of food, the +regularity of the meals, and the general cleaning up of the rooms-- +was thus thoroughly attained in its best and most practical forms. +And under the admirable superintendence of my mother everything in our +family went on like clockwork. + +My father's object was to render each and all of his children-- +whether boys or girls--independent on their arrival at mature years. +Accordingly, he sedulously kept up the attention of his daughters to +fine art. By this means he enabled them to assist in the maintenance +of the family while at home, and afterwards to maintain themselves by +the exercise of their own abilities and industry after they had left. +To accomplish this object, as already described, he set on foot drawing +classes, which were managed by his six daughters, superintended by +himself. + +Edinburgh was at that time the resort of many county families. +The war which raged abroad prevented their going to the Continent. +They therefore remained at home, and the Scotch families for the most +part took up their residence in Edinburgh. There were many young +ladies desiring to complete their accomplishments, and hence the +establishment of my sisters' art class. It was held in the large +painting-room in the upper part of the house. It soon became one of +the most successful institutions in Edinburgh. When not engaged in +drawing and oil painting, the young ladies were occupied in sketching +from nature, under the superintendence of my sisters, in the outskirts +of Edinburgh. This was one of the most delightful exercises in which +they could be engaged; and it also formed the foundation for many +friendships which only terminated with life. + +My father increased the interest of the classes by giving little art +lectures. They were familiar but practical. He never gave lectures as +such, but rather demonstrations. It was only when a pupil encountered +some technical difficulty, or was adopting some wrong method of +proceeding, that he undertook to guide them by his words and practical +illustrations. His object was to embue the minds of the pupils with +high principles of art. He would take up their brushes and show by his +dexterous and effective touches how to bring out, with marvellous ease, +the right effects of the landscape. The other pupils would come and +stand behind him, to see and hear his clear instructions carried into +actual practice on the work before him. He often illustrated his +little special lessons by his stores of instructive and interesting +anecdotes, which no doubt helped to rivet his practice all the deeper +into their minds. Thus the Nasmyth classes soon became the fashion. +In many cases both mothers and daughters might be seen at work together +in that delightful painting-room. I have occasionally met with some of +them in after years, who referred to those pleasant hours as among the +most delightful they had ever spent. + +These classes were continued for many years. In the meantime my +sisters' diligence and constant practice enabled them in course of time +to exhibit their works in the fine art exhibitions of Edinburgh. +Each had her own individuality of style and manner, by which their +several works were easily distinguished from each other. Indeed, +whoever works after Nature will have a style of their own. They all +continued the practice of oil painting until an advanced age. +The average duration of their lives was about seventy-eight. + +There was one point which my father diligently impressed upon his +pupils, and that was the felicity and the happiness attendant upon +pencil drawing. He was a master of the pencil, and in his off-hand +sketches communicated his ideas to others in a way that mere words +could never have done. It was his Graphic Language. A few strokes of +the pencil can convey ideas which quires of writing would fail to +impart. This is one of the most valuable gifts which a man who has to +do with practical subjects can possess. "The language of the pencil" +is a truly universal one, especially in communicating ideas which have +reference to material forms. And yet it is in a great measure +neglected in our modern system of education. + +The language of the tongue is often used to disguise our thoughts, +whereas the language of the pencil is clear and explicit. Who that +possesses this language can fail to look back with pleasure on the +course of a journey illustrated by pencil drawings? They bring back to +you the landscapes you have seen, the old streets, the pointed gables, +the entrances to the old churches, even the bits of tracery, with a +vividness of association such as mere words could never convey. +Thus, looking at an old sketch-book brings back to you the recollection +of a tour, however varied, and you virtually make the journey over +again with its picturesque and beautiful associations. On many a fine +summer's day did my sisters make a picnic excursion into the +neighbourhood of Edinburgh. They were accompanied by their pupils, +sketch-book and pencil in hand. As I have already said, there is no +such scenery near any city that I know of. Arthur's Seat and Salisbury +Crags, Duddingston Loch, the Braid Hills, Craigmillar Castle, +Hawthornden, Roslin, Habbie's How, and the many valleys and rifts in +the Pentlands, with Edinburgh and its Castle in the distance; or the +scenery by the sea-shore, all round the coast from Newhaven to Gullane +and North Berwick Law. + +The excursionists came home laden with sketches. I have still by me a +multitude of these graphic records made by my sisters. Each sketch, +however slight, strikes the keynote, as it were, to many happy +recollections of the circumstances, and the persons who were present at +the time it was made. I know not of any such effective stimulant to +the recollection of past events as these graphic memoranda. +Written words may be forgotten, but these slight pencil recollections +imprint themselves on the mind with a force that can never be effaced. +Everything that occurred at the time rises up as fresh in the memory as +if hours and not years had passed since then. They bring to the mind's +eye many dear ones who have passed away, and remind us that we too must +follow them. + +It is much to be regretted that this valuable art of graphic memoranda +is not more generally practised. It is not merely a most valuable help +to the memory, but it educates the eye and the hand, and enables us to +cultivate the faculty of definite observation. This is one of the most +valuable accomplishments that I know of, being the means of storing up +ideas, and not mere words, in the mental recollection of both men and +women. + +Before I proceed to record the recollections of my own life, I wish to +say something about my eldest brother Patrick, the well-known landscape +painter. He was twenty-one years older than myself! My father was his +best and almost his only instructor. At a very early age he manifested +a decided taste for drawing and painting. His bent was landscape. +This gave my father great pleasure, as it was his own favourite branch +of art. The boy acquired great skill in sketching trees, clouds, +plants, and foregrounds. He studied with wonderful assiduity and +success. I possess many of his graphic memoranda, which show the care +and industry with which he educated his eye and hand in rendering with +truth and fidelity the intimate details of his art. The wild plants +which he introduced into the foregrounds of his pictures were his +favourite objects of study. But of all portions of landscape nature, +the Sky was the one that most delighted him. He studied the form and +character of clouds--resting cloud, the driving cloud, and the rain +cloud--and the sky portions of his paintings were thus rendered so +beautifully attractive. + +He was so earnest in his devotion to the study of landscape that in +some respects he neglected the ordinary routine of school education. +He successfully accomplished the three R.'s, but after that his school +was the fields, in the face of Nature. He was by no means a Romantic +painter. His taste was essentially for Home subjects. In his +landscapes he introduced picturesque farm-houses and cottages, +with their rural surroundings; and his advancement and success were +commensurate with his devotion to this fine branch of art. The perfect +truth with which he represented English scenery, associated as it is +with so many home-loving feelings, forms the special attractiveness of +his works. This has caused them to be eagerly sought after, +and purchased at high prices. + +Patrick had a keen sense of humour, though in other respects he was +simple and unpretending. He was a great reader of old-fashioned +novels, which indeed in those days were the only works of the kind to +be met with. The Arabian Nights, Robinson crusoe, The Mysteries of +Udolpho, and such like, were his favourites, and gave a healthy filip +to his imagination. He had also a keen relish for music, and used to +whistle melodies and overtures as he went along with his work. +He acquired a fair skill in violin playing. While tired with sitting +or standing he would take up his violin, play a few passages, and then +go to work again. + +Patrick removed to London in 1808, and exhibited at the Royal Academy +in the following year. He made excursions to various parts of England, +where he found subjects congenial to his ideas of rural beauty. +The immediate neighbourhood of London, however, a bounded with the most +charming and appropriate subjects for his pencil. These consisted of +rural "bits" of the most picturesque but homely description--decayed +pollard trees and old moss-grown orchards, combined with cottages and +farm-houses in the most paintable state of decay, with tangled hedges +and neglected fences, overrun with vegetation clinging to them with all +"the careless grace of Nature." However neglected these might be by the +farmer, they were always tit-bits for Patrick. When sketching such +subjects he was in his glory, and he returned to his easel loaded with +sketch-book treasures, which when painted form the gems of many a +collection. + +In some of these charming subjects glimpses of the distant capital may +be observed, with the dome of St. Paul's in the distance; but they are +introduced with such skill and correctness as in no way to interfere +with the rural character of his subject. When he went farther afield +--to Windsor Forest, Hampshire, the New Forest, or the Isle of Wight +--he was equally diligent with his pencil, and came home laden with +sketches of the old monarchs of the forest. When in a state of partial +decay his skilful touch brought them to life again, laden with branches +and lichen, with leaves and twigs and bark, and with every feature that +gives such a charm to these important elements in true English +landscape scenery. On my brother's first visit to London, accompanied +by my father, he visited many collections where the old Dutch masters +were to be seen, and he doubtless derived much advantage from his +careful studies, more particularly from the works of Hobbema, Ruysdael, +and Wynants. These came home to him as representations of Nature as +she is. They were more free from the traditional modes of representing +her. The works of Claude Lorraine and Richard Wilson were also the +objects of his admiration, though the influence of the time for +classicality of treatment to a certain extent vitiated these noble +works. When a glorious sunset was observed, the usual expression among +the lovers of art was, "What a magnificent Claudish effect!" thus +setting up the result of man's feeble attempt at representation as the +standard of comparison, in place of the far grander original! + +My brother carefully studied Nature herself. His works, following +those of my father, led back the public taste to a more healthy and +true condition, and by the aid of a noble army of modern British +landscape painters, this department of art has been elevated to a very +high standard of truth and excellence. + +I find some letters from Patrick to my father, after his settlement as +an artist in London. My father seems to have supplied him with money +during the early part of his career, and afterwards until he had +received the amount of his commissions for pictures. In one of his +letters he says: "That was an unlucky business, the loss of that order +which you were so good as send me on my account." It turned out that +the order had dropt out of the letter enclosing it, and was not +recovered. In fact, Patrick was very careless about all money +transactions. + +In 1814 he made the acquaintance of Mr. Barnes, and accompanied him to +Bure Cottage, Ringwood, near Southampton, where he remained for some +time. He went into the New Forest, and brought home "lots of sketches." +In 1815 he exhibited his works at the Royal Academy. He writes to his +father that "the prices of my pictures in the Gallery are-- +two at fourteen guineas each (small views in Hampshire), one at +twelve guineas, and two at fourteen guineas. They are all sold but +one. These pictures would now fetch in the open market from two to +three hundred guineas each. But in those days good work was little +known, and landscapes especially were very little sought after. + +Patrick Nasmyth's admirable rendering of the finer portions of +landscape nature attracted the attention of collectors, and he received +many commissions from them at very low prices. There was at that time +a wretched system of delaying the payment for pictures painted on +commission, as well as considerable loss of time by the constant +applications made for the settlement of the balance. My brother was +accordingly under the necessity of painting his pictures for the +Dealers, who gave him at once the price which he required for his +works. The influence of this system was not always satisfactory. +The Middlemen or Dealers, who stood between the artist and the final +possessor of the works, were not generous. They higgled about prices, +and the sums which they gave were almost infinitesimal compared with +the value of Patrick Nasmyth's pictures at the present time. + +The Dealers were frequent visitors at his little painting-room in his +lodgings. They took undue advantage of my brother's simplicity and +innate modesty in regard to the commercial value of his works. When he +had sketched in a beautiful subject, and when it was clear that in its +highest state of development it must prove a fine work, the Dealer +would pile up before him a row of guineas, or sovereigns, and say, +"Now, Peter, that picture's to be mine!", The real presence of cash +proved too much for him. He never was a practical man. He agreed to +the proposal, and thus he parted with his pictures for much less than +they were worth. He was often remonstrated with by his brother artists +for letting them slip out of his hands in that way--works that he +would not surrender until he had completed them, and brought them up to +the highest point of his fastidious taste and standard of excellence. +Among his dearest friends were David Roberts and Clarkson Stanfield. +He usually replied to their friendly remonstrances by laughingly +pointing to his bursting portfolios of sketches, and saying, +"There's lots of money in these banks to draw from." He thus warded off +their earnest and often-repeated remonstrances. Being a single man, +and his habits and style of living of the most simple kind, he had very +little regard for money except as it ministered to his immediate +necessities. His evenings were generally spent at a club of brother +artists "over the water;" and in their company he enjoyed many a +pleasant hour. His days were spent at his easel. They were +occasionally varied by long walks into the country near London, +for the purpose of refilling his sketch-book. + +It was on one of such occasions--when he was sketching the details of +some picturesque pollard old willows up the Thames, and standing all +the time in wet ground--that he caught a severe cold which confined +him to the house. He rapidly became worse. Two of his sisters, +who happened to be in London at the time, nursed him with devoted +attention. But it was too late. The disease had taken fatal hold of +him. On the evening of the l7th August 1831 there was a violent +thunderstorm. At length the peals of thunder ceased, the rain passed +away, and the clouds dispersed. The setting sun burst forth in a +golden glow. The patient turned round on his couch and asked that the +curtains might be drawn. It was done. A blaze of sunset lit up his +weary and worn-out face. "How glorious it is!" he said. Then, as the +glow vanished he fell into a deep and tranquil sleep, from which he +never awoke. Such was the peaceful end of my brother Patrick, at the +comparatively early age of forty-four years. + + +CHAPTER 4. My Early Years. + +I WAS born on the morning of the 19th of August 1808, at my father's +house No. 47 York Place, Edinburgh. I was named James Hall after my +father's dear friend, Sir James Hall of Dunglass. My mother afterwards +told me that I must have been "a very noticin' bairn," as she observed +me, when I was only a few days old, following with my little eyes any +one who happened to be in the room, as if I had been thinking to my +little self, "Who are you?" + +After a suitable time I was put under the care of a nursemaid. +I remember her well--Mary Peterkin--a truly Scandinavian name. +She came from Haddingtonshire, where most of the people are of +Scandinavian origin. Her hair was of a bright yellow tint. +She was a cheerful young woman, and sang to me like a nightingale. +She could not only sing old Scotch songs, but had a wonderful memory +for fairy tales. When under the influence of a merry laugh, +you could scarcely see her eyes; their twinkle was hidden by her +eyelids and lashes. She was a willing worker, and was always ready +to lend a helping hand at everything about the house, she took great +pride in me, calling me her "laddie." + +When I was toddling about the house, another sister was born, the last +of the family. Little Mary was very delicate; and to improve her +health she was sent to a small farm-house at Braid Hills, about four +miles south of Edinburgh. It was one of the most rural and beautiful +surroundings of the city at that time. One of my earliest +recollections is that of being taken to see poor little Mary at the +farmer's house. While my nursemaid was occupied in inquiring after my +sister, I was attracted by the bright red poppies in a neighbouring +field. When they made search for me I could not be found. I was lost +for more than an hour. At last, seeing a slight local disturbance +among the stalks of corn, they rushed to they spot, and brought me out +with an armful of brilliant red poppies. To this day poppies continue +to be my greatest favourites. + +When I was about four or five years old, I was observed to give a +decided preference to the use of my left hand. Everything was done to +prevent my using it in preference to the right. My mother thought that +it arose from my being carried on the wrong arm by my nurse while an +infant. The right hand was thus confined, and the left hand was used. +I was constantly corrected, but "on the sly" I always used it, +especially in drawing my first little sketches. At last my father, +after viewing with pleasure one of my artistic efforts, done with the +forbidden hand, granted it liberty and independence for all time +coming. "Well," he said, "you may go on in your own way in the use of +your left hand, but I fear you will be an awkward fellow in everything +that requires handiness in life. I used my right hand in all that was +necessary, and my left in all sorts of practical manipulative affairs. +My left hand has accordingly been my most willing and obedient servant +in transmitting my will through my fingers into material or visible +forms. In this way I became ambidexter. + +When I was about four years old, I often followed my father into his +workshop when he had occasion to show to his visitors some of his +mechanical contrivances or artistic models. The persons present +usually expressed their admiration in warm terms of what was shown to +them. On one occasion I gently pulled the coat-tail of one of the +listeners and confidentially said to him, as if I knew all about it, +"My papa's a kevie Fellae!" My father was so greatly amused by this +remark that he often referred to it as "the last good thing" from that +old-fashioned creature little Jamie. + +One of my earliest recollections is the annual celebration of my +brother Patrick's birthday. Being the eldest of the family, his +birthday was held in special honour. My father invited about twenty of +his most intimate friends to dinner. My mother brought her culinary +powers into full operation. The younger members of the family also +took a lively interest in all that was going on, with certain +reversionary views as to "the day after the feast." We took a great +interest in the Trifle, which was no trifle in reality, in so far as +regarded the care and anxiety involved in its preparation. +In connection with this celebration, it was all established institution +that a large hamper always arrived in good time from the farm attached +to my mother's old home at Woodhall, near Edinburgh. It contained many +substantial elements for the entertainment--a fine turkey, fowls, +duck, and suchlike; with two magnums of the richest cream. There never +was such cream! It established a standard of cream in my memory; +and since then I have always been hypercritical about the article. + +On one of these occasions, when I was about four years old, and being +the youngest of the family, I was taken into the company after the +dinner was over, and held up by my sister Jane to sing a verse from a +little song which my nurse Mary Peterkin had taught me, and Which ran +thus: + + "I'll no bide till Saturday, + But I'll awa' tile morn, + An' follow Donald Hielandman, + An' carry his poother-horn." + +This was my first and last vocal performance. It was received with +great applause. In fact, it was encored. The word "poother," +which I pronounced "pootle", excited the enthusiasm of the audience. +I was then sent to bed with a bit of plum-cake, and was doubtless +awakened early next morning by the irritation of the dried crumbs of +the previous night's feast. + +I am reminded, by reading over a letter of my brother Patrick's, of an +awkward circumstance that happened to me when I was six years old. +In his letter to my father, dated London, 22d September 1814, he says: +"I did get a surprise when Margaret's letter informed me of my little +brother Jamie's fall. It was a wonderful escape. For God's sake keep +an eye upon him!" Like other strong and healthy boys, I had a turn for +amusing myself in my own way. When sliding down the railing of the +stairs I lost my grip and fell suddenly over. The steps were of stone. +Fortunately, the servants were just coming up laden with carpets which +they had been beating. I fell into their midst and knocked them out of +their hands. I was thus saved from cracking my poor little skull. +But for that there might have been no steam hammer--at least of my +contrivance! + +Everything connected with war and warlike exploits is interesting to a +boy. The war with France was then in full progress. Troops and bands +paraded the streets. Recruits were sent away as fast as they could be +drilled. The whole air was filled with war. Everybody was full of +excitement about the progress of events in Spain. When the great guns +boomed forth from the Castle, the people were first startled. +Then they were surprised and anxious. There had been a battle and a +victory! "Who had fallen?" was the first thought in many minds. +Where had the battle been, and what was the victory? Business was +suspended. People rushed about the streets to ascertain the facts. +It might have been at Salamanca, Talavera, or Vittoria. But a long +time elapsed before the details could be received; and during that time +sad suspense and anxiety prevailed in almost every household. +There was no telegraph then. It was only after the Gazette had been +published that people knew who had fallen and who had survived. + +The war proceeded. The volunteering which went on at the time gave +quite a military aspect to the city. I remember how odd it appeared to +me to see some well-known faces and figures metamorphosed into soldiers +It was considered a test of loyalty as well as of patriotism, to give +time, money, and leisure to take up the arms of defence, and to +practise daily in military uniform in the Meadows or on Bruntsfield +Links. Windows were thrown up to hear the bands playing at the head of +the troops, and crowds of boys, full of military ardour, went, as usual, +hand to hand in front of the drums and fifes. The most interesting +part of the procession to my mind was the pioneers in front, with their +leather aprons, their axes and saws, and their big hairy caps and +beards. They were to me so suggestive of clearing the way through +hedges and forests, and of what war was in its actual progress. + +Every victory was followed by the importation of large numbers of +French prisoners. Many of them were sent to Edinburgh Castle. +They were permitted to relieve the tedium of their confinement by +manufacturing and selling toys; workboxes, brooches, and carved work of +different kinds. In the construction of these they exhibited great +skill, taste, and judgment. They carved them out of bits of bone and +wood. The patterns were most beautiful; and they were ingeniously and +tastefully ornamented. The articles were to be had for a mere trifle, +although fit to be placed with the most choice objects of artistic +skill. + +These poor prisoners of war were allowed to work at their tasteful +handicrafts in small sheds or temporary workshops at the Castle, behind +the palisades which separated them from their free customers outside. +There was just room between the bars of the palisades for them to hand +through their exquisite works, and to receive in return the modest +prices which they charged. The front of these palisades became a +favourite resort for the inhabitants of Edinburgh; and especially for +the young folks. I well remember being impressed with the contrast +between the almost savage aspect of these dark-haired foreigners, +and the neat and delicate produce of their skilful fingers. + +At the peace of 1814, which followed the siege of Paris, great +rejoicings and illuminations took place, in the belief that the war was +at an end. The French prisoners were sent back to their own country, +alas! to appear again before us at Waterloo. The liberation of those +confined in Edinburgh Castle was accompanied by an extraordinary scene. +The French prisoners marched down to the transport ships at Leith by +torchlight. All the town was out to see them. They passed in military +procession through the principal streets, singing as they marched along +their revolutionary airs, "Ca lra" and "The Marseillaise." The wild +enthusiasm of these haggard-looking men, lit up by torchlight and +accompanied by the cheers of the dense crowd which lined the streets +and filled the windows, made an impression on my mind that I can never +forget. + +A year passed. Napoleon returned from Elba, and was rejoined by nearly +all his old fighting-men. I well remember, young as I was, an assembly +of the inhabitants of Edinburgh in Charlotte Square, to bid farewell to +the troops and officers then in garrison. It was a fine summer +evening when this sad meeting took place. The bands were playing as +their last performance, "Go where glory waits thee!" The air brought +tears to many eyes; for many who were in the ranks might never return. +After many a hand-shaking, the troops marched to the Castle, previous +to their early embarkation for the Low Countries on the following +morning. + +Then came Waterloo and the victory! The Castle guns boomed forth again; +and the streets were filled with people anxious to hear the news. +At last came the Gazette filled with the details of the killed and +wounded. Many a heart was broken, many a fireside was made desolate. +It was indeed a sad time. The terrible anxiety that pervaded so many +families; the dreadful sacrifice of lives on so many battlefields; and +the enormously increased taxation, which caused so many families to +stint themselves to even the barest necessaries of life;--such was +the inglorious side of war. + +But there was also the glory, which almost compensated for the sorrow. +I cannot resist narrating the entry of the Forty-second Regiment into +Edinburgh shortly after the battle of Waterloo. The old "Black Watch" +is a regiment dear to every Scottish heart. It has fought and +struggled when resistance was almost certain death. At Quatre Bras two +flank companies were cut to pieces by Pire's cavalry. The rest of the +regiment was assailed by Reille's furious cannonade, and suffered +severely. The French were beaten back, and the remnant of the +Forty-second retired to Waterloo, where they formed part of the brigade +under Major-General Pack. At the first grand charge of the French, +Picton fell and many were killed. Then the charge of the Greys took +place, and the Highland regiments rushed forward, with cries of +"Scotland for ever!" Only a remnant of the Forty-second survived. +They were however recruited, and marched into France with the rest of +the army. + +Towards the end of the year the Forty-Second returned to England, +and in the beginning of 1816 they set out on their march towards +Edinburgh. They were everywhere welcomed with enthusiasm. Crowds +turned out to meet them and cheer them. When the first division of the +regiment approached Edinburgh, almost the entire population turned out +to welcome them. At Musselburgh, six miles off; the road was thronged +with people. When the soldiers reached Piershill, two miles off, the +road was so crowded that it took them two hours to reach the Castle. +I was on a balcony in the upper part of the High Street, and my father, +mother, and sisters were with me. We had waited very long; but at last +we heard the distant sound of the cheers, which came on and on, louder +and louder. + +The High Street was wedged with people excited and anxious. +There seemed scarcely room for a regiment to march through them. +The house-tops and windows were crowded with spectators. It was a +grand sight. The high-gabled houses reaching as far as the eye could +see, St. Giles' with its mural crown, the Tron Kirk in the distance, +and the picturesque details of the buildings, all added to the +effectiveness of the scene. + +At last the head of the gallant band appeared. The red coats gradually +wedged their way through the crowd, amidst the ringing of bells and the +cheers of the spectators. Every window was in a wave of gladness, +and every house-top was in a fever of excitement. As the red line +passed our balcony, with Colonel Dick at its head, we saw a sight that +can never be forgotten. The red-and-white plumes, the tattered colours +riddled with bullets, the glittering bayonets, were seen amidst the +crowd that thronged round the gallant heroes, amidst tears and cheers +and hand-shakings and shouts of excitement. The mass of men appeared +like a solid body moving slowly along; the soldiers being almost hidden +amongst the crowd. At last they passed, the pipers and drums playing a +Highland march; and the Forty-Second slowly entered the Castle. It was +perhaps the most extraordinary scene ever witnessed in Edinburgh. + +One of my greatest enjoyments when a child was in going out with the +servants to the Calton, and wait while the "claes" bleached in the sun +on the grassy slopes of the hill. The air was bright and fresh and +pure. The lasses regarded these occasions as a sort of holiday. +One or two of the children usually accompanied them. They sat +together, and the servants told us their auld-warld stories; common +enough in those days, but which have now, in a measure, been forgotten. +"Steam" and "progress" have made the world much less youthful and +joyous than it was then. + +The women brought their work and their needles with them, and when they +had told their stories, the children ran about the hill making bunches +of wild flowers--including harebells and wild thyme. They ran after +the butterflies and the bumbees, and made acquaintance in a small way +with the beauties of nature. Then the servants opened their baskets of +provisions, and we had a delightful picnic. Though I am now writing +about seventy years after the date of these events, I can almost +believe that I am enjoying the delightful perfume of the wild thyme and +the fragrant plants and flowers, wafted around me by the warm breezes +of the Calton hillside. + +In the days I refer to, there was always a most cheerful and intimate +intercourse kept up between the children and the servants. They were +members of the same family, and were treated as such. The servants +were for the most part country-bred--daughters of farm servants or +small farmers. They were fairly educated at their parish schools; +they could read and write, and had an abundant store of old +recollections. Many a pleasant crack we had with them as to their +native places, their families, and all that was connected with them. +They became lastingly attached to their masters and mistresses, as well +as to the children. All this led to true attachment; and when they +left; us, for the most part to be married we continued to keep up a +correspondence with them, which lasted for many years. + +While enjoying these delightful holidays, before my school-days began, +my practical education was in progress, especially in the way of +acquaintance with the habits of nature in a vast variety of its phases, +always so attractive to the minds of healthy children. It happened +that close to the Calton Hill, in the valley at its northern side, +there were many workshops where interesting trades were carried on; +there were coppersmiths, tinsmiths, brass-founders, goldbeaters, and +blacksmiths. Their shops were all arranged in a busy group at the foot +of the hill, in a place called Greenside. The workshops were open to +the inspection of passers-by. Little boys looked in and saw the men at +work amidst the blaze of fires and the beatings of hammers. + +Amongst others, I was an ardent admirer. I may almost say that this +row of busy workshops was my first school of practical education. +I observed the mechanical manipulation of the men, their dexterous use +of the hammer, the chisel, and the file; and I imbibed many lessons +which afterwards proved of use to me. Then I had tools at home in my +father's workshop. I tried to follow their methods; I became greatly +interested in the use of tools and their appliances; I could make +things for myself. In short, I became so skilled that the people about +the house called me "a little Jack-of-all-trades." + +While sitting on the grassy slopes of the Calton Hill I would often +hear the chimes sounding from the grand old tower of St.Giles. +The cathedral lay on the other side of the valley which divides the +Old Town from the New. The sounds came over the murmur of the traffic +in the streets below. + +The chime-bells were played every day from twelve till one--the +old-fashioned dinner-hour of the citizens. The practice had been in +existence for more than a hundred and fifty years. The pleasing effect +of the merry airs, which came wafted tome by the warm summer breezes, +made me long to see them as well as hear them. + +[Image] Mural crown of St Giles', Edinburgh + +My father was always anxious to give pleasure to his children. +Accordingly, he took me one day, as a special treat, to the top of the +grand old tower, to see the chimes played. As we passed up the tower, +a strong vaulted room was pointed out to me, where the witches used to +be imprisoned. I was told that the poor old women were often taken +down from this dark vault to be burnt alive! Such terrible tales +enveloped the tower with a horrible fascination to my young mind. +What a fearful contrast to the merry sound of the chimes issuing from +its roof on a bright summer day. + +On my way up to the top flat, where the chimes were played, I had to +pass through the vault in which the great pendulum was slowly swinging +in its ghostly-like tick-tack, tick-tack; while the great ancient clock +was keeping time with its sudden and startling movement. The whole +scene was almost as uncanny as the witches' cell underneath. There was +also a wild rumbling thumping sound overhead. I soon discovered the +cause of this, when I entered the flat where the musician was at work. +He was seen in violent action, beating or hammering on the keys of a +gigantic pianoforte-like apparatus. The instruments he used were two +great leather-faced mallets, one of which he held in each hand. +Each key was connected by iron rods with the chime-bells above. +The frantic and mad-like movements of the musician, as he energetically +rushed from one key to another, often widely apart gave me the idea +that the man was daft--especially as the noise of the mallets was +such that I heard no music emitted from the chimes so far overhead. +It was only when I had climbed up the stair of the tower to where the +bells were rung that I understood the performance, and comprehended the +beating of the chimes which gave me so much pleasure when I heard them +at a distance. + +Another source of enjoyment in my early days was to accompany my mother +to the market. As I have said before, my mother, though generous in +her hospitality, was necessarily thrifty and economical in the +management of her household. There were no less than fourteen persons +in the house to be fed, and this required a good deal of marketing. +At the time I refer to, (about 1816, it was the practice of every lady +who took pride in managing economically the home department of her +husband's affairs, to go to market in person. The principal markets in +Edinburgh were then situated in the valley between the Old and New Towns, +in what used to be called the Nor Loch. + +Dealers in fish and vegetables had their stalls there: the market for +butcher meat was near at hand: each being in their several locations. +It was a very lively and bustling sight to see the marketing going on. +When a lady was observed approaching, likely to be a customer, she was +at once surrounded by the "caddies." They were a set of sturdy +hard-working women, each with a creel on her back. Their competition +for the employer sometimes took a rather energetic form. The rival +candidates pointed to her with violent exclamations; "She's my ledie! +she's my ledie!" ejaculated one and all. To dispel the disorder, +a selection of one of the caddies would be made, and then all was quiet +again until another customer appeared. + +There was a regular order in which the purchases were deposited in the +creel. First, there came the fish, which were carefully deposited in +the lowest part, with a clean deal board over them. The fishwives were +a most sturdy and independent class, both in manners and language. +When at home, at Newhaven or Fisherrow, they made and mended their +husbands' nets, put their fishing tackle to rights, and when the +fishing boats came in they took the fish to market at Edinburgh. +To see the groups of these hard-working women trudging along with their +heavy creels on their backs, clothed in their remarkable costume, +with their striped petticoats kilted up and showing their sturdy legs, +was indeed a remarkable sight. They were cheerful and good-natured, +but very outspoken. Their skins were clear and ruddy, and many of the +young fishwives were handsome and pretty. They were, in fact, the +incarnation of robust health. In dealing with them at the Fish Market +there was a good deal of higgling. They often asked two or three times +more than the fish were worth--at least, according to the then market +price. After a stormy night, during which the husbands and sons had +toiled to catch the fish, on the usual question being asked, +"Weel, Janet, hoo's haddies the day!" "Haddies, mem? Ou, haddies is +men's lives the day!" which was often true, as haddocks were often +caught at the risk of their husbands' lives. After the usual amount of +higgling, the haddies were brought down to their proper market price, +--sometimes a penny for a good haddock, or, when herrings were rife, +a dozen herrings for twopence, crabs for a penny, and lobsters for +threepence. For there were no railways then to convey the fish to +England, and thus equalise the price for all classes of the community. + +Let me mention here a controversy between a fishwife and a buyer called +Thomson. the buyer offered a price so ridiculously small for a parcel +of fish that the seller became quite indignant, and she terminated at +once all further higgling. Looking up to him, she said, "Lord help yer +e'e-sight, Maister Tamson!" "Lord help my e'e-sight, woman! What has +that to do with it?" "Ou," said she, "because ye ha'e nae nose to put +spectacles on!" As it happened, poor Mr. Thomson had, by some accident +or disease, so little of a nose left, if any at all, that the bridge of +the nose for holding up the spectacles was almost entirely wanting. +And thus did the fishwife retaliate on her niggardly customer. + +When my mother had got her fish laid at the bottom of the creel, she +next went to the "flesher" for her butcher-meat. There was no higgling +here, for the meat was sold at the ordinary market price. Then came the +poultry stratum; then the vegetables, or fruits in their season; +and, finally, there was "the floore"--a bunch of flowers; +not a costly bouquet, but a, large assortment of wallflowers, daffodils +(with their early spring fragrance), polyanthuses, lilacs, gilly-flowers, +and the glorious old-fashioned cabbage rose, as well as the even more +gloriously fragrant moss rose. The caddy's creel was then topped up, +and the marketing was completed. The lady was followed home; the +contents were placed in the larder; and the flowers distributed all +over the house. + +I have many curious traditional evidences of the great fondness for +cats which distinguished the Nasmyth family for several generations. +My father had always one or two of such domestic favourites, who were, +in the best sense, his "familiars." Their quiet, companionable habits +rendered them very acceptable company when engaged in his artistic +work. I know of no sound so pleasantly tranquillising as the purring +of a cat, or of anything more worthy of admiration in animal habit as +the neat, compact, and elegant manner in which the cat adjusts itself +at the fireside, or in a snug, cosy place, when it settles down for a +long quiet sleep. Every spare moment that a cat has before lying down +to rest is occupied in carefully cleaning itself, even under adverse +circumstances. The cat is the true original inventor of a sanitary +process, which has lately been patented and paraded before the public +as a sanitary novelty; and yet it has been in practice ever since cats +were created. Would that men and women were more alive to habitual +cleanliness--even the cleanliness of cats. The kindly and gentle +animal gives us all a lesson in these respects. + +Then, nothing can be more beautiful in animal action than the +exquisitely precise and graceful manner in which the cat exerts the +exact amount of effort requisite to land it at the height and spot it +wishes to reach at one bound. The neat and delicately precise manner +in which cats use their paws when playing with those who habitually +treat them with gentle kindness is truly admirable. In these respects +cats are entitled to the most kindly regard. There are, unfortunately, +many who entertain a strong prejudice against this most perfect and +beautiful member of the animal creation, and who abuse them because +they resist ill-treatment, occasioned by their innate feeling of +independence. Cats have no doubt less personal attachment than dogs, +but when kindly treated they become in many respects attached and +affectionate animals. + +My father, when a boy, made occasional visits to Hamilton, in the West +of Scotland, where the descendants of his Covenanting ancestors still +lived. One of them was an old bachelor--a recluse sort of man; +and yet he had the Nasmyth love of cats. Being of pious pedigree and +habits, he always ended the day by a long and audible prayer. +My father and his companions used to go to the door of his house to +listen to him, but especially to hear his culminating finale. +He prayed that the Lord would help him to forgive his enemies and all +those who had done him injury; and then, with a loud burst, he +concluded, "Except John Anderson o' the Toonhead, for he killed my cat, +and him I'll ne'er forgie! In conclusion, I may again refer to Elspeth +Nasmyth, who was burnt alive for witchcraft, because she had four black +cats, and read her Bible through two Pairs of spectacles! + + +CHAPTER 5. My School-days. + +Before I went to school it was my good fortune to be placed under the +special care of my eldest sister, Jane. She was twenty years older +than myself, and had acquired much practical experience in the +management of the younger members of the family. I could not have +had a more careful teacher. She initiated me into the difficulties of +A B C, and by learning me to read she gave me a key to the thoughts of +the greatest thinkers who have ever lived. + +But all this was accomplished at first in a humdrum and tentative way. +About seventy years ago children's books were very uninteresting. +In the little stories manufactured for children, the good boy ended in +a Coach-and-four, and the bad boy in a ride to Tyburn. The good boys +must have been a set of little snobs and prigs, and I could scarcely +imagine that they could ever have lived as they were represented in +these goody books. If so, they must have been the most tiresome and +uninteresting vermin that can possibly be imagined. After my sister had +done what she could for me, I was sent to school to learn "English." +I was placed under the tuition of a leading teacher called Knight, +whose school-room was in the upper storey of a house in George Street. +Here I learned to read with ease. But my primitive habit of spelling +by ear, in accordance with the simple sound of the letters of the +alphabet (phonetically, so to speak) brought me into collision with my +teacher. I got many a cuff on the side of the head, and many a +"palmy" on my hands with a thick strap of hard leather, which did not +give me very inviting views as to the pleasures of learning. +The master was vicious and vindictive. I think it a cowardly way to +deal with a little boy in so cruel a manner, and to send him home with +his back and fingers tingling and sometimes bleeding, because he cannot +learn so quickly as his fellows. + +On one occasion Knight got out of temper with my stupidity or dulness +in not comprehending something about 'a preter-pluperfect tense,' or +some mystery of that sort. He seized me by the ears, and beat my head +against the wall behind me with such savage violence that when he let +me go, stunned and unable to stand, I fell forward on the floor +bleeding violently at the nose, and with a terrific headache. +The wretch might have ruined my brain for life. I was carried home and +put to bed, where I lay helpless for more than a week. My father +threatened to summon the teacher before the magistrates for what might +have been a fatal assault on poor little me; but on making a humble +apology for his brutal usage he was let off. Of course I was not sent +back to his school. I have ever since entertained a hatred against +grammatical rules. + +There was at that time an excellent system of teaching young folks the +value of thrift. This consisted in saving for some purpose or another +the Saturdays penny--one penny being our weekly allowance of +pocket-money. The feats we could perform in the way of procuring toys, +picture-books, or the materials for constructing flying kites, would +amaze the youngsters of the present day, who are generally spoiled by +extravagance. And yet we obtained far more pleasure from our +purchases. We had in my time "penny pigs," or thrift boxes. +They were made in a vase form, of brown glazed earthenware, the only +entrance to which was a slit--enough to give entrance to a penny. +When the Saturday's penny was not required for any immediate purposes, +it was dropped through the slit, and remained there until the box was +full. The maximum of pennies it could contain was about forty-eight. +When that was accomplished, the penny pig was broken with a hammer, +and its rich contents flowed forth. The breaking of the pig was quite +an event. The fine fat old George the Third penny pieces looked +thoroughly substantial in our eyes. And then there was the spending of +the money,--for some long-looked-for toy, or pencils, or book, +or painting materials. + +One of the ways in which I used my Saturday pennies was in going with +some of my companions into the country to have a picnic. We used to +light a fire behind a hedge or a dyke, or in the corner of some ruin, +and there roast our potatoes, or broil a red herring on an extempore +gridiron we contrived for the purpose. We lit the fire by means of a +flint and steel and a tinder-box, which in those days every boy used to +possess. The bramble-berries gave us our dessert. We thoroughly +enjoyed these glorious Saturday afternoons. It gave us quite a +Robinson Crusoe sort of feeling to be thus secluded from the world. +Then the beauty of the scenery amidst which we took our repast was such +as I cannot attempt to describe. A walk of an hour or so would bring +us into the presence of an old castle, or amongst the rocky furze and +heather-clad hills, amidst clear rapid streams, so that, but for the +distant peeps of the city, one might think that he was far from the +busy haunts of men and boys. + +To return to my school-days. Shortly after I left the school in +George Street, where the schoolmaster had almost split my skull in +battering it upon the wall behind me, I was entered as a pupil at the +Edinburgh High School, in October 1817. The school was situated near +the old Infirmary. Professor Pillans was the rector, and under him +were four masters. I was set to study Latin under Mr. Irvine. He was +a mere schoolmaster in the narrowest sense of the term. He was not +endowed with the best of tempers, and it was often put to the +breaking strain by the tricks and negligence of the lower-form +portion of his class. It consisted of nearly two hundred boys; +the other three masters had about the same number of scholars. +They each had a separate class-room. + +I began to learn the elementary rudiments of Latin grammar. But not +having any natural aptitude for aquiring classic learning so called, +I fear I made but little progress during the three years that I +remained at the High School. Had the master explained to us how +nearly allied many of the Latin and Greek roots were to our familiar +English words, I feel assured that so interesting and valuable a +department of instruction would not have been neglected. But our +memories were strained by being made to say off "by heart," as it was +absurdly called, whole batches of grammatical rules, with all the +botheration of irregular verbs and suchlike. So far as I was +concerned, I derived little benefit from my High School teaching, +except that I derived one lesson which is of great use in after life. +I mean as regards the performance of duty. I did my tasks punctually +and cheerfully, though they were far from agreeable. This is an +exercise in early life that is very useful in later years. + +In my walks to and from the High School, the usual way was along the +North and South Bridges,--the first over the Nor' Loch, now the +railway station, and the second over the Cowgate. That was the main +street between the Old Town and the New. But there were numerous +wynds and closes (as the narrow streets are called) which led down +from the High Street and the upper part of the Canongate to the High +School, through which I often preferred to wander. So long as Old +Edinburgh was confined within its walls the nobles lived in those +narrow streets; and the Old houses are full of historical incident. +My father often pointed out these houses to me, and I loved to keep +up my recollections. I must have had a little of the antiquarian +spirit even then. I got to know the most remarkable of those ancient +houses--many of which were distinguished by the inscriptions on the +lintel of the entrance, as well as the arms of the former possessors. +Some had mottoes such as this: "BLESIT BE GOD AND HYS GIFTIS. 1584." +There was often a tower-shaped projection from the main front of the +house, up which a spiral stair proceeded. + +This is usually a feature in old Scotch buildings. But in these closes +the entrance to the houses was through a ponderous door, studded with +great broad-headed nails, with loopholes at each side of the door, +as if to present the strongest possible resistance to any attempt at +forcible entrance. Indeed, in the old times before the Union the +nobles were often as strong as the King, and many a time the High Street +was reddened by the blood of the noblest and bravest of the land. +In 1588 there was a cry of "A Naesmyth," "A Scott," in the High Street. +It was followed by a clash of arms, and two of Sir Michael Naesmyth's +sons were killed in that bloody feud. Edinburgh was often the scene of +such disasters. Hence the strengthening of their houses, so as to +resist the inroads of feudal enemies. + +[Image] Doorhead, from an old mansion + +The mason-work of the doors was executed with great care and dexterity. +It was chamfered at the edges in a bold manner, and ornamented with an +O.G. bordering, which had a fine effect while it rendered the entrance +more pleasant by the absence of sharp angles. The same style of +ornamentation was generally found round the edges of the stone-work of +the windows, most commonly by chamfering off the square angle of the +stone-work. This not only added a grim grace to the appearance of the +windows, but allowed a more free entrance of light into the apartments, +while it permitted the inmates to have a better ranged view up and down +the Close. These gloomy-looking mansions were grim in a terrible +sense, and they reminded one of the fearful transactions of +"the good old times!" + +On many occasions, when I was taking a daunder through these historic +houses in the wynds and closes of the Old Town, I have met Sir Walter +Scott showing them to his visitors, and listened to his deep, earnest +voice while narrating to them some terrible incident in regard to their +former inhabitants. On other occasions I have frequently met Sir Walter +sturdily limping along over the North Bridge, while on his way from the +Court of Session (where he acted as Clerk of the Records) to his house +in Castle Street. In the same way I saw most of the public characters +connected with the Law Courts or the University. Sir Waiter was easily +distinguished by his height, as well as his limp or halt in his walk. +My father was intimate with most, if not all, of the remarkable +Edinburgh characters, and when I had the pleasure of accompanying him +in his afternoon walks I could look at them and hear them in the +conversations that took place. + +I remember, when I was with my father in one of his walks, that a +young English artist accompanied us. He had come across the Border to +be married at Gretna Green, and he brought his bride onward to +Edinburgh. My father wished to show him some of the most remarkable +old buildings of the town. It was about the end of 1817, when one of +the most interesting buildings in Edinburgh was about to be +demolished. This was no less a place than the Old Tolbooth in the +High Street,--a grand but gloomy old building. It had been +originally used as the city palace of the Scottish kings. There they +held their councils and dispensed justice. But in course of time the +King and Court abandoned the place, and it had sunk into a gaol or +prison for the most abandoned of malefactors. After their trial the +prisoners were kept there waiting for execution, and they were hanged +on a flat-roofed portion of the building at its west end. + +[Image] The Old Tolbooth, Edinburgh. By Alexander Nasmyth. + From the drawing in the possession of lord Inglis, + Lord Justice-General. + +At one of the strongest parts of the building a strong oak chest, +iron-plated, had been built in, held fast by a thick wall of stone and +mortar on each side. The iron chest measured about nine feet square, +and was closed by a strong iron door with heavy bolts and locks. This +was the Heart of Midlothian, the condemned cell of the Tolbooth.* + [footnote... +Long after the condemned cell had been pulled down, an English Chartist +went down to Edinburgh to address a large meeting of his brother +politicians. He began by addressing them as "Men of the Heart of +Midlothian!" There was a loud guffaw throughout the audience. +He addressed them as if they were a body of condemned malefactors. + ...] + +The iron chest was so heavy that the large body of workmen could not, +with all their might, pull it out. After stripping it of its masonry, +they endeavoured by strong levers to tumble it down into the street. +At last, with a "Yo! heave ho!" it fell down with a mighty crash. + +The iron chest was so strong that it held together, and only the narrow +iron door, with its locks, bolts, and bars, was burst open, and jerked +off amongst the bystanders. + +It was quite a scene. A large crowd had assembled, and amongst them +was Sir Walter Scott. Recognising my father, he stood by him, +while both awaited the ponderous crash. Sir Walter was still the Great +Unknown. When his Heart of Midlothian was published in the course of +the following year, it was pretty well known that he was the author of +that fascinating novel. Sir Waiter got the door and the key, as +relics, for his house at Abbotsford. + +There was a rush of people towards the iron chest to look into the dark +interior of that veritable chamber of horrors. My father's artist +friend went forward with the rest, and endeavoured to pick up some +remnant of the demolished structure. As soon as the clouds of dust had +been dispersed, he observed, under the place where the iron box had +stood, a number of skeletons of rats, as dry as mummies. He selected +one of these,* + [footnote... +I was so much impressed with the events of the day, and also with the +fact of the young artist having taken with him so repulsive a memento +as a rat's skeleton, that I never forgot it. More than half century +later, when I was at a private view of the Royal Academy, I saw sitting +on one of the sofas a remarkable and venerable-looking old gentleman. +On inquiring of my friend Thomas Webster who he was, he answered, +"Why, that's old Linnell!" I then took the liberty of sitting down +beside him, and, apologising for my intrusion on his notice, I said it +was just fifty-seven years since I had last seen him! I mentioned the +circumstance of the rat-skeleton which he had put in his pocket at +Edinburgh. He was pleased and astonished to have the facts so vividly +recalled to his mind. At last he said, "Well, I have that mummy rat, +the relic of the Heart of Midlothian, safe in a cabinet of curiosities +in my house at Redhill to this day." + ...] +wrapped it in a newspaper and put it in his pocket as a recollection +of his first day in Edinburgh, and of the final destruction of the +"Heart of Midlothian." This artist was no other than John Linnell, +the afterwards famous landscape painter. He was then a young and +unknown man. He brought a letter of introduction to my father. +He also brought a landscape as a specimen of his young efforts, and it +was so splendidly done that my father augured a brilliant career for +this admirable artist. + +I had the pleasure of seeing Sir Waiter Scott on another and, to me, a +very memorable occasion. From an early period of my schoolboy days I +had a great regard for every object that had reference to bygone times. +They influenced my imagination, and conjured up in my mind dreamy +visions of the people of olden days. It did not matter whether it was +an old coin or an old castle. took pleasure in rambling about the old +castles near Edinburgh, many of them connected with the times of Mary +Queen of Scots. Craigmillar Castle was within a few miles of the city; +there was also Crighton Castle, and above all Borthwick Castle. +This grand massive old ruin left a deep impression on my mind. +The sight of its gloomy interior, with the great hall lighted up only +by stray glints of sunshine, as if struggling for access through the +small deep-seated windows in its massive walls, together with its +connection with the life and times of Queen Mary, had a far greater +influence upon my mind than I experienced while standing amidst the +Coliseum at Rome. + +Like many earnest-minded boys, I had a severe attack at the right time +of life, say from 12 to 15, of what I would call "the collecting period." +This consisted, in my case, of accumulating old coins, perhaps one of +the most salutary forms of this youthful passion. I made exchanges +with my school companions. Sometimes my father's friends, seeing my +anxiety to improve my collection gave me choice specimens of bronze and +other coins of the Roman emperors, usually duplicates from their own +collection. + +These coins had the effect of promoting my knowledge of Roman history. +I read up in order to find out the acts and deeds of the old rulers of +the civilised world. Besides collecting the coins, I used to make +careful drawings of the obverse and reverse faces of each in an +illustrated catalogue which I kept in my little coin cabinet. + +I remember one day, when sitting beside my father making a very careful +drawing of a fine bronze coin of Augustus, that Sir Walter Scott +entered the room. He frequently called upon my father in order to +consult him with respect to his architectural arrangements. Sir Walter +caught sight of me, and came forward to look over the work I was +engaged in. At his request I had the pleasure of showing him my little +store of coin treasures, after which he took out of his waistcoat +pocket a beautiful silver coin of the reign of Mary Queen of Scots, +and gave it to me as being his "young brother antiquarian." I shall +never forget the kind fatherly way in which he presented it. +I considered it a great honour to be spoken to in so friendly a way by +such a man; besides, it vastly enriched my little collection of coins +and medals. + +It was in the year 1817 that I had the pleasure, never to be forgotten, +of seeing the great engineer, James Watt. He was then close upon his +eighty-second year. His visit to Edinburgh was welcomed by the most +distinguished scientific and literary men of the city. My father had +the honour of meeting him at a dinner given by the Earl of Buchan, +at his residence in George Street. There were present, Sir James Hall, +President of the Royal Society; Francis Jeffrey, Editor of the +Edinburgh Review; Walter Scott, still the Great Unknown; and many other +distinguished notabilities. The cheerful old man delighted them with +his kindly talk, as well as astonished them with the extent and +profundity of his information. + +On the following day Mr. Watt paid my father a visit he carefully +examined his artistic and other works. Having inspected with great +pleasure some landscape paintings of various scenes in Scotland +executed by my sisters, who were then highly efficient artists, +he purchased a specimen of each, as well as three landscapes painted by +my father, as a record of his pleasant visit to the capital of his +native country. I well remember the sight I then got of the Great +Engineer. I had just returned from the High School when he was leaving +my father's house. It was but a glimpse I had of him. But his +benevolent countenance and his tall but bent figure made an impression +on my mind that I can never forget. It was even something to have seen +for a few seconds so truly great and noble a man. + +I did not long continue my passion for the collection of coins, I felt +a greater interest in mechanical pursuits. I have a most cherished and +grateful remembrance of the happy hours and days that I spent in my +father's workroom. When the weather was cold or wet ,he took refuge +with his lathe and tools, and there I followed and watched him. +He took the greatest pleasure in instructing me. Even in the most +humble mechanical job he was sure to direct my attention to the action +of the tools and to the construction of the work he had in hand, +and pointed out the manipulative processes requisite for its being +effectually carried out. My hearty zeal in assisting him was well +rewarded by his implanting in my mind the great fundamental principles +on which the practice of engineering in its grandest forms is based. +But I did not learn this all at once. It came only gradually, and by +dint of constant repetition and inculcation. In the meantime I made a +beginning by doing some little mechanical work on my own account. + +While attending the High School, from 1817 to 1820, there was the usual +rage amongst boys for spinning-tops, "peeries," and "young cannon." +By means of my father's excellent foot-lathe I turned out the +spinning-tops in capital style, so much so that I be came quite noted +amongst my school companions. They all wanted to have specimens of my +productions. They would give any price for them. The peeries were +turned with perfect accuracy, and the steel shod, or spinning pivot, +was centred so as to correspond exactly with the axis of the top. +They could spin twice as long as the bought peeries. When at full +speed they would "sleep," that is, revolve without the slightest +waving. This was considered high art as regarded top-spinning. + +Flying-kites and tissue paper balloons were articles that I was +somewhat famed for producing. There was a good deal of special skill +required for the production of a flying-kite. It must be perfectly +still and steady when at its highest flight in the air. +Paper messengers were sent up to it along the string which held it to +the ground. The top of the Calton Hill was the most favourite place +for enjoying this pleasant amusement. + +Another article for which I became equally famous was the manufacture +of small brass cannon. These I cast and bored, and mounted on their +appropriate gun-carriages. They proved very effective, especially in +the loudness of the report when fired. I also converted large +cellar-keys into a sort of hand-cannon. A touch-hole was bored into +the barrel of the key, with a sliding brass collar that allowed the +key-guns to be loaded and primed and ready for firing. The principal +occasion on which the brass cannon and hand-guns were used was on the +4th of June--King George the Thirds birthday. This was always +celebrated with exuberant and noisy loyalty. The guns of the Castle +were fired at noon, and the number of shots corresponded with the +number of years that the king had reigned. The grand old Castle was +enveloped in smoke, and the discharges reverberated along the streets +and among the surrounding hills. Everything was in holiday order. +The coaches were hung with garlands, the shops were ornamented, +the troops were reviewed on Bruntsfield Links, and the citizens drank +the king's health at the Gross, throwing the glasses over their +shoulders. The boys fired off gunpowder, or threw squibs or crackers +from morning till night. It was one of the greatest schoolboy events +of the year. My little brass cannon and hand-guns were very busy +during that day. They were fired until they became quite hot. +These were the pre-lucifer days. The fire to light the powder at the +touch-hole was obtained by the use of a flint, a steel, and a tinder-box. +The flint was struck sharply on the steel; a spark of fire fell into +the tinderbox, and the match of hemp string, soaked in saltpetre, +was readily lit, and fired off the little guns. + +I carried on quite a trade in forging beautiful little steels. +I forged them out of old files, which proved excellent material for the +purpose. I filed them up into neat and correct forms, and then +hardened and tempered them, secundum artem, at the little furnace stove +in my father's workroom, where of course there were also a suitable +anvil, hammer, and tongs. I often made potent use of these steels in +escaping from the ordeal of some severe task imposed upon me at school. +The schoolmaster often deputed his authority to the monitors to hear us +say our lessons. But when I slyly exhibited a beautiful steel the +monitor could not maintain his grim sense of duty, and he often let me +escape the ordeal of repeating some passage from a Latin school-book by +obtaining possession of the article. I thus bought myself off. +This system of bribery and corruption was no doubt shockingly improper, +but as I was not naturally endowed with the taste for learning Latin +and Greek, I continued my little diplomatic tricks until I left school. + +As I have said, I did not learn much at the High School. My mind was +never opened up by what was taught me there. It was a mere matter of +rote and cram. I learnt by heart a number of Latin rules and phrases, +but what I learnt soon slipped from my memory. My young mind was +tormented by the tasks set before me. At the same time my hungry mind +thirsted for knowledge of another kind. + +There was one thing, however, that I did learn at the High School. That +was the blessings and advantages of friendship. There were several of +my schoolfellows of a like disposition with myself, with whom I formed +attachments which ended only with life. I may mention two of them in +particular--Jemmy Patterson and Tom Smith. The former was the son of +one of the largest iron founders in Edinburgh. He was kind, good, and +intelligent. He and I were great cronies. He took me to his father's +workshops. Nothing could have been more agreeable to my tastes. +For there I saw how iron castings were made. Mill-work and +steam-engines were repaired there, and I could see the way in which +power was produced and communicated. To me it was a most instructive +school of practical mechanics. Although I was only about thirteen at +the time, I used to "lend a hand," in which hearty zeal made up for +want of strength. I look back to these days, especially to the +Saturday afternoons spent in the workshops of this admirably conducted +iron foundry, as a most important part of my education as a mechanical +engineer. I did not read about such things; for words were of little +use. But I saw and handled, and thus all the ideas in connection with +them became permanently rooted in my mind. + +Each department of the iron foundry was superintended by an able and +intelligent man, who was distinguished not only by his ability but +for his steadiness and sobriety. The men were for the most part +promoted to their fore-manship from the ranks, and had been brought +up in the workshop from their boyhood. They possessed a strong +individuality of character, and served their employer faithfully and +loyally. One of these excellent men, with whom I was frequently +brought into contact, was William Watson. He took special charge of +all that related to the construction and repairs of steam-engines, +water-wheels, and mill-work generally. He was a skilful designer and +draughtsman, and an excellent pattern maker. His designs were drawn +in a bold and distinct style, on large deal boards, and were passed +into the hands of the mechanics to be translated by them into actual +work. It was no small privilege to me to stand by, and now and then +hold the end of the long straight edge, or by some humble but zealous +genuine help of mine contribute to the progress of these substantial +and most effective mechanical drawings. Watson explained to me, +in the most common-sense manner, his reasons for the various forms, +arrangements, and proportions of the details of his designs. He was +an enthusiast on the subject of Euclid; and to see the beautiful +problems applied by him in working out his excellent drawings was to me +a lesson beyond all price. + +Watson was effectively assisted by his two sons, who carried out their +father's designs in constructing the wood patterns after which the +foundry-men or moulders reproduced their forms in cast iron, while the +smiths by their craft realised the wrought-iron portions. Those sons of +Mr. Watson were of that special class of workmen called millwrights-- +a class now almost extinct, though many of the best known engineers +originally belonged to them. They could work with equal effectiveness +in wood or iron. + +Another foreman in Mr. Patterson's foundry was called Lewis. He had +special charge of the iron castings designed for architectural and +ornamental purposes. He was a man of great taste and artistic +feeling, and I was able even at that time to appreciate the beauty of +his designs. One of the most original characters about the foundry, +however, was Johnie Syme. He took charge of the old Boulton and Watt +steam-engine, which gave motion to the machinery of the works. +It also produced the blast for the Cupolas, in which the pig and cast +iron scrap was daily melted and cast into the various objects produced +in the foundry. Johnie was a complete incarnation of technical +knowledge. He was the Jack-of-all-trades of the establishment; +and the standing counsel in every out-of-the-way case of managing and +overcoming mechanical difficulties. He was the superintendent of the +boring machines. In those days the boring of a steam-engine cylinder +was considered high art in excelsis! Patterson's firm was celebrated +for the accuracy of its boring. + +I owe Johnie Syme a special debt of gratitude, as it was he who first +initiated me into that most important of all technical processes in +practical mechanism--the art of hardening and temperinq steel. +It is, perhaps, not saying too much to assert that the successful +practice of the mechanical arts, by means of which man rises from the +savage to the civilised state, is due to that wonderful change. +Man began with wood, and stone, and bone; he proceeded to bronze and +iron; but it was only by means of hardened steel that he could +accomplish anything in arms, in agriculture, or in architecture. +The instant hardening which occurs on plunging a red-hot piece of steel +into cold water may well be described as mysterious. Even in these +days, when science has defined the causes of so many phenomena, +the reason of steel becoming hard on suddenly cooling it down from a +red-heat, is a fact that no one has yet explained. The steel may be +tempered by modifying the degree of heat to which it is afterwards +subjected. It may thus be toughened by slightly reheating the hardened +steel; the resoftening course is indicated by certain prismatic tints, +which appear in a peculiar order of succession on its surface. +The skilful artisan thus knows by experience the exact point at which +it is necessary again to plunge it into cold water in order to secure +the requisite combination of toughness and hardness to the steel +required for his purposes. + +In all these matters, my early instructor, Johnie Syme, gave me such +information as proved of the greatest use to me in the after progress +of my mechanical career. Johnie Syme was also the very incarnation of +quaint sly humour; and when communicating some of his most valued +arcana of practical mechanical knowledge he always reminded me of some +of Ostade's Dutchmen, by an almost indescribable sly humorous twinkle +of the eye, which in that droll way stamped his information on my +memory. + +Tom Smith was another of my attached cronies. Our friendship began at +the High School in 1818. Our similarity of disposition bound us +together. Smith was the son of an enterprising general merchant at +Leith. His father had a special genius for practical chemistry. +He had established an extensive colour manufactory at Portobello, near +Edinburgh, where he produced white lead, red lead, and a great variety +of colours--in the preparation of which he required a thorough +knowledge of chemistry.Tom Smith inherited his father's tastes, and +admitted me to share in his experiments, which were carried on in a +chemical laboratory situated behind his father's house at the bottom of +Leith Walk. + +We had a special means of communication. When anything particular was +going on at the laboratory, Tom hoisted a white flag on the top of a +high pole in his father's garden. Though I was more than a mile apart, +I kept a look-out in the direction of the laboratory with a spy-glass. +My father's house was at the top of Leith Walk, and Smith's house was +at the bottom of it. When the flag was hoisted I could clearly see the +invitation to me to "come down." I was only too glad to run down the +Walk and join my chum, and take part with him in some interesting +chemical process. Mr. Smith, the father, made me heartily welcome. +He was pleased to see his son so much attached to me, and he perhaps +believed that I was worthy of his friendship. We took zealous part in +all the chemical proceedings, and in that way Tom was fitting himself +for the business of his life. + +Mr. Smith was a most genial tempered man. He was shrewd and +quick-witted, like a native of York, as he was. I received the +greatest kindness from him as well as from his family. His house was +like a museum. It was full of cabinets, in which were placed choice +and interesting objects in natural history, geology, mineralogy, and +metallurgy. All were represented. Many of these specimens had been +brought to him from abroad by his ship captains who transported his +colour manufactures and other commodities to foreign parts. + +My friend Tom Smith and I made it a rule--and in this we were +encouraged by his father--that, so far as was possible, we ourselves +should actually make the acids and other substances used in our +experiments. We were not to buy them ready made, as this would have +taken the zest out of our enjoyment. We should have lost the pleasure +and instruction of producing them by aid of our own wits and energies. +To encounter and overcome a difficulty is the most interesting of all +things. Hence, though often baffled, we eventually produced perfect +specimens of nitrous, nitric, and muriatic acids. We distilled alcohol +from duly fermented sugar and water, and rectified the resultant spirit +from fusel oil by passing the alcoholic vapour through animal charcoal +before it entered the worm of the still. We converted part of the +alcohol into sulphuric ether. We produced phosphorus from bones, +and elaborated many of the mysteries of chemistry. + +The amount of practical information which we obtained by this system of +making our own chemical agents was such as to reward us, in many +respects, for the labour we underwent. To outsiders it might appear a +very troublesome and roundabout way of getting at the finally desired +result. But I feel certain that there is no better method of rooting +chemical or any other instruction, deeply in our minds. Indeed, I +regret that the same system is not pursued by young men of the present +day. They are seldom, if ever, called upon to exert their own wits and +industry to obtain the requisites for their instruction. A great deal +is now said about "technical education"; but how little there is of +technical handiness or head work! Everything is bought ready made to +their hands; and hence there is no call for individual ingenuity. + +I often observe, in shop-windows, every detail of model ships and model +steam-engines, supplied ready made for those who are "said to be" of an +ingenious and mechanical turn. Thus the vital uses of resourcefulness +are done away with, and a sham exhibition of mechanical genius is +paraded before you by the young impostors--the result, for the most +part, of too free a supply of pocket money. I have known too many +instances of parents, led by such false evidence of constructive skill, +apprenticing their sons to some engineering firm; and, after paying +vast sums, finding out that the pretender comes out of the engineering +shop with no other practical accomplishment than that of cigar-smoking! + +The truth is that the eyes and the fingers--the bare fingers--are +the two principal inlets to sound practical instruction. They are the +chief sources of trustworthy knowledge as to all the materials and +operations which the engineer has to deal with, No book knowledge can +avail for that purpose. The nature and properties of the materials +must come in through the finger ends. Hence, I have no faith in young +engineers who are addicted to wearing gloves. Gloves, especially kid +gloves, are perfect non-conductors of technical knowledge. +This has really more to do with the efficiency of young aspirants for +engineering success than most people are aware of! + + +CHAPTER 6. Mechanical Beginnings. + +I left the High School at the end of 1820. I carried with me a small +amount of Latin, and no Greek. I do not think I was much the better +for my small acquaintance with the dead languages. I wanted something +more living and quickening. I continued my studies at private classes. +Arithmetic and geometry were my favourite branches.The three first +books of Euclid were to me a new intellectual life. They brought out +my power of reasoning. They trained me mentally. They enabled me to +arrive at correct conclusions, and to acquire a knowledge of absolute +truths. It is because of this that I have ever since held the +beautifully perfect method of reasoning, as exhibited in the exact +method of arriving at Q.E.D., to be one of the most satisfactory +efforts and exercises of the human intellect. + +Besides visiting and taking part in the works at Patterson's foundry, +and joining in the chemical experiments at Smith's laboratory, my +father gave me every opportunity for practising the art of drawing. +He taught me to sketch with exactness every object, whether natural or +artificial, so as to enable the hand to accurately reproduce what the +eye had seen. In order to acquire this almost invaluable art, which +can serve so many valuable purposes in life, he was careful to educate +my eye, so that I might perceive the relative proportions of the +objects placed before me. He would throw down at random a number of +bricks, or pieces of wood representing them, and set me to copy their +forms, their proportions, their lights and shadows respectively. + +I have often heard him say that any one who could make a correct +drawing in regard to outline, and also indicate by a few effective +touches the variation of lights and shadows of such a group of model +object's, might not despair of making a good and correct sketch of the +exterior of York Minster! + +My father was an enthusiast in praise of this graphic language, +and I have followed his example. In fact, it formed a principal part +of my own education. It gave me the power of recording observations +with a few graphic strokes of the pencil, which far surpassed in +expression any number of mere words. This graphic eloquence is one +of the highest gifts in conveying clear and correct ideas as to the +forms of objects--whether they be those of a simple and familiar +kind, or of some form of mechanical construction, or of the details of +fine building, or the characteristic features of a wide-stretching +landscape. This accomplishment of accurate drawing, which I achieved +for the most part in my father's work-room, served me many a good turn +in future years with reference to the engineering work which became the +business of my life. + +I was constantly busy. Mind, hands, and body were kept in a state of +delightful and instructive activity. When not drawing, I occupied +myself in my father's workshop at the lathe, the furnace, or the bench. +I gradually became initiated into every variety of mechanical and +chemical manipulation. I made my own tools and constructed my chemical +apparatus, as far as lay in my power. With respect to the latter, +I constructed a very handy and effective blowpipe apparatus, consisting +of a small air force-pump, connected with a cylindrical vessel of tin +plate. By means of an occasional use of the handy pump, it yielded +such a fine steady blowpipe blast, as enabled me to bend glass tubes +and blow bulbs for thermometers, to analyse metals or mineral substances, +or to do any other work for which intense heat was necessary. +My natural aptitude for manipulation, whether in mechanical or chemical +operations, proved very serviceable to myself as well as to others; +and (as will be shown hereafter) it gained for me the friendship of +many distinguished scientific men. + +But I did not devote myself altogether to experiments. Exercise is +as necessary for the body as the mind. Without full health a man +cannot enjoy comfort, nor can he possess endurance. I therefore took +plenty of exercise out of doors. I accompanied my father in his walks +round Edinburgh. My intellect was kept alive during these delightful +excursions. For sometimes my father was accompanied by brother-artists, +whose conversation is always so attractive; and sometimes by scientific +men, such as Sir James Hall, Professor Leslie, Dr. Brewster, and others. +Whatever may have been my opportunities for education so-called, +nothing could have better served the purpose of real education +(the evolution of the mental faculties) than the opportunities I +enjoyed while accompanying and listening to the conversation of men +distinguished for their originality of thought and their high +intellectual capacity. This was a mental culture of the best kind. + +The volcanic origin of the beautiful scenery round Edinburgh was often +the subject of their conversation. Probably few visitors are aware +that all those remarkable eminences, which give to the city and its +surroundings so peculiar and romantic an aspect, are the results of the +operation, during inconceivably remote ages, of volcanic force +penetrating the earth's crust by disruptive power, and pouring forth +streams of molten lava, now shrunk and cooled into volcanic rock. +The observant eye, opened by the light of Science, can see unmistakable +evidences of a condition of things which were in action at periods so +remote as, in comparison, to shrink up the oldest of human records into +events of yesterday. + +I had often the privilege of standing by and hearing the philosophic +Leslie, Brewster, and Hall, discussing these volcanic remains in their +actual presence; sometimes at Arthur's Seat or on the Calton Hill, +or at the rock on which Edinburgh Castle stands, Their observations +sank indelibly into my memory, and gave me the key to the origin of +this grand class of terrestrial phenomena. When standing at the +"Giant's Ribs," on the south side of Arthur's Seat, I felt as if one +of the grandest pages of the earth's history lay open before me. +The evidences of similar volcanic action abound in many other places +near Edinburgh; and they may be traced right across Scotland from the +Bass Rock to Fingal's Cave, the Giant's Causeway in Antrim, and Slievh +League on the south-west coast of Donegal in Ireland. + +Volcanic action, in some inconceivably remote period of the earth's +crust history, has been the Plough, and after denudation by water, +has been the Harrow, by which the originally deep-seated mineral +treasures of the globe have been brought within the reach of man's +industrial efforts. It has thus yielded him inexhaustible mineral +harvests, and helped him to some of the most important material +elements in his progress towards civilisation. It is from this +consideration that, while enjoying the results of these grand +fundamental actions of the Creator's mighty agencies in their +picturesque aspect, the knowledge of their useful results to man adds +vastly to the grandeur of the contemplation of their aspect and nature. +This great subject caused me, even at this early period of my life, to +behold with special interest the first peep at the structure of the +moon's surface, as revealed to me by an excellent Ramsden "spy-glass," +which my father possessed, and thus planted the seed of that earnest +desire to scrutinise more minutely the moon's wonderful surface, which +in after years I pursued by means of the powerful reflecting telescopes +constructed by myself. + +To turn to another subject. In 1822 the loyalty of Scotland was +greatly excited when George the Fourth paid his well-known visit to +Edinburgh. It was then the second greatest city in the kingdom, +and had not been visited by royalty for about 170 years. The civic +authorities, and the inhabitants generally, exerted themselves to the +utmost to give the king a cordial welcome, in spite of a certain +feeling of dissatisfaction as to his personal character. The recent +trial and death of Queen Caroline had not been forgotten, yet all such +recollections were suppressed in the earnest desire to show every +respect to the royal visitor. Edinburgh was crowded with people from +all parts of the country; heather was arrayed on every bonnet and hat; +and the reception was on the whole magnificent. Perhaps the most +impressive spectacle was the orderliness of the multitude, all arrayed +in their Sunday clothes. The streets, windows; and house-tops were +crowded; and the Calton Hill, Salisbury Crags, and even Arthur's Seat +it self, were covered with people. On the night before the arrival a +gigantic bonfire on Arthur's Seat lit up with a tremendous blaze the +whole city, as well as the surrounding country. It formed a +magnificent and picturesque sight, illuminating the adjacent mountains +as well as the prominent features of the city. It made one imagine +that the grand old volcanic mountain had once more, after a rest of +some hundreds of thousands of years, burst out again in its former +vehemence of eruptive activity. + +There were, of course, many very distinguished men who took part in the +pageant of the king's entry into Edinburgh, but none of them had their +presence more cordially acknowledged than Sir Walter Scott, who never +felt more proud of "his own romantic town" than he did upon this +occasion. It is unnecessary to mention the many interesting features +of the royal reception. The king's visit lasted for seven or eight +days, and everything passed off loyally, orderly, happily, +and successfully. + +Shortly after this time there was a great deal of distress among the +labouring classes. All the manufacturing towns were short of +employment, and the weavers and factory workers were thrown upon the +public. Many of the workmen thought that politics were the causes of +their suffering. Radical clubs were formed, and the Glasgow weavers +began to drill at nights in the hopes of setting things to rights by +means of physical force. A large number of the starving weavers came +to Edinburgh. A committee was formed, and contributions were +collected, for the purpose of giving them temporary employment. +They were set to work to make roads and walks round the Calton Hill and +Crags. The fine walk immediately under the precipitous crags, which +opens out such perfect panoramic views of Edinburgh, was made by these +poor fellows. It was hard work for their delicate hands and fingers, +which before had been accustomed only to deal with threads and soft +fabrics. They were very badly suited for handling the mattock, shovel, +and hand-barrow. The result of their labours, however, proved of great +advantage to Edinburgh in opening up the beauties of its scenery. +The road round the crags is still called "The Radical Road." + +Let me here mention one of the most memorable incidents of the year +1824. I refer to the destructive fire which took place in the old town +of Edinburgh. It broke out in an apartment situated in one of the +highest piles of houses in the High Street. In spite of every effort +of the firemen the entire pile was gutted and destroyed. The fire was +thought to be effectually arrested; but towards the afternoon of the +next day smoke was observed issuing from the upper part of the steeple +of the Tron Church. The steeple was built of timber, covered with +lead. There is never smoke but there is fire; and at last the flames +burst forth. The height of the spire was so lofty that all attempts to +extinguish the fire were hopeless. The lead was soon melted, and +rushed in streams into the street below. At length the whole steeple +fell down with a frightful crash. + +I happened to see the first outbreak of this extraordinary fire, and I +watched its progress to its close. Burning embers were carried by the +wind and communicated the fire to neighbouring houses. The last +outburst took place one night about ten. All the fire-engines of +Edinburgh and the neighbourhood were collected round the buildings, +and played water upon the flames, but without effect. Whole ranges of +lofty old houses were roaring with fire. In the course of two or three +hours, several acres, covered by the loftiest and most densely crowded +houses in the High Street, were in a blaze. Some of them were of +thirteen stories. Floor after floor came crashing down, throwing out a +blaze of embers. The walls of each house acted as an enormous chimney +--the windows acting as draught-holes. The walls, under the intense +heat, were fluxed and melted into a sort of glass. The only method of +stopping the progress of the fire was to pull down the neighbouring +houses, so as to isolate the remaining parts of the High Street. + +As the parapet of the grand old tower of the High Church, St. Giles, +was near the site of the fire,--so near as to enable one to look down +into it,--my father obtained permission to ascend, and I with him. +When we emerged from the long dark spiral stairs on to the platform on +the top of the tower, we found a select party of the most distinguished +inhabitants looking down into the vast area of fire; and prominent +among them was Sir Walter Scott. At last, after three days of +tremendous efforts, the fire was subdued; but not till after a terrible +destruction of property. The great height of the ruined remains of the +piles of houses rendered it impossible to have them removed by the +ordinary means. After several fruitless attempts with chains and +ropes, worked by capstans, to pull them down, gunpowder was at last +resorted to. Mines were dug under each vast pile; one or two barrels +of gunpowder were placed into them and fired; and then the before solid +masses came tumbling down amidst clouds of dust. The management of +this hazardous but eventually safe process was conducted by Captain +Basil Ball. He ordered a crew of sailors to be brought up from the +man-of-war guardship in the Firth of Forth; and by their united efforts +the destruction of the ruined walls was at last successfully +accomplished. + +In the autumn of 1823, when I was fifteen years old, I had a most +delightful journey with my father. It was the first occasion on which +I had been a considerable distance from home. And yet the journey was +only to Stirling. My father had received a commission to paint a view +of the castle as seen from the ruins of Cambuskenneth Abbey, situated a +few miles from the town. We started from Newhaven by a small steamboat, +passing, on our way up the Firth, Queensferry, Culross, and Alloa. +We then entered the windings of the river, from which I saw the Ochils, +a noble range of bright green mountains. The passage of the steamer +through the turns and windings of the Forth was most interesting. + +We arrived at Stirling, and at once proceeded to Cambuskenneth Abbey, +where there was a noble old Gothic tower. This formed the foreground +of my father's careful sketch, with Stirling Castle in the background, +and Ben Lomond with many other of the Highland mountains in the +distance. As my father wished to make a model of the Gothic tower, +he desired me to draw it carefully, and to take the dimensions of all +the chief parts as well as to make detailed sketches of its minor +architectural features. It was a delightful autumn afternoon, and, +before the day had closed, our work at the abbey was done. We returned +to Stirling and took a walk round the castle to see the effect of the +sun setting behind the Highland mountains. + +Next morning we visited the castle. I was much interested with the +interior, especially with a beautifully decorated Gothic oratory or +private chapel, used by the Scottish kings when they resided at +Stirling. The oratory had been converted with great taste into an +ante-drawingroom of the governor's house. The exquisite decorations of +this chapel* + [footnote... +This exquisite specimen of a carved oak Gothic apartment had a terrible +incident in Scottish history connected with it. It was in this place +that The Douglas intruded his presence on James the Third. He urged +his demands in a violent and threatening manner, and afterwards laid +hands upon the king. The latter, in defending himself with his dagger, +wounded the Douglas mortally; and to get rid of the body the king cast +it out of the window of the chapel, where it fell down the precipitous +rock underneath. The chapel has since been destroyed by fire. + ...] +were the first specimens of Gothic carving in oak that I had ever seen, +and they seemed to put our modern carvings to shame. The Great Hall, +where the Scottish Parliament used to meet, was also very interesting +as connected with the ancient history of the country. + +From Stirling we walked to Alloa, passing the picturesque cascades +rushing down the cleft's of the Ochils. We put up for the night at +Clackmannan, a very decayed and melancholy-looking village, though it +possessed a fine specimen of the Scottish castellated tower. It is +said that Robert Bruce slept here before the Battle of Bannockburn. +But the most interesting thing that I saw during the journey was the +Devon Ironworks. I had read and heard about the processes carried on +there in smelting iron ore and running it into pig-iron. The origin of +the familiar trade term "pig-iron" is derived from the result of the +arrangement most suitable for distributing the molten iron as it rushes +forth from the opening made at the bottom part of the blast-furnace; +when, after its reduction from the ore, it collects in a fluid mass of +several tons weight. Previous to "tapping" the furnace a great central +channel is made in the sand-covered floor of the forge; this central +channel is then subdivided into many lateral branches or canals, into +which the molten iron flows, and eventually hardens. + +The great steam-engine that worked the blast furnace was the largest I +had ever seen. A singular expedient was employed at these works, of +using a vast vault hewn in the solid rock of the hillside for the +purpose of storing up the blast produced by the engines, and so +equalising the pressure; thus turning a mountain side into a reservoir +for the use of a blast-furnace. This seemed to me a daring and +wonderful engineering feat. + +We waited at the works until the usual time had arrived for letting out +the molten iron which had been accumulating at the lower part of the +blast-furnace. It was a fine sight to see the stream of white-hot iron +flowing like water into the large gutter immediately before the +opening. From this the molten iron flowed on until it filled the +moulds of sand which branched off from the central gutter. The iron +left in the centre, when cooled and broken up, was called sow metal, +while that in the branches was called pig iron; the terms being derived +from the appearance of a sow engaged in its maternal duties. +The pig-iron is thus cast in handy-sized pieces for the purpose of +being transported to other iron foundries; while the clumsy sow metal +is broken up and passes through another process of melting, or is +reserved for foundry uses at the works where it is produced. +After inspecting with great pleasure the machinery connected with the +foundry, we took our leave and returned to Edinburgh by steamer from +Alloa. + +Shortly after, I had the good fortune to make the acquaintance of +Robert Bald, the well-known mining engineer. He was one of the most +kind-hearted men I have ever known. He was always ready to communicate +his knowledge to young and old. His sound judgment and long practical +experience in regard to coal-mining and the various machinery connected +with it, rendered him a man of great importance in the northern +counties, where his advice was eagerly sought for. Besides his special +knowledge, he had a large acquaintance with literature and science. +He was bright, lively, and energetic. He was a living record of good +stories, and in every circle in which he moved he was the focus of +cheerfulness. In fact, there was no greater social favourite in +Edinburgh than Robert Bald. + +Bald was very fond of young people, and he became much attached to me. +He used to come to my father's house, and often came in to see what I +was about in the work-room. He was rejoiced to see the earnest and +industrious manner in which I was employed, in preparing myself for my +proposed business as an engineer. He looked over my tools, mostly of +my own making, and gave me every encouragement. When he had any +visitors he usually brought them and introduced them to me. In this +way I had the happiness to make the acquaintance of Robert Napier, +Nelson, and Cook, of Glasgow; and in after life I continued to enjoy +their friendship. It would be difficult for me to detail the acts of +true disinterested kindness which I continued to receive from this +admirable man. + +On several occasions he wished me to accompany him on his business +journeys, in order that I might see some works that would supply me +with valuable information. He had designed a powerful pumping engine +to drain more effectually a large colliery district situated near +Bannockburn--close to the site of the great battle in the time of +Robert the Bruce. He invited me to join him. It was with the greatest +pleasure that I accepted his invitation; for there would be not only +the pleasure of seeing a noble piece of steam machinery brought into +action for the first time, but also the enjoyment of visiting the +celebrated Carron Ironworks. + +The Carron Ironworks are classic ground to engineers. They are +associated with the memory of Roebuck, Watt, and Miller of Dalswinton. +For there Roebuck and Watt began the first working steam-engine; Miller +applied the steam-engine to the purposes of navigation, and invented +the Carronade gun. The works existed at an early period in the history +of British iron manufacture. Much of the machinery continued to be of +wood. Although effective in a general way it was monstrously cumbrous. +It gave the idea of vast power and capability of resistance, while it +was far from being so in reality. It was, however, truly imposing and +impressive in its effect upon strangers. When seen partially lit up by +the glowing masses of white-hot iron, with only the rays of bright +sunshine gleaming through a few holes in the roof, and the dark, black, +smoky vaults in which the cumbrous machinery was heard rumbling away in +the distance--while the moving parts were dimly seen through the +murky atmosphere, mixed with the sounds of escaping steam and rushes of +water; with the half-naked men darting about with masses of red-hot +iron and ladles full of molten cast-iron--it made a powerful +impression upon the mind. + +I was afterwards greatly interested by a collection of old armour, dug +up from the field of the Battle of Bannockburn close at hand. They were +arranged on the walls of the house of the manager of the Carron +Ironworks. There were swords, daggers, lances, battle-axes, shields, +and coats of chain-armour. Some of the latter were whole, others in +fragmentary portions. I was particularly interested with the admirable +workmanship of the coats of mail. The iron links extended from the +covering of the head to the end of the arms, and from the shoulders +down to the hips, in one linked iron fabric. The beauty and exactness +with which this chain-armour had been forged and built up were truly +wonderful. There must have been "giants in those days." This grand +style of armour was in use from the time of the Conquest, and was most +effective in the way of protection, as it was fitted by its flexibility +to give full play to the energetic action of the wearer. It was +infinitely superior to the senseless plate-armour that was used, at a +subsequent period, to encase soldiers like lobsters. The chain-armour +I saw at Carron left a deep impression on my mind. I never see a bit +of it, or of its representation in the figures on our grand tombs of +the thirteenth century, but I think of my first sight of it at Carron +and of the tremendous conflict at Bannockburn. + +Remembering, also, the impressive sight of the picturesque fire-lit +halls, and the terrible-looking, cumbrous machinery which I first +beheld on a grand scale at Carron, I have often regretted that some of +our artists do not follow up the example set them by that admirable +painter, Wright of Derby, and treat us to the pictures of some of our +great ironworks. They not only abound with the elements of the +picturesque in its highest sense, but also set forth the glory of the +useful arts in such a way as would worthily call forth the highest +power of our artists. + +To return to my life at Edinburgh. I was now seventeen years old. +I had acquired a considerable amount of practical knowledge as to the +use and handling of mechanical tools, and I desired to turn it to some +account. I was able to construct working models of steam-engines and +other apparatus required for the illustration of mechanical subjects. +I began with making a small working steam engine for the purpose of +grinding the oil-colours used by my father in his artistic work. +The result was quite satisfactory. Many persons came to see my active +little steam-engine at work, and they were so pleased with it that I +received several orders for small workshop engines, and also for some +models of steam-engines to illustrate the subjects taught at Mechanics' +Institutions. + +[Image] Sectional model of condensing steam-engine. By James Nasmyth + +I contrived a sectional model of a complete condensing steam-engine of +the beam and parallel motion construction. The model, as seen from one +side, exhibited every external detail in full and due action when the +flywheel was moved round by hand; while, on the other or sectional +side, every detail of the interior was seen, with the steam-valves and +air-pump, as well as the motion of the piston in the cylinder, with the +construction of the piston and the stuffing box, together with the +slide-valve and steam passages, all in due position and relative +movement. + +The first of these sectional models of the steam-engine was made for +the Edinburgh School of Arts, where its uses in instructing mechanics +and others in the application of steam were highly appreciated. +The second was made for Professor Leslie, of the Edinburgh University, +for use in his lectures on Natural Philosophy. The professor had, +at his own private cost, provided a complete and excellent set of +apparatus, which, for excellent workmanship and admirable utility, +had never, I believe, been provided for the service of any university. +He was so pleased with my addition to his class-room apparatus, that, +besides expressing his great thanks for my services, he most handsomely +presented me with a free ticket to his Natural Philosophy class as a +regular student, so long as it suited me to make use of his instruction. +But far beyond this, as a reward for my earnest endeavours to satisfy +this truly great philosopher, was the kindly manner in which he on all +occasions communicated to me conversationally his original and masterly +views on the great fundamental principles of Natural Philosophy-- +especially as regarded the principles of Dynamics and the Philosophy of +Mechanics. The clear views which he communicated in his conversation, +as well as in his admirable lectures, vividly illustrated by the +experiments which he had originated, proved of great advantage to me; +and I had every reason to consider his friendship and his teaching as +amongst the most important elements in my future success as a practical +engineer. + +Having referred to the Edinburgh School of Arts, I feel it necessary to +say something about the origin of that excellent institution. +A committee of the most distinguished citizens of Edinburgh was formed +for the purpose of instituting a college in which working men and +mechanics might possess the advantages of instruction in the principles +on which their various occupations were conducted. Among the committee +were Leonard Horner, Francis Jeffrey, Henry Cockburn, John Murray of +Henderland, Alexander Bryson, James Mline, John Miller, the Lord Provost, +and various members of the Council. Their efforts succeeded, and the +institution was founded. The classes were opened in 1821, in which +year I became a student. + +In order to supply the students, who were chiefly young men of the +working class, with sound instruction in the various branches of +science, the lectures were delivered and the classes were superintended +by men of established ability in their several departments. +This course was regularly pursued from its fundamental and elementary +principles to the highest point of scientific instruction. +The consecutive lectures and examinations extended, as in the +University, from October to May in each year's session. It was, in +fact, our first technical college. In these later days when so many of +our so-called Mechanics' Institutes are merely cheap reading-clubs for +the middle classes, and the lectures are delivered for the most part +merely for a pleasant evening' s amusement, it seems to me that we have +greatly departed from the original design with which Mechanics' +Institutions were founded. + +As the Edinburgh School of Arts was intended for the benefit of +mechanics, the lectures and classes were held in the evening after the +day's work was over. The lectures on chemistry were given by Dr. Fyfe +--an excellent man. His clearness of style, his successful +experiments, and the careful and graphic method by which he carried his +students from the first fundamental principles to the highest points of +chemical science, attracted a crowded and attentive audience. Not less +interesting were the lectures on Mechanical Philosophy, which in my +time were delivered by Dr. Lees and Mr.Buchanan. The class of +Geometry and Mathematics was equally well conducted, though the +attendance was not so great. + +The building which the directors had secured for the lecture-hall and +class-rooms of the institution was situated at the lower end of Niddry +Street, nearly under the great arch of the South Bridge. It had been +built about a hundred years before, and was formerly used by an +association of amateur musicians, who gave periodical concerts of vocal +and instrumental music. The orchestra was now converted into a noble +lecture table, with accommodation for any amount of apparatus that +might be required for the purposes of illustration. The seats were +arranged in the body of the hall in concentric segments, with the +lecture table as their centre. In an alcove fight opposite the +lecturer might often be seen the directors of the institution-- +Jeffrey, Horner, Murray, and others--who took every opportunity of +dignifying by their presence this noble gathering of earnest and +intelligent working men. + +A library of scientific books was soon added to the institution, by +purchases or by gifts. Such was the eagerness to have a chance of +getting the book you wanted that I remember standing on many occasions +for some time amidst a number of applicants awaiting the opening of the +door on an evening library night. It was as crowded as if I had been +standing at the gallery door of the theatre on a night when some +distinguished star from London was about to make his appearance. +There was the same eagerness to get a good place in the lecture-room, +as near to the lecture table as possible, especially on the chemistry +nights. + +I continued my regular attendance at this admirable institution from +1821 to 1826. I am glad to find that it still continues in active +operation. In November 1880 the number of students attending the +Edinburgh School of Arts amounted to two thousand five hundred! I have +been led to this prolix account of the beginning of the institution by +the feeling that I owe a deep debt of gratitude to it, and because of +the instructive and intellectually enjoyable evenings which I spent +there, in fitting myself for entering upon the practical work of my +life. + +The successful establishment of the Edinburgh School of Arts had a +considerable effect throughout the country. Similar institutions were +established, lectures were delivered, and the necessary illustrations +were acquired--above all, the working models of the steam-engine. +There was quite a run upon me for supplying them. My third working +model was made to the order of Robert Bald, for the purpose of being +presented to the Alloa Mechanics' Institute; the fourth was +manufactured for Mr. G. Buchanan, who lectured on mechanical subjects +throughout the country; and the fifth was supplied to a Mr. Offley, an +English gentleman who took a fancy for the model when he came to +purchase some of my father's works. + +The price I charged for my models was #10; and with the pecuniary +results I made over one-third to my father, as a sort of help to +remunerate him for my "keep," and with the rest I purchased tickets of +admission to certain classes in the University. I attended the +Chemistry course under Dr. Hope; the Geometry and Mathematical course +under Professor Wallace; and the Natural Philosophy course under my +valued friend and patron Professor Leslie. What with my attendance +upon the classes, and my workshop and drawing occupations, my time did +not hang at all heavy on my hands. + +I got up early in the mornings to work at my father's lathe, and I sat +up late at night to do the brass castings in my bedroom. Some of this, +however, I did during the day-time, when not attending the University +classes. The way in which I converted my bedroom into a brass foundry +was as follows: I took up the carpet so that there might be nothing +but the bare boards to be injured by the heat. My furnace in the grate +was made of four plates of stout sheet-iron, lined with fire-brick, +corner to corner. To get the requisite sharp draught I bricked up with +single bricks the front of the fireplace, leaving a hole at the back of +the furnace for the short pipe just to fit into. The fuel was +generally gas coke and cinders saved from the kitchen. The heat I +raised was superb--a white heat, sufficient to melt in a crucible six +or eight pounds of brass. + +Then I had a box of moulding sand, where the moulds were gently rammed +in around the pattern previous to the casting. But how did I get my +brass? All the old brassworks in my father's workshop drawers and boxes +were laid under contribution. This brass being for the most part soft +and yellow, I made it extra hard by the addition of a due proportion of +tin. It was then capable of retaining a fine edge. When I had +exhausted the stock of old brass, I had to buy old copper, or new, +in the form of ingot or tile copper, and when melted I added to it +one-eighth of its weight of pure tin, which yielded the strongest alloy +of the two metals. When cast into any required form this was a treat +to work, so sound and close was the grain, and so durable in resisting +wear and tear. This is the true bronze or gun metal. + +When melted, the liquid brass was let into the openings, until the +whole of the moulds were filled. After the metal cooled it was taken +out; and when the room was sorted up no one could have known that my +foundry operations had been carried on in my bedroom. My brass foundry +was right over my father's bedroom. He had forbidden me to work late +at night, as I did occasionally on the sly. Sometimes when I ought to +have been asleep I was detected by the sound of the ramming in of the +sand of the moulding boxes. On such occasions my father let me know +that I was disobeying his orders by rapping on the ceiling of his +bedroom with a slight wooden rod of ten feet that he kept for measuring +purposes. But I got over that difficulty by placing a bit of old +carpet under my moulding boxes as a non-conductor of sound, so that no +ramming could afterwards be heard. My dear mother also was afraid that +I should damage my health by working so continuously. She would come +into the workroom late in the evening, when I was working at the lathe +or the vice, and say, "Ye'll kill yerself, laddie, by working so hard +and so late". Yet she took a great pride in seeing me so busy and so +happy. + +Nearly the whole of my steam-engine models were made in my father's +workroom. His foot-lathe and stove, together with my brass casting +arrangements in my bedroom, answered all my purposes in the way of +model making. But I had at times to avail myself of the smithy and +foundry that my kind and worthy friend, George Douglass, had +established in the neighbourhood. He had begun business as "a jobbing +smith," but being a most intelligent and energetic workman, he shot +ahead and laid the foundations of a large trade in steam-engines. +When I had any part of a job in hand that was beyond the capabilities +of my father's lathe, or my bedroom casting apparatus, I immediately +went to Douglass's smithy, where every opportunity was afforded me for +carrying on my larger class of work. + +His place was only about five minutes' walk from my father's house. +I had the use of his large turning-lathe, which was much more suitable +for big or heavy work than the lathe at home. When any considerable +bit of steel or iron forging had to be done, a forge fire and anvil +were always placed at my service. In making my flywheels for the +sectional models of steam-engines I had a rather neat and handy way of +constructing them. The boss of the wheel of brass was nicely bored; +the arm-holes were carefully drilled and taped, so as to allow the arms +which I had turned to be screwed in and appear like neat columns of +round wrought iron or steel screwed into the boss of the flywheel. + +In return for the great kindness of George Douglass in allowing me to +have the use of his foundry, I resolved to present him with a specimen +of my handiwork. I desired to try my powers in making a more powerful +steam-engine than I had as yet attempted to construct, in order to +drive the large turning-lathe and the other tools and machinery of his +small foundry. I accordingly set to work and constructed a +direct-acting, high-pressure steam-engine, with a cylinder four inches +in diameter. I use the term direct acting, because I dispensed with +the beam and parallel motion, which was generally considered the +correct mode of transferring the action of the piston to the crank. + +The result of my labours was a very efficient steam-engine, which set +all the lathes and mechanical tools in brisk activity of movement. +It had such an enlivening effect upon the workmen that George Douglass +afterwards told me that the busy hum of the wheels, and the active, +smooth, rhythmic sound of the merry little engine had, through some +sympathetic agency, so quickened the stroke of every hammer, chisel, +and file in his workmen's hands, that it nearly doubled the output of +work for the same wages! + +The sympathy of activity acting upon the workmen's hands cannot be +better illustrated than by a story told me by my father. A master +tailor in a country town employed a number of workmen. They had been +to see some tragic melodrama performed by some players in a booth at +the fair. A very slow, doleful, but catching air was played, which so +laid hold of the tailors' fancy that for some time after they were +found slowly whistling or humming the doleful ditty, the movement of +their needles keeping time to it; the result was that the clothing that +should have been sent home on Saturday was not finished until the +Wednesday following. The music had done it! The master tailor, being +something of a philosopher, sent his men to the play again; but he +arranged that they should be treated with lively merry airs. +The result was that the lively airs displaced the doleful ditty; +and the tailors' needles again reverted to even more than their +accustomed quickness. + +However true the story may be, it touches an important principle in +regard to the stimulation of activity by the rapid movements or sounds +of machinery, which influence every workman within their sight or +hearing. We all know the influence of a quick merry air, played by +fife and drum, upon the step and marching of a regiment of soldiers. +It is the same with the quick movements of a steam-engine upon the +activity of workmen. + +I may add that my worthy friend, George Douglass, derived other +advantages from the construction of my steam-engine. Being of an +enterprising disposition he added another iron foundry to his smaller +shops; he obtained many good engineering tools, and in course of time +he began to make steam-engines for agricultural purposes. These were +used in lieu of horse power for thrashing corn, and performing several +operations that used to be done by hand labour in the farmyards. +Orders came in rapidly, and before long the chimneys of Douglass's +steam-engines were as familiar in the country round Edinburgh as corn +stacks. All the large farms, especially in Midlothian and +East Lothian, were supplied with his steam-engines. The business of +George Douglass became very large; and in course of time he was enabled +to retire with a considerable fortune. + +In addition to the steam-engine which I presented to Douglass, +I received an order to make another from a manufacturer of braiding. +His machines had before been driven by hand labour; but as his business +extended, the manufacturer employed me to furnish him with all engine +of two-horse power, which was duly constructed and set to work, +and gave him the highest satisfaction. + +[Image] James Nasmyth's Expansometer, 1826. + +I may here mention that one of my earliest attempts at original +contrivance was an Expansometer--an instrument for measuring in bulk +all metals and solid substances. The object to be experimented on was +introduced into a tube of brass, with as much water round it as to fill +the tube. The apparatus was then plunged into a vessel of boiling +water, or heated to boiling point; when the total expansion of the bar +was measured by a graduated scale, as seen in the annexed engraving. +By this simple means the expansion of any material might be ascertained +under various increments of heat, say from 60deg to 2l2deg. +It was simply a thermometer, the mass marking its own expansion. +Dr. Brewster was so much pleased with the apparatus that he described +it and figured it in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, of which he +was then editor. + +[Image] The road steam-carriage. By James Nasmyth. + +About the year 1827, when I was nineteen years old, the subject of +steam carriages to run upon common roads occupied considerable +attention. Several engineers and mechanical schemers had tried their +hands, but as yet no substantial results had come of their attempts to +solve the problem. Like others, I tried my hand. Having made a small +working model of a steam-carriage, I exhibited it before the members of +the Scottish Society of Arts. The performance of this active little +machine was so gratifying to the Society that they requested me to +construct one of such power as to enable four or six persons to be +conveyed along the ordinary roads. The members of the Society, in +their individual capacity, subscribed #60, which they placed in my +hands as the means for carrying out their project. + +I accordingly set to work at once. I had the heavy parts of the engine +and carriage done at Anderson's foundry at Leith. There was in +Anderson's employment a most able general mechanic named Robert +Maclaughlan, who had served his time at Carmichaels' of Dundee. +Anderson possessed some excellent tools, which enabled me to proceed +rapidly with the work. Besides, he was most friendly, and took much +delight in being concerned in my enterprise. This "big job" was +executed in about four months. The steam-carriage was completed and +exhibited before the members of the Society of Arts. Many successful +trials were made with it on the queensferry Road, near Edinburgh. +The runs were generally of four or five miles, with a load of eight +passengers sitting on benches about three feet from the ground. + +The experiments were continued for nearly three months, to the great +satisfaction of the members. I may mention that in my steam-carriage +I employed the waste steam to create a blast or draught by discharging +it into the short chimney of the boiler at its lowest part, and found +it most effective. I was not at that time aware that George Stephenson +and others had adopted the same method; but it was afterwards +gratifying to me to find that I had been correct as regards the +important uses of the steam blast in the chimney. In fact, it is to +this use of the waste steam that we owe the practical success of the +locomotive-engine as a tractive power on railways, especially at high +speeds. + +The Society of Arts did not attach any commercial value to my steam +road-carriage. It was merely as a matter of experiment that they had +invited me to construct it. When it proved successful they made me a +present of the entire apparatus. As I was anxious to get on with my +studies, and to prepare for the work of practical engineering, +I proceeded no further. I broke up the steam-carriage and sold the two +small high-pressure engines, provided with a compact and strong boiler, +for #67, a sum which more than defrayed all the expenses of the +construction and working of the machine. + +I still continued to make investigations as to the powers and +capabilities of the steam-engine. There were numerous breweries, +distilleries, and other establishments, near Edinburgh, where such +engines were at work. As they were made by different engineers, I was +desirous of seeing them and making sketches of them, especially when +there was any special peculiarity in their construction. I found this +a most favourite and instructive occupation. The engine tenters became +very friendly with me, and they we re always glad to see me interested +in them and their engines. They were especially delighted to see me +make "drafts," as they called my sketches, of the engines under their +charge. + +My father sometimes feared that my too close and zealous application to +engineering work might have a bad effect upon my health. My bedroom +work at brass casting, my foundry work at the making of steam-engines, +and my studies at the University classes, were perhaps too much for a +lad of my age, just when I was in the hobbledehoy state--between a +boy and a man. Whether his apprehensions were warranted or not, it did +so happen that I was attacked with typhus fever in 1828, a disease that +was then prevalent in Edinburgh. I had a narrow escape from its fatal +influence. But thanks to my good constitution, and to careful nursing, +I succeeded in throwing off the fever, and after due time recovered my +usual health and strength. + +In the course of my inspection of the engines made by different makers, +I was impressed with the superiority of those made by the Carmichaels +of Dundee. They were excellent both in design and in execution. +I afterwards found that the Carmichaels were among the first of the +Scottish engine makers who gave due attention to the employment of +improved mechanical tools, with the object of producing accurate work +with greater ease, rapidity, and economy, than could possibly be +effected by the hand labour of even the most skilful workmen. I was +told that the cause of the excellence of the Carmichaels' work was not +only in the ability of the heads of the firm, but in their employment +of the best engineers' tools. Some of their leading men had worked at +Maudslay's machine shop in London, the fame of which had already +reached Dundee; and Maudslay's system of employing machine tools had +been imported into the northern steam factory. + +I had on many occasions, when visiting the works where steam-engines +were employed, heard of the name and fame of Maudslay. I was told that +his works were the very centre and climax of all that was excellent in +mechanical workmanship. These reports built up in my mind, at this +early period of my aspirations, an earnest and hopeful desire that +I might some day get a sight of Maudslay's celebrated works in London. +In course of time it developed into a passion. I will now proceed to +show how my inmost desires were satisfied. + + +CHAPTER 7. Henry Maudslay, London + +The chief object of my ambition was now to be taken on at Henry +Maudslay's works in London. I had heard so much of his engineering +work, of his assortment of machine-making tools, and of the admirable +organisation of his manufactory, that I longed to obtain employment +there. I was willing to labour, in however humble a capacity, in that +far-famed workshop. + +I was aware that my father had not the means of paying the large +premium required for placing me as an apprentice at Maudslay's works. +I was also informed that Maudslay had ceased to take pupils. +After experience, he found that the premium apprentices caused him much +annoyance and irritation. They came in "gloves;" their attendance was +irregular; they spread a bad example amongst the regular apprentices +and workmen; and on the whole they were found to be very disturbing +elements in the work of the factory. + +It therefore occurred to me that, by showing some specimens of my work +and drawings, I might be able to satisfy Mr. Maudslay that I was not an +amateur, but a regular working engineer. With this object I set to +work, and made with special care a most complete working model of a +high-pressure engine. The cylinder was 2 inches diameter, and the +stroke 6 inches. Every part of the engine, including the patterns, +the castings, the forgings, were the results of my own individual +handiwork. I turned out this sample of my ability as an engineer +workman in such a style as even now I should be proud to own. + +In like manner I executed several specimens of my ability as a +mechanical draughtsman; for I knew that Maudslay would thoroughly +understand my ability to work after a plan. Mechanical drawing is the +alphabet of the engineer. Without this the workman is merely a "hand." +With it he indicates the possession of "a head" I also made some +samples of my skill in hand-sketching of machines, and parts of +machines, in perspective--that is, as such objects really appear when +set before us in their natural aspect. I was the more desirous of +exhibiting the ability which I possessed in mechanical draughtsmanship, +as I knew it to be a somewhat rare and much-valued acquirement. +It was a branch of delineative art that my father had carefully taught me. +Throughout my professional life I have found this art to be of the +utmost practical value. + +Having thus provided myself with such visible and tangible evidences +of my capabilities as a young engineer, I carefully packed up my +working model and drawings, and prepared to start for London. +On the 19th of May 1829, accompanied by my father, I set sail by the +Leith smack Edinburgh Castle, Captain Orr, master. After a pleasant +voyage of four days we reached the mouth of the Thames. We sailed up +from the Nore on Saturday afternoon, lifted up, as it were, by the tide, +for it was almost a dead calm the whole way. + +The sight of the banks of the famous river, with the Kent orchards in +full blossom, and the frequent passages of steamers with bands of music +and their decks crowded with pleasure-seekers, together with the sight +of numbers of noble merchant ships in the river, formed a most glorious +and exciting scene. It was also enhanced by the thought that I was +nearing the great metropolis, around which so many bright but anxious +hopes were centred, as the scene of my first important step into the +anxious business of life, The tide, which had carried us up the river +as far as Woolwich suddenly turned; and we remained there during the +night. Early next morning the tide rose, and we sailed away again. +It was a bright mild morning. The sun came "dancing up the east" +as we floated past wharfs and woodyards and old houses on the banks, +past wherries and coal boats and merchant ships on the river, +until we reached our destination at the Irongate Wharf, near the +Tower of London. I heard St. Paul's clock strike six just as we +reached our mooring ground. + +Captain Orr was kind enough to allow us to make the ship our hotel +during the Sunday, as it was by no means convenient for us to remove +our luggage on that day. My father took me ashore and we walked to +Regent's Park. One of my sisters, who was visiting a friend in London, +was residing in that neighbourhood. My father so planned his route as +to include many of the most remarkable streets and buildings and sights +of London. He pointed out the principal objects, and gave me much +information about their origin and history. + +I was much struck with the beautiful freshness and luxuriant growth of +the trees and shrubs in the squares; for spring was then in its first +beauty. The loveliness of Regent's Park surprised me. The extent of +the space, the brilliancy of the fresh-leaved trees, and the handsome +buildings by which the park was surrounded, made it seem to me more +splendid than a picture from the Arabian Nights. Under the happy +aspect of a brilliant May forenoon, this first long walk through +London, with all its happy attendant circumstances, rendered it one of +the most vividly remembered incidents in my life. After visiting my +sister and giving her all the details of the last news from home, she +joined us in our walk down to Westminster Abbey. The first view of the +interior stands out in my memory as one of the most impressive sights I +ever beheld. I had before read, over and over again, the beautiful +description of the Abbey given by Washington Irving in the Sketch Book, +one of the most masterly pieces of writing that I know of I now found +one of my day-dreams realised. + +We next proceeded over Westminster Bridge to call upon my brother +Patrick. We found him surrounded by paintings from his beautiful +sketches from Nature. Some of them were more or less advanced in the +form of exquisite pictures, which now hang on many walls, and will long +commemorate his artistic life. We closed this ever memorable day by +dining at a tavern at the Surrey end of Waterloo Bridge. We sat at an +upper window which commanded a long stretch of the river, and from +which we could see the many remarkable buildings, from St. Paul's to +Westminster Abbey and the Houses of Parliament, which lay on the other +side of the Thames. + +On the following day my father and I set out in search of lodgings, +hotels being at that time beyond our economical method of living. +We succeeded in securing a tidy lodging at No. 14 Agues Place, +Waterloo Road. The locality had a special attraction for me, as it was +not far from that focus of interest--Maudslay's factory. Our luggage +was removed from the ship to the lodgings, and my ponderous cases, +containing the examples of my skill as an engineer workman, +were deposited in a carpenter's workshop close at hand. + +I was now anxious for the interview with Maudslay. My father had been +introduced to him by a mutual friend some two or three years before, +and that was enough. On the morning of May the 26th we set out +together, and reached his house in Westminster Road, Lambeth. +It adjoined his factory. My father knocked at the door. My own heart +beat fast. Would he be at home? Would he receive us? Yes! he was at +home; and we were invited to enter. + +Mr. Maudslay received us in the most kind and frank manner. After a +little conversation my father explained the object of his visit. +"My son," he said, pointing to me, "is very anxious to have the +opportunity of acquiring a thorough practical knowledge of mechanical +engineering, by serving as an apprentice in some such establishment as +yours" "Well," replied Maudslay, "I must frankly confess to you that my +experience of pupil apprentices has been so unsatisfactory that my +partner and myself have determined to discontinue to receive them--no +matter at what premium. This was a very painful blow to myself; for it +seemed to put an end to my sanguine expectations. + +Mr. Maudslay knew that my father was interested in all matters relating +to mechanical engineering, and he courteously invited him to go round +the works. Of course I accompanied them. The sight of the workshops +astonished me. They excelled all that I had anticipated. The beautiful +machine tools, the silent smooth whirl of the machinery, the active +movements of the men, the excellent quality of the work in progress, +and the admirable order and management that pervaded the whole +establishment, rendered me more tremblingly anxious than ever to obtain +some employment there, in however humble a capacity. + +Mr. Maudslay observed the earnest interest which I and my father took +in everything going on, and explained the movements of the machinery +and the rationale of the proceedings in the most lively and kindly +manner. It was while we were passing from one part of the factory to +another that I observed the beautiful steam-engine which gave motion to +the tools and machinery of the workshops. The man who attended it was +engaged in cleaning out the ashes from under the boiler furnace, +in order to wheel them away to their place outside. On the spur of the +moment I said to Mr. Maudslay, "If you would only permit me to do such +a job as that in your service, I should consider myself most fortunate!" +I shall never forget the keen but kindly look that he gave me. "So ," +said he, "you are one of that sort, are you?" I was inwardly delighted +at his words. + +When our round of the works was concluded, I ventured to say to +Mr. Maudslay that "I had brought up with me from Edinburgh some +working models of steam-engines and mechanical drawings, and I should +feel truly obliged if he would allow me to show them to him?" +"By all means," said he; "bring them to me tomorrow at twelve o'clock." +I need not say how much pleased I was at this permission to exhibit my +handiwork, and how anxious I felt as to the result of Mr. Maudslay's +inspection of it. + +I carefully unpacked my working model of the steam-engine at the +carpenter's shop, and had it conveyed, together with my drawings, +on a hand-cart to Mr. Maudslay's next morning at the appointed hour. +I was allowed to place my work for his inspection in a room next his +office and counting-house. I then called at his residence close by, +where he kindly received me in his library. He asked me to wait until +he and his partner, Joshua Field, had inspected my handiwork. + +I waited anxiously. Twenty long minutes passed. At last he entered +the room, and from a lively expression in his countenance I observed in +a moment that the great object of my long cherished ambition had been +attained! He expressed, in good round terms, his satisfaction at my +practical ability as a workman engineer and mechanical draughtsman. +Then, opening the door which led from his library into his beautiful +private workshop, he said, "This is where I wish you to work, beside +me, as my assistant workman. From what I have seen there is no need of +an apprenticeship in your case." + +He then proceeded to show me the collection of exquisite tools of all +sorts with which his private workshop was stored. They mostly bore the +impress of his own clearheadedness and common-sense. They were very +simple, and quite free from mere traditional forms and arrangements. +At the same time they were perfect for the special purposes for which +they had been designed. The workshop was surrounded with cabinets and +drawers, filled with evidences of the master's skill and industry. +Every tool had a purpose. It had been invented for some special +reason. Sometimes it struck the keynote, as it were, to many of the +important contrivances which enable man to obtain a complete mastery +over materials. + +There were also hung upon the walls, or placed upon shelves, many +treasured relics of the first embodiments of his constructive genius. +There were many models explaining, step by step, the gradual progress +of his teeming inventions and contrivances. The workshop was thus +quite a historical museum of mechanism. It exhibited his +characteristic qualities in construction. I afterwards found out that +many of the contrivances preserved in his private workshop were +treasured as suggestive of some interesting early passage in his useful +and active life. They were kept as relics of his progress towards +mechanical perfection. When he brought them out from time to time, +to serve for the execution of some job in hand, he was sure to dilate +upon the occasion that led to their production, as well as upon the +happy results which had followed their general employment in mechanical +engineering. + +It was one of his favourite maxims, "First, get a clear notion of what +you desire to accomplish, and then in all probability you will succeed +in doing it." Another was "Keep a sharp look-out upon your materials; +get rid of every pound of material you can do without; put to yourself +the question, 'What business has it to be there? avoid complexities, +and make everything as simple as possible." Mr. Maudslay was full of +quaint maxims and remarks, the result of much shrewdness, keen +observation, and great experience. They were well worthy of being +stored up in the mind, like a set of proverbs, full of the life and +experience of men. His thoughts became compressed into pithy +expressions exhibiting his force of character and intellect. +His quaint remarks on my first visit to his workshop, and on subsequent +occasions, proved to me invaluable guides to "right thinking" in regard +to all matters connected with mechanical structure. + +Mr. Maudslay seemed at once to take me into his confidence. He treated +me in the most kindly manner--not as a workman or an apprentice, +but as a friend. I was an anxious listener to everything that he said; +and it gave him pleasure to observe that I understood and valued his +conversation. The greatest treat of all was in store for me. +He showed me his exquisite collection of taps and dies and screw-tackle, +which he had made with the utmost care for his own service. +They rested in a succession of drawers near to the bench where he worked. +There was a place for every one, and every one was in its place. +There was a look of tidiness about the collection which was very +characteristic of the man. Order was one of the rules which he +rigidly observed, and he endeavoured to enforce it upon all who were in +his employment. + +He proceeded to dilate upon the importance of the uniformity of screws. +Some may call it an improvement, but it might almost be called a +revolution in mechanical engineering which Mr. Maudslay introduced. +Before his time no system had been followed in proportioning the number +of threads of screws to their diameter. Every bolt and nut was thus a +speciality in itself, and neither possessed nor admitted of any +community with its neighbours. To such an extent had this practice +been carried that all bolts and their corresponding nuts had to be +specially marked as belonging to each other. Any intermixture that +occurred between them led to endless trouble and expense, as well as +inefficiency and confusion,--especially when parts of complex +machines had to be taken to pieces for repairs. + +None but those who lived in the comparatively early days of machine +manufacture can form an adequate idea of the annoyance, delay, and cost +of this utter want of system, or can appreciate the vast services +rendered to mechanical engineering by Mr. Maudslay, who was the first +to introduce the practical measures necessary for its remedy. In his +system of screw-cutting machinery, and in his taps and dies, and +screw-tackle generally, he set the example, and in fact laid the +foundation, of all that has since been done in this most essential +branch of machine construction. Those who have had the good fortune to +work under him, and have experienced the benefits of his practice, have +eagerly and ably followed him; and thus his admirable system has become +established throughout the entire mechanical world. + +Mr. Maudslay kept me with him for about three hours, initiating me into +his system. It was with the greatest delight that I listened to his +wise instruction. The sight of his excellent tools, which he showed me +one by one, filled me with an almost painful feeling of earnest hope +that I might be able in any degree to practically express how thankful +I was to be admitted to so invaluable a privilege as to be in close +communication with this great master in all that was most perfect in +practical mechanics. + +When he concluded his exposition, he told me in the most kindly manner +that it would be well for me to take advantage of my father's presence +in London to obtain some general knowledge of the metropolis, to see +the most remarkable buildings, and to obtain an introduction to some of +my father's friends. He gave me a week for this purpose, and said he +should be glad to see me at his workshop on the following Monday week. + +It singularly happened that on the first day my father went out with +me, he encountered an old friend. He had first known him at +Mr. Miller's of Dalswinton, when the first steamboat was tried, and +afterwards at Edinburgh while he was walking the courts as an advocate, +or writing articles for the Edinburgh Review. This was no other than +Henry Brougham. He was descending the steps leading into St. James's +Park, from the place where the Duke of York's monument now stands. +Brougham immediately recognised my father. There was a hearty shaking +of hands, and many inquiries on either side. "And what brings you to +London now?" asked Brougham. My father told him that it was about his +son here, who had obtained an important position at Maudslay's the +engineer. + +"If I can do anything for you," said Brougham, addressing me, "let me +know. It will afford me much pleasure to give you introductions to men +of science in London." I ventured to say that "Of all the men of +science in London that I most wished to see, was Mr. Faraday of the +Royal Institution." " Well," said Brougham, "I will send you a letter +of introduction. We then parted. + +My father availed himself of the opportunity of introducing me to +several of his brother artists. We first went to the house of +David Wilkie, in Church Street, Kensington. We found him at home, +and he received us most kindly. We next visited Clarkson Stanfield, +David Roberts, and some other artists. They were much attached to +my father, and had, in the early part of their career, received much +kindness from him while living in Edinburgh. They all expressed the +desire that I should visit them frequently. I had thus the privilege +of entree to a number of pleasant and happy homes, and my visits to +them while in London was one of my principal sources of enjoyment. + +On returning home to our lodgings that evening we found a note from +Brougham, enclosing letters of introduction to Faraday and other +scientific men; and stating that if at any time he could be of service +to me he hoped that I would at once make use of him. My father was +truly gratified with the substantial evidence of Brougham's kindly +remembrance of him; and I? how could I be grateful enough? not only for +my father's never-failing attention to my growth in knowledge and +wisdom, but to his ever-willing readiness to help me onward in the path +of scientific working and mechanical engineering. And now I was +fortunate in another respect, in being admitted to the school, +and I may say the friendship, of the admirable Henry Maudslay. +Everything now depended upon myself, and whether I was worthy of all +these advantages or not. + +One of the days of this most interesting and memorable week was devoted +to accompanying Mr. Maudslay in a visit to Somerset House. In the +Admiralty Museum, then occupying a portion of the building, was a +complete set of the working models of the celebrated block-making +machinery. Most of these were the result of Maudslay's own skilful +handiwork. He also designed, for the most part, this wonderful and +complete series of machines. Sir Samuel Bentham and Mr. Brunel had +given the idea, and Maudslay realised it in all its mechanical details. +These working models contained the prototypes of nearly all the modern +engineer tools which have given us so complete mastery over materials, +and done so much for the age we live in. + +It added no little to the enjoyment of this visit to hear Mr. Maudslay +narrate, in his quaint and graphic language, the difficulties he had to +encounter in solving so many mechanical problems. It occupied him +nearly six years to design and complete these working models. +They were forty-four in number--all masterly pieces of workmanship. +To describe them was to him like living over again the most interesting +and eventful part of his life. And no doubt the experience which he +had thus obtained formed the foundation of his engineering fortunes. + +Mr. Maudslay next conducted us to the Royal Mint on Tower Hill. +Here we saw many of his admirable machines at work. He had a happy +knack, in his contrivances and inventions, of making "short cuts" to +the object in view. He avoided complexities, did away with roundabout +processes, however ingenious, and went direct to his point. +"Simplicity" was his maxim in every mechanical contrivance. +His mastermind enabled him to see through and attain the end he sought +by the simplest possible means. The reputation which he had acquired +by his minting machinery enabled him to supply it in its improved form +to the principal Governments of the world. + +Some of the other days of the week were occupied by my father in +attending to his own professional affairs, more particularly in +connection with the Earl of Cassilis--whose noble mansion in London, +and whose castle at Colzean, on the coast of Ayrshire, contain some of +my father's finest works. The last day was most enjoyable. +Mr. Maudslay invited my father, my brother Patrick, and myself, +to accompany him in his beautiful small steam yacht, the Endeavour, +from Westminster to Richmond Bridge, and afterwards to dine with him at +the Star and Garter. I must first, however, say something of the +origin of the Endeavour. + +Mr. Maudslay's son, Joseph, inherited much of his father's constructive +genius. He had made a beautiful arrangement of William Murdoch's +original invention of the vibrating cylinder steam-engine, and adapted +it for the working of paddle-wheel steamers. He first tried the action +of the arrangement in a large working model, and its use was found to +be in every respect satisfactory. Mr. Maudslay resolved to give his +son's design a full-sized trial. He had a combined pair of vibrating +engines constructed, of upwards of 20 horse-power, which were placed in +a beautiful small steam vessel, appropriately named the Endeavour. +The result was perfectly successful. The steamer became a universal +favourite. It was used to convey passengers and pleasure parties from +Blackfriars Bridge to Richmond. Eventually it became the pioneer of a +vast progeny of vessels propelled by similar engines, which still crowd +the Thames. All these are the legitimate descendants of the bright and +active little Endeavour. + +To return to my trip to Richmond. We got on board the boat on the +forenoon of May the 29th. It was one of the most beautiful days of the +year. The spring was at its loveliest. The bright fresh green of the +trees was delightful. I shall never forget the pleasure with which I +beheld, for the first time, the beautiful banks of the Thames. +There was at that time a noble avenue of elm trees extending along the +southern bank of the river, from Westminster Bridge to Lambeth Palace; +while, on the northern side, many equally fine trees added picturesque +grace to the then Houses of Parliament, while behind them were seen the +great roof of Westminster Hall and the noble towers of Westminster +Abbey. As we sped along we admired the ancient cedars, which gave +dignity to the Bishop's grounds, on the one side, and the elms, +laburnums, and lilacs, then in full bloom, which partially shaded the +quaint old mansions of Cheyne Row, on the other. Alas! the march of +improvement and the inevitable extension of the metropolis is rapidly +destroying these vestiges of the olden time. + +The beautiful views that came into sight, as we glided up the river, +kept my father and my brother in a state of constant excitement. +There were so many truly picturesque and paintable objects. +Patrick's deft pencil was constantly at work, taking graphic notes of +"glorious bits" Dilapidated farm-buildings, old windmills, pollarded +willows, were rapidly noted, to be afterwards revisited and made +immortal by his brush. There were also the fine mansions and cosy +villas, partially shrouded by glorious trees, with their bright velvety +lawns sloping down towards the river; not forgetting the delicate +streams of thin blue smoke rising lazily through the trees in the +tranquil summer air, and reminding one of the hospitable preparations +then in progress. + +We landed at Richmond Bridge, and walked up past the quaint +old-fashioned mansions which gave so distinct a character to Richmond +at that time. We then passed on to the celebrated Richmond Terrace, +at the top of the hill, from which so glorious a view of the windings +of the Thames is seen, with the luxuriant happy-looking landscape +around. The enjoyment of this glorious day now reached its climax. +We dined in the great dining-room, from the large windows of which we +observed a view almost unmatched in the world, with the great tower of +Windsor in the distance. I need not speak of the entertainment, which +was everything that the kindest and most genial hospitality could +offer. After a pleasant stroll in the Park, amidst the noble and +venerable oak trees, which give such a dignity to the place, and after +another visit to the Terrace, where we saw the sun set in a blaze of +glory beyond the distant scenery, we strolled down the hill to the +steamer, and descended the Thames in the cool of the summer evening. + +I must not, however, omit to mention the lodgings taken for me by my +father before he left London. It was necessary that they should be +near Maudslay's works for the convenience of going and coming. +We therefore looked about in the neighbourhood of Waterloo Road. +One of the houses we visited was situated immediately behind the Surrey +theatre. It seemed a very nice tidy house, and my father seemed to +have taken a liking for it. But when we were introduced into the room +where I was to sleep, he observed an ultra-gay bonnet lying on the bed, +with flashy bright ribbons hanging from it. This sight seemed to alter +his ideas, and he did not take the lodgings; but took another where +there was no such bonnet. + +I have no doubt about what passed through his mind at the time. +We were in the neighbourhood of the theatre. There was evidently some +gay young woman about the house. He thought the position might be +dangerous for his son. I afterwards asked him why we had not taken +that nice lodging. "Well," he said, "did not you see that ultra-gay +bonnet lying on the bed? I think that looks rather suspicious!" +Afterwards he added, "At all events, James, you will find that though +there are many dirty roads in life, if you use your judgment you may +always be able to find a clean crossing!" And so the good man left me. +After an affectionate parting he returned to Edinburgh, and I remained +in London to work out the plan of my life. + + +CHAPTER 8. Maudslay's Private Assistant + +On the morning of Monday, the 30th of May 1829, I commenced my regular +attendance at Mr. Maudslay's workshop. My first job was to assist him +in making some modifications in the details of a machine which he had +contrived some years before for generating original screws. I use the +word "generating" as being most appropriate to express the objects and +results of one of Mr. Maudslay's most original inventions. + +It consisted in the employment of a knife-edged hardened steel +instrument, so arranged as to be set at any required angle, and its +edge caused to penetrate the surface of a cylindrical bar of soft steel +or brass. This bar being revolved under the incisive action of the +angularly placed knife-edged instrument, it thus received a continuous +spiral groove cut into its surface. It was then in the condition of a +rudimentary screw; the pitch, or interval between the threads, being +determined by the greater or less angle of obliquity at which the +knife-edged instrument was set with respect to the axis of the +cylindrical bars revolving under its incisive action. + +The spiral groove, thus generated, was deepened to the required extent +by a suitable and pointed hard steel tool firmly held in the jaws of an +adjustable slide made for the purpose, as part and parcel of the bed of +the machine. In the case of square-threaded screws being required, +a square-pointed tool was employed in place of the V or angle-threaded +tool. And in order to generate or produce right hand or left hand +screws, all that was necessary was to set the knife-edged instrument to +a right or left hand inclination in respect to the axis of the +cylindrical bar at the outset of the operation. + +This beautiful and truly original contrivance became, in the hands of +its inventor, the parent of a vast progeny of perfect screws, whose +descendants, whether legitimate or not, are to be found in every +workshop throughout the world, wherever first-class machinery is +constructed. The production of perfect screws was one of Maudslay's +highest ambitions and his principal technical achievement. It was a +type of his invaluable faculty of solving the most difficult problems +by the most direct and simple methods. + +It was by the same method that he produced the Guide screw. +His screw-cutting lathe was moved by combination wheels, and by its +means he could, by the one Guide screw, obtain screws of every variety +of pitch and diameter. As an illustration of its complete accuracy +I may mention that by its means a screw of five feet in length and two +inches in diameter was cut with fifty threads to the inch; the Nut to +fit on to it being twelve inches long, and containing six hundred +threads! This screw was principally used for dividing scales for +astronomical and other metrical purposes of the highest class. +By its means divisions were produced with such minuteness that they +could only be made visual by a microscope. + +This screw was sent for exhibition to the Society of Arts. It is still +preserved with the utmost care at the Lambeth Works amongst the many +admirable specimens of Henry Maudslay's inventive genius and delicate +handiwork. Every skilled mechanic must thoroughly enjoy the sight of +it, especially when he knows that it was not produced by an exceptional +tool, but by the machine that was daily employed in the ordinary work +of the factory. + +I must not, however, omit to say that I took an early opportunity of +presenting Brougham's letter of introduction to Faraday at the Royal +Institution. I was received most cordially by that noble-minded man, +whose face beamed with goodness and kindness. After some pleasant +conversation he said he would call upon me at Maudslay's, whom he knew +very well. Not long after Faraday called, and found me working beside +Maudslay in his beautiful little workshop. A vice had been fitted up +for me at the bench where he himself daily worked. Faraday expressed +himself as delighted to find me in so enviable a position. +He congratulated me on my special good fortune in having the +inestimable advantage of being associated as assistant workman with one +of the greatest mechanical engineers of the day. + +Mr. Maudslay offered to conduct Faraday through his workshops, and I +was permitted to accompany them. I was much impressed with the +intelligent conversation of Faraday, as well as with the quickness he +exhibited in appreciating not only the general excellence of the design +and execution of the works in progress, but his capacity for entering +into the technical details of the composite tools and machinery which +he saw during his progress through the place. This most pleasant and +memorable meeting with the great philosopher initiated a friendship +which I had the good fortune to continue until the close of his life. + +It was, of course, an immense advantage for me to be so intimately +associated with Mr. Maudslay in carrying on his experimental work. +I was not, however, his apprentice, but his assistant workman. +It was necessary, therefore, in his opinion, that I should receive some +remuneration for my services. Accordingly, at the conclusion of my +first week in his service, he desired me to go to his chief cashier and +arrange with him for receiving whatever amount of weekly wages I might +consider satisfactory. I went to the counting-house and had an +interview with Mr. Young the cashier, a most worthy man* + [footnote... +I may mention that he was brother to Dr. Thomas Young, the celebrated +natural philosopher. + ...] +Knowing as I did the great advantages of my situation, and having a +very modest notion of my own worthiness to occupy it, I said, in answer +to Mr. Young's question as to the amount of wages I desired, that +"if he did not think ten shillings a week too much I could do well +enough with that." "Very well" said he,"let it be so" And he handed me +over half a sovereign! + +I had determined, after I obtained a situation, not to cost my father +another shilling. I knew how many calls he had upon him, at a time +when he had his own numerous household to maintain. I therefore +resolved, now that I had begun life on my own resources, to maintain +myself, and to help him rather than be helped any longer. Thus the +first half-sovereign I received from Mr. Young was a great event in my +life. It was the first wages, as such, that I had ever received. +I well remember the high satisfaction I felt as I carried it home to my +lodgings; and all the more so as I was quite certain that I could, +by strict economy and good management, contrive to make this weekly sum +of ten shillings meet all my current expenses. + +I had already saved the sum of #20, which I placed in the bank as a +deposit account. It was the residue of the sale of some of my model +steam-engines at Edinburgh. My readers will remember that I brought +with me a model steam-engine to show to Mr. Maudslay as a specimen of +my handiwork. It had gained for me the situation that I desired, and I +was now willing to dispose of it. I found a purchaser in Mr. Watkins, +optician at Charing Cross, who supplied such apparatus to lecturers at +Mechanics' Institutions. He gave me #35 for the model, and I added the +sum to my deposit account. This little fund was quite sufficient to +meet any expenses beyond those of a current weekly nature. + +[Image] My cooking stove* + [footnote... +I have this handy apparatus by me still; and to prove its possession of +its full original efficiency I recently set it in action after its rest +of fifty years, and found that it yielded results quite equal to my +grateful remembrance of its past services. + ...] + +But I was resolved that my wages alone should maintain me in food and +lodging. I therefore directed my attention to economical living. +I found that a moderate dinner at an eating-house would cost move than +I could afford to spend. In order to keep within my weekly income I +bought the raw materials and cooked them in my own way and to my own +taste. I set to and made a drawing of a very simple, compact, and +handy cooking apparatus. I took the drawing to a tinsmith near at +hand, and in two days I had it in full operation. The apparatus cost +ten shillings, including the lamp. As it contributed in no small +degree to enable me to carry out my resolution, and as it may serve as +a lesson to others who have an earnest desire to live economically, +I think it may be useful to give a drawing and a description of my +cooking stove. The cooking or meat pan rested on the upper rim of the +external cylindrical case, and was easily removable in order to be +placed handy for service. The requisite heat was supplied by an oil +lamp with three small single wicks, though I found that one wick was +enough. I put the meat in the pot, with the other comestibles, +at nine o'clock in the morning. It simmered away all day, until +half-past six in the evening, when I came home with a healthy appetite +to enjoy my dinner. I well remember the first day that I set the +apparatus to work. I ran to my lodging, at about four P.M., to see how +it was going on. When I lifted the cover it was simmering beautifully, +and such a savoury gusto came forth that I was almost tempted to fall +to and discuss the contents. But the time had not yet come, and I ran +back to my work. + +The meat I generally cooked in it was leg of beef, with sliced potato, +bits of onion chopped down, and a modicum of white pepper and salt, +With just enough of water to cover "the elements." When stewed slowly +the meat became very tender; and the whole yielded a capital dish, +such as a very Soyer might envy. It was partaken of with a zest that, +no doubt, was a very important element in its savouriness. The whole +cost of this capital dinner was about 4 1/2d. I sometimes varied the +meat with rice boiled with a few raisins and a pennyworth of milk. +My breakfast and tea, with bread, cost me about fourpence each. +My lodgings cost 3s. 6d. a week. A little multiplication will +satisfy any one how it was that I contrived to live economically and +comfortably on my ten shillings a week. In the following year my +wages were raised to fifteen shillings a week, and then I began to take +butter to my bread. + +To return to my employment under Mr. Maudslay. One of the first jobs +that I undertook was in assisting him to make a beautiful small model +of a pair of 200 horsepower marine steam-engines. The engines were +then in course of construction in the factory. They were considered a +bold advance on the marine engines then in use, not only in regard to +their great power, but in carrying out many specialities in their +details and general structure. Mr. Maudslay had embodied so much of +his thought in the design that he desired to have an exact model of +them placed in his library, so as to keep a visible record of his ideas +constantly before him. In fact, these engines might be regarded as the +culmination of his constructive abilities. + +In preparing the model it was necessary that everything should be made +in exact conformity with the original. There were about three hundred +minute bolts and nuts to be reduced to the proportional size. +I esteemed it a great compliment to be entrusted with their execution. +They were all to be made of cast-steel, and the nuts had to be cut to +exact hexagonal form. Many of them had collars. To produce them by +the use of the file in the ordinary mode would not only have been +difficult and tedious, but in some cases practically impossible. + +[Image] Collar-nut cutting machine. + +To get rid of the difficulty I suggested to Mr. Maudslay a contrivance +of my own by means of which the most rigid exactness in size as well as +form could be given to these hexagonal nuts. He readily granted his +permission. I constructed a special apparatus, consisting of a hard +steel circular cutter to act as a circular file. When brought into +operation in the production of these minute six-sided collared nuts, +held firm in the spindle of a small dividing plate and attached to the +slide-rest, each side was brought in succession under the action of the +circular file or cutter with the most exact precision in regard to the +division of the six sides. The result was absolutely perfect as +respects the exactness of the six equal sides of the hexagonal nut, as +well as their precise position in regard to the collar that was of one +solid piece with it. There was no great amount of ingenuity required +in contriving this special tool, or in adapting it to the slide-rest of +the lathe, to whose spindle end the file or cutter /\ was fixed. +But the result was so satisfactory, both as regards the accuracy and +rapidity of execution in comparison with the usual process of hand +filing, that Mr. Maudslay was greatly pleased with the arrangement as +well as with my zeal in contriving and executing this clever little +tool. An enlarged edition of this collar-nut cutting machine was soon +after introduced into the factory. + +[Image] Arrangement of the machine + +It was one of the specialities that I adopted in my own workshop when I +commenced business for myself, and it was eagerly adopted by mechanical +engineers, whom we abundantly supplied with this special machine. +It was an inestimable advantage to me to be so intimately associated +with this Great Mechanic. He was so invariably kind, pleasant, and +congenial. He communicated an infinite number of what he humorously +called "Wrinkles" which afterwards proved of great use to me. +My working hours usually terminated at six in the evening. But as many +of the departments of the factory were often in full operation during +busy times until eight o'clock, I went through them to observe the work +while in progress. On these occasions I often met "the guvnor, as the +workmen called Mr. Maudslay. He was going his round of inspection, +and when there was any special work in hand he would call me up to him +to and explain point in connection with it that was worthy of +particular notice. I found this valuable privilege most instructive, +as I obtained from the cheif mechanic himself a full insight into the +methods, means, and processes by which the skilful workman advanced +the various classes of work. I was also permitted to take notes and +make rapid sketches of any object that specially interested me. +The entire establishment thus became to me a school of practical +engineering of the most instructive kind. + +Mr. Maudslay took pleasure in showing me the right system and method of +treating all manner of materials employed in mechanical structures. +He showed how they might be made to obey your will, by changing them +into the desired forms with the least expenditure of time and labour. +This in fact is the true philosophy of construction. When clear ideas +have been acquired upon the subject, after careful observation and +practice, the comparative ease and certainty with which complete +mastery over the most obdurate materials is obtained, opens up the most +direct road to the attainment of commercial as well as of professional +success. + +To be permitted to stand by and observe the systematic way in which +Mr. Maudslay would first mark or line out his work, and the masterly +manner in which he would deal with his materials, and cause them to +assume the desired forms, was a treat beyond all expression. +Every stroke of the hammer, chisel, or file, told as an effective step +towards the intended result. It was a never-to-be-forgotten practical +lesson in workmanship, in the most exalted sense of the term. +In conformity with his often repeated maxim, "that there is a right way +and a wrong way of doing everything," he took the shortest and most +direct cuts to accomplish his objects. He illustrated this by telling +me, in his own humorous style, " When you want to go from London to +Greenwich, don't go round by Inverness." Another of his droll sayings +was that he "considered no man a thorough mechanic unless he could cut +a plank with a gimlet, and bore a hole with a saw!" + +The grand result of thoughtful practice is what we call experience: +it is the power or faculty of seeing clearly before you begin, what to +avoid and what to select--or rather what to do and what not to do. +High-class workmanship, or technical knowledge, was in his hands quite +a science. Every piece of work was made subject to the soundest +philosophical principles, as applied to the use and treatment of +materials. It was this that gave such a charm of enjoyment to his +dealing with tools and materials. He loved this sort of work for its +own sake, far more than for its pecuniary results. At the same time he +was not without regard for the substantial evidence of his supremacy in +all that regarded first-class tools, admirable management, and thorough +organisation of his factory. + +The innate love of truth and accuracy which distinguished Mr. Maudslay, +led him to value highly that class of technical dexterity in +engineering workmen which enabled them to produce those details of +mechanical structures in which perfect flat or true plane surfaces were +required. This was an essential condition for the effective and +durable performance of their functions. Sometimes this was effected +by the aid of the turning-lathe and slide-rest. But in most cases +the object was attained by the dexterous use of the file, so that +"flat filing" then was, as it still is, one of the highest qualities +of the skilled workman. No one that I ever met with could go beyond +Henry Maudslay himself in his dexterous use of the file. By a few +masterly strokes he could produce plane surfaces so true that when +their accuracy was tested by a standard plane surface of absolute +truth, they were never found defective; neither convex, nor concave, +nor "cross-winding,"--that is, twisted. + +The importance of having such Standard Planes caused him to have many +of them placed on the benches beside his workmen, by means of which +they might at once conveniently test their work. Three of each were +made at a time, so that by the mutual rubbing of each on each the +projecting surfaces were effaced. When the surfaces approached very +near to the true plane, the still projecting minute points were +carefully reduced by hard steel scrapers, until at last the standard +plane surface was secured. When placed over each other they would +float upon the thin stratum of air between them until dislodged by time +and pressure. When they adhered closely to each other, they could only +be separated by sliding each off each. This art of producing +absolutely plane surfaces is, I believe, a very old mechanical "dodge." +But, as employed by Maudslay's men, it greatly contributed to the +improvement of the work turned out. It was used for the surfaces of +slide valves, or wherever absolute true plane surfaces were essential +to the attainment of the best results, not only in the machinery turned +out, but in educating the taste of his men towards first-class +workmanship. + +Maudslay's love of accuracy also led him to distrust the verdicts given +by the employment of the ordinary callipers and compasses in +determining the absolute or relative dimensions of the refined +mechanism which he delighted to construct with his own hands. +So much depended upon the manner in which the ordinary measuring +instruments were handled and applied that they sometimes failed to give +the required verdict as to accuracy. In order, therefore, to get rid +of all difficulties in this respect, he designed and constructed a very +compact and handy instrument which he always had on his bench beside +his vice. He could thus, in a most accurate and rapid manner, obtain +the most reliable evidence as to the relative dimensions, in length, +width, or diameter, of any work which he had in hand. In consequence +of the absolute truth of the verdicts of the instrument, he considered +it as a Court of Final Appeal, and humorously called it +"The Lord Chancellor." + +[Image] Maudslay's "Lord Chancellor" + +This trustworthy "Companion of the Bench" consisted of a very +substantial and inflexible bed or base of hard brass. At one end of it +was a perfectly hardened steel surface plate, having an absolutely true +flat or plane face, against which one end or side of the object to be +measured was placed; whilst a similar absolutely true plane surface of +hardened steel was advanced by means of a suitable fine thread screw, +until the object to be measured was just delicately in contact with it. +The object was, as it were, between the jaws of a vice, but without any +squeeze--being just free, which could be easily ascertained by +feeling. These two absolutely plane surfaces, between which the object +lay, had their distances apart easily read off from the scale engraved +on the bed of the instrument, in inches and tenth parts of an inch, +while the disk-head or handle of the screw was divided on its edge rim +into hundredth or thousandth parts, as these bore an exact metrical +relation to the pitch of the screw that moved the parallel steel faces +of the measuring vice (as I may term it) nearer or farther apart. + +Not only absolute measure could be obtained by this means, but also the +amount of minute differences could be ascertained with a degree of +exactness that went quite beyond all the requirements of engineering +mechanism; such, for instance, as the thousandth part of an inch! +It might also have been divided so far as a millionth part of an inch, +but these infinitesimal fractions have really nothing to do with the +effective machinery* + [footnote... +I may mention another saying of Mr. Maudslay's. Besides his +observation that "in going from London to Greenwich we must not go +round by Inverness," he said, "We must not become too complicated with +our machinery. Remember the get-at-ability of parts. If we go on as +some mechanics are doing, we shall soon be boiling our eggs with a +chronometer!" + ...] +that comes forth from our workshops, and merely show the mastery we +possess over materials and mechanical forms. The original of this +measuring machine of Maudslay's was exhibited at the Loan Collection at +South Kensington in 1878. It is now treasured up, with other relics of +his handiwork, in a cabinet at the Lambeth works. While writing upon +this subject it may be worthy of remark, that the employment of a screw +as the means of adjusting the points or reference marks of a measuring +instrument, for the ascertainment of minute distances between objects, +was first effected by William Gascoigne, about the year 1648. +There can be no doubt that he was the inventor of the Micrometer--an +instrument that, when applied (as he first did so) to the eye-piece of +the Telescope, has been the means of advancing the science of astronomy +to its present high position (See Grant's History of Astronomy, p. 453) + +I had abundant occupation for my leisure time after my regular +attendance at the factory was over. I had not only the opportunity of +studying mechanics, but of studying men. It is a great thing to know +the character of those who are over you as well as those who are under +you. It is also well to know the character of those who are associated +with you in your daily work. I became intimate with the foremen and +with many of the skilled workmen. From them I learnt a great deal. +Let me first speak of the men of science who occasionally frequented +Maudslay's private workshop. They often came to consult him on +subjects with which he was specially acquainted. + +Among Mr. Maudslay's most frequent visitors were General Sir Samuel +Bentham, Mr. Barton, director of the Royal Mint, Mr. Bryan Donkin, +Mr. Faraday, and Mr. Chantrey, the sculptor. As Mr. Maudslay wished me +to be at hand to give him any necessary assistance, I had the +opportunity of listening to the conversation between him and these +distinguished visitors. Sir Samuel Bentham called very often. +He had been associated with Maudslay during the contrivance and +construction of the block machinery. He was brother of the celebrated +Jeremy Bentham, and he applied the same clear common-sense to +mechanical subjects which the other had done to legal, social, +and political questions. It was in the highest degree interesting and +instructive to hear these two great pioneers in the history and +application of mechanics discussing the events connected with the +block-making machinery. In fact, Maudslay's connection with the +subject had led to the development of most of our modern engineering +tools. They may since have been somewhat altered in arrangement, +but not in principle. Scarcely a week passed without a visit from the +General. He sat in the beautiful workshop, where he always seemed so +happy. It was a great treat to hear him and Maudslay "fight their +battles o'er again," in recounting the difficulties, both official and +mechanical, over which they had so gloriously triumphed. + +At the time when I listened to their conversation, the great work in +hand was the organisation of a systematic series of experiments on the +hulls of steamships, with the view of determining the laws of +resistance on their being propelled through the sea by a power other +than those of winds and sails. The subject was as complex as it was +interesting and important. But it had to be put to the test of actual +experiment. This was done in the first place by large models of hulls, +so as to ascertain at what point the curves of least resistance could +be applied. Their practical correctness was tested by careful +experiment in passing them through water at various velocities, +to record which conditions special instruments were contrived and +executed. These, as well as the preparation of large models of hulls, +embodying the various improved "lines," occupied a considerable portion +of the time that I had the good fortune to spend in Mr. Maudslay's +private workshop. + +Mr. Barton of the Royal Mint was quite a "crony" of Maudslay's. +He called upon him often with respect to the improvements for stamping +the current coin of the realm. Bryan Donkin was also associated with +Maudslay and Barton on the subject of the national standard of the yard +measure. But perhaps Mr. Chantrey was the most attractive visitor at +the private workshop. He had many a long interview with Maudslay with +respect to the planning and arranging of a small foundry at his studio, +by means of which he might cast his bronze statues under his own +superintendence. Mr. Maudslay entered con amore into the subject, +and placed his skill and experience entirely at Chantrey's service. +He constructed the requisite furnaces, cranes, and other apparatus, +at Chantrey's studio; and it may be enough to state that, when brought +into operation, they yielded the most satisfactory results. + +Among my most intelligent private friends in London were George Cundell +and his two brothers. They resided near my lodgings, and I often +visited them on Saturday evenings. They were most kind, gentle, +and genial. The eldest brother was in Sir William Forbes's bank. +George was agent for Mr. Patrick Maxwell Stuart in connection with his +West India estates, and the third brother was his assistant. +The elder brother was an admirable performer on the violoncello, and he +treated us during these Saturday evenings with noble music from +Beethoven and Mozart. My special friend George was known amongst us as +"the worthy master." He was thoroughly versed in general science, +and was moreover a keen politician. He had the most happy faculty of +treating complex subjects, both in science and politics, in a +thoroughly common-sense manner. His two brothers had a fine feeling +for art, and, indeed, possessed no small skill as practical artists. +With companions such as these, gifted with a variety of tastes, I spent +many of my Saturday evenings most pleasantly and profitably. They were +generally concluded with a glass of beer of "the worthy master's" own +brewing. + +When the season of the year and the state of the weather were suitable +I often joined this happy fraternity in long and delightful Sunday +walks to various interesting places round London. Our walks included +Waltham Abbey, Waltham Cross, Eltham Palace, Hampton Court, Epping +Forest, and many other interesting places of resort. When the weather +was unfavourable my principal resort was Westminster Abbey, where, +besides the beautifully-conducted service and the noble anthems, +I could admire the glory of the architecture, and the venerable tombs, +under which lay the best and bravest. I used generally to sit at a +point from which I could see the grand tomb of Aylmer de Vallance with +its magnificent surroundings of quaint and glorious architecture. +It was solemn, and serious also, to think of the many generations who +had filled the abbey, and of the numbers of the dead who lay beneath +our feet. + +I was so great an admirer of Norman and Gothic architecture that there +was scarcely a specimen of it in London which I did not frequently +visit. One of the most interesting examples I found in the Norman +portion of St. Saviours Church, near London Bridge, through some of +it has since been destroyed by the so-called "restoration" in 1831. +The new work has been executed in the worst taste and feeling. +I also greatly admired the Norman chapel of the Tower, and some Norman +portions of the Church of St. Bartholomew the Less, near Smithfield. + +No style of architecture that I have ever seen has so impressed me with +its intrinsic gravity, and I may say solemnity, as that of the Norman. +There is a serious earnestness in its grave simplicity that has a +peculiar influence upon the mind; and I have little doubt that this was +felt, and understood by those true architects who designed and built +the noble cathedrals at Durham and elsewhere. But there, as elsewhere, +some of our modern so-called "Architects" have made sad havoc with the +earliest and most impressive portions of those grand and truly +interesting remains, by their "Restorations", as they term it--but +which I call Defamations. + + +CHAPTER 9. Holiday in the Manufacturing Districts. + +In the autumn of 1830 Mr. Maudslay went to Berlin for the purpose of +superintending the erection of machinery at the Royal Mint there. +He intended to be absent from London for about a month; and he kindly +permitted me to take my holiday during that period. + +I had been greatly interested by the descriptions in the newspapers of +the locomotive competition at Rainhill, near Liverpool. I was, +therefore, exceedingly anxious to see Stephenson's "Rocket," the engine +that had won the prize. Taking with me letters of introduction from +Mr. Maudslay to persons of influence at Liverpool, I left London for +the north on the afternoon of Saturday the 9th of September 1830. +I took my place on the outside of the Liverpool coach, which set out +from "The Swan with Two Necks," in Lad Lane, City, one of the most +celebrated coach-offices in those days + +The first part of the journey to Liverpool was very dismal. +The night was wet. The rain came pouring down, and no sort of +wrappings could keep it out. The outside passengers became thoroughly +soaked. On we went, however, as fast as four horses could carry us. +Next morning we reached Coventry, when the clouds cleared away, +and the sun at last burst forth. I could now enjoy this charming part +of old England. Although I had only a hasty glimpse in passing of the +quaint streets and ancient buildings of the town I was perfectly +delighted with the specimens of ancient domestic architecture which +I saw. At that time Coventry was quite a museum of that interesting +class of buildings. The greater part of them have since been swept away +in the so-called improvement of modern builders, none of whose works +can ever so attract an artistic eye. + +During the rest of the day the journey was delightful. Though the +inside passengers had had the best of it during the night, the outside +passengers had the best of it now. To go scampering across the country +on the top of the coach, passing old villages, gentlemen's parks, under +old trees, along hedges tinged with autumn tints, up hill and down +dale, sometimes getting off the coach to lighten the load, and walking +along through the fields by a short cut to meet it farther on; all this +was most enjoyable. It gave me a new interest in the happier aspects +of English scenery, and of rural and domestic life in the pretty +old-fashioned farm buildings that we passed on our way. Indeed, there +was everything to delight the eye of the lover of the picturesque +during the course of that bright autumnal day. + +The coach reached Liverpool on Sunday night. I took up my quarters at +a commercial inn in Dale Street, where I found every comfort which +I desired at moderate charges. Next morning, without loss of time, +I made my way to the then terminus of the Liverpool and Manchester +Railway; and there, for the first time, I saw the famous "Rocket" +The interest with which I beheld this distinguished and celebrated +engine was much enhanced by seeing it make several short trial trips +under the personal management of George Stephenson, who acted as +engineman, while his son Robert acted as stoker. During their trips of +four or five miles along the line the "Rocket" attained the speed of +thirty miles an hour--a speed then thought almost incredible! It was +to me a most memorable and interesting sight, especially to see the +father and son so appropriately engaged in working the engine that was +to effect so great a change in the communications of the civilised +world. I spent the entire day in watching the trial trips, +in examining the railway works, and such portions of of their details +as I could obtain access to. About mid-day the "Rocket" was at rest +for about an hour near where I stood; and I eagerly availed myself of +the opportunity of making a careful sketch of the engine, which I still +preserve. + +The line was opened on the 15th of September, when the famous "Rocket" +led the way in conducting the first train of passengers from Liverpool +to Manchester. There were present on that occasion thousands of +spectators, many of whom had come from distant parts of the kingdom to +witness this greatest of all events in the history of railway locomotion. + +During my stay in Liverpool I visited the vast range of magnificent +docks which extend along the north bank of the Mersey, all of which +were crowded with noble merchant ships, some taking in cargoes of +British manufactures, and others discharging immense stores of cotton, +sugar, tobacco, and foreign produce. The sight was most interesting, +and gave me an impressive idea of the mighty functions of a +manufacturing nation--energy and intelligence, working through +machinery, increasing the value of raw materials and enabling them to +be transported for use to all parts of the civilised world. + +Mr. Maudslay having given me a letter of introduction to his old friend +William Fawcett, head of the firm of Fawcett, Preston, and Company, +engineers, I went over their factory. They were engaged in producing +sugar mills for the West Indies, and also in manufacturing the +steam-engines for working them. The firm had acquired great reputation +for their workmanship; and their shops were crowded with excellent +specimens of their skill. Everything was in good order; +their assortment of machine tools was admirable. Mr. Fawcett, who +accompanied me, was full in his praises of my master, whom he regarded +as the greatest pioneer in the substitution of the unerring accuracy of +machine tools for the often untrustworthy results of mere manual +labour. + +I cannot resist referring to the personal appearance and manner of this +excellent gentleman, William Fawcett. His peculiar courteous manner, +both in speech and action, reminded me of the "grand old Style" +Which I had observed in some of my father's oldest noble employers, +and the representations given of them by some of our best actors. +There was also a dignified kindliness about his manner that was quite +peculiar to himself; and when he conducted me through his busy +workshops, the courtly yet kindly manner in which he addressed his +various foremen and others, was especially cheering. When I first +presented my letter of introduction from Henry Maudslay, he was sitting +at a beautiful inlaid escritoire table with his letters arrayed before +him in the most neat and perfect order. The writing table stood on a +small Turkey carpet apart from the clerks' desks in the room, but so +near to them that he could readily communicate with them. His neat +old-fashioned style of dress quite harmonised with his advanced age, +and the kindly yet dignified grace of his manner left a lasting +impression on me as a most interesting specimen of "the fine old +English gentleman, quite of the olden time." + +I spent another day in crossing the Mersey to Birkenhead--then a very +small collection of buildings--wandered about the neighbourhood. +I had my sketch-book with me, and made a drawing of Liverpool from the +other side of the river. Close to Birkenhead were some excellent bits +of scenery, old and picturesque farmhouses, overshadowed with venerable +oaks, with juttings-out of the New Red Sandstone rocks, covered with +heather, furze, and broom, with pools of water edged with all manner of +effective water plants. They formed capital subjects for the artistic +pencil, especially when distant peeps of the Welsh hills came into the +prospect. I made several sketches, and they kept company with my +graphic memoranda of architectural and mechanical objects. I may here +mention that on my return to London I showed them to my brother +Patrick, and some of them so much met his fancy that he borrowed my +sketch-book and painted some pictures from them, which at this day are +hanging on the walls of some of his admirers. + +With the desire of seeing as much as possible of all that was +interesting in the mechanical, architectural and picturesque line, +on my return journey to London, I determined to walk, halting here and +there by the way. The season of the year and the state of the weather +were favourable for my purpose. I accordingly commenced my pedestrian +tour on Saturday morning, the 17th September. I set out for Manchester. +It was a long but pleasant walk. I well remember, when nearing +Manchester, that I sat down to rest for a time on Patricroft Bridge. +I was attracted by the rural aspect of the country, and the antique +cottages of the neighbourhood. The Bridgewater Canal lay before me, +and as I was told that it was the first mile of the waterway that the +great Duke had made, it became quite classic ground in my eyes. +I little thought at the time that I was so close to a piece of ground +that should afterwards become my own, and where I should for twenty +years carry on the most active and interesting business of my life. + +I reached Manchester at seven in the evening, and took up my quarters +at the King's Arms Inn, Deansgate. Next day was Sunday. I attended +service in the Cathedral, then called the Old Church. I was much +interested by the service, as well as by the architecture of the +building. Some of the details were well worthy of attention, being +very original, and yet the whole was not of the best period of Gothic +architecture. Some of the old buildings about the Cathedral were very +interesting. They were of a most quaint character, yet bold and +effective. Much finely carved oak timber work was introduced into +them; and on the whole they gave a very striking illustration of the +style of domestic architecture which prevailed in England some three or +four centuries ago. + +On the following day I called upon Mr. Edward Tootal, of York Street. +He was a well-known man in Manchester. + +I had the happiness of meeting him in London a few months before. +He then kindly invited me to call upon him should I ever visit +Manchester, when he would endeavour to obtain for me sight of some of +the most remarkable manufacturing establishments. Mr. Tootal was as +good as his word. He received me most cordially, and at once proceeded +to take me to the extensive machine factory of Messrs. Sharp, Roberts, +and Co. I found to my delight that a considerable portion of the +establishment was devoted to the production of machine tools, +a department of mechanical business then rising into the highest +importance. Mr. Roberts, an admirable mechanic as well as inventor, +had derived many of his ideas on the subject while working with +Mr. Maudslay in London, and he had carried them out with many additions +and improvements of his own contrivance. Indeed, Roberts was one of +the most capable men of his time, and is entitled to be regarded as one +of the true pioneers of modern mechanical mechanism. + +Through the kindness of Mr. Tootal I had also the opportunity of +visiting and inspecting some of the most extensive cotton mills in +Manchester. I was greatly pleased with the beautiful contrivances +displayed in the machinery. They were perfect examples of the highest +order of ingenuity, combined with that kind of common-sense which casts +aside all mere traditional forms and arrangements of parts, such as do +not essentially contribute to the efficiency of the machine in the +performance of its special and required purpose. I found much to +admire in the design as well as in the execution of the details of the +machines. + +The arrangement and management of the manufactories were admirable. +The whole of the buildings, howsoever extensive and apparently +complicated, worked like one grand and perfectly constructed machine. + +I was also much impressed by the keen interest which the proprietors of +these vast establishments took in the minute details of their +machinery, as well as by their intelligent and practical acquaintance +with the technical minutiae of their business. Although many of them +were men of fortune, they continued to take as deep an interest in such +matters as if they were beginning life and had their fortunes still to +make. Their chief ambition was to be at the head of a thoroughly +well-managed and prosperous establishment. No detail, be it ever so +small, was beneath their care and attention. To a young man like +myself, then about to enter upon a similar career of industry, these +lessons were very important. They were encouraging examples of +carefully thought out designs, carried into admirable results by close +attention to details, ever watchful carefulness, and indomitable +perseverance. I brooded over these circumstances, They filled my mind +with hope. They encouraged me to go on in the path which I had +selected; and I believed that at some time or other I might be enabled +to imitate the examples of zeal and industry which I had witnessed +during my stay in Manchester. It was then that I bethought me of +settling down in this busy neighbourhood; and as I plodded my way back +to London this thought continually occupied me. It took root in my mind +and grew, and at length the idea became a reality. + +I did not take the shortest route on my return journey to London. +I desired to pass through the most interesting and picturesque places +without unduly diverging from the right direction. I wished to see the +venerable buildings and cathedrals of the olden time, as well as the +engineering establishments of the new. Notwithstanding my love for +mechanics I still retained a spice of the antiquarian feeling. +It enabled me to look back to the remote past, into the material +records of man's efforts hundreds of years ago, and contrast them with +the modern progress of arts and sciences. I was especially interested +in the architecture of bygone ages; but here, alas! arts and sciences +have done nothing. Modern Gothic architecture is merely an imitation +of the old, and often a very bad imitation. Even ancient domestic +architecture is much superior to the modern. We can now only imitate +it; and often spoil when imitating. + +I left Manchester and turned my steps in the direction of Coalbrookdale. +I passed through a highly picturesque country, in which I enjoyed the +sight of many old timber houses, most attractive subjects for my pencil. +My route lay through Whitchurch, Wem, and Wellington; then past the +Wrekin to Coalbrookdale. Before arriving there I saw the first iron +bridge constructed in England, an object of historical interest in that +class of structures. It was because of the superb quality of the +castings produced at Coalbrookdale that the ironmasters there were able +to accomplish the building of a bridge of that material, which before +had baffled all projectors both at home and abroad + +I possessed a letter of introduction to the manager, and was received +by him most cordially. He permitted me to examine the works. +I was greatly interested at the sight of the processes of casting. +Many beautiful objects were turned out for architectural, domestic, +and other purposes. I saw nothing particularly novel, however, in the +methods and processes of moulding and casting. + +The excellence of the work depended for the most part upon the great +care and skill exercised by the workmen of the foundry. They seemed to +vie with each other in turning out the best castings, and their models +or patterns were made with the utmost care. I was particularly +impressed with the cheerful zeal and activity of the workmen and +foremen of this justly celebrated establishment. + +On leaving Coalbrookdale I trudged my way towards Wolverhampton. +I rested at Shiffnal for the night. Next day I was in the middle of +the Black Country. I had no letters of introduction to employers in +Wolverhampton; so that, without stopping there, I proceeded at once to +Dudley. The Black Country is anything but picturesque. The earth +seems to have been turned inside out. Its entrails are strewn about; +nearly the entire surface of the ground is covered with cinder-heaps +and mounds of scoriae. The coal which has been drawn from below ground +is blazing on the surface. The district is crowded with iron furnaces, +puddling furnaces, and coal-pit engine furnaces. By day and by night +the country is glowing with fire, and the smoke of the ironworks hovers +over it. There is a rumbling and clanking of iron forges and rolling +mills. Workmen covered with smut, and with fierce white eyes, are seen +moving about amongst the glowing iron and the dull thud of forge-hammers. +Amidst these flaming, smoky, clanging works, I beheld the remains of +what had once been happy farmhouses, now ruined and deserted. +The ground underneath them had sunk by the working out of the coal, +and they were falling to pieces. They had in former times been +surrounded by clumps of trees; but only the skeletons of them remained, +dead, black, and leafless. The grass had been parched and killed by +the vapours of sulphurous acid thrown out by the chimneys; and every +herbaceous object was of a ghastly gray--the emblem of vegetable +death in its saddest aspect. Vulcan had driven out Ceres. In some +places I heard a sort of chirruping sound, as of some forlorn bird +haunting the ruins of the old farmsteads. But no! the chirrup was a +vile delusion. It proceeded from the shrill creaking of the +coal-winding chains, which were placed in small tunnels beneath the +hedgeless road. + +I went into some of the forges to see the workmen at their labours. +There was no need of introduction; the works were open to all, for they +were unsurrounded by walls. I saw the white-hot iron run out from the +furnace; I saw it spun, as it were, into bars and iron ribbands, with +an ease and rapidity which seemed marvellous. There were also the +ponderous hammers and clanking rolling-mills. I wandered from one to +another without restraint. I lingered among the blast furnaces, seeing +the flood of molten iron run out from time to time, and remained there +until it was late. When it became dark the scene was still more +impressive. The workmen within seemed to be running about amidst the +flames as in a pandemonium; while around and outside the horizon was a +glowing belt of fire, making even the stars look pale and feeble. +At last I came away with reluctance, and made my way towards Dudley. +I reached the town at a late hour. I was exhausted in mind and body, +yet the day had been most interesting and exciting. A sound sleep +refreshed me, and I was up in the morning early, to recommence my +journey of inquiry, + +I made my way to the impressive ruins of Dudley Castle, the remnant of +a very ancient stronghold, originally built by Dud, the Saxon. +The castle is situated on a finely wooded hill; it is so extensive that +it more resembles the ruins of a town than of a single building. +You enter through a treble gateway, and see the remnants of the moat, +the court, and the keep. Here are the central hall, the guard, rooms, +and the chapel. It must have been a magnificent structure. In the +Midlands it was known as the "Castle of the Woods" Now it is abandoned +by its owners, and surrounded by the Black Country. It is undermined +by collieries, and even penetrated by a canal. The castle walls +sometimes tremble when a blast occurs in the bowels of the mountain +beneath. The town of Dudley lies quite close to the castle, and was +doubtless protected by it in ancient times. + +The architectural remains are of various degrees of antiquity, and are +well worthy of study, as embodying the successive periods which they +represent. Their melancholy grandeur is rendered all the more +impressive by the coal and iron works with which they are surrounded-- +the olden type of buildings confronting the modern. The venerable +trees struggle for existence under the destroying influence of +sulphurous acid; while the grass is withered and the vegetation +everywhere blighted. I sat down on an elevated part of the ruins, +and looked down upon the extensive district, with its roaring and +blazing furnaces, the smoke of which blackened the country as far as +the eye could reach; and as I watched the decaying trees I thought of +the price we had to pay for our vaunted supremacy in the manufacture of +iron. We may fill our purses, but we pay a heavy price for it in the +loss of picturesqueness and beauty. I left the castle with reluctance, +and proceeded to inspect the limestone quarries in the neighbourhood. +The limestone has long been worked out from underneath the castle; +but not far from it is Wren's Nest Hill, a mountain of limestone. +The wrens have left, but the quarries are there. The walk to the hill +is along green lanes and over quiet fields. I entered one of the +quarries opened out in the sloping precipice, and penetrated as far as +the glimmer of sunlight enabled me to see my way. But the sound of the +dripping of water from the root of the cave warned me that I was +approaching some deep pool, into which a false step might plunge me. +I therefore kept within the light of day. An occasional ray of the sun +lit up the enormous rock pillars which the quarrymen had left to +support the roof. It was a most impressive sight. + +Having emerged from the subterranean cave, I proceeded on my way to +Birmingham. I reached the town in the evening, and found most +comfortable quarters. On the following day I visited some of the +factories where processes were carried on in connection with the +Birmingham trade. I saw the mills where sheet brass and copper were +rolled for the purpose of being plated with silver. There was nothing +in these processes of novel interest, though I picked up many practical +hints. I could not fail to be attracted by the dexterous and rapid +manipulation of the work in hand, even by boys and girls whose quick +sight and nimble fingers were educated to a high degree of perfection. +I could have spent a month profitably among the vast variety of small +traders in metal, of which Birmingham is the headquarters. +Even in what is called "the toy trade," I found a vast amount of skill +displayed in the production of goldsmith work, in earrings, brooches, +gold chains, rings, beads, and glass eyes for stuffed birds, dolls, and +men. + +I was especially attracted by Soho, once the famous manufacturing +establishment of Boulton and Watt. Although this was not the +birthplace* +[footnote... +The birthplace of the condensing engine of Watt was the workshop in the +Glasgow University, where he first contrived and used a separate +condenser--the true and vital element in Watt's invention. +The condenser afterwards attained its true effective manhood at Soho +The Newcomen engine was in fact a condensing engine, but as the +condensation was effected inside the steam cylinder it was a very +costly source of power in respect to steam. Watt's happy idea of +condensing in a separate vessel removed the defect. This was first +done in his experimental engine in the Glasgow University workshop, +and before he had made the one at Kinniel for Dr. Roebuck. + ...] +of the condensing steam-engine it was the place where it attained its +full manhood of efficiency, and became the source and origin of English +manufacturing power. Watt's engine has had a greater influence on the +productive arts of mankind than any other that can be named. Boulton +also was a thorough man of business, without whom, perhaps, Watt could +never have made his way against the world, or perfected his magnificent +invention. Not less interesting to my mind was the memory of that +incomparable mechanic, William Murdoch, a man of indomitable energy, +and Watt's right-hand man in the highest practical sense. Murdoch was +the inventor of the first model locomotive, and the inventor of gas for +lighting purposes; and yet he always kept himself in the background, +for he was excessively modest. He was happiest when he could best +promote the welfare of the great house of Boulton and Watt. Indeed he +was a man whose memory ought to be held in the highest regard by all +true engineers and mechanics. + +The sight which I obtained of the vast series of workshops of this +celebrated establishment--filled with evidences of the mechanical +genius of these master minds--made me feel that I was indeed on +classic ground in regard to everything connected with steam-engine +machinery. Some of the engines designed by Watt--the prototypes of +the powerful condensing engines of the present day--were still +performing their daily quota of work. There was "Old Bess," +a sort of experimental engine, upon which Watt had tried many +adaptations and alterations, for the purpose of suiting it for pumping +water from coal mines. There was also the engine with the +sun-and-planet motion, an invention of William Murdoch's. +Both of these engines were still at work. + +I went through the workshops, where I was specially interested by +seeing the action of the machine tools. There I observed Murdoch's +admirable system of transmitting power from one central engine to other +small vacuum engines attached to the individual machines they were set +to work. The power was communicated by pipes led from the central air +or exhaust pump to small vacuum or atmospheric engines devoted to the +driving of each separate machine, thus doing away with all shafting and +leather belts, the required speed being kept up or modified at pleasure +without in any way interfering with the other machines. --This vacuum +method of transmitting power dates from the time of Papin; but until it +received the masterly touch of Murdoch it remained a dead contrivance +for more than a century. + +I concluded my visits to the workshops of Birmingham by calling upon a +little known but very ingenious man, whose work I had seen before +I left Edinburgh, in a beautifully constructed foot turning-lathe made +by John Drain. I was so much impressed with the exquisite design, +execution, and completeness of the lathe, that I made it one of my +chief objects to find out John Drain's workshop. It was with some +difficulty that I found him. He was little known in Birmingham. +His workshops were very small; they consisted of only one or two rooms. +His exquisite lathes were not much in demand. They found their way +chiefly to distant parts of the country, where they were highly +esteemed. + +I found that he had some exquisitely finished lathes completed and in +hand for engraving the steel plates for printing bank notes. They were +provided with the means of producing such intricate ornamental patterns +as to defy the utmost skill of the forger. Perkins had done a good +deal in the same way; but Drain's exquisite mechanism enabled his +engraving lathes to surpass anything that had before been attempted in +the same line. I believe that Drain's earnest attention to his work, +in which he had little or no assistance, undermined his health, +and arrested the career of one who, had he lived, would have attained +the highest position in his profession. I shall never forget the rare +treat which his fine mechanism afforded me. Its prominent quality was +absolute truth and accuracy in every part. + +Having now had enough of the Black Country and of Birmingham workshops, +I proceeded towards London. There were no more manufacturing districts +to be visited. Everything now was to be green lanes, majestic trees, +old mansions, venerable castles, and picturesque scenery. There is no +way of seeing a country properly except on foot. By railway you whiz +past and see nothing. Even by coach the best parts of the scenery are +unseen. "Shank's naig" is the best of all methods, provided you have +time. I had still some days to spare before the conclusion of my +holiday. I therefore desired to see some of the beautiful scenery and +objects of antiquarian interest before returning to work. + +I made my way across country to Kenilworth. The weather was fine, +and the walk was perfect. The wayside was bordered by grassy sward. +Wide and irregular margins extended on each side of the road, and noble +trees and untrinnned hedges, in their glowing autumnal tint, extended +far and wide. Everything was in the most gloriously neglected and +therefore highly picturesque condition. Here and there old farmhouses +and labourers' cottages peeped up from amidst the trees and hedges-- +worthy of the landscape painter's highest skill. + +I reached Kenilworth about half an hour before sunset. I made my way +direct to the castle, glorious in its decay. The fine mellow glow of +the setting sun lit up the grand and extensive ruins. The massive +Norman keep stood up with melancholy dignity, and attracted my +attention more than any other part of the ruined building. To me there +is an impressiveness in the simple massive dignity of the Norman +castles and cathedrals, which no other buildings possess. There is an +expression of terrible earnestness about them. The last look I had of +the Norman keep was grand. The elevated part was richly tinted with +the last glow of the setting sun, while the outline of the buildings +beneath was shaded by a dark purply gray. It was indeed a sight never +to be forgotten. I waited until the sun had descended beneath the +horizon, still leaving its glimmer of pink and crimson and gray, +and then I betook me to the little inn in the village, where I obtained +comfortable quarters for the night. I visited the ruins again in the +morning. Although the glory of the previous evening had departed, +I was much interested in observing the various styles of architecture +adopted in different parts of the buildings--some old, some +comparatively new. I found the older more grand and massive, and the +newer, of the sixteenth century, wanting in dignity of design, and the +workmanship very inferior. The reign of Shoddy had already begun +before Cromwell laid the castle in ruins. + +In the course of the day I proceeded to Warwick. I passed along the +same delightful grass-bordered roads, shaded by noble trees. I reached +the grand old town, with its antique buildings and its noble castle-- +so famous in English history. Leaving the place with reluctance, +I left it late in the afternoon to trudge on to Oxford. But soon after +I started the rain began to fall. It was the first interruption to my +walking journey which I had encountered during my three weeks' absence +from London. As it appeared from the dark clouds overhead that a wet +night had set in, I took shelter in a wayside inn at a place called +Steeple Aston. My clothes were dripping wet; and after a glass of very +hot rum and water I went to bed, and had a sound sleep. Next morning +it was fair and bright. After a substantial homely breakfast I set out +again. Nature was refreshed by the steady rain of the previous night, +and the day was beautiful. I reached Deddington and stayed there for +the night, and early next morning I set out for Oxford. + +I was greatly excited by the first sight I had of the crowd of towers +and spires of that learned and illustrious city. Nor were my +expectations at all disappointed by a nearer approach to the colleges +of Oxford. After a most interesting visit to the best of the +buildings, I took in a, fair idea of the admirable details of this +noble city, and left in the afternoon of next day. I visited, on my +way to Thame, the old church of Iffley. I was attracted to it by the +fine old Norman work it contains, which I found most quaint and +picturesque. + +I slept at Thame for the night, and next day walked to Windsor. +I arrived there at sunset, and had a fine view of the exterior of the +castle and the surrounding buildings. I was, however, much +disappointed on examining the architectural details. In sight of the +noble trees about the castle, and the magnificent prospect from the +terrace, I saw much that tended to make up for the disgust I felt at +the way in which all that was so appropriate and characteristic in so +historic a place as Windsor Castle should have been tampered with and +rubbed out by the wretched conceit of the worst architects of our worst +architectural period. + +I left Windsor next morning, and walked direct for London. My time was +up, but not my money. I had taken eight sovereigns on setting out from +London to Liverpool by coach, and I brought one sovereign back with me. +Rather than break into it I walked all the way from Windsor to London +without halting for refreshment my entire expenditure during my three +weeks' journey was thus seven pounds. + +When I look back upon that tour, I feel that I was amply rewarded. +It was throughout delightful and instructive. The remembrance of it is +as clear in my mind now as if I had performed the journey last year +instead of fifty years ago. There are thousands of details that pass +before my mind's eye that would take a volume to enunerate. I brought +back a book full of sketches; for graphic memoranda are much better +fitted than written words to bring up a host of pleasant recollections +and associations. I came back refreshed for work, and possessed by an +anxious desire to press forward in the career of industry which I had +set before me to accomplish. + + +CHAPTER 10. Begin Business at Manchester + +Mr. Maudslay arrived from Berlin two days after my return to London. +He, too, had enjoyed his holiday. During his stay in Berlin he had +made the friendship of the distinguished Humboldt. Shenkel, +the architect, had been very kind to him, and presented him with a set +of drawings and engravings of his great architectural works, which +Mr. Maudslay exhibited to me with much delight. What he most admired +in Shenkel was the great range of his talent in all matters of design, +his minute attention to detail, and his fine artistic feeling. + +Soon after Mr. Maudslay's return, a very interesting job was brought to +him, in which he took even more than his usual interest. It was a +machine which his friend Mr. Barton, of the Royal Mint, had obtained +from France. It was intended to cut or engrave the steel dies used for +stamping coin. It was a remarkable and interesting specimen of +inventive ingenuity. It copied any object in relief which had been +cast in plaster of Paris or brass from the artist's original wax model. +The minutest detail was transferred to soft steel dies with absolute +accuracy. This remarkable machine could copy and cut steel dies either +in intaglio or in cameo of any size, and, in short, enabled the +mechanic who managed it to transfer the most minute and characteristic +touches of the original model to the steel dies for any variety of size +of coin. Nevertheless, the execution of some of the details of the +machine were so defective, that after giving the most tempting proof of +its capabilities at the Royal Mint, Mr. Barton found it absolutely +necessary to place it in Maudslay's hands, in order to have its details +thoroughly overhauled, and made as mechanically perfect as its design +and intention merited. + +This interesting machine was accordingly brought to the private +workshop, and placed in the hands of the leading mechanic, whom I had +the pleasure of being associated with, James Sherriff, one of our most +skilled workmen. We were both put to our mettle. It was a job quite +to my taste, and being associated with so skilled a workman as +Sherriff, and in constant communication with Mr. Maudslay, I had every +opportunity of bringing my best manipulative ability into action and +use while perfecting this beautiful machine. It is sufficient to say +that by our united efforts, by the technical details suggested by +Mr. Maudslay and carried out by us, and by the practical trials made +under the superintendence of Mr. Wyon of the Mint, the apparatus was at +length made perfect and performed its duty to the satisfaction of every +one concerned. + +Mr. Maudslay had next a pair of 200 horse-power marine engines put in +hand. His sons and partners were rather opposed to so expensive a +piece of work being undertaken without an order. At that time such a +power as 200 horse nominal was scarcely thought of; and the Admiralty +Board were very cautious in ordering marine engines of any sort. +Nevertheless, the engines were proceeded with and perfected. +They formed a noble object in the great erecting shop. They embodied +in every detail all Mr. Maudslay's latest improvements. In fact the +work was the sum total of the great master's inventions and adaptations +in marine engines. The Admiralty at last secured them for the purpose +of being placed in a very fine vessel, the Dee, then in course of +construction. Mr. Maudslay was so much pleased with the result that +he had a very beautiful model made of the engines; and finding that +I had some artistic skill as a draughtsman, he set me to work to make a +complete perspective drawing of their great engines as they stood all +perfect in the erecting-shop. This was a work entirely to my taste. +In due time I completed a graphic portrait of these noble engines, +treated, I hope, in an artistic spirit. Indeed, such a class of +drawing was rarely to be had from any engineering draughtsman. +Mere geometrical drawing could not give a proper idea, as a whole, +of so grand a piece of mechanism. It required something of the +artistic spirit to fairly represent it. At all events my performance +won the entire approval of my master. + +Mr. Maudslay was a man of a wide range of mechanical abilities. +He was always ready to enter upon any new work requiring the exercise +of special skill. It did not matter whether it was machine tools, +engraving dies, block machinery, or astronomical instruments. While at +Berlin he went to see the Royal Observatory. He was naturally much +interested by the fine instruments there--the works of Repsoldt and +Hertz, the pioneers of improved astronomical workmanship. +The continental instrument makers were then far in advance of those of +England. Mr. Maudslay was greatly impressed with the sight of the fine +instruments in the Berlin Observatory. He was permitted to observe +some of the most striking and remarkable of the heavenly bodies-- +Jupiter, Saturn, and the Moon. It was almost a new revelation to him; +for the subject was entirely novel. To be able to make such +instruments seemed to him to be a glorious achievement of refined +mechanism and manipulative skill. He returned home full of the +wonderful sights he had seen. It was a constant source of pleasure to +him to dwell upon the splendour and magnificence of the heavenly bodies. + +He became anxious to possess a powerful telescope of his own. +His principal difficulty was in procuring a lens of considerable +diameter, possessed of high perfection of defining power. I suggested +to him the employment of a reflecting telescope, by means of which the +difficulties connected with the employment of glass could be avoided. +This suggestion was based upon some knowledge I had acquired respecting +this department of refined mechanical art. I knew that the elder +Herschel had by this means vastly advanced our knowledge of the +heavenly bodies, indeed to an extent far beyond what had been achieved +by the most perfect of glass lens instruments. Mr. Maudslay was +interested in the idea I suggested; and he requested me to show him +what I knew of the art of compounding the alloy called speculum metal. +He wished to know how so brittle a material could be cast and ground +and polished, and kept free from flaws or defects of every kind. + +I accordingly cast for him a speculum of 8 inches diameter. I ground +and polished it, and had it fitted up in a temporary manner to exhibit +its optical capabilities, which were really of no mean order. But, as +his ambition was to have a grand and powerful instrument of not less +than 24 inches diameter, the preparation for such a speculum became a +subject to him of the highest interest. He began to look out for a +proper position for his projected observatory. He made inquiry about a +residence at Norwood, where he thought his instrument might have fair +play. It would there be free from the smoke and disturbing elements of +such a place as Lambeth. His mind was full of this idea when he was +called away by the claims of affection to visit a dear old friend at +Boulogne. He remained there for more than a week, until assured of his +friend's convalescence. But on his return voyage across the Channel he +caught a severe cold. On reaching London he took to his bed and never +left it alive. After three or four weeks' suffering he died on the +14th of February 1831. + +It was a very sad thing for me to lose my dear old master. He was so +good and so kind to me in all ways. He treated me like a friend and +companion. He was always generous, manly, and upright in his dealings +with everybody. How his workmen loved him; how his friends lamented +him! He directed, before his death, that he should be buried in +Woolwich Churchyard, where a cast iron tomb, made to his own design, +was erected over his remains. He had ever a warm heart for Woolwich, +where he had been born and brought up. He began his life as a mechanic +there, and worked his way steadily upwards until he reached the highest +point of his profession. He often returned to Woolwich after he had +left it; sometimes to pay a share of his week's wages to his mother, +while she lived; sometimes to revisit the scenery of his youth. +He liked the green common, with the soldiers about it; Shooter's Hill, +with its wide look-out over Kent and down the valley of the Thames; +the river busy with shipping; the Dockyard wharf, with the royal craft +loading and unloading their armaments. He liked the clangour of the +arsenal smithy, where he had first learned his art; and all the busy +industry of the place. It was natural, therefore, that being so proud +of his early connection with Woolwich he should wish his remains to be +laid there; and Woolwich, on its part, has equal reason to be proud of +Henry Maudslay. + +After the death of my master I passed over to the service of his worthy +partner, Joshua Field. I had an equal pleasure in working under him. +His kindness in some degree mitigated the sad loss I had sustained by +the death of my lamented friend and employer. The first work I had to +perform for Mr. Field was to assist him in making the working drawings +of a 200 horse-power condensing steam-engine, ordered by the Lambeth +Waterworks Company. The practical acquaintance which I had by this +time acquired of the mechanism of steam-engines enabled me to serve +Mr. Field in a satisfactory manner. I drew out in full practical +detail the rough but excellent hand sketches with which he supplied me. +They were handed out for execution in the various parts of the factory; +and I communicated with the foremen as to the details and workmanship. + +While I was occupied beside Mr. Field in making these working drawings, +he gave me many most valuable hints as to the designing of machinery in +general. In after years I had many opportunities of making good use of +them. One point he often impressed upon me. It was, he said, most +important to bear in mind the get-at-ability of parts--that is, when +any part of a machine was out of repair, it was requisite to get at it +easily without taking the machine to pieces. This may appear a very +simple remark, but the neglect of such an arrangement occasions a vast +amount of trouble, delay, and expense. None but those who have had to +do with the repair of worn-out or damaged parts of machinery can +adequately value the importance of this subject. + +I found Mr. Field to be a most systematic man in all business affairs. +I may specially name one of his arrangements which I was quick to take +up and appreciate. I carried it out with great advantage in my after +life. It was, to record subjects of conversation by means of "graphic" +memoranda. Almost daily, persons of note came to consult with him +about machinery. On these occasions the consultations took place +either with reference to proposed new work, or as to the progress of +orders then in hand. Occasionally some novel scheme of applying power +was under discussion, or some new method of employing mechanism: +On ordinary occasions rough and rapid sketches are made on any stray +pieces of waste paper that were about, and after the conversation is +over the papers are swept away into the waste basket and destroyed. +And yet some of these rapid drawings involve matters of great interest +and importance for after consultations. + +To avoid such losses, Mr. Field had always placed upon his table a +"talking book" or "graphic diary." When his visitors called and entered +into conversation with him about mechanical matters, he made rapid +sketches on the successive pages of the book, and entered the brief +particulars and date of the conversation, together with the name and +address of the visitor. So that a conversation, once begun, might +again be referred to, and, when the visitor called, the graphic +memoranda might be recalled without loss of time, and the consultation +again proceeded. The pages of Mr. Field's "talking books" were in many +ways most interesting. They contained data that, in future years, +supplied valuable evidence in respect to first suggestions of +mechanical contrivances, and which sometimes were developed into very +important results. I may add that Mr. Field kept these "talking books" +on a shelf in front of his drawing table. The back of each volume was +marked with the year to which the entries referred, and an index was +appended to each. A general index book was also placed at the end of +the goodly range of these graphic records of his professional life. + +The completion of the working drawings of the Lambeth pumping engines +occupied me until August 1831. I had then arrived at my twenty-third +year. I had no intention of proceeding further as an assistant or a +journeyman. I intended to begin business for my self. Of course I +could only begin in a very small way. I informed Mr. Field of my +intention, and he was gratified with my decision. Not only so; but he +kindly permitted me to obtain castings of one of the best +turning-lathes in the workshops. I knew th at when I had fitted it up +it would become the parent of a vast progeny of descendants--not only +in the direct line, but in planing machines, screw-cutting lathes, +and many other minor tools. + +At the end of the month, after taking a grateful farewell of Mr. Field +and his partners, I set sail for Leith with my stock of castings, +and reached Edinburgh in due time. In order to proceed with the +construction of my machine tools, I rented a small piece of land at Old +Broughton. It was at the rear of my worthy friend George Douglass's +small foundry, and was only about five minutes' walk from my father's +house. I erected a temporary workshop 24 feet long by 16 feet wide. + +I removed thither my father's foot-lathe, to which I had previously +added an excellent slide-rest of my own making. I also added a +"slow motion," which enabled me to turn cast-iron and cast-steel +portions of my great Maudslay lathe. I soon had the latter complete +and in action. Its first child was a planing machine capable of +executing surfaces in the most perfect style--of 3 feet long by +1 foot 8 inches wide. Armed with these two most important and +generally useful tools, and by some special additions, such as boring +machines and drilling machines, I soon had a progeny of legitimate +descendants crowded about my little workshop, so that I often did not +know which way to turn. + +[Image] My temporary workshop at Edinburgh + +I had one labourer to drive the wheel which gave motion to my big +lathe; but I was very much in want of some one else to help me. +One day a young hearty fellow called upon me. He had come from the +Shotts Iron Company's Works in Edinburgh. Having heard of what I was +about, he offered his services. When he told me that he had been bred +as a millwright, and that he could handle the plane and the saw as well +as the chisel and the file, I closed with him at once. He was to have +fifteen shillings a week. I liked the young man very much--he was so +hearty and cheerful. His name was Archibald Torry, or " Archie," as he +was generally called during the twenty years that he remained in my +service I obtained another assistant in the person of a young man whose +father wished him to get an insight into practical engineering. I was +offered a premium of #50 for twelve months' experience in my workshop. +I arranged to take the young man, and to initiate him in the general +principles and practice of engineering. The #50 premium was a very +useful help to me, especially as I had engaged the millwright. +It enabled me to pay Torry's wages during the time that he remained +with me in Edinburgh. I found it necessary, however, to take in some +work in the regular way of business, in order to supply me with the +means of completing my proper supply of tools. + +The chief of these extraneous and, I may say, disturbing jobs, was that +of constructing a rotary steam-engine. Mr. Robert Steen had contrived +and patented an engine of this sort. He was a dangerously enthusiastic +man, and entertained the most visionary ideas as to steam power. +He was of opinion that his own contrivance was more compact and simple, +and possessed of more capability of producing power from the +consumption of a given quantity of fuel, than the best steam-engines +then in use. I warned him of his error; but nothing but an actual +proof would satisfy him. He urgently requested me to execute his +order.He made me a liberal and tempting offer of weekly payments for my +work during the progress of his engine. He only required that I should +give his invention the benefit of my careful workmanship. +He considered that this would be sufficient to substantiate all his +enthusiastic expectations. I was thus seduced to accept his order. + +I made the requisite drawings, and proceeded with the work. At the +same time my own machine tools were in progress, though at a retarded +pace. The weekly payments we're regularly made, and I was kept in a +sort of financial ease. After three months the rotary engine was +finished to the inventor's complete satisfaction. But when the power +it gave out was compared with that of a good ordinary steam-engine, +the verdict as to consumption of fuel was against the new rotary +engine. Nevertheless, the enthusiastic projector, "tho' vanquished he +would argue still," insisted that the merits of his contrivance would +sooner or later cause it to be a most formidable rival to the crank +steam-engines. As he was pleased with its performances, I had no +reason to be dissatisfied. I had done my part in the matter, and +Mr. Steen had done his. His punctual weekly payments had assisted me +in the completion of my tools; and after a few months more labour I had +everything ready for starting business on my own account. + +My choice lay between Liverpool and Manchester. I had seen both of +these cities while on my visit to Lancashire to witness the opening of +the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. I now proceeded to visit them +again. I was fortified with valuable introductions to leading men in +both places. I was received by them with great kindness and +hospitality. I have heard a great deal about the ingratitude and +selfishness of the world. It may have been my good fortune, but I have +never experienced either of those unfeeling conditions. On the whole I +have found a great deal of unselfish kindness among my fellow-beings. +They have often turned out of their way to do me a service; and I can +never be too grateful for the unwearied kindness, civility, and +generosity of the friends I met with during my stay in Lancashire. + +It was a question which would be the best place to settle in-- +Liverpool or Manchester. I had seen striking evidences of the natural +aptitude of Lancashire workmen for every sort of mechanical employment, +and had observed their unsparing energy while at work. I compared them +with the workmen whom I had seen in London, and found them superior. +They were men of greater energy of character; their minds were more +capacious; their ingenuity was more inventive. I felt assured that in +either Liverpool or Manchester--the centres of commercial and +manipulative energy--I could settle down with my limited capital and +tools, and in course of time contrive to get on, helped by energy, +self-reliance, and determination. I also found that the demand for +machine-making tools was considerable, and that their production would +soon become an important department of business. It might be carried +on with little expenditure of capital, as the risks were small and the +returns were quick. I resolved to cultivate that moderate and safe +class of mechanical business, at all events at the outset. + +I first went to Liverpool. I presented my letter of introduction to +Mr. Roscoe, head of the Mersey Steel and Iron Company. He received me +with great kindness, and gave me much good advice. I called upon +Edward Berry, engineer, and also upon William Fawcett, who had received +me with so much kindness on my former visit. I cannot omit mentioning +also the friendly reception which I received from Dr. Sillar. +He had been a medical student at Edinburgh, and had during that time +met with some kindness from my father. He expressed his remembrance of +it with grateful effusion; and added his personal introduction, with +that of my letters, to some of the leading men in Liverpool. I may +mention that Dr. Sillar was the son of Burns's "Brother Poet" Davie, +to whom the well-known "Epistle" was addressed. + +Among the other well-known men to whom I was introduced at Liverpool +was John Cragg, an intelligent and enterprising ironfounder. He was an +extensive manufacturer of the large sugar-boiling pans used in the West +Indies. He had also given his attention to the introduction of iron +into buildings of different sorts. Being a man of artistic taste he +had even introduced cast-iron into Gothic architecture. In order to +exhibit, in an impressive form, the uses of his favourite metal, +he erected at his own cost a very elegant church in the northern part +of Liverpool.* + [footnote... +So far as I can recollect, the name of the church was St. James's. +It exhibited a very early introduction of iron as an important element +in architectural construction. Iron was afterwards largely introduced +into mills, mill gearing, and buildings generally. + ...] + +Cast-iron was introduced, not only in the material parts of the +structure, but into the Gothic columns and Gothic tracery of the +windows, as well as into the lofty and elegant spire. Iron was also +employed in the external ornamental details, where delicate yet +effective decoration was desirable. The famous architect, +Edward Blore, was the designer of the church; and the whole details of +the building--of which cast-iron formed the principal material-- +were executed to his entire satisfaction* + [footnote... +So far as I can recollect, the name of the church was St. James's. +It exhibited a very early introduction of iron as an important element +in architectural construction. Iron was afterwards largely introduced +into mills, mill gearing, and buildings generally. + ...] + +My introduction to Mr. Cragg led to an acquaintance, and then to a +friendship. When the ice was broken which was very soon--he told me +that he was desirous of retiring from the more active part of his +business. Whether he liked my looks or not I do not know; but, quite +unexpectedly, he made me a very tempting offer to enter his works as +his successor. He had already amassed a fortune, and I might do the +same. I could only thank him most sincerely for his kindness. +But, on carefully thinking the matter over, I declined the proposal. +My principal reason was, that the special nature of his foundry work +did not quite harmonise with my desire to follow the more strictly +mechanical part of the iron business. Besides, I thought I had a +brighter prospect of success before me; though I knew that I had many +difficulties to contend against. Did I throw away my chances in +declining the liberal proposal of Mr. Cragg? The reader will be able +to judge from the following pages. But to the last* + [footnote... +Mr. Cragg died in 1853, aged 84. + ...] +I continued a most friendly intercourse with my intended patron, while +he on his part took an almost paternal interest in my progress. + +After my visit to Liverpool I passed on to Manchester. +I was fortunate in having introductions to some of the leading men +there,--to John Kennedy, William Fairbairn, the Grant Brothers, and +lastly, to that most admirable man, Benjamin Hick, engineer, Bolton. +To narrate in detail all the instances of warm and hospitable +kindnesses which I received from men in Lancashire, even from the +outset of my career there, would fill a volume. + +I first went to see my friend Edward Tootal, who had given me so kind +a reception in 1830. I was again cordially received; he now promised +to befriend me, which he did most effectually. I next visited John +Chippendale, of the firm of Thomson, Chippendale, and Company, calico +printers. I had met him at a friend's house in London, where he had +offered, if I ever visited Manchester, to introduce me to some of the +best men there. I accordingly called upon him at his counting-house. +It happened to be Tuesday, the market day, when all the heads of +manufacturing establishments in and round Manchester met together at +the Exchange between 12 and 1; and thus all were brought to a focus in +a very convenient manner. + +Mr. Chippendale first introduced me to Mr. John Kennedy, one of +the most distinguished men in Manchester. I had a special letter +of introduction to him from Buchanan of Catrine, and his partner +Smith of Deanstone. I explained to him the object of my visit to +Manchester, and he cordially entered into my views. He left his +occupation at the time, and went with me to see a place which he +thought might be suitable for my workshop. The building was new at +hand--in Dale Street, Piccadilly. It had been used as a cotton mill, +but was abandoned by the owner in favour of more suitable and extensive +premises. It was now let out in flats for manufacturing purposes. +Power was supplied to each flat from a shaft connected with a large +mill up the street, the owner of which had power to spare. The flat +shown to me was 130 feet long by 27 feet wide, and the rent was only +#50 a year. I thought the premises very suitable, but I took a night +to sleep over it. I thanked Mr. Kennedy very much for his kindness, +and for the trouble which he had taken on behalf of an unknown +stranger. + +On this memorable day I had another introduction, through the kindness +of Mr. Chippendale, which proved of great service to me. It was to the +Messrs. Grant, the famous "Brothers Cheeryble" of Dickens. I was taken +to their counting-house in Cannon Street, where I was introduced to +Daniel Grant. Although business was at its full height, he gave me a +cordial reception. But, to save time, he invited me to come after the +Exchange was over and take "tiffin" with him at his hospitable mansion +in Mosely Street. + +There, he said, I should meet some of the most enterprising men in +Lancashire. I was most happy, of course, to avail myself of his +invitation. I went thither accordingly, and the first thing that +Daniel did was to present me in the most cordial manner to "his noble +brother William," as he always affectionately called him. William was +the head of the firm, and he, too, gave me a warm and hearty welcome. +He asked me to sit beside him at the head of the table. + +During dinner--for indeed it was such, being the survival of the +old-fashioned one o'clock dinner of a departing age--William entered +into conversation with me. He took occasion to inquire into the object +of my visit to Manchester. I told him, as briefly as I could, +that I intended to begin the business of a mechanical engineer on a +very moderate scale, and that I had been looking out for premises +wherein to commence operations. He seemed interested, and asked more +questions. I related to him my little history, and told him of my +desires, hopes, and aspirations. What was my age? "Twenty-six." +"That is a very young age at which to begin business on your own account" +"Yes; but I have plenty of work in me, and I am very economical." +Then he pressed his questions home. "But what is your capital?" +I told him that my capital in cash was #63. "What!" he said, +"that will do very little for you when Saturday nights come round." +"That's true," I answered; "but as there will be only myself and Archy +Torry to provide for, I think I can manage to get along very well until +profitable work comes in." + +He whispered to me, "Keep your heart up!" With such views, he said, +I was sure to do well. And if, he added, on any Saturday night I +wanted money to pay wages or other expenses, I would find a credit for +#500 at 3 per cent at his office in Cannon Street, "and no security." +These were his very words. What could have been more generous? +I could only whisper my earnest thanks for his warm-hearted kindness. +He gave me a kindly squeeze of the hand in return, which set me in a +glow of gladness. He also gave me a sort of wink that I shall never +forget--a most knowing wink. In looking at me he seemed to turn his +eye round and brought his eyebrows down upon it in a sudden and +extraordinary manner. I thought it was a mere confirmation of his kind +advice to "keep my heart up!" It was not until two years after that +I found, from a mutual friend, that the eye in question was made of +glass! Sometimes the glass eye got slightly out of its place, and +Mr. Grant had to force it in again by this odd contortion of his +eyebrows, which I had translated into all manner of kind intentions. +As soon as the party broke up I went to Wren and Bennett, the agents +for the flat of the old mill which I had seen in Dale Street. +I inspected it again, and found that it was in all respects suitable +for my purpose. I may mention in passing that the flat below mine was +in the occupation of a glass-cutter, whose glass-cutting lathes and +grindstones were supplied with power from the same upright shaft that +was to serve me in the same manner on the flat above, Encouraged by the +support of William Grant, I immediately entered into a contract for the +premises as a yearly tenant. Nothing could have been more happily +arranged for my entering into business as a mechanical engineer and +machine tool maker. The situation of the premises was excellent, being +in the heart of Manchester There was a powerful crab crane, or hoisting +apparatus, in the upper story, and the main chains came down in front +of the wide door of my workshop, so that heavy castings or cases of +machinery might be lifted up or let down with the utmost case and +convenience. At the same time I was relieved from looking after the +moving power and its natural accompaniment of trouble and expense in +the way of fuel and attendance. + +[Image] My factory flat at Manchester + +When I had settled the contract for taking the place, I wrote down to +Edinburgh by that night's post to tell my father of the happy results +of my visit to Manchester, and also to inform my right hand man, Archy +Torry, that I should soon be with him. He was to prepare for packing +up my lathes, planing machines, drilling machines, and other smaller +tools, not forgetting my father's foot lathe, of which I had made such +effective use.* + [footnote... +I have still this foot-lathe in full and perfect and almost daily +action. I continue to work with it now, after sixty-three years of +almost constant use. It is a lathe that I duly prize and venerate, not +only because it was my father's, but also because it was, in practical +fact, the progenitor, more or less directly, of all the mechanical +productions of my long and active life. + ...] + +I soon followed up my letter. I was in Edinburgh in a few days' time, +and had all my tools packed up. In the course of about ten days +I returned to Manchester, and was followed by Archy Torry and the +ponderous cases of machinery and engineer's tools. They were all duly +delivered, hoisted to my flat, and put in their proper places. +I was then ready for work. + +The very first order I received was from my friend Edward Tootal. +It was a new metallic piston for the small steam-engine that gave +motion to his silk-winding machinery. It was necessary that it should +be done over night, in order that his factory should be at work as +usual in the morning. + +My faithful Archy and I set to work accordingly. We removed the old +defective piston, and replaced it by a new and improved one, made +according to my own ideas of how so important a part of a steam-engine +should be constructed. We conveyed it to Mr. Tootal's factory over +night, and by five o'clock in the morning gave it a preliminary trial +to see that everything was in order. The "hands" came in at six, +and the machine was set to work. It was no doubt a very small order, +but the piston was executed perfectly and satisfactorily. The result +of its easier action, through reduced friction, was soon observable in +the smaller consumption of coal. Mr. Tootal and his brother were +highly pleased at my prompt and careful attention to their little +order, and it was the forerunner of better things to come. + +Orders soon came in. My planing machine was soon fully occupied. +When not engaged in executing other work it was employed in planing the +flat cast-iron inking tables for printing machines. These were made in +considerable numbers by Messrs. Wren and Bennett (my landlords) under +the personal superintendence of Ebenezer Cowper, brother of the +inventor, who, in conjunction with Mr. Applegath, was the first to +produce a really effective newspaper printing machine. I had many +small subsidiary jobs sent to me to execute. They not only served to +keep my machine tools properly employed, but tended in the most +effective way to make my work known to some of the best firms in +Manchester, who in course of time became my employers. + +In order to keep pace with the influx of work I had to take on fresh +hands. I established a smithy down in the cellar flat of the old mill +in Dale Street, so that all forge work in iron and steel might be +promptly and economically produced on the premises. There was a small +iron foundry belonging to a Mr. Heath, about three minutes walk from my +workshop, where I had all my castings of iron and brass done with +promptness, and of excellent quality. Mr. Heath very much wanted a +more powerful steam-engine to drive his cupola blowing fan. I had made +a steam-engine in Edinburgh and brought it with me. There it lay in my +workshop, where it remained unused, for I was sufficiently supplied +with power from the rotating shaft. Mr. Heath offered to buy it. +The engine was accordingly removed to his iron foundry, and I received +my full quota of value in castings. + +Week by week my orders grew, and the flat of the old mill soon assumed +a very busy aspect. By occasionally adding to the number of my lathes, +drilling machines, and other engineers' tools, I attracted the +attention of employers. When seen in action they not only facilitated +and economised the production of my own work, but became my best +advertisements. Each new tool that I constructed had some feature of +novelty about it. I always endeavoured after greater simplicity and +perfectness of workmanship. I was punctual in all my engagements. +The business proved safe and profitable. The returns were quick. +Sometimes one-third of the money was paid in advance on receipt of the +order, and the balance was paid on delivery at my own premises. +All risk of bad debts was avoided. Thus I was enabled to carry on my +business with a very moderate amount of capital. + +My crowded workshop and the active scene it presented, together with +the satisfaction my work gave to my employers, induced several persons +to offer to enter into partnership with me. Sometimes it was on their +own account, or for a son or relation for whom they desired an opening. +But I fought shy of such proposals. It was a very riskful affair to +admit as partners young men whose character for ability might be very +doubtful. I was therefore satisfied to go on as before. Besides, I had +the kind and disinterested offer of the Brothers Grant, which was +always available, though, indeed, I did not need to make use of it. +I had also the good fortune to be honoured by the friendship of Edward +Lloyd, the head of the firm of Jones, Lloyd, and Co. I had some +moderate financial transactions with the bank. Mr. Lloyd had, +no doubt, heard something of my industry and economy. I never asked +him for any accommodation; but on one occasion he invited me into his +parlour, not to sweat me, but to give me some most kindly hints and +advice as to the conduct of my financial affairs. He volunteered an +offer which I could not but feel proud of. He said that I should have +a credit of #1000 at my service, at the usual bank rate. He added, +"As soon as you can, lay by a little capital of your own, and baste it +with its own gravy!" A receipt which I have carefully followed through +life, and I am thankful to say with satisfactory results. + +Before I conclude this chapter, let me add something more about my kind +friends the Brothers Grant. It is well that their history should be +remembered, as the men who personally knew them will soon be all dead. +The three brothers, William, Daniel, and John Grant, were the sons of a +herdsman or cattle-dealer, whose occupation consisted in driving cattle +from the far north of Scotland to the rich pastures of Cheshire and +Lancashire. The father was generally accompanied by his three sons, +who marched barefoot, as was the custom of the north country lads in +those days. Being shrewd fellows, they observed with interest the +thriving looks and well-fed condition of the Lancashire folks. +They were attracted by the print works and cotton mills which lay by +the Irwell, as it crept along in its bright and rural valley towards +Manchester. When passing the works of Sir Robert Peel at Nuttal, near +Bury, they admired the beauty of the situation. The thought possessed +them that they would like to obtain some employment in the neighbourhood. +They went together in search of a situation. It is said that when they +reached the crown of the hill near Walmsley, from which a beautiful +prospect is to be seen, they were in doubt as to the line of road which +they should pursue. To decide their course, a stick was put up, +and they agreed to follow the direction in which it should fall. +The stick fell in the direction of Ramsbottom, then a little village in +the bottom of the valley, on the river Irwell. There they went, +and found employment. + +They were thrifty, economical, and hard-working; and they soon saved +money. Their savings became capital, and they invested it in a little +print work. Their capital grew, and they went on investing it in print +works and cotton mills. + +They became great capitalists and manufacturers; and by their industry, +ability, and integrity, were regarded as among the best men in +Lancashire. As a memorial of the event which enabled them to take up +their happy home at Ramsbottom, they caused to be erected at the top of +Walmsley Hill a lofty tower, overlooking the valley, as a kind of +public thank-offering for the prosperity and success which they had +achieved in their new home. Their well-directed diligence made the +valley teem with industry, activity, health, joy, and opulence. +They never forgot the working class from which they had sprung, and as +their labours had contributed to their wealth, they spared no expense +in providing for the moral, intellectual, and physical interests of +their work-people. Whenever a worthy object was to be achieved, +the Brothers Grant were always ready with their hearty and substantial +help. They contributed to found schools, churches, and public buildings, +and many a deserving man did they aid with their magnanimous bounty. + +I may also mention that they never forgot their first impression of the +splendid position of the first Sir Robert Peel's works at Nuttal. +In course of time Sir Robert had, by his skill and enterprise, acquired +a large fortune, and desired to retire from business. By this time the +Grant Brothers had succeeded so well that they were enabled to purchase +the whole of his works and property in the neighbourhood. +They proceeded to introduce every improvement in the way of machinery +and calico printing, and thus greatly added to the quality of their +productions. Their name became associated with everything that was +admirable. They abounded in hospitality and generosity. +In the course of many long years of industry, enterprise, and benevolence, +they earned the goodwill of thousands, the gratitude of many, and the +respect of all who knew them. I was only one of many who had cause to +remember them with gratefulness. How could I acknowledge their +kindness? There was one way; it was a very small way, but I will +relate it. Soon after my introduction to the Grants, and before I had +brought my tools to Manchester, William invited me to join a gathering +of his friends at Ramsbottom. The church built at his cost had just +been finished, and it was to be opened with great eclat on the +following Sunday. He asked me to be his guest, and I accepted his +invitation with pleasure. As it was a very fine day at the end of May, +I walked out to Ramsbottom, and enjoyed the scenery of the district. +Here was the scene of the Grant Brothers' industry and prosperity. +I met many enterprising and intelligent men, to whom William Grant +introduced me. I was greatly pleased with the ceremonies connected +with the opening of the church. + +On the Monday morning William Grant, having seen some specimens of my +father's artistic skill as a landscape painter, requested me to convey +to him his desire that he should paint two pictures--one of Castle +Grant, the residence of the chief of the Clan Grant, and the other of +Elgin Cathedral. These places were intimately associated with his +early recollections, The brothers had been born in the village +adjoining Castle Grant; and Elgin Cathedral was one of the principal +old buildings of the north. My father replied, saying that he would be +delighted to execute the pictures for a gentleman who had given me so +kindly a reception, but that he had no authentic data--no drawings, +no engravings--from which to paint them; and that he was now too old +to visit the places. I therefore resolved to do what I could to help +him to paint the pictures. + +As it was necessary that I should go to London before returning to +Edinburgh to pack up my machine tools there, I went thither, and after +doing my business, I embarked for Dundee by the usual steamer. +I made my way from there, via Perth and Dunkeld, to Inverness, and from +thence I proceeded to Elgin. I made most careful drawings of the +remains of that noble cathedral. I endeavoured to include all that was +most beautiful in the building and its surrounding scenery. +I then went on to Castle Grant, through a picturesque and romantic +country. I found the castle amidst its deep forests of pine, larch, +elm, and chestnut. The building consists of a high quadrangular pile +of many stories, projecting backwards at each end, and pierced with +windows of all shapes and sizes. I did my best to carry away a graphic +sketch of the old castle and its surroundings: and then, with my stock +of drawings, I prepared to return to Inverness on foot. The scenery +was grand and beautiful. The weather was fine, although after mid-day +it became very hot. A thunder storm was evidently approaching. +The sun was obscured by a thunder-cloud; the sky flashed with +lightning, and the rain began to pour down. I was then high up on a +wild looking moor, covered with heather and vast boulders. + +[Image] An extemporised shower-bath + +There was no shelter to be had, for not a house was in sight. +I did not so much mind for my clothes, but I feared very much for my +sketches. Taking advantage of the solitude, I stripped myself, put my +sketches under my clothes, and thrust them into a hollow underneath a +huge boulder. I sat myself down on the top of it, and there I had a +magnificent shower-bath of warm rain. I never enjoyed a bath under +such romantic circumstances. The thunder-clouds soon passed over my +head, and the sun broke out again cheerily. When the rain had ceased +I took out my clothes and drawings from the hollow, and found them +perfectly dry. I set out again on my long walk to Inverness; +and reached it just in time to catch the Caledonian Canal steamer. +While passing down Loch Ness I visited the romantic Fail of Foyers; +then through Loch Lochy, past Ben Nevis to Loch Linnhe, Oban, and the +Kyles of Bute, to Glasgow, and from thence to Edinburgh. + +I had the pleasure of placing in my father's hands the sketches I had +made. He was greatly delighted with them. They enabled him to set to +work with his usual zeal, and in the course of a short time he was able +to execute, con amore, the commission of the Brothers Grant. So soon +as I had completed my sketches I wrote to Daniel Grant and informed him +of the result of my journey. He afterwards expressed himself most +warmly as to my prompt zeal in obtaining for him authentic pictures of +places so dear to the brothers, and so much associated with their +earliest and most cherished recollections. + +I have already referred to the Brothers Cowper. They were among my +most attached friends at Manchester. Many of my most pleasant +associations are connected with them. Edward Cowper was one of the +most successful mechanics in bringing the printing machine to a state +of practical utility. He was afterwards connected with Mr. Applegath +of London, the mechanical engineer of the Times newspaper* + [footnote... +Mr. Koeig's machines, first used at the Times office, were patented in +1814. They were too complicated and expensive, and the inking was too +imperfect for general adoption. They were superseded by Mr. Edward +Cowper's machine, which he invented and patented in 1816. +He afterwards added the inking roller and table to the common press. +The effect of Mr. Cowper's invention was to improve the quality and +speed of printing, and to render literature accessible to millions of +readers. + ...] +he invented for the proprietors a machine that threw off from 4500 to +5000 impressions in the hour. + +In course of time the Brothers Cowper removed the manufacture of their +printing machines from London ,to Manchester. There they found skilled +and energetic workmen, ready to carry their plans into effect. +They secured excellent premises, supplied with the best modern machine +tools, in the buildings of Wren and Bennett, about two minutes' walk +from my workshop, which I rented from the same landlords. + +I had much friendly intercourse with the Cowpers, especially with +Ebenezer the younger brother, who took up his residence at Manchester +for the purpose of specially superintending the manufacture of printing +machines. These were soon in large demand, not only for the printing +of books but of newspapers. One of the first booksellers who availed +himself of the benefits of the machine was Mr. Charles Knight, +who projected the Penny Magazine of 1832, and sold it to the extent of +about 180,000 copies weekly. It was also adopted by the Messrs. +Chambers of Edinburgh, and the proprietors of the Magasin Pittoresque +of Paris. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge also used Cowper's +machine in printing vast numbers of bibles and prayer-books, thereby +reducing their price to one-third of the former cost. There was +scarcely a newspaper of any importance in the country that was not +printed with a Cowper's machine. + +As I possessed some self-acting tools that were specially suited to +execute some of the most refined and important parts of the printing +machine, the Messrs. Cowper transferred their execution to me. This +was a great advantage to both. They were relieved of the technical +workmanship; while I kept my men and machine tools fully employed at +times when they might otherwise have been standing idle. +Besides, I derived another advantage from my connection with the +Brothers Cowper, by having frequent orders to supply my small +steam-engines, which were found to be so suitable for giving motion to +the printing machines. At first the machines were turned by hand, and +very exhausting work it was; but the small steam-engine soon relieved +the labourer from his heavy work. + +Edward frequently visited Manchester to arrange with his brother as to +the increasing manufacture of the printing machines, and also to +introduce such improvements in the minor details as the experience and +special requirements of the printing trade suggested. It was on these +occasions that I had the happy opportunity of becoming intimately +acquainted with him; and this resulted in a firm friendship which +continued until the close of his admirable life. The clear and +masterly way in which, by some happy special faculty, he could catch up +the essential principles and details of any mechanical combination, +however novel the subject might be, was remarkable; and the quaint and +humorous manner in which he treated all such subjects, in no small +degree caused his shrewd and intelligent remarks to take a lasting hold +of the memory. + +On many occasions Edward Cowper gave Friday evening lectures on +technical subjects at the Royal Institution, London. Next to Faraday, +no one held the attention of a delighted audience in so charming a +manner as he did. Like Faraday, he possessed the power of clearly +unveiling his subject, and stripping it of all its complicated +perplexities. His illustrations were simple, clear, and understandable. +Technical words were avoided as much as possible. He threw the +ordinary run of lecturers far into the shade. Intelligent boys and +girls could understand him. Next to Faraday, no one filled the theatre +of the Institution with such eager and crowded audiences as he did. +His choice of subjects, as well as his masterly treatment, always +rendered his lectures instructive and attractive. He was one of the +most kind-hearted of men, and the cheerful way in which he laid aside +his ordinary business to give instruction and pleasure to others +endeared him to a very wide circle of devoted friends. + + +CHAPTER 11. Bridgewater Foundry--Partnership. + +My business went on prosperously. I had plenty of orders, and did my +best to execute them satisfactorily. Shortly after the opening of the +Liverpool and Manchester Railway there was a largely increased demand +for machine-making tools. The success of that line led to the +construction of other lines, concentrating in Manchester; +and every branch of manufacture shared in the prosperity of the time. + +There was a great demand for skilled, and even for unskilled labour. +The demand was greater than the supply. Employers were subjected to +exorbitant demands for increased rates of wages. The workmen struck, +and their wages were raised. But the results were not always +satisfactory. Except in the cases of the old skilled hands, the work +was executed more carelessly than before. The workmen attended less +regularly; and sometimes, when they ought to have been at work on +Monday mornings, they did not appear until Wednesday. +Their higher wages had been of no use to them, but the reverse. +Their time had been spent for the most part in two days' extra drinking. + +The irregularity and carelessness of the workmen naturally proved very +annoying to the employers. But it gave an increased stimulus to the +demand for self-acting machine tools by which the untrustworthy efforts +of hand labour might be avoided. The machines never got drunk; +their hands never shook from excess; they were never absent from work; +they did not strike for wages; they were unfailing in their accuracy +and regularity, while producing the most delicate or ponderous portions +of mechanical structures. + +It so happened that the demand for machine tools, consequent upon the +increasing difficulties with the workmen, took place at the time that I +began business in Manchester, and I had my fair share of the increased +demand. Most of my own machine tools were self-acting--planing +machines, slide lathes, drilling, boring, slotting machines, and so on. +When set up in my workshop they distinguished themselves by their +respective merits and efficiency. They were, in fact, their own best +advertisements. The consequence was that orders for similar machines +poured in upon me, and the floor of my flat became completely loaded +with the work in hand. + +The tenant below me, it will be remembered, was a glass-cutter. +He observed, with alarm, the bits of plaster from the roof coming down +among his cut glasses and decanters. He thought that the rafters +overhead were giving way, and that the whole of my machinery and +engines would come tumbling down upon him some day and involve him in +ruin. He probably exaggerated the danger; still there was some cause +for fear. + +When the massive castings on my floor were moved about from one part to +another, the floor quivered and trembled under the pressure. +The glass-cutter complained to the landlord, and the landlord +expostulated with me. I did all that I could to equalise the pressure, +and prevent vibration as much as possible. But at length, in spite of +all my care, an accident occurred which compelled me to take measures +to remove my machinery to other premises. As this removal was followed +by consequences of much importance to myself, I must endeavour to state +the circumstances under which it occurred. + +My kind friend, John Kennedy, continued to take the greatest interest +in my welfare. He called in upon me occasionally. He admired the +quality of my work, and the beauty of my self-acting machinery. +More than that, he recommended me to his friends. It was through his +influence that I obtained an order for a high-pressure steam-engine of +twenty horse-power to drive the machinery connected with a distillery +at Londonderry, in Ireland. I was afraid at first that I could not +undertake the job. The size of the engine was somewhat above the +height of my flat, and it would probably occupy too much space in my +already overcrowded workshop. At the same time I was most anxious not +to let such an order pass me. I wished to please my friend Mr. Kennedy; +besides, the execution of the engine might lead to further business. + +At length, after consideration, I undertook to execute the order. +Instead of constructing the engine perpendicularly, I constructed it +lying upon its side. There was a little extra difficulty, but I +managed to complete it in the best style. It had next to be taken to +pieces for the purpose of being conveyed to Londonderry. It was then +that the accident happened. My men had the misfortune to allow the end +of the engine beam to crash through the floor! There was a terrible +scattering of lath and plaster and dust. The glass-cutter was in a +dreadful state. He rushed forthwith to the landlord, and called upon +him to come at once and judge for himself! + +Mr. Wren did come, and did judge for himself. He looked in at the +glass shop, and saw the damage that had been done amongst the tumblers +and decanters. There was the hole in the roof, through which the end +of the engine beam had come and scattered the lath and plaster. +The landlord then came to me. The whole flat was filled with +machinery, including the steam-engine on its side, now being taken to +pieces for the purpose of shipment to Ireland. Mr. Wren, in the +kindest manner, begged me to remove from the premises as soon as I +could, otherwise the whole building might be brought to the ground with +the weight of my machinery. "Besides," he argued, "you must have more +convenient premises for your rapidly extending business." It was quite +true. I must leave the place and establish myself elsewhere. + +The reader may remember that while on my journey on foot from Liverpool +to Manchester in 1830, I had rested myself for a little on the parapet +of the bridge overlooking the canal near Patricroft, and gazed +longingly upon a plot of land situated along the canal side. +On the afternoon of the day on which the engine beam crashed through +the glass-cutter's roof, I went out again to look at that favourite +piece of land. There it was, unoccupied, just as I had seen it some +years before. I went to it and took note of its dimensions. +It consisted of about six acres. It was covered with turf, +and as flat and neat as a bowling-green. It was bounded on one side by +the Bridgewater Canal, edged by a neat stone margin 1050 feet long, +on another side by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, while on a +third side it was bounded by a good road, accessible from all sides. +The plot was splendidly situated. I wondered that it had not been +secured before. It was evidently waiting for me! + +I did not allow the grass to grow beneath my feet. That very night I +ascertained that the proprietor of this most beautiful plot was squire +Trafford, one of the largest landed proprietors in the district. +Next morning I proceeded to Trafford Hall for the purpose of +interviewing the Squire. He received me most cordially. After I had +stated my object in calling upon him, he said he would be exceedingly +pleased to have me for one of his tenants. He gave me a letter of +introduction to his agent, Mr. Thomas Lee, of Princes Street, Manchester, +with whom I was to arrange as to the terms. I was offered a lease of +the six acre plot for 999 years, at an annual rent of 1 3/4d per square +yard. This proposal was most favourable, as I obtained the advantage +of a fee-simple purchase without having to sink capital in the land. +All that I had to provide for was the annual rent. + +My next step in this important affair was to submit the proposal to the +judgment of my excellent friend Edward Lloyd, the banker. He advised +me to close the matter as soon as possible, for he considered the terms +most favourable. He personally took me to his solicitors, Dennison, +Humphreys, and Cunliffe, and introduced me to them. Mr. Humphreys took +the matter in hand. We went together to Mr.Lee, and within a few days +the lease was signed and I was put into possession of the land upon +which the Bridgewater Foundry was afterwards erected.* + [footnote... +I called the place the Bridgewater Foundry as an appropriate and humble +tribute to the memory of the first great canal maker in Britain the +noble Duke of Bridgewater. My ground was on the first mile of the +Bridgewater Canal which the Duke had constructed under the +superintendence of Brindley, so that it might well be considered, +in an Engineering sense, "classic ground." + ...] + +I may mention briefly the advantages of the site. The Bridgewater Canal, +which lay along one side of the foundry communicated with every +waterway and port in England whilst the railway alongside enabled a +communication to be kept up by rail with every part of the country. +The Worsley coal-boats came alongside the wharf, and a cheap and +abundant supply of fuel was thus insured. The railway station was near +at hand, and afforded every opportunity for travelling to and from the +works, while I was at the same time placed within twenty minutes of +Manchester. + +Another important point has to be mentioned. A fine bed of brick-clay +lay below the surface of the ground, which supplied the material for +bricks. Thus the entire works may be truly said to have "risen out of +the ground;" for the whole of the buildings rested upon the land from +which the clay below was dug and burned into bricks. Then, below the +clay lay a bed of New Red Sandstone rock, which yielded a solid +foundation for any superstructure, however lofty or ponderous. + +As soon as the preliminary arrangements for the lease of the six acre +plot had been made, I proceeded to make working drawings of a temporary +timber workshop; as I was anxious to unload the floor of my flat in +Dale Street, and to get as much of my machinery as possible speedily +removed to Patricroft. For the purpose of providing the temporary +accommodation, I went to Liverpool and purchased a number of logs of +New Brunswick pine. The logs were cut up into planks, battens, and +roof-timbers, and were delivered in a few days at the canal wharf in +front of my plot. The building of the workshops rapidly proceeded. +By the aid of some handy active carpenters, superintended by my +energetic foreman, Archy Torry, several convenient well-lighted +workshops were soon ready for the reception of my machinery. +I had a four horsepower engine, which I had made at Edinburgh, +ready to be placed in position, together with the boiler. +This was the first power I employed in starting my new works. + +I must return for a moment to the twenty horse-power engine, which had +been the proximate cause of my removal from Dale Street. It was taken +to pieces, packed, and sent off to Londonderry. When I was informed +that it was erected and ready for work I proceeded to Ireland to see it +begin it's operations. + +I may briefly say that the engine gave every satisfaction, +and I believe that it continues working to this day. I had the +pleasure of bringing back with me an order for a condensing engine of +forty horse-power, required by Mr. John Munn for giving motion to his +new flax mill, then under construction. I mention this order because +the engine was the first important piece of work executed at the +Bridgewater Foundry. + +This was my first visit to Ireland. Being so near the Giant's Causeway, +I took the opportunity, on my way homewards, of visiting that object of +high geologic interest, together with the magnificent basaltic +promontory of Fairhead. I spent a day in clambering up the +terrible-looking crags. In a stratum of red hematite clay, underneath +a solid basaltic crag of some sixty feet or more in thickness, I found +the charred branches of trees--the remains of some forest that had, +at some inconceivably remote period, been destroyed by a vast +out-belching flow of molten lava from a deep-seated volcanic store +underneath. + +I returned to Patricroft, and found the wooden workshops nearly +finished. The machine tools were, for the most part, fixed and ready +for use. In August 1836 the Bridgewater foundry was in complete and +efficient action. The engine ordered at Londonderry was at once put in +hand, and the concern was fairly started in its long career of +prosperity. The wooden workshops had been erected upon the grass. +But the sward soon disappeared. The hum of the driving belts, +the whirl of the machinery, the sound of the hammer upon the anvil, +gave the place an air of busy activity. As work increased, workmen +increased. The workshops were enlarged. Wood gave place to brick. +Cottages for the accommodation of the work-people sprang up in the +neighbourhood; and what had once been quiet grassy fields became the +centre of a busy population. + +[Image] Bridgewater Foundry. From a sketch by Alexander Nasmyth. + +It was a source of vast enjoyment to me, while engaged in the anxious +business connected with the establishment of the foundry, to be +surrounded with so many objects of rural beauty. The site of the works +being on the west side of Manchester, we had the benefit of breathing +pure air during the greater part of the year. The scenery round about +was very attractive. Exercise was a source of health to the mind as +well as the body. As it was necessary that I should reside as near as +possible to the works, I had plenty of opportunities for enjoying the +rural scenery of the neighbourhood. I had the good fortune to become +the tenant of a small cottage in the ancient village of Barton, +in Cheshire, at the very moderate rental of #15 a year. The cottage +was situated on the banks of the river Irwell, and was only about +six minutes' walk from the works at Patricroft. It suited my moderate +domestic arrangements admirably. + +The village was surrounded by apple orchards and gardens, and situated +in the midst of tranquil rural scenery. It was a great treat to me, +after a long and busy day at the foundry, especially in summer time, +to take my leisure walks through the green lanes, and pass the many +picturesque old farmhouses and cottages which at that time presented +subjects of the most tempting kind for the pencil. Such quiet summer +evening strolls afforded me the opportunity for tranquil thought. +Each day's transactions furnished abundant subjects for consideration. +It was a happy period in my life. I was hopeful for the future, +as everything had so far prospered with me. + +When I had got comfortably settled in my cosy little cottage, my dear +sister Margaret came from Edinburgh to take charge of my domestic +arrangements. By her bright and cheerful disposition she made the +cottage a very happy home. Although I had neither the means nor the +disposition to see much company, I frequently had visits from some of +my kind friends in Manchester. I valued them all the more for my +sister's sake, inasmuch as she had come from a bright household in +Edinburgh, full of cheerfulness, part of which she transferred to my +cottage. + +At the same time, it becomes me to say a word or two about the great +kindness which I received from my friends and well-wishers at +Manchester and the neighbourhood. Amongst these were the three +brothers Grant, Benjamin Hick of Bolton, Edward Lloyd the banker, +John Kennedy, and William Fairbairn. I had not much leisure during the +week days, but occasionally on Sunday afternoons my sister and myself +enjoyed their cordial hospitality. In this way I was brought into +friendly intercourse with the most intelligent and cultivated persons +in Lancashire. The remembrance of the delightful evenings I spent in +their society will ever continue one of the most cherished +recollections of my early days in Manchester. + +I may mention that one of the principal advantages of the site of my +works was its connection with the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, +as well as with the Bridgewater Canal. There was a stone-edged roadway +along the latter, where the canal barges might receive and deliver +traffic in the most convenient manner. As the wharfage boundary was +the property of the trustees of the Bridgewater Canal, it was necessary +to agree with them as to the rates to be charged for the requisite +accommodation. Their agent deferred naming the rent until I had finally +settled with Squire Trafford as to the lease of his land, and then, +after he supposed he had got me into a cleft stick, he proposed so +extravagant a rate that I refused to use the wharf upon his terms. + +It happened, fortunately for me, that this agent had involved himself +in a Chancery suit with the trustees, which eventually led to his +retirement. The property then merged into the hands of Lord Francis +Egerton, heir to the Bridgewater Estates. The canal was placed under +the management of that excellent gentleman, James Loch, M.P. +Lord Francis Egerton, on his next visit to Worsley Hall, called upon me +at the foundry. He expressed his great pleasure at having us as his +near neighbours, and as likely to prove such excellent customers of the +canal trustees. Because of this latter circumstance, he offered me the +use of the wharf free of rent. This was quite in accordance with his +generous disposition in all matters. But as I desired the agreement to +be put in a regular business-like form, I arranged with Mr. Loch to pay +5s. per annum as a formal acknowledgment, and an agreement to this +effect was accordingly drawn up and signed by both parties. + +Lord Francis Egerton was soon after created Earl of Ellesmere. +He became one of the most constant visitors at the foundry, in which he +always took a lively interest. He delighted to go through the workshops, +and enjoy the sight of the active machinery and the work in progress. +When he had any specially intelligent visitors at Worsley Hall, which +was frequently the case, he was sure to bring them down to the foundry +in his beautiful private barge, and lead them through the various +departments of the establishment. One of his favourite sights was the +pouring out of the molten iron into the moulds for the larger class of +castings; when some twelve or sixteen tons, by the aid of my screw +safety ladle, were decanted with as much neatness and exactness as the +pouring out of a glass of wine from a decanter. When this work was +performed towards dark, Lord Ellesmere's poetic fancy and artistic eye +enabled him to enjoy the sight exceedingly.* + [footnote... +I had the happiness to receive the kindest and most hospitable +attention from Lord Ellesmere and his family. His death, which +occurred in 1857, at the early age of fifty-seven, deprived me of one +of my warmest friends. The Countess of Ellesmere continued the +friendship until her death, which occurred several years later. +The same kindly feelings still exist in the children of the lamented +pair, all of whom evince the admirable qualities which so peculiarly +distinguished their parents, and made them universally beloved by all +classes, rich and poor. + ...] + +I must here say a few words as to my Screw Safety Ladle. +I had observed the great danger occasioned to workmen by the method of +emptying the molten iron into the casting moulds. The white-hot fluid +was run from the melting furnace into a large ladle with one or two +cross handles and levers, worked by a dozen or fifteen men. The ladle +contained many tons of molten iron, and was transferred by a crane to +the moulds. To do this required the greatest caution and steadiness. +If a stumble took place, and the ladle was in the slightest degree +upset, there was a splash of hot metal on the floor, which, in the +recoil, flew against the men's clothes, set them on fire, or occasioned +frightful scalds and burns. + +[Image] Old foundry ladle + +To prevent these accidents I invented my Safety Foundry Ladle. +I applied a screw wheel, keyed to the trunnion of the ladle, which was +acted on by an endless screw attached to the sling of the ladle; +and by this means one man could move the largest ladle on its axis, +and pour out its molten contents with the most perfect ease and safety. +Not only was all risk of accident thus removed, but the perfection of +the casting was secured by the steady continuous flow of the white-hot +metal into the mould. The nervous anxiety and confusion that usually +attended the pouring of the metal required for the larger class of +castings was thus entirely avoided. + +[Image] Safety foundry ladle + +At the same time I introduced another improvement in connection with +these foundry ladles which, although of minor importance, has in no +small degree contributed to the perfection of large castings. +This consisted in hanging "the skimmer" to the edge of the ladle, +so as to keep back the scorae that invariably float on the surface of +the melted metal. This was formerly done by hand, and many accidents +were the consequence. But now the clear flow of pure metal into the +moulds was secured, while the scoriae were mechanically held back. +All that the attendant has to do is to regulate the inclination of the +Skimmer so as to keep its lower edge sufficiently under the surface of +the outflowing metal. The preceding illustrations will enable the +reader to understand these simple but important technical improvements. + +These inventions were made in 1838. I might have patented them, +but preferred to make them over to the public. I sent drawings and +descriptions of the Safety Foundry Ladle to all the principal founders +both at home and abroad; and I was soon after much gratified by their +cordial expression of its practical value. The ladle is now +universally adopted. The Society of Arts of Scotland, to whom I sent +drawings and descriptions, did me the honour to present me with their +large silver medal in acknowledgment of the invention. + +In order to carry on my business with effectiveness it was necessary +that I should have some special personal assistance. I could carry on +the whole "mechanical" department as regards organisation, designing, +and construction; but there was the "financial" business to be attended +to,--the counting-house, the correspondence, and the arrangement of +money affairs. I wanted some help with respect to these outer matters. + +When I proceeded to take my plot of land at Patricroft some of my +friends thought it a very bold stroke, especially for a young man who +had been only about three years in business. Nevertheless, there were +others who watched my progress with special interest, and were willing +to join in my adventure--though adventure it was not. They were ready +to take a financial interest in my affairs. They did me the compliment +of thinking me a good investment, by offering to place their capital +in my concern as sleeping partners. But I was already beyond the +"sleeping partner" state of affairs. Whoever joined me must work as +energetically as I did, and must give the faculties of his mind to the +prosperity of the concern. I communicated the offers I had received to +my highly judicious friend Edward Lloyd. He was always willing to +advise me, though I took care never to encroach upon his kindness. +He concurred with my views, and advised me to fight shy of +sleeping partners. I therefore continued to look out for a working +partner. In the end I was fortunate. My friend, Mr. Thomas Jeavons, +of Liverpool, having been informed of my desire, made inquiries, +and found the man likely to suit me. He furnished him with a letter +of introduction to me, which he presented one day at the works. + +The young man became my worthy partner, Holbrook Gaskell. +He had served his time with Yates and Cox, iron merchants, of Liverpool. +Having obtained considerable experience in the commercial details of +that business, and being possessed of a moderate amount of capital, +he was desirous of joining me, and embarking his fortune with mine. +He was to take charge of the counting-house department, and conduct +such portion of the correspondence as did not require any special +technical knowledge of mechanical engineering. The latter must +necessarily remain in my hands, because I found that the "off-hand" +sketches which I introduced in my letters as explanatory of mechanical +designs and suggestions were much more intelligible than any amount of +written words. + +I was much pleased with the frank and friendly manner of Mr. Gaskell, +and I believe that the feeling between us was mutual. With the usual +straight forwardness that prevails in Lancashire, the articles of +partnership were at once drawn up and signed, and the firm of Nasmyth +and Gaskell began. We continued working together with hearty zeal for +a period of sixteen successive years; and I believe Mr. Gaskell had no +reason to regret his connection with the Bridgewater Foundry. + +The reason of Mr. Gaskell leaving the concern was the state of his +health. After his long partnership with me, he was attacked by a +serious illness, when his medical adviser earnestly recommended him to +retire from all business affairs. This was the cause of his reluctant +retirement. In course of time the alarming symptoms departed, +and he recovered his former health. He then embarked in an extensive +soda manufactory, in conjunction with one of our pupils, whose taste +for chemistry was more attractive to him than engine-making. +A prosperous business was established, and at the time I write these +lines Mr. Gaskell continues a hale and healthy man, the possessor of a +large fortune, accumulated by the skilful manner in which he has +conducted his extensive affairs. + + +CHAPTER 12. Free Trade in Ability--The Strike--Death of my Father + +I had no difficulty in obtaining abundance of skilled workmen in South +Lancashire and Cheshire. I was in the neighbourhood of Manchester, +which forms the centre of a population gifted with mechanical instinct. +From an early period the finest sort of mechanical work has been turned +out in that part of England. Much of the talent is inherited. +It descends from father to son, and develops itself from generation to +generation. I may mention one curious circumstance connected with the +pedigree of Manchester: that much of the mechanical excellence of its +workmen descends from the Norman smiths and armourers introduced into +the neighbourhood at the Norman Conquest by Hugo de Lupus, the chief +armourer of William the Conqueror, after the battle of Hastings, in 1066. + +I was first informed of this circumstance by William Stubbs of +Warrington, then maker of the celebrated "Lancashire files." +The "P. S.," or Peter Stubbs's files, were so vastly superior to +other files, both in the superiority of the steel and in the perfection +of the cutting, which long retained its efficiency, that every workman +gloried in the possession and use of such durable tools. +Being naturally interested in everything connected with tools and +mechanics, I was exceedingly anxious to visit the factory where these +admirable files were made. I obtained an introduction to William Stubbs, +then head of the firm, and was received by him with much cordiality +when I asked him if I might be favoured with a sight of his factory, +he replied that he had no factory, as such; and that all he had to do +in supplying his large warehouse was to serve out the requisite quantities +of pure cast steel as rods and bars to the workmen; and that they, +on their part, forged the metal into files of every description at +their own cottage workshops, principally situated in the neighbouring +counties of Cheshire and Lancashire. + +This information surprised as well as pleased me. Mr. Stubbs proceeded +to give me an account of the origin of this peculiar system of cottage +manufacture in his neighbourhood. It appears that Hugo de Lupus, +William the Conqueror's Master of Arms, the first Earl of Chester, +settled in North Cheshire shortly after the Conquest. He occupied +Halton Castle, and his workmen resided in Warrington and the adjacent +villages of Appleton, Widnes, Prescot, and Cuerdley. +There they produced coats of steel, mail armour, and steel and +iron weapons, under the direct superintendence of their chief. + +The manufacture thus founded continued for many centuries. +Although the use of armour was discontinued, the workers in steel and +iron still continued famous. The skill that had formerly been employed +in forging chain armour and war instruments was devoted to more +peaceful purposes. The cottage workmen made the best of files and +steel tools of other kinds. Their talents became hereditary, and the +manufacture of wire in all its forms is almost peculiar to Warrington +and the neighbourhood. Mr. Stubbs also informed me that most of the +workmen's peculiar names for tools and implements were traceable to old +Norman-French words. He also stated that at Prescot a peculiar class +of workmen has long been established, celebrated for their great skill +in clock and watchmaking; and that, in his opinion, they were the +direct descendants of a swarm of workmen from Hugo de Lupus's original +Norman hive of refined metal-workers, dating from the time of the +Conquest. To return to my narrative. In the midst of such a +habitually industrious population, it will be obvious that there was no +difficulty in finding a sufficient supply of able workmen. It was for +the most part the most steady, respectable, and well-conducted classes +of mechanics who sought my employment--not only for the good wages +they received, but for the sake of their own health and that of their +families; for it will be remembered that the foundry and the workmen's +dwellings were surrounded by the fresh, free, open country. +In the course of a few years the locality became a thriving colony of +skilled mechanics. In order to add to the accommodation of the +increasing numbers, an additional portion of land, amounting to eight +acres, was leased from Squire Trafford on the same terms as before. +On this land suitable houses and cottages for the foremen and workmen +were erected. At the same time substantial brick workshops were built +in accordance with my original general plan, to meet the requirements +of our rapidly expanding business, until at length a large and +commodious factory was erected, as shown in the annexed engraving. + +[Image] Bridgewater Foundry Patricroft. + From a painting by Alexander Nasmyth. + +The village of Worsley, the headquarters of the Bridgewater Canal, +supplied us with a valuable set of workmen. They were, in the first +place, labourers; but, like all Lancashire men, they were naturally +possessed of a quick aptitude for mechanical occupations connected with +machinery. Our chief employment of these so-called labourers was in +transporting heavy castings and parts of machinery from one place to +another. To do this properly required great care and judgment, +in order that the parts might not be disturbed, and that the mechanics +might proceed towards their completion without any unnecessary delay. +None but those who have had practical acquaintance with the importance +of having skilful labourers to perform these apparently humble, +but in reality very important functions, can form an adequate idea of +the value of such services. + +All the requisite qualities we required were found in the Worsley +labourers. They had been accustomed to the heaviest class of work in +connection with the Bridgewater Canal. They had been thoroughly +trained in the handling of all manner of ponderous objects. +They performed their work with energy and willingness. It was quite a +treat to me to look on and observe their rapid and skilful operations +in lifting and transporting ponderous portions of machinery, in which a +vast amount of costly work had been embodied. After the machines or +engines had been finished, it was the business of the same workmen to +remove them from the workshops to the railway-siding alongside the +foundry, or to the boats at the canal wharf. In all these matters the +Worsley men could be thoroughly depended upon. + +Where they showed the possession, in any special degree, of a true +mechanical faculty, I was enabled to select from the working labourers +the most effective men to take charge of the largest and most powerful +machine tools--such as planing machines, lathes, and boring machines. +The ease and rapidity with which they caught up all the technical arts +and manipulations connected with the effective working of these +machines was extraordinary. The results were entirely satisfactory to +myself, as well as to the men themselves, by the substantial rise in +their wages which followed their advancement to higher grades of +labour. Thus I had no difficulty in manning my machine tools by +drawing my recruits from this zealous and energetic class of Worsley +labourers. It is by this "selection of the fittest" that the true +source of the prosperity of every large manufacturing establishment +depends. I believe that Free Trade in Ability has a much closer +relation to national prosperity than even Free Trade in Commodities. + +But here I came into collision with another class of workmen--those +who are of opinion that employers should select for promotion, not +those who are the fittest and most skilful, but those who have served a +seven years' apprenticeship and are members of a Trades' Union. +It seemed to me that this interference with the free selection and +promotion of the fittest was at variance with free choice of the best +men, and that it was calculated, if carried out, to strike at the root +of the chief source of our prosperity. If every workman of the same +class went in the same rut, and were paid the same uniform rate of +wages, irrespective of his natural or acquired ability, such a system +would destroy the emulative spirit which forms the chief basis of +manipulative efficiency and practical skill, and on which, in my +opinion, the prosperity of our manufacturing establishments mainly +depends. But before I proceed to refer to the strike of Unionists, +which for a time threatened to destroy, or at all events to impede the +spirit of enterprise and the free choice of skilful workmen, in which I +desired to conduct the Bridgewater Foundry, I desire to say a few words +about those excellent helpers, the foremen engineers, who zealously +helped me in my undertaking from beginning to end. + +I must place my most worthy, zealous, and faithful Archy Torry at the +top of the list. He rose from being my only workman when I first +started in Manchester, to be my chief general foreman. The energy and +devotion which he brought to bear upon my interests set a high example +to all in my employment. Although he was in some respects deficient in +his knowledge of the higher principles of engineering and mechanical +construction, I was always ready to supply that defect. His hearty +zeal and cheerful temper, and his energetic movement when among the +men, had a sympathetic influence upon all about him. His voice had the +same sort of influence upon them as the drum and fife on a soldier's +march: it quickened their movements. We were often called in by our +neighbour manufacturers to repair a breakdown of their engines. +That was always a sad disaster, as all hands were idle until the repair +was effected. Archy was in his glory on such occasions. By his ready +zeal and energy he soon got over the difficulty, repaired the engines, +and set the people to work again. He became quite famous in these cases +of extreme urgency. He never spared himself, and his example had an +excellent effect upon every workman under him. + +Another of my favourite workshop lieutenants was James Hutton. +He had been leading foreman to my worthy friend George Douglass, +of Old Broughton, Edinburgh. He was fully ten years my senior, +and when working at Douglass's I looked up to him as a man of +authority. I had obtained from him many a valuable wrinkle in +mechanical and technical construction. After I left Edinburgh he had +emigrated to the United States for the purpose of bettering his +condition. But he promised me that if disappointed in his hopes of +settling there, he should be glad to come into my service if I was ever +in a position to give him employment. Shortly after my removal to +Patricroft, and when everything had been got into full working order, +I received a letter from him in which he said that he was anxious to +return to England, and asking if there was any vacancy in our +establishment that he might be employed to fill up. It so happened +that the foremanship of turners was then vacant. I informed Hutton of +the post; and on his return to England he was duly enrolled in our +staff. + +The situation was a very important one, and Hutton filled it admirably. +He was a sound practical man, and thoroughly knew every department of +engineering mechanism. As I had provided small separate rooms or +offices for every department of the establishment for the use of the +foremen, where they kept their memoranda and special tools, I had often +the pleasure of conferring with Hutton as to some point of interest, or +when I wished to pass my ideas and designs through the ordeal of his +judgment, in order that I might find out any lurking defect in some +proposed mechanical arrangement. Before he gave an opinion, Hutton +always took a pinch of snuff to stimulate his intellect, or rather to +give him a little time for consideration. He would turn the subject +over in his mind. But I knew that I could trust his keenness of +insight. He would give his verdict carefully, shrewdly, and truthfully. +Hutton remained a faithful and valued servant in the concern for nearly +thirty years, and died at a ripe old age. Notwithstanding his +mechanical intelligence, Hutton was of too cautious a temperament to +have acted as a general foreman or manager, otherwise he would have +been elevated to that position. A man may be admirable in details, +but be wanting in width, breadth, and largeness of temperament and +intellect. The man who possesses the latter gifts becomes great in +organisation; he soon ceases to be a "hand," and becomes a "head," +and such men generally rise from the employed to be the employer. + +Another of my excellent assistants was John Clerk. He had been for a +long time in the service of Fairbairn and Lillie; but having had a +serious difference with one of the foremen, he left their service with +excellent recommendations. I soon after engaged him as foreman of the +pattern-making department. He was a most able man in some of the more +important branches of mechanical engineering. He had, besides, +an excellent knowledge of building operations. I found him of great +use in superintending the erection of the additional workshops which +were required in proportion as our business extended. He made out +full-sized chalk-line drawings from my original pencil sketches, +on the large floor of the pattern store, and from these were formed the +working drawings for the new buildings. He had a wonderful power of +rapidity and clearness in apprehending new subjects, and the way in +which he depicted them in large drawings was quite masterly. +John Clerk and I spent many an hour on our knees together on the +pattern store floor, and the result of our deliberations usually was +some substantial addition to the workshops of the foundry, or some +extra large and powerful machine tool. This worthy man left our +service to become a partner in an engineering concern in Ireland; +and though he richly deserved his promotion, he left us to our very +great regret. + +The last of our foremen to whom I shall refer was worthy Thomas +Crewdson. He entered our service as a smith, in which pursuit he +displayed great skill. We soon noted the high order of his natural +ability; promoted him from the ranks, and made him foreman of the +smith's and forge-work department. In this he displayed every quality +of excellence, not only in seeing to the turning out of the forge work +in the highest state of perfection, but in managing the men under his +charge with such kind discretion as to maintain the most perfect +harmony in the workshops. This is always a matter of great importance +--that the foreman should inspire the workmen with his own spirit, +and keep up their harmony and activity to the most productive point. +Crewdson was so systematic in his use of time that we found that he was +able also to undertake the foremanship of the boiler-making department, +in addition to that of the smith work; and to this he was afterwards +appointed, with highly satisfactory results to all concerned. + +So strongly and clearly impressed is my mind with the recollection of +the valuable assistance which I received during my engineering life +from those vicegerents of practical management at Patricroft, +that I feel that I cannot proceed further in my narrative without thus +placing the merits of these worthy men upon record. It was a source of +great good fortune to me to be associated with them, and I consider +them to have been among the most important elements in the prosperity +of the Bridgewater Foundry. There were many others, in comparatively +humble positions, whom I have also reason to remember with gratitude. +In all well-conducted concerns the law of "selection of the fittest" +sooner or later comes into happy action, when a loyal and attached set +of men work together harmoniously for their own advantage as well as +for that of their employers. + +It was not, however, without some difficulty that we were allowed to +carry out our views as to Free Trade in Ability. As the buildings were +increased, more men were taken on--from Manchester, Bolton, Liverpool, +as well as from more distant places. We were soon made to feel that +our idea of promoting workmen according to their merits, and advancing +them to improved positions and higher wages in proportion to their +skill, ability, industry, and natural intelligence, was quite contrary +to the views of many of our new employees. They took advantage of a +large access of orders for machinery, which they knew had come into the +foundry, to wait upon us suddenly, and to lay down their Trade Union +law for our observance. + +The men who waited upon us were deputed by the Engineer Mechanics' +Trades' Union to inform us that there were men in our employment who +were not, as they termed it, "legally entitled to the trade;" that is, +they had never served a regular seven years' apprenticeship. +"These men," said the delegates, "are filling up the places, +and keeping out of work, the legal hands." We were accordingly +requested to discharge the workmen whom we had promoted, in order to +make room for members of the Trades' Union. + +To have complied with this request would have altered the whole +principles and practice on which we desired to conduct our business. +I wished, and my partner agreed with me, to stimulate men to steadfast +and skilful work by the hope of promotion. It was thus that I had +taken several of the Worsley men from the rank of labourers, and raised +them to the class mechanics with correspondingly higher wages. +We were perfectly satisfied with the conduct of these workmen, and with +the productive results of their labour. We thought it fair to them as +well as to ourselves to resist the order to discharge them, and we +consequently firmly refused to submit to the dictation of the +Unionists. + +The delegates left us with a distinct intimation that if we continued +to retain the illegal men in our employment they would call out the +Union men, and strike until "the grievance " was redressed. +The Unionists, no doubt, fixed upon the right time to place their case +before us. We wanted more workmen to execute the advantageous orders +which had come in; and they thought that the strike would put an entire +stop to our operations. On engaging the workmen we had never up to +this time concerned ourselves with the question of whether they +belonged to the Trades' Union or not. The only proof we required of a +man was Ability. If, after a week's experience, he proved himself an +efficient workman, we engaged him. + +The strike took place. All the Union men were "called out," and left +the works. Many of them expressed their great regret at leaving us, +as they were perfectly satisfied with their employment as well as with +their remuneration. But they were nevertheless compelled to obey the +mandate of the Council. The result was that more than half of our men +left us. Those who remained were very zealous. Nothing could exceed +their activity and workfulness. We appealed to our employers. +They were most considerate in not pressing us for the speedy execution +of the work we had in hand. We made applications in the neighbourhood +for other mechanics in lieu of those who had left us. But the men on +strike, under orders from the Union, established pickets round the +works, who were only too efficient in preventing those desirous of +obtaining employment from getting access to the foundry. + +Our position for a time seemed to be hopeless. We could not find +workmen enough to fill our shops or to execute our orders. +What were we to do under the circumstances? We could not find mechanics +in the neighbourhood; but might they not, be found elsewhere? +Why not bring them from a distance? We determined to try. +Advertisements were inserted in the Scotch newspapers, announcing our +want of mechanics, smiths, and foundrymen. We appointed an agent in +Edinburgh, to whom applications were to be made. We were soon in +receipt of the welcome intelligence that numbers of the best class of +mechanics had applied, and that our agent's principal difficulty +consisted in making the proper selection from amongst them. + +A selection was, however, made of over sixty men, who appeared in every +respect likely to suit us. With true Scotch caution they deputed two +of their number to visit our works and satisfy themselves as to the +real state of the case. We had great pleasure in receiving these two +clear-headed cautious pioneers. We showed them over the workshops, +and pointed out the habitations in the neighbourhood with their +attractive surroundings. The men returned to their constituents, +and gave such a glowing account of their mission that we had no +difficulty in obtaining the men we required. Indeed, we might easily +have obtained three times the number of efficient mechanics. +Sixty-four of the most likely men were eventually selected, men in the +zenith of their physical powers. We made arrangements for their +conveyance to Glasgow, from whence they started for Liverpool by +steamer. They landed in a body at the latter port, many of them +accompanied by their wives and children, and eight-day clocks! +A special train was engaged for the conveyance of the whole--men, +women, and children, bag and baggage--from Liverpool to Patricroft, +where suitable accommodation had been provided for them. + +The arrival of so powerful a body of men made a great sensation in the +neighbourhood. The men were strong, respectable looking, and well +dressed. The pickets were "dumfoundered." They were brushed to one +side by the fresh arrivals. They felt that their game was up, and they +suddenly departed. The men were taken over the workshops, with which +they appeared quite delighted. They were told to be ready to start +next morning at six, after which they departed to their lodgings. +The morning arrived and the gallant sixty-four were all present. +After allotting to each his special work, they gave three hearty +cheers, and dispersed throughout the workshops. + +We had no reason to regret the results which were effected through the +strike ordered by the Trades' Union. The new men worked with a will. +They were energetic, zealous, and skilful. They soon gave evidence of +their general handiness and efficiency in all the departments of work +in which they were engaged. We were thus enabled to carry out our +practice of Free Trade in Ability in our own way, and we were no longer +interfered with in our promotion of workmen who served us best. +In short, we had scotched the strike; we conquered the Union in their +wily attempt to get us under their withering control; and the +Bridgewater Foundry resumed its wonted activity in every department. + +It was afterwards a great source of happiness to me to walk through the +various workshops and observe the cheerful and intelligent countenances +of the new men, and to note the energetic skill with which they used +their tools in the advancement of their work. General handiness is one +of the many valuable results that issues from the practice of handling +the variety of materials which are more or less employed in mechanical +structures. At the time that I refer to, the skilful workmen employed +in the engineering establishments of Scotland (which were then +comparatively small in size) were accustomed to use all manner of +mechanical tools. They could handle with equally good effect the saw, +the plane, the file, and the chisel; and, as occasion required, they +could exhibit their skill at the smith's forge with the hammer and the +anvil. This was the kind of workmen with which I had reinforced the +foundry. The men had been bred to various branches of mechanics. +Some had been blacksmiths, others carpenters, stone masons, brass or +iron founders; but all of them were handy men. They merely adopted the +occupation of machine and steam-engine makers because it offered a +wider field for the exercise of their skill and energy. + +I may here be allowed to remark that we owe the greatest advances in +mechanical invention to Free Trade in Ability. If we look carefully +into the narratives of the lives of the most remarkable engineers, +we shall find that they owed very little to the seven years' rut in +which they were trained. They owed everything to innate industry, +energy, skill, and opportunity. Thus, Brindley advanced from the +position of a millwright to that of a canal engineer; Smeaton and Watt, +from being mathematical instrument makers, advanced to higher +positions,--the one to be the inventor of the modern lighthouse, +the other to be the inventor of the condensing steam-engine. +Some of the most celebrated mechanical and civil engineers--such as +Rennie, Cubitt, and Fairbairn--were originally millwrights. +All these men were many-handed. They had many sides to their intellect. +They were resourceful men. They afford the best illustrations of the +result of Free Trade in Ability. + +The persistent aim at an indolent equality which Union men aim at, +is one of the greatest hindrances to industrial progress. +When the Union Delegates called upon me to insist that none but men who +had served seven years' apprenticeship should be employed in the works, +I told them that I preferred employing a man who had acquired the +requisite mechanical skill in two years rather than another who was so +stupid as to require seven years' teaching. The delegates regarded +this statement as preposterous and heretical. In fact, it was utter +high treason. But in the long run we carried our point. + +It is true, we had some indenture-bound apprentices. These were pupils +who paid premiums. In certain cases we could not very well refuse to +take them. Some of them caused a great deal of annoyance and +disturbance. They were irregular in their attendance, consequently +they could not be depended upon for the regular operations of the +foundry. They were careless in their work, and set a bad example to +the others. We endeavoured to check this disturbing element by +stipulating that the premium should be payable in six months' portions, +and that each party should be free to terminate the connection at the +end of each succeeding six months. By this system we secured more care +and regularity on the part of the pupil apprentices; as, while it +checked inattention and irregularity, it offered a direct and +substantial encouragement to zeal and industry. + +But the arrangement which we greatly preferred was to employ +intelligent well-conducted young lads, the sons of labourers or +mechanics, and advance them by degrees according to their merits. +They took charge of the smaller machine tools, by which the minor +details of the machines in progress were brought into exact form +without having recourse to the untrustworthy and costly process of +chipping and filing. A spirit of emulation was excited amongst the +lads. They vied with each other in executing their work with +precision. Those who excelled were paid an extra weekly wage. +In course of time they took pride, not only in the quantity but in the +quality of their work; and in the long run they became skilful +mechanics. We were always most prompt to recognise their progress in a +substantial manner. There was the most perfect freedom between +employer and employed. Every one of these lads was at liberty to leave +at the end of each day's work. This arrangement acted as an +ever-present check upon master and apprentice. The only bond of union +between us was mutual interest. The best of the lads remained in our +service because they knew our work and were pleased with the +surroundings; while we on our part were always desirous of retaining +the men we had trained, because we knew we could depend upon them. +Nothing could have been more satisfactory than the manner in which this +system worked. + +In May 1835 I had the great happiness of receiving a visit from my dear +father. I was then in Dale Street, Manchester, where my floor was +overloaded with the work in progress. My father continued to take a +great interest in mechanical undertakings, and he was pleased with the +prosperity which had followed my settlement in this great manufacturing +centre. He could still see his own lathe, driven by steam power, +in full operation for the benefit of his son. His fame as an artist +was well known in Manchester, for many of his works were possessed by +the best men of the town. I had the pleasure of introducing him to the +Brothers Grant, John Kennedy, Edward Lloyd, George Murray, James Frazer, +William Fairbairn, and Hugh and Joseph Birley, all of whom gave him a +most cordial welcome, and invited him to enjoy their hospitality. + +[Image] Alexander Nasmyth. After a cameo by Samuel Joseph + +In 1838 he visited me again. I had removed to Patricroft, and +the Bridgewater Foundry was in full operation. My father was then in +his eightieth year. He was still full of life and intellect. +He was vastly delighted in witnessing the rapid progress which I had +made since his first visit. He took his daily walk through the +workshops, where many processes were going on which greatly interested +him. He was sufficiently acquainted with the technical details of +mechanical work to enjoy the sight, especially when self-acting tools +were employed. It was a great source of pleasure to him to have +"a crack" with the most intelligent foremen and mechanics. These, +on their part, treated him with the most kind and respectful attention. +The Scotch workmen regarded him with special veneration. They knew +that he had been an intimate friend of Robert Burns, their own +best-beloved poet, whose verses shed a charm upon their homes, and were +recited by the fireside, in the fields, or at the workman's bench. + +They also knew that he had painted the only authentic portrait of their +national bard. This fact invested my father with additional interest +in their eyes. Their respect for him culminated in a rather +extraordinary demonstration. On the last day of his visit the leading +Scotch workmen procured "on the sly" an arm-chair, which they fastened +to two strong bearing poles. When my father left the works at the +bell-ringing at mid-day, he was approached by the workmen, +and respectfully requested to "take the chair." He refused; but it was +of no use. He was led to the chair, and took it. He was then raised +and carried in triumph to my house. He was carefully set down at the +little garden-gate, where the men affectionately took leave of him, +and ended their cordial good wishes for his safe return home with three +hearty cheers. I need scarcely say that my father was greatly affected +by this kind demonstration on the part of the workmen. + +His life was fast drawing to a close. He had borne the heat and burden +of the day; and was about to be taken home like a shock of corn in full +season. After a long and happy life, blessed and cheered by a most +affectionate wife, he laid down his brushes and went to rest. +In his later years he rejoiced in the prosperity of his children, +which was all the more agreeable as it was the result of the example of +industry and perseverance which he had ever set before them. +My father untiringly continued his professional occupations until 1840, +when he had attained the age of eighty-two. His later works may be +found wanting in that degree of minute finish which characterised his +earlier productions; but in regard to their quality there was no +falling off, even to the last picture which he painted. The delicate +finish was amply compensated by the increase in general breadth and +effectiveness, so that his later works were even more esteemed by his +brother-artists. The last picture he painted was finished eight days +before his death. It was a small work. The subject was a landscape +with an autumnal evening effect. There was a picturesque cottage in +the middle distance, a rustic bridge over a brook in the foreground, +and an old labouring man, followed by his dog, wearily passing over it +on his way towards his home. From the chimney of his cottage a thin +streak of blue smoke passed upward through the tranquil evening air. +All these incidents suggested the idea, which no doubt he desired to +convey, of the tranquil conclusion of his own long and active life, +which was then, too evidently, drawing to a close. +The shades of evening had come on when he could no longer see to work, +and he was obliged to lay down his pencil. My mother was at work with +her needle close by him; and when he had finished he asked her what he +should call the picture. Not being ready with an answer, he leant back +in his chair, feeling rather faint, and said, "Well, I think I had +better call it Going Home." And so it was called. + +Next morning his strength had so failed him that he could not get up. +He remained there for eight days, and then he painlessly and tranquilly +passed away. While on his deathbed he expressed the desire that his +remains should be placed beside those of a favourite son who had died +in early youth. "Let me lie," he said, "beside my dear Alick." +His desire was gratified. He was buried beside his son in St. Cuthbert's +churchyard, under the grandest portion of the great basaltic rock on +which Edinburgh Castle stands. His grave is marked by a fine Runic Cross, +admirably sculptured by Rhind of Edinburgh. + +[Image] Monument to Alexander Nasmyth + +One of the kindest letters my mother received after her great loss was +one from Sir David Wilkie. It was dated 18th April 1840. "I hasten," +he said, "to assure you of my most sincere condolence on your severe +affliction, feeling that I can sympathise in the privation you suffer +from losing one who was my earliest professional friend, whose art I at +all times admired, and whose society and conversation was perhaps the +most agreeable that I ever met with. " He was the founder of the +Landscape Painting School of Scotland, and by his taste and talent has +for many years taken a lead in the patriotic aim of enriching his +native land with the representations of her romantic scenery; and, +as the friend and contemporary of Ramsay, of Gavin Hamilton, and the +Runcimans, may be said to have been the last remaining link that unites +the present with the early dawn of the Scottish School of Art." +I may add that my mother died six years later, in 1846, at the same age +as my father, namely eighty-two. + + +CHAPTER 13. My Marriage--The Steam Hammer + +Before I proceed to narrate the later events of my industrial life, +it is necessary to mention, incidentally, an important subject. +As it has been the source of my greatest happiness in life, +I cannot avoid referring to it. + +I may first mention that my earnest and unremitting pursuit of all +subjects and occupations, such as I conceived were essential to the +acquirement of a sound practical knowledge of my profession, rendered +me averse to mixing much in general society. I had accordingly few +opportunities of enjoying the society of young ladies. Nevertheless, +occasions now and then occurred when bright beings passed before me +like meteors. They left impressions on my memory, which in no small +degree increased the earnestness of my exertions to press forward in my +endeavours to establish myself in business, and thereby acquire the +means of forming a Home of my own. + +Many circumstances, however, conspired to delay the ardently longed for +condition of my means, such as should induce me to solicit some dear +one to complete my existence by her sweet companionship, and enter with +me into the most sacred of all the partnerships of life. In course of +time I was rewarded with that success which, for the most part, +ensues upon all honourable and unremitting business efforts. +This cheered me on; although there were still many causes for anxiety, +which made me feel that I must not yet solicit some dear heart to +forsake the comforts of an affluent home to share with me what I knew +must for some years to come be an anxious and trying struggle for +comfort and comparative independence. I had reached my thirtieth year +before I could venture to think that I had securely entered upon such a +course of prosperity as would justify me in taking this the most +important step in life. + +It may be a trite but not the less true remark that some of the most +important events originate in apparently chance occurrences and +circumstances, which lead up to results that materially influence and +even determine the subsequent course of our lives. I had occasion to +make a business journey to Sheffield on the 2d of March 1838, and also +to attend to some affairs of a similar character at York. As soon as I +had completed my engagement at Sheffield, I had to wait for more than +two dreary hours in momentary expectation of the arrival of the coach +that was to take me on to York. The coach had been delayed by a deep +fall of snow, and was consequently late. When it arrived, I found that +there was only one outside place vacant; so I mounted to my seat. +It was a very dreary afternoon, and the snow was constantly falling. + +As we approached Barnsley I observed, in the remaining murky light of +the evening, the blaze of some ironwork furnaces near at hand. +On inquiring whose works they were, I was informed that they belonged +to Earl Fitzwilliam, and that they were under the management of a +Mr. Hartop. The mention of this name, coupled with the sight of the +ironworks, brought to my recollection a kind invitation which +Mr. Hartop had given me while visiting my workshop in Manchester to +order some machine tools, that it I ever happened to be in his +neighbourhood, he would be most happy to show me anything that was +interesting about the ironworks and colliery machinery under his +management. + +I at once decided to terminate my dreary ride on the top of the coach. +I descended, and with my small valise in hand I trudged over some +trackless snow-covered fields, and made my way by the shortest cut +towards the blazing iron furnaces. On reaching them I was informed +that Mr. Hartop had just gone to his house, which was about a mile +distant. I accordingly made my way thither the best that I could +through the deep snow. I met with a cordial welcome, and with the +hospitable request that I should take up my quarters there for the +night, and have a round of the ironworks and the machinery on the +following day. I cheerfully acceded to the kind invitation. +I was then introduced to his wife and daughter in a cosy room, where I +spent a most pleasant evening. As Mr. Hartop was an enthusiast in all +matters relating to mechanism and mechanical engineering subjects +generally, we found plenty to converse about; while his wife and daughter, +at their needlework, listened to our discussions with earnest and +intelligent attention. + +On the following day I was taken a round of the ironworks, +and inspected their machinery, as well as that of the collieries, +in the details of which Mr. Hartop had introduced many common-sense and +most effective improvements. All of these interested me, and gave me +much pleasure. In the evening we resumed our "cracks" on many subjects +of mutual interest. The daughter joined in our conversation with the +most intelligent remarks; for, although only in her twenty-first year, +she had evidently made good use of her time, aided by her clear natural +faculties of shrewd observation. Mr. Hartop having met with some +serious reverse of fortune, owing to the very unsatisfactory conduct of +a partner, had in a manner to begin business life again on his own +account; and although he had to reduce his domestic establishment +considerably in consequence, there was in all its arrangements a degree +of neatness and perfect systematic order, combined with many evidences +of elegant taste and good sense which pervaded the whole, that enhanced +in no small degree the attractiveness of the household. The chief of +these, however, was to me their daughter Anne! I soon perceived in her, +most happily and attractively combined, all the conditions that I could +hope for and desire to meet with in the dear partner of my existence. + +As I had soon to proceed on my journey, I took the opportunity of +telling her what I felt and thought, and so ardently desired in regard +to our future intercourse. What little I did say was to this great +purpose; and, so far as I could judge, all that I said was received in +the best spirit that I could desire. I then communicated my hopes and +wishes to the parents. I explained to them my circumstances, which +happily were then beginning to assume an encouraging prospect, +and realising, in a substantial form, a return for the earnest +exertions that I had made towards establishing a home of my own. +They expressed their concurrence in the kindest manner; and it was +arranged that if business continued to progress as favourably as I +hoped, our union should take place in about two years from that time. + +Everything went on hopefully and prosperously. The two years that +intervened looked very long in some respects, and very short in others; +for I was always fully occupied, and labour shortens time. At length +the two years came to an end. My betrothed and myself continued of the +same mind. The happy "chance" event of our meeting on the evening of +the 2d of March 1838 culminated in our marriage at the village church +of Wentworth on the 16th of June 1840--a day of happy memory! +From that day to this the course of our united hearts and lives has +continued to run on with steady uninterrupted harmony and mutual +happiness. Forty-two years of our married life finds us the same +affectionate and devoted "cronies" that we were at the beginning; +and there is every prospect that, under God's blessing, we shall +continue to be so to the end. + +I was present at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, +on the 15th of September 1830. Every one knows the success of the +undertaking. Railways became the rage. They were projected in every +possible direction. They were first made between all the large towns, +after which branches were constructed to place the whole country in +connection with the main lines. Coaches were driven off the road, +and everything appeared to be thrown into a state of confusion. +People wondered greatly at the new conditions of travelling; +and they flocked from all quarters to see the railway at work. + +When the line was opened from Edinburgh to Glasgow, a shepherd and his +wife came from beyond the Pentlands to see the train pass. +On it came, and flashed out of sight in a minute. +"How wonderful are the works o' man!" exclaimed the shepherd. +"But what's a' the hurry for?", rejoined his wife. +Still more marvellous, however, was the first adventure by train of an +old woman from Newtyle to Dundee. In those days the train was let down +part of the railway by a rope. The woman was on her way down hill, +with a basket of eggs by her side. Suddenly the rope broke, and the +train dashed into the Dundee Station, scattering the carriages, +and throwing out the old woman and her basket of broken eggs. +A porter ran to her help, when, gathering herself together, +she exclaimed, "Odd sake, sirs, d'ye aye whummil* + [footnote... +Whummil, to turn upside down.--Jamieson's Scottish Dictionary. + ...] +us oot this way?" She thought it was only the ordinary way of +delivering railway passengers. + +Ropes, however, were merely exceptional methods of working railway +trains. Eventually locomotives were invariably adopted. When railways +were extended in so many directions, more and more locomotives were +required to work them. + +When George Stephenson was engaged in building his first locomotive at +Killingworth, he was greatly hampered, not only by the want of handy +mechanics, but by the want of efficient tools. But he did the best +that he could. His genius overcame difficulties. It was immensely to +his credit that he should have so successfully completed his engines +for the Stockton and Darlington, and afterwards for the Liverpool and +Manchester Railway. + +Only a few years had passed, and self-acting tools were now enabled to +complete, with precision and uniformity, machines that before had been +deemed almost impracticable. + +In proportion to the rapid extension of railways the demand for +locomotives became very great. As our machine tools were peculiarly +adapted for turning out a large amount of first-class work, we directed +our attention to this class of business. In the course of about ten +years after the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, +we executed considerable orders for locomotives for the London and +Southampton, the Manchester and Leeds, and the Gloucester railway +companies. + +The Great Western Railway Company invited us to tender for twenty of +their very ponderous engines. They proposed a very tempting condition +of the contract. It was, that if, after a month's trial of the +locomotives, their working proved satisfactory, a premium of #100 was +to be added to the price of each engine and tender. The locomotives +were made and delivered; they ran the stipulated number of test miles +between London and Bristol in a perfectly satisfactory manner; +and we not only received the premium, but, what was much more +encouraging, we received a special letter from the Board of Directors, +stating their entire satisfaction with the performance of our engines, +and desiring us to refer other contractors to them with respect to the +excellence of our workmanship. This testimonial was altogether +spontaneous, and proved extremely valuable in other quarters. + +I may mention that, in order to effect the prompt and perfect execution +of this order, I contrived several special machine tools, which +assisted us most materially. These tools for the most part rendered us +more independent of mere manual strength and dexterity, while at the +same time they increased the accuracy and perfection of the work. +They afterwards assisted us in the means of perfecting the production +of other classes of work. At the same time they had the important +effect of diminishing the cost of production, as was made sufficiently +apparent by the balance-sheet prepared at the end of each year. +My connection with the Great Western Company shortly led to a most +important event in connection with my own personal history. It appears +that their famous steam-ship the Great Western had been very +successful in her voyages between Bristol and New York; so much so, +indeed, that the directors of the Company ordered the construction of +another vessel of much greater magnitude--the Great Britain. +Mr. Francis Humphries, their engineer, came to Patricroft to consult +with me as to the machine tools, of unusual size and power, which were +required for the construction of the immense engines of the proposed +ship, which were to be made on the vertical trunk principle. +Very complete works were erected at Bristol for the accommodation of +the requisite machinery. The tools were made according to Mr. Humphries' +order; they were delivered and fitted to his entire approval, and the +construction of the gigantic engines was soon in full progress. + +An unexpected difficulty, however, was encountered with respect to the +enormous wrought-iron intermediate paddleshaft. It was required to be +of a size and diameter the like of which had never been forged. +Mr. Humphries applied to the largest forges throughout the country for +tenders of the price at which they would execute this important part of +the work, but to his surprise and dismay he found that not one of them +could undertake so large a forging. In this dilemma he wrote a letter +to me, which I received on the 24th of November 1839, informing me of +the unlooked-for difficulty. "I find," he said, "that there is not a +forge hammer in England or Scotland powerful enough to forge the +intermediate paddle-shaft of the engines for the Great Britain! +What am I to do? Do you think I might dare to use cast-iron? + +This letter immediately set me a-thinking. How was it that the +existing hammers were incapable of forging a wrought-iron shaft of +thirty inches diameter? Simply because of their want of compass, of +range and fall, as well as of their want of power of blow. +A few moment's rapid thought satisfied me that it was by our rigidly +adhering to the old traditional form of a smith's hand hammer-- +of which the forge and tilt hammer, although driven by water or steam +power, were merely enlarged modifications--that the difficulty had +arisen; as, whenever the largest forge hammer was tilted up to its full +height, its range was so small that when a piece of work of considerable +size was placed on the anvil, the hammer became "gagged;" so that, +when the forging required the most powerful blow, it received next to +no blow at all, as the clear space for the fall of the hammer was +almost entirely occupied by the work on the anvil. + +The obvious remedy was to contrive some method by which a ponderous +block of iron should be lifted to a sufficient height above the object +on which it was desired to strike a blow, and then to let the block +full down upon the forging, guiding it in its descent by such simple +means as should give the required precision in the percussive action of +the falling mass following up this idea, I got out my "Scheme Book," +on the pages of which I generally thought out, with the aid of pen and +pencil, such mechanical adaptations as I had conceived in my mind, +and was thereby enabled to render them visible. I then rapidly sketched +out my Steam Hammer, having it all clearly before me in my mind's eye. +In little more than half an hour after receiving Mr. Humphries' letter +narrating his unlooked-for difficulty, I had the whole contrivance in +all its executant details, before me in a page of my Scheme Book, +a reduced photographed copy of which I append to this description. +The date of this first drawing was the 24th November, 1839. + +[Image] First drawing of steam hammer, 24th Nov. 1839 + +My Steam Hammer as thus first sketched, consisted of, first, a massive +anvil on which to rest the work; second, a block of iron constituting +the hammer or blow-giving portion; and, third, an inverted steam +cylinder to whose piston-rod the hammer-block was attached. +All that was then required to produce a most effective hammer was +simply to admit steam of sufficient pressure into the cylinder, +so as to act on the under-side of the piston, and thus to raise the +hammer-block attached to the end of the piston rod. By a very simple +arrangement of a slide valve, under the control of all attendant, +the steam was allowed to escape and thus permit the massive block of +iron rapidly to descend by its own gravity upon the work then upon the +anvil. + +Thus, by the more or less rapid manner in which the attendant allowed +the steam to enter or escape from the cylinder, any required number or +any intensity of blows could be delivered. Their succession might be +modified in an instant. The hammer might be arrested and suspended +according to the requirements of the work. The workman might thus, +as it were, think in blows. He might deal them out on to the ponderous +glowing mass, and mould or knead it into the desired form as if it were +a lump of clay; or pat it with gentle taps according to his will, +or at the desire of the forgeman. + +Rude and rapidly sketched out as it was, this, my first delineation of +the steam hammer, will be found to comprise all the essential elements +of the invention. Every detail of the drawing retains to this day the +form and arrangement which I gave to it forty-three years ago. +I believed that the steam hammer would prove practically successful; +and I looked forward to its general employment in the forging of heavy +masses of iron. It is no small gratification to me now, when I look +over my rude and hasty first sketch, to find that I hit the mark so +exactly, not only in the general structure but in the details; +and that the invention as I then conceived it and put it into shape, +still retains its form and arrangements intact in the thousands of +steam hammers that are now doing good service in the mechanical arts +throughout the civilised world. + +But to return to my correspondence with the Great Western Steamship +Company. I wrote at once to Mr. Humphries, and sent him a sketch of my +proposed steam hammer. I told him that I felt assured he would now be +able to overcome his difficulty, and that the paddle-shaft of the Great +Britain might now be forged. Mr. Humphries was delighted with my +design. He submitted it to Mr. Brunel, engineer-in-chief of the +steamship: to Mr. Guppy, the managing director; and to other persons +interested in the undertaking,--by all of whom it was heartily +approved. I accordingly gave the Company permission to communicate my +design to such forge proprietors as might feel disposed to erect the +steam hammer, the only condition that I made being, that in the event +of its being adopted I was to be allowed to supply it in accordance +with my design. + +But the paddle-shaft of the Great Britain was never forged. About that +time the substitution of the Screw for the paddle-wheel as a means of +propulsion was attracting much attention. The performances of the +Archimedes, as arranged by Mr. Francis P. Smith, were so satisfactory +that Mr. Brunel, after he had made an excursion in that vessel, +recommended the directors to adopt the new propelling power. After much +discussion, they yielded to his strongly-urged advice. The consequence +was, that the great engines which Mr. Humphries had so elaborately +designed, and which were far advanced in construction, were given up, +to his inexpressible regret and mortification, as he had pinned his +highest hopes as a practical engineer on the results of their +performance. And, to crown his distress, he was ordered to produce +fresh designs of engines specially suited for screw propulsion. +Mr. Humphries was a man of the most sensitive and sanguine constitution +of mind. The labour and the anxiety which he had already undergone, +and perhaps the disappointment of his hopes, proved too much for him; +and a brain fever carried him off after a few days' illness. +There was thus, for a time, an end of the steam hammer required for +forging the paddle-shaft of the Great Britain. + +Very bad times for the iron-trade, and for all mechanical undertakings, +set in about this time. A wide-spread depression affected all +conditions of industry Although I wrote to the heads of all the great +firms, urging the importance of my invention, and forwarding designs of +my steam hammer, I was unable to obtain a single order. It is true, +they cordially approved of my plan, and were greatly struck by its +simplicity, unity, and apparent power.* + [footnote... +Among the heads of firms who sent me cordial congratulations on my +design, were Benjamin Hick, of the Soho Ironworks, Bolton, a man, +whose judgment in all matters connected with engineering and mechanical +construction was held in the very highest regard; +Messrs. Rushton and Eckersley, Bolton Ironworks; +Messrs. Howard and Ravenhill, Rotherhithe Ironworks, London; +Messrs. Hawkes, Crashaw, and Company, Newcastle-upon-Tyne; +George Thorneycroft, Wolverhampton; and others. + ...] + + +But the substance of their replies was, that they had not sufficient +orders to keep the forge hammers they already possessed in work. +They promised, however, that in the event of trade recovering from its +depression, they would probably adopt the new power. + +In the meantime my invention was taken up in an entirely new and +unexpected quarter. I had for some years been supplying foreign +customers with self-acting machine tools. The principals of +continental manufacturing establishments were accustomed to make +frequent visits to England for the purpose of purchasing various +machine tools required for the production of the ponderous as well as +the lighter parts of their machinery. We gave our foreign visitors +every facility and opportunity for seeing our own tools at work, +and they were often so much pleased that, when they came to order one +special tool, they ended by ordering many,--the machine tools in full +activity thus acting as their most effective advertisements. +In like manner I freely opened my Scheme Book to any foreign visitors.* + [footnote... +Some establishments in the same line of business were jealous of the +visit of foreigners; but to our views, restriction in the communication +of new ideas on mechanical subjects to foreigners of intelligence and +enterprising spirit served no good purpose, as the foreign engineer was +certain to obtain all the information he was in quest of from the +drawings in the Patent Office, or from the admirable engravings +contained in the engineering publications of the day. It was better to +derive the advantage of supplying them with the machines they were in +quest of, than to wait until the demand was supplied by foreigners +themselves. + ...] + +There I let them see the mechanical thoughts that were passing through +my mind, reduced to pen and ink drawings. I did not hesitate to +advocate the advantage of my steam hammer over every other method of +forging heavy masses of iron; and I pointed out the drawing in my +Scheme Book in confirmation of my views. The book was kept in the +office to be handy for such occasions; and in many cases it was the +means of suggesting ideas of machine tools to our customers, and thus +led to orders which might not have been obtained without this effective +method of prompting them. Amongst our foreign visitors was M. Schneider, +proprietor of the great ironworks at Creuzot, in France. +We had supplied him with various machine tools, and he was so pleased +with their action that the next time he came to England he called at +our office at Patricroft. M. Bourdon, his mechanical manager, +accompanied him. + +I happened to be absent on a journey at the time; but my partner, +Mr. Gaskell, was present. After showing them over the works, as an act +of courtesy he brought them my Scheme Book and allowed them to examine +it. He pointed out the drawing of my steam hammer, and told them the +purpose for which it was intended. They were impressed with its +simplicity and apparent practical utility,--so much so, that M. Bourdon +took careful notes and sketches of the constructive details of the hammer. + +I was informed on my return of the visit of MM.Schneider and Bourdon, +but the circumstance of their having inspected the designs in my Scheme +Book, and especially my original design of the steam hammer, was +regarded by my partner as too ordinary and trivial an incident of their +visit to be mentioned to me. The exhibition of my mechanical designs +to visitors at the Foundry was a matter of almost daily occurrence. +I was, therefore, in entire ignorance of the fact that these foreign +visitors had taken with them to France a copy of the plan and details +of my steam hammer. + +It was not until my visit to France in April 1842 that the upshot of +their visit was brought under my notice in an extraordinary manner. +I was requested by M. Bouchier, Minister of Marine, to visit the +French dockyards and arsenals for the purpose of conferring with the +director of each with reference to the supply of various machine tools +for the proper equipment of the marine engine factories in connection +with the Royal Dockyards. In order to render this journey more +effective and instructive, I visited most of the French engineering +establishments which had been supplied with machine tools by our firm. +Amongst these was of course the famous firm of Schneider, whose works at +Creuzot lay not far out of the way of my return journey accordingly +made my way thither, and found M. Bourdon at his post, though M. Schneider +was absent. + +M. Bourdon received me with much cordiality. As he spoke English with +fluency I was fortunate in finding him present, in order to show me +over the works; on entering which, one of the things that particularly +struck me was the excellence of a large wrought-iron marine engine +single crank, forged with a remarkable degree of exactness in its +general form. I observed also that the large eye of the crank had been +punched and drifted with extraordinary smoothness and truth. +I inquired of M. Bourdon "how that crank had been forged?" +His immediate reply was, "It was forged by your steam hammer!" + +Great was my surprise and pleasure at hearing this statement. +I asked him how he had come to be acquainted with my steam hammer? +He then narrated the circumstance of his visit to the Bridgewater +Foundry during my absence. He told me of my partner having exhibited +to him the original design, and how much he was struck by its +simplicity and probable efficiency; that he had taken careful note and +sketches on the spot; that among the first things he did after his +return to Creuzot was to put in hand the necessary work for the +erection of a steam hammer; and that the results had in all respects +realised the high expectations he had formed of it. + +M. Bourdon conducted me to the forge department of the works, +that I might, as he said, "see my own child;" and there it was, +in truth--a thumping child of my brain. Until then it had only +existed in my scheme book; and yet it had often and often been before +my mind's eye in full action. On inspecting the steam hammer I found +that Bourdon had omitted some important details, which had led to a few +mishaps, especially with respect to the frequent breaking of the +piston-rod at its junction with the hammer block. He had effected this, +in the usual way, by means of a cutter wedge through the rod; +but he told me that it often broke through the severe jar during the +action of the hammer. I sketched for him, then and there, in full size +on a board,the elastic packing under the end of the piston-rod, +which acted, as I told him, like the cartilage between the bones of the +vertebrae, preventing the destructive effects of violent jars. +I also communicated to him a few other important details, which he had +missed in his hasty inspection of my design. Indeed, I felt great +pleasure in doing so, as I found Bourdon to be a most intelligent +mechanic, and thoroughly able to appreciate the practical value of the +information I communicated to him. He expressed his obligation to me +in the warmest terms, and the alterations which he shortly afterwards +effected in the steam hammer, in accordance with my plans, enabled it +to accomplish everything that he could desire. + +I had not yet taken out a patent for the steam hammer. The reason was +this. The cost of a patent at the time I invented it was little short +of #500, all expenses included. My partner was unwilling to lay out so +large a sum upon an invention for which there seemed to be so little +demand at that time; and I myself had the whole of my capital embarked +in the concern. Besides, the general depression still continued in the +iron trade; and we had use for every farthing of money we possessed. +I had been warned of the risk I ran by freely exhibiting my original +design, as well as by sending drawings of it to those who I thought +were most likely to bring the invention into use. But nothing had as +yet been done in England. It was left for France, as I have described, +to embody my invention in an actual steam hammer. I now became +alarmed, and feared lest I should lose the benefits of my invention. +As my partner declined to help me, I applied to my brother-in-law, +William Bennett. He was a practical engineer, and had expressed +himself as highly satisfied with its value. He had also many times +cautioned me against "publishing" its advantages so widely, without +having first protected it by a patent. He was therefore quite ready to +come to my assistance. He helped me with the necessary money, and the +invention was placed in a position of safety so far as my interests +were concerned. In return for his kindness I stipulated that the +reimbursement of his loan should be a first charge upon any profits +arising from the manufacture of the steam hammer; and also that he +should have a share in the profits during the period of the patent +rights. Mr. Bennett lived for many years, rejoicing in the results of +his kindness to me in the time of my difficulty. I may add that the +patent was secured in June 1842, or less than two months after my +return from France. + +Soon after this, the iron trade recovered from its depression. +The tide of financial prosperity of the Bridgewater Foundry soon set +in, and my partner's sanguine confidence in my ability to raise it to +the condition of a thriving and prosperous concern was justified in a +most substantial manner. In order to make the most effective +demonstration of the powers and capabilities of my steam hammer, +I constructed one of 30cwt. of hammer block, with a clear four feet +range of fall. I soon had it set to work; and its energetic services +helped us greatly in our smith and forge work. It was admired by all +observers. People came from a distance to see it. Mechanics and +ironfounders wondered at the new power which had been born. +The precision and beauty of its action seemed marvellous. +The attendant could, by means of the steam slide-valve lever in his +hand, transmit his will to the action of the hammer, and thus think in +blows. The machine combined great power with gentleness. The hammer +could be made to give so gentle a blow as to crack the end of an egg +placed in a wine glass on the anvil; whilst the next blow would shake +the parish or be instantly arrested in its descent midway.* + [footnote... +This is no mere figure of speech. I have heard the tea-cups rattle in +the cupboard in my house a quarter of a mile from the place where the +hammer was at work. I was afterwards informed that the blows of my +great steam hammer at Woolwich Arsenal were sensibly felt at Greenwich +Observatory, about two miles distant. + ...] + +Hand-gear was the original system introduced in working the hammer. +A method of self-acting was afterwards added. In 1843, I admitted +steam above the piston, to aid gravitation. This was an important +improvement. The self-acting arrangement was eventually done away +with, and hand-gear again became all but universal. Sir John Anderson, +in his admirable Report on the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, says: +The most remarkable features of the Nasmyth hammers were the almost +entire abandonment of the old self-acting motion of the early hammers +and the substitution of new devices, and in the use of hand-gear only +in all attempts to show off the working. There is no real saving, +as a general rule, by the self-acting arrangement, because one +attendant is required in either case, and on the other hand there is +frequently a positive loss in the effect of the blow. By hand-working, +with steam on top of piston, the full force can be more readily +maintained until the blow is fully delivered; it is thus more of a dead +blow than was formerly the case with the other system." + +There was no want of orders when the valuable qualities of the steam +hammer came to be seen and experienced. The first Order came from +Rushton and Eckersley of Bolton, who, by the way, had seen the first +copy of my original design a few years before. The steam hammer I made +for them was more powerful than my own. The hammer block was of five +tons weight, and had a clear fall of five feet. It gave every +satisfaction, and the fame of its performances went abroad amongst the +ironworkers. The Lowmoor Ironworks Company followed suit with an order +for one of the same size and power; and another came from Hawkes and Co., +of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. + +One of the most important uses of the steam hammer was in forging +anchors. Under the old system, anchors upon the soundness of which the +safety of ships so often depends--were forged upon the "bit by bit" +system. The various pieces of an anchor were welded together, +but at the parts where the different pieces of iron were welded +together, flaws often occurred; the parts would break off--blades +from the stock, or flukes from the blades--and leave the vessel, +which relied upon the security of its anchor, at the risk of the winds +and the waves. By means of the steam hammer these risks were averted. +The slag was driven out during the hammering process. The anchor was +sound throughout because it was welded as a whole. + +Those who are technically acquainted with smith work as it used to be +practised, by what I term the "bit by bit" system--that is, +of building up from many separate parts of iron, afterwards welded +together into the required form--can appreciate the vast practical +value of the Die method brought into general use by the controllable +but immense power of the steam hammer. At a very early period of my +employment of the steam hammer, I introduced the system of stamping +masses of welding hot iron as if it had been clay, and forcing it into +suitable moulds or dies placed upon the anvil. This practice had been +in use on a small scale in the Birmingham gun trade, The ironwork of +firearms was thus stamped into exact form. But, until we possessed the +wide range and perfectly controllable powers of the steam hammer, +the stamping system was confined to comparatively small portions of +forge work. The new power enabled the die and stamp system to be +applied to the largest class of forge work; and another era in the +working of ponderous masses of smith and forge work commenced, and has +rapidly extended until the present time. Without entering into further +details, the steam hammer has advanced the mechanical arts, especially +with relation to machinery of the larger class, to an extent that is of +incalculable importance. + +Soon after my steam hammer had exhibited its merits as a powerful and +docile agent in percussive force, and shown its applicability to some +of the most important branches of iron manufacture, I had the +opportunity of securing a patent for it in the United States. +This was through the kind agency of my excellent friend and solicitor, +the late George Humphries of Manchester. Mr. Humphries was a native of +Philadelphia, and the intimate friend of Samuel Vaughan Merrick, +founder of the eminent engineering firm of that city. Through his +instrumentality I forwarded to Mr. Merrick all the requisite documents +to enable a patent to be secured at the United States Patent Office at +Washington. I transferred the patent to Mr. Merrick in order that it +might be worked to our mutual advantage. My invention was thus +introduced into America under the most favourable auspices. +The steam hammer soon found its way into the principal ironworks of the +country. The admirable straightforward manner in which our American +agent conducted the business from first to last will ever command my +grateful remembrance. + + +CHAPTER 14. Travels in France and Italy. + +I have already referred to my visit to Creuzot, in France. +I must explain how it was that I was induced to travel abroad. +The French Government had ordered from our firm some powerful machine +tools, which were manufactured, delivered, and found to give every +satisfaction. Shortly after, I received a letter from M. Bouchier, +the Minister of Marine, inviting me to make a personal visit to the +French naval arsenals for the purpose of conferring with the directing +officials as to the mechanical equipments of their respective +workshops. + +I accordingly proceeded to Paris, and was received most cordially by +the Minister of Marine. After conferring with him, I was furnished +with letters of introduction to the directing officers at Cherbourg, +Brest, Rochefort, Indret, and Toulon. While in Paris I visited some +of the principal manufacturing establishments, the proprietors of +which had done business with our firm. I also visited Arago at the +Observatory, and saw his fine array of astronomical instruments. +The magnificent collections of antiquities at the Louvre and Hotel +Cluny occupied two days out of the four I spent in Paris; after which +I proceeded on my mission. Rouen lay in my way, and I could not fail +to stay there and indulge my love for Gothic architecture. +I visited the magnificent Cathedral and the Church of St. Ouen, +so exquisite in its beauty, together with the refined Gothic +architectural remains scattered about in that interesting and +picturesque city. I was delighted beyond measure with all that I saw. +With an eye to business, however, I paid a visit to the works which had +been established by the late Joseph Locke in the neighbourhood of Rouen +for the supply of locomotives to the Havre, Rouen, and Paris Railway. +The works were then under the direction of Mr. Buddicom. +I went onward through Caen to Bayeux. There I rested for a few hours +for the purpose of visiting the superb Norman Cathedral, and also to +inspect the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. I saw the needlework of Queen +Matilda and her handmaidens, which so graphically commemorates the +history of the Norman Conquest. In the evening I reached Cherbourg. +I was cordially received by the directing officer of the dockyard, +which is of very large extent and surrounded by fortifications. +My business was with the smithy or atelier des forges, +and the workshops or ateliers des machiness. There I recognised many +of the machine-tools manufactured at the Bridgewater Foundry, doing +excellent work. + +My next visit was to Brest, the chief naval arsenal of France. +It combines a dockyard, arsenal, and fortress of the first class. +Everything has been done to make the place impregnable. The harbour is +situated on the north side of one of the finest havens in the world, +and is almost land-locked. Around the harbour run quays of great +extent, alongside of which the largest ships can lie--five artificial +basins being excavated out of the solid rock. The whole of the harbour +is defended by tier above tier of batteries. Foreigners are not +permitted to enter the dockyard without special permission; but as I +was armed with my letter of introduction from the Minister of Marine, +I was admitted and cordially received, as at Cherbourg. I went through +the Government foundry and steam-factory, for which I had supplied many +of my machine tools. I found the establishment to be the largest and +most complete that I had seen. From Brest I went to Rochefort, +an excellent naval arsenal, though much smaller than those at Cherbourg +and Brest. Next to Indret on the Loire. Here is the large factory +where marine engines are made for the royal steamers. +The works were superintended by M. Rosine, a most able man.* + [footnote... +The only man I ever met, to whom I might compare Rosine, was my +lamented friend Francis Humphries, engineer of the Great Western +Steamship Company. Both were men of the same type, though Rosine was +several octaves-higher in the compass and vividness of his intellect. + ...] + +I was so much pleased with him that I spent two days in his society. +I have rarely met with a more perfect union of the sound practical +mechanic, of strong common-sense, and yet with a vivid imagination, +which threw a light upon every subject that he touched. +It was delightful to see the perfect manner in which he had arranged +all the details of the engine factory under his superintendence, +and to observe the pride which he took in the accuracy of the work +turned out by his excellent machinery. It was a treat to see the +magnificent and intricate iron castings produced there. + +As M. Rosine spoke English fluently, we had discussions on a vast +variety of topics, not only relating to technical subjects, but on +other matters relating to art and mechanical drawing. He was one of +the few men I have met who had in perfection the happy accomplishment +of sketching with true artistic spirit any object that he desired to +bring before you. His pencil far outstripped language in conveying +distinct ideas on constructive and material objects. The time that I +spent in the company of this most interesting man will ever remain +vivid in my memory. It grieved me greatly to hear of his premature +death about two years after the date of my visit. He must have been a +sad loss to his deeply attached friends, as well as to the nation +whom he so faith fully served. + +On my way to Toulon I passed through Bordeaux, and by Avignon to +Nismes. At the latter city I was delighted with the sight of the +exquisite Roman temple, the Maison Carree. It is almost perfect. +But the most interesting of the Roman remains at Nismes is the +magnificent Amphitheatre. In viewing this grand specimen of +architecture, as well as the old temples, cathedrals, and castles, +I felt that we moderns are comparative pigmies. Our architecture wants +breadth, grandeur, sublimity. + +It appears to me that one of the chief causes of the inferiority and +defects of Modern Architecture is, that our designers are so anxious +to display their taste in ornamentation. They first design the +exterior, and then fit into it the interior of their building. +The purpose of the building is thus regarded as a secondary +consideration. In short, they utilise ornament instead of ornamenting +utility--total inversion, as it appears to me, of the fundamental +principle which ought to govern all classes of architectural structures. +This is, unfortunately, too evident in most of our public buildings. +See, for instance, our new Law Courts. + +One thing I was especially struck with at Nismes--the ease with +which some thousands of people might issue, without hindrance, from +the Amphitheatre. The wedge-shaped passages radiate from the centre, +and, widening outwards, would facilitate the egress of an immense +crowd. Contrast this with the difficulty of getting out of any modern +theatre or church in case of alarm or fire. Another thing is +remarkable--the care with which the huge blocks of magnesian limestone* + [footnote... +I believe Dolomite is the proper geological term. This fine material +abounds in this part of France, and has materially contributed to the +durability of the Roman mason work. + ...] +have been selected. Some of the stone slabs are eighteen feet long; +they roof over the corridors; yet they still retain the marks of the +Roman chisel. Every individual chip is as crisp as on the day on which +it was made; even the delicate "scribe" marks, by which the mason some +1900 years ago lined out his work on the blocks of stone he was about +to chip into its required form, are still perfectly distinct. + +This wonderfully durable stone is of the same material as that +employed by lithographers. Though magnesian, it is of a different +quality from that employed in building our Houses of Parliament. +As this was carefully selected, the latter was carelessly unselected. +It was quarried at random, in the most ignorant way; some of it proved +little better than chalk; and though all sorts of nostrums have been +tried, nothing will cure the radical defect. This, however, is a wide +digression from my subject of the admirable mason work, +and the wonderful skill and forethought employed in erecting that +superb arena and the other Roman buildings at Nismes. + +I proceeded to Marseilles, where I had some business to transact with +Philip Taylor and Company, the engineering firm. They were most kind +and attentive to me while there, and greatly added to the enjoyment +of my visit to that remarkable city. From Marseilles I proceeded to +Toulon, the last of the marine dockyards I had to visit. There was no +railway between the places at that time, and it was accordingly +necessary that I should drive along the usual road. In the course of +my journey to Toulon I went through the Pass of Col d'Ollioulles. +It was awfully impressive. The Pass appeared to consist of a mighty +cleft between two mountains; the result of some convulsion of Nature. +There was only room for the carriage road to pass between the cliffs. +The ruins of a Saracenic castle stood on the heights to guard the +passage. It was certainly the most romantic scene I had ever beheld. + +Looking down into the deep cleft below me, at the bottom of which ran +a turbulent stream, I saw the narrow road along which our carriage +was to pass. And then suddenly I emerged in full sight of the +Mediterranean, with the calm blue heavens resting over the deep blue +sea. There were palms, cactuses, and orange trees, mixed with olive +groves. The fields were full of tulips and narcissuses, and the rocks +by the roadside were covered with boxwood and lavender. Everything +gave evidence of the sunny South. I had got a glimpse of the +Mediterranean a few days before; but now I saw it in its glory. + +I arrived in due time at Toulon. The town is not very striking in +itself. It is surrounded by an amphitheatre of mountains of hard +magnesian limestone. These are almost devoid of vegetation. +This it is which gives so arid an aspect to this part of the coast. +Facing the south, the sun's rays, reflected from the bare surface of +the rocks, place one at mid-day as if in the focus of a great burning +mirror, and send every one in quest of shade. This intense temperature +has its due effect upon the workers in the dockyard. I found the place +far inferior to the others which I had visited. The heat seemed to +engender a sort of listlessness over the entire place. The people +seemed to be falling asleep. Though we complain of cold in our +northern hemisphere, it is a great incentive to work. Even our east +wind is an invigorator; it braces us up, and strengthens our nerves and +muscles. + +It is quite possible that the workmen of the Toulon dockyard might fire +up and work with energy provided an occasion arose to call forth their +dormant energy. But without the aid of an almost universal +introduction of self-acting tools in this sleepy establishment, +to break, with the busy hum of active working machinery, the spell of +indolence that seemed to pervade it, there appeared to me no hope of +anything like continuous and effective industry or useful results. +The docks looked like one vast knacker's yard of broken-down obsolete +ships and wretched old paraphernalia--unfortunately a characteristic +of other establishments nearer home than Toulon. + +After transacting my business with the directing officers of this +vast dockyard I returned to Marseilles. There I found letters +requiring me to proceed to Naples, in order to complete some business +arrangements in that city. I was exceedingly rejoiced to have an +opportunity of visiting the south of Italy. I set out at once. +A fine new steamer of the Messageries Imperiales, the Ercolano, was +ready to sail from the harbour. I took my place on board. +I found that the engines had been made by Maudsley Sons and Field; +they were of their latest improved double-cylinder construction. +When I went down into the engine-room I felt myself in a sense at home; +for the style of the engines brought to my mind many a pleasant +remembrance of the days gone by. + +We steamed out of the harbour, and passed in succession the beautiful +little islands which gem the bay of Marseilles. Amongst others, +the isle of If, crowned by its castle, once a State prison, +and the Chateau d'If, immortalised by Dumas. Then Pomegne, Ratoneau, +and other islands. We were now on the deep blue Mediterranean, +watching the graceful curves of the coast as we steamed along. +Soon after, we came in sight of the snow-capped maritime Alps behind +Nice. The evening was calm and clear, and a bright moon shone +overhead. Next morning I awoke in the harbour of Genoa, with a +splendid panoramic view of the city before me. I shall never forget +the glorious sight of that clear bright morning as long as I live. + +As the steamer was to remain in the harbour until two o'clock next +day, I landed with the passengers and saw the wonders of the city. +I felt as if I were in a new world. On every side and all around me +were objects of art lighted up by glorious sunshine. The picturesque +narrow streets, with the blue sky overhead and the bright sunshine +lighting up the beautiful architecture of the palatial houses, relieved +by masses of clear shade, together with the picturesque dresses of the +people, and the baskets of oranges and lemons with the leaves on the +boughs on which they had been born and reared, the brilliant greenery +of the inner courts into which you peeped while passing along the +Strada Nuova, literally a street of palaces, threw me into a fervency +of delight. Here, indeed, was architecture to be proud of--grand, +imposing, and massive--chastely yet gloriously ornamented. +There was nothing of the gingerbread order here! + +The plan of these palaces is admirable. They are open to the street, +so that all the inner arrangements may be seen. There is the court, +surrounded by arcades, the arches of which rest upon columns; the +flights of marble steps on each side, leading to the great hall or +the principal apartments; and inside the court, the pink daphnes and +Tangerine orange frees, surrounded by greenery, with which the +splendour of the marble admirably contrasts;--the whole producing a +magnificent effect. I remembered that Genoa la superba was one of my +father's pet subjects when talking of his first visit to Italy; +and now I could confirm all that he had said about the splendour of its +palaces. + +I do not know of anything more delightful than to grope one's way +through a foreign city, especially such a city as Genoa, and come +unexpectedly upon some building that one has heard of--that has +dimly lived in the mind like a dream--and now to see it realised in +fact. It suddenly starts into life, as it were, surrounded by its +natural associations. I hate your professional guides and their +constant chatter. Much better to come with a mind prepared with some +history to fall back upon, and thus be enabled to compare the present +with the past, the living with the dead. + +I climbed up some of the hills surrounding Genoa--for it is a city +of ups and downs. I wandered about the terraced palaces surrounded by +orange groves and surveyed the fortified heights by which the place +is surrounded. What exquisite bits of scenery there were to sketch; +what a rich combination of nature and art! And what a world of +colour, with the clear blue sea in the distance! Altogether, +that one day at Genoa--though but a succession of glimpses formed a +bright spot in my life, that neither time nor distance can dim or +tarnish. + +I returned to the harbour two hours before the steamer was to leave. +To commemorate my visit, I mounted the top of the paddle-box, took out +my sketch book, and made a panoramic view of Genoa as seen from the +harbour. I did it in pencil at the time, and afterwards filled it up +with ink. When the pages of the sketch book had been joined together +the panoramic view extended to about eight feet long. The accuracy of +the detail, as well as the speed with which the drawing was done, +were perhaps rather creditable to the draughtsman--at least so my +artistic friends were pleased to tell me. Indeed, many years after, +a friend at court desired to submit it to the highest Lady in the land, +and, being herself an artist, she expressed herself as highly gratified +with the performance. + +[Image] A monk on board + +The next station the steamer touched at was Leghorn. As the vessel was +not to start until next day, there was sufficient time for me to run up +to Pisa. There I spent a delightful day principally in wandering about +that glorious group of buildings situated so near to each other-- +the Cathedral, the Baptistery, the Campo Santo, and the Campanile or +Leaning Tower. What interested me most at the Cathedral was the two +bronze lamps suspended at the end of the nave, which suggested to the +mind of Galileo the invention of the pendulum. Thousands had seen the +lamps swinging before them, but he alone would know "the reason why." +The one swung at a different rate as compared with the other, being the +result of the chains being hung of different lengths. Hence Galileo's +discovery of the principle or Law of the Pendulum. This paved the way +for Newton's law of gravitation--one of the grandest laws of the +universe. + +Some of the finest works of Andrea del Sarto, son of the Tailor, +are found here. Indeed, the works of that great painter are little +known out of Pisa and Florence. I was reluctant to tear myself away +from Pisa; but the Ercolano could not wait, and I was back in good +time, and soon under weigh. + +The next port we touched at was Civita Vecchia, one of the most dreary +places that can be imagined, though at one time an Etruscan city, +and afterwards the port of Trajan. I did not land, as there were some +difficulties in the way of passports. We steamed on; and next morning +when I awoke we were passing the coast of Ischia. We could scarcely +see the island for a thick mist had over-spread the sea. Naples was +still hidden from our sight, but over the mist I could observe the +summit of Vesuvius vomiting forth dense clouds of white smoke. +The black summit of the crater appeared floating in the clear blue sky. +But the heat of the sun shortly warmed the mist, and it floated away +like a curtain. + +[Image] Distant view of Vesuvius + +A grand panorama then lay before us. Naples looked bright and +magnificent under the sunlight. The sea was so smooth that the +buildings and towers and convents and spires were reflected in the +water. On our left lay the Bay of Baiae, with its castles and temples +and baths, dating from the days of the Roman Republic. To the right +lay Castellamare, Sorrento, and the island of Capri. But the most +prominent object was Vesuvius in front, with its expanding cloud of +white smoke over the landscape. On landing, I took up my quarters at +the Hotel Victoria. I sallied forth to take my first hasty view of the +Chiaia, the streets, and the principal buildings. But, in accordance +with my motto of "Duty first, pleasure second," I proceeded to attend +to the business respecting which I had visited Naples. That, however, +was soon disposed of. In a few days I was able to attend to pleasure. +I made my way to the Museo Borbonico, now called the National Museum. +I found it a rich mine of precious treasures, consisting of Greek, +Etruscan, and Roman antiquities of every description. +Not the least interesting part of the Museum is the collection of marbles, +pictures, and articles of daily use, dug from the ruins of the buried +city of Pompeii. Every spare hour that I could command was occupied in +visiting and revisiting this wonderful Museum. + +Herculaneum and Pompeii were also visited, but, more than all, +the crater of Vesuvius. During my visit the mountain was in its normal +state. I mounted the volcanic ashes with which it is strewn, +and got to the top. There I could look down into the pit from which +the clouds of steam are vomited forth. I went down to the very edge of +the crater, stood close to its mouth, and watched the intermittent +up-rushing of the blasts of vapour and sulphureous gases. +To keep clear of these I stood to the windward side, and was thus out +of harm's way. + +What struck me most was the wonderfully brilliant colours of the rugged +lava rocks forming the precipitous cliffs of the interior walls of the +crater. These brilliant colours were the result of the sublimation and +condensation on their surfaces of the combinations of sulphur and +chloride of iron, quite as bright as if they had been painted with +bright red, chrome, and all the most brilliant tints. Columns of all +manner of chemical vapours ascended from the clefts and deep cracks, +at the bottom of which I clearly saw the bright hot lava. + +I rolled as big a mass of cool lava as I could to the edge of the +crater and heaved it down; but I heard no sound. Doubtless the depth +was vast, or it might probably have fallen into the molten lava, +and thus made no noise. On leaving this horrible pit edge, I tied the +card of the Bridgewater Foundry to a bit of lava and threw it in, +as token of respectful civility to Vulcan, the head of our craft. + +I had considerably more difficulty in clambering up to the top edge +of the crater than I had in coming down. Once or twice, indeed, +I was half choked by the swirls of sulphureous and muriatic acid vapour +that environed me before I could reach the upper edge. I sat down in a +nook, though it was a very hot one, and made a sketch or two of the +appearance of the crater. But I feel that it is quite beyond my power +either by pen or pencil, to convey an idea of the weird unearthly +aspect which the funnel-shaped crater of Vesuvius presented at that +time. An eruption of unusual violence had occurred shortly before I +saw it. Great rounded blocks of lava had been thrown high into the air +again and again, and had fallen back into the terrible focus of +volcanic violence. Vast portions of the rugged and precipitous sides +of the crater had fallen in, and were left in a state of the wildest +confusion. When I visited the place the eruption had comparatively +subsided. The throat of the crater was a rugged opening of more than +forty feet diameter, leading down to--Where? Echo answers, "Where?" +And yet there is no doubt but that the great mass of materials which +lay around me as I made my sketches, had been shot up from +inconceivable depths beneath the solid crust of the earth. +There still remains an enormous mass of molten materials that has been +shut up beneath that crust since the surface of the globe assumed its +present condition. The mineral matter that formed the globe had +converged towards its centre of gravity, and the arrestment of the +momentum of the coalescing particles resulted in intense heat. +Hence the molten condition of the globe in its primitive state. +The molten lava of volcanoes is the survival of that original cosmical +heat. + +This heat has played a great part in the physical history of the globe. +Volcanic action has been, as it were, the universal plough! +It has given us mountains, hills, and valleys. It has given us +picturesque scenery, gorges, precipices, waterfalls. The up heaving +agent has displayed the mineral treasures of the earth, and enabled man, +by intelligent industry, to use them as mines of material blessings. +This is indeed a great and sublime subject. + +I had remained near the mouth of the crater for about five hours. +Evening was approaching. My drawings were finished, and I prepared to +leave. My descent from the summit of the crater edge was comparatively +rapid, though every footstep went down some fifteen inches through the +volcanic ashes. I descended by the eastern side, and was soon at the +base of the great cone. I made my way by tortuous walking round the +erupted masses of lava, and also by portions of the lava streams, +which, on losing their original fluidity, had become piled up and +contorted into gigantic masses. + +At the extreme edges of the flow, where the lava had become viscid, +these folds and contortions were very remarkable. They were piled fold +over fold,--the result of the mighty pressure from behind. +It was sad to see so many olive gardens burnt and destroyed; +the trees were as black as charcoal. It is singular to see the numbers +of orange and olive growers who choose to live so near to the +"fiery element." But the heat presses forward the growth of vegetation. +To be there is like living in a hothouse; and the soil is +extraordinarily fertile. Hence the number of vineyards quite close to +the base of Vesuvius. The cultivators endeavour to enclose their +gardens with hard masses of lava, so as to turn off the flow of the +molten streams in other directions; but the lava bursts through the +walls again and again, and the gardens are often utterly burnt up and +ruined. Almost every field at the base of Vesuvius contains a neat +little oratory, with a statue of the Virgin and Child, to which the +cultivators repair in times of peril and calamity. But chapel, statue, +and gardens are alike swept away by the tremendous descent of the +molten lava. + +As the night was growing dark, I made my way from these riskful farms +to Rosina, a little village on the way back to Naples. As I had had +nothing to eat or drink during this thirst-producing journey, I went +into a wine shop and asked for some refreshment. The wine shop was a +sort of vault, with a door like that of a coach-house, but with a bench +and narrow table. The good woman brought me a great green glass bottle +like a vitriol carboy! It contained more than six gallons of wine, +and she left me with a big glass to satisfy my wants. The wine was the +veritable Lachryma, Christi--a delightful light claret--for +producing which the vineyards at the base of Vesuvius are famous. +After some most glorious swigs from this generous and jovial carboy, +accompanied with some delightful fresh made bread, I felt myself up to +anything. After washing down the dust that I had swallowed during the +day, I settled with my liberal landlady (indeed she was mightily +pleased with only tenpence), and started for Naples. + +I had still an eight-mile walk before me, but that was nothing to my +vigorous powers at that time. The moon had risen during my stay in +the wine house, and it shone with a bright clear light. After a few +miles' walking I felt a little tired, for the day's exercise had been +rather toilsome. A fine carriage passed me on the road with a most +tempting platform behind. I hailed the driver, and was allowed to +mount. I was soon bowling along the lava paved road, and in a short +time I arrived at Naples. I made another excursion to the crater of +Vesuvius before I left, as well as visits to Herculaneum and Pompeii, +which exceedingly interested me. But these I need not attempt to +relate. I refer my readers to Murray's Guide Book, where both are +admirably described. + +After completing my business affairs at Naples, and sowing the seeds +of several orders, which afterwards bore substantial results, +I left the city by the same line of steamers. I passed again Civita +Vecchia, Leghorn, Genoa, and Marseilles. On passing through the South +of France I visited the works of several of our employers, and carried +back with me many orders. It was when at Creuzot that I saw the child +of my brain, the steam hammer, in full and efficient work. +But this I have referred to in a previous chapter. + + +CHAPTER 15. Steam Hammer Pile-driver. + +In 1840 I furnished Sir Edward Parry with a drawing of my steam hammer, +in the hope that I might induce him to recommend its adoption in the +Royal Dockyards. Sir Edward was at that time the head director of the +steam marine of England. That was after the celebrity he had acquired +through his Arctic voyages. I was of opinion that the hammer might +prove exceedingly useful in forging anchors and large iron work in +those great establishments. Sir Edward appeared to be much struck with +the simplicity and probable efficiency of the invention. +But the Admiralty Board were very averse to introducing new methods of +manufacturing into the dockyards. Accordingly, my interview with +Sir Edward Parry, notwithstanding his good opinion, proved fruitless. + +Time passed by. I had furnished steam hammers to the principal +foundries in England. I had sent them abroad, even to Russia. +At length it became known to the Lords of the Admiralty that a new +power in forging had been introduced. This was in 1843, three years +after I had submitted my design to Sir Edward Parry. The result was +that my Lords appointed a deputation of intelligent officers to visit +my foundry at Patricroft to see the new invention. It consisted of +Captain Benison (brother of the late Speaker), and Captain Burgman, +Resident Engineer at Devonport Dockyard. They were well able to +understand the powerful agency of the steam hammer for marine forge +work. I gave them every opportunity for observing its action. +They were much pleased, and I may add astonished, at its range, power, +and docility. + +Besides showing them my own steam hammer, I took the deputation to the +extensive works of Messrs. Rushton and Eckersley, where they saw one +of my five-ton hammer-block steam hammers in full action. +It was hammering out some wrought-iron forgings of the largest class, +as well as working upon smaller forgings. By exhibiting the wide range +of power of the steam hammer, these gentlemen were entirely satisfied +of its fitness for all classes of forgings for the naval service. +They reported to the Admiralty accordingly, and in a few days we +received an official letter, with an order for a steam hammer having +a 50 cwt. hammer-block, together with the appropriate boiler, +crane, and forge furnace, so as to equip a complete forge shop at +Devonport Dockyard. This was my first order from the Government for +a steam hammer. + +When everything was ready, I set out for Devonport to see the hammer +and the other portions of the machinery carefully erected. +In about a fortnight it was ready for its first stroke. As good luck +would have it, the Lords of the Admiralty were making their annual +visit of inspection to the dockyard that day. They arrived too late in +the afternoon for a general inspection of the establishment; but they +asked the superintending admiral if there was anything of importance +which they might see before the day closed. The admiral told them that +the most interesting novelty in the dockyard was the starting of +Nasmyth's steam hammer. "Very well, they said, "let us go and see that". + +I was there, with the two mechanics I had brought with me from +Patricroft to erect the steam hammer. I took share and share alike in +the work. The Lords were introduced to me, and I proceeded to show +them the hammer. I passed it through its paces. I made it break an +eggshell in a wine-glass without injuring the glass. It was as neatly +effected by the two-and-a-half ton hammer as if it had been done by an +egg-spoon. Then I had a great mass of white-hot iron swung out of the +furnace by a crane and placed upon the anvil block. Down came the +hammer on it with ponderous blows. My Lords scattered to the +extremities of the workshop, for the splashes and sparks of hot metal +flew about. I went on with the hurtling blows of the hammer, +and kneaded the mass of iron as if it had been clay into its devised +forms. + +After finishing off the forging, my Lords gathered round the hammer +again, when I explained to them the rationale of its working, +and the details of its construction. They were greatly interested, +especially Mr. Sidney Herbert (afterwards Lord Herbert of Lea), +then Secretary to the Admiralty, and Sir George Cockburn, +a fine specimen of the old admiral. Indeed, all the members of the +Board were more or less remarkable men. They honoured me with their +careful attention, and expressed their admiration at the hammer's +wonderful range of power and delicacy of touch, in this new application +of the force of steam. + +The afternoon was a most important one for me in more ways than one, +although I cannot venture to trouble my readers with the details. +It was followed, however, by an order to supply all the Royal Dockyard +forge departments with a complete equipment of steam hammers, +and all the requisite accessories. These were supplied in due time, +and gave in every case the highest satisfaction. The forgings were +found to be greatly better, and almost absurdly cheaper than those done +by the old bit by bit building-up process. The danger of flaws was +entirely done away with; and, in the case of anchors, this was a +consideration of life and death to the seamen, who depend for their +safety upon the soundness of the forgings. + +Besides my introduction to that admirable man, Mr. Sidney Herbert, +I had the happiness of being introduced to Captain Brandreth, +Director of Naval Works. The whole of the buildings on shore, +including the dockyards, were under his control. One of the most +important affairs that the Lords of the Admiralty had to attend to on +their visit to Devonport was to conclude the contract for constructing +the great docks at Keyham. This was a large extension of the Devonport +Docks, intended for the accommodation of the great steamships of the +Royal Navy, as well as for an increase of the graving docks and +workshops for their repair. An immense portion of the shore of the +Hamoaze had to be walled in so as to exclude the tide and enable the +space to be utilised for the above purposes. To effect this a vast +amount of pile-driving was rendered necessary, in order to form a firm +foundation for the great outer dock wall, about a mile and a quarter in +length. + +Messrs. Baker and Sons were the contractors for this work. +They were present at the first start of my steam hammer at Devonport. +They were, like the others, much impressed by its vast power and +manageableness. They had an interview with me as to its applicability +for driving piles for the immense dock, this being an important part of +their contract. Happily, I had already given some attention to this +application of the powers of the steam hammer. In fact, I had secured +a patent for it. I had the drawings for the steam hammer pile-driving +machine with me. I submitted them to Mr. Baker, and he saw its +importance in a moment. "That," he 'said, "is the very thing that I +want to enable me to complete my contract satisfactorily." Thousands of +enormous piles had to be driven down into the deep silt of the Shore; +and to have driven them down by the old system of pile-driving would +have occupied a long time, and would also have been very expensive. + +The drawings were of course submitted to Captain Brandreth. +He was delighted with my design. The steam pile-driver would be, +in his opinion, the prime agent for effecting the commencement of the +great work originated by himself. At first the feat of damming out +such a high tide as that of the Hamoaze seemed very doubtful, because +the stiff slate silt was a treacherous and difficult material to +penetrate. But now, he thought, the driving would be rendered +comparatively easy. With Captain Brandreth's consent the contractors +ordered of me two of my steam hammer pile-drivers. They were to be +capable of driving 18-inch square piles of 70 feet in length into the +silt of the Hamoaze. + +[Image] Space to be enclosed at the Hamoaze + +This first order for my pile-driver was a source of great pleasure to me. +I had long contemplated this application of the power of the steam +hammer. The machine had long been in full action in my "mind's eye," +and now I was to see it in actual reality. I wrote down to my partner +by that night's post informing him of the happy circumstance. The order +was for two grand steam hammer pile-drivers, each with four-ton +hammer-blocks.The wrought-iron guide case and the steam cylinder were +to weigh in all seven tons. All this weight was to rest on the +shoulders of the pile. The blows were to be about eighty in the +minute. This, I thought, would prove thoroughly effective in rapidly +driving the piles down into the earth. + +I have said that the steam pile-driver was in my mind's eye long before +I saw it in action. It is one of the most delightful results of the +possession of the constructive faculty, that one can build up in the +mind mechanical structures and set them to work in imagination, and +observe beforehand the various details performing their respective +functions, as if they were in absolute material form and action. +Unless this happy faculty exists ab initio in the brain of the +mechanical engineer, he will have a hard and disappointing life before +him. It is the early cultivation of the imagination which gives the +right flexibility to the thinking faculties. Thus business, commerce, +and mechanics are all the better for a little healthy imagination. + +So soon as I had returned home, I set to work and prepared the working +drawings of the steam pile-drivers. They were soon completed, conveyed +to Devonport, and erected on the spot where they were to be used. +They were ready on the 3d of July 1845. Some preliminary pile-driving +had been done in the usual way, in order to make a stage or elevated +way for my pile-driver to travel along the space where the permanent +piles were to be driven. I arranged my machines so that they might +travel by their own locomotive powers along the whole length of the +coffer dam, and also that they should hoist up the great logs of Baltic +timber which formed the Piles into their proper places before being +driven. + +The entire apparatus of the machine was erected on a strong timber +platform, and was placed on wheels, so that it might move along the +rails laid down upon the timber way. The same boiler that supplied the +steam hammer part of the apparatus served to work the small steam-engine +fixed to the platform for its locomotion, and also to perform the duty +of rearing the next pile which had to be driven. The steam was +conveyed to the hammer cylinder by the jointed pipe seen in the annexed +engraving. The pipe accommodated itself to any elevation or descent of +the hammer. The whole weight of the cylinder, hammer-block, and guide +box, supported by the shoulders of the pile, amounting to seven tons in +all, rested upon the shoulders of the pile as a "persuader;" and the +eighty blows per minute of the four-ton hammer came down with +tremendous energy upon the top of the pile head. No soil, that piles +could penetrate, could resist such effective agencies. + +[Image] Diagram of the Steam Pile-Driver + +Explanation of the Diagram of the Steam Pile-Driver.--The chief +feature of novelty of this pile-driving machine consists in the +employment of the direct action of the Steam Hammer as the blow giving +agent, and also in the manner in which the dead weight of the entire +apparatus, consisting of the hammer-block C, the steam cylinder A, +and its guide-case B, is employed to importantly aid the effect of the +rapid and energetic blows of the steam hammer. These ponderous parts +rest on the shoulders of the pile H all the while it is being driven, +the pile in this respect being the only support of the apparatus A B C. +So that, besides the eighty blows per minute that the four-ton steam +hammer energetically deals out to the head of the pile from a four foot +fall the dead weight of the apparatus constantly acts as a most +effective "predisposer" to the sinking of the pile into the ground; the +hoisting chain D being let slack the while, so as to allow A B C to +"follow down" the pile H, while the eighty blows per minute are +incessantly showered on its head. The upward stroke of the piston, +with its attached hammer-block C, is arrested at the proper height not +only by allowing the steam that raised it to escape, but as soon as the +piston passes the escape holes X X, the confined air above the piston +at O rebounds, and so aids most effectively in increasing the energy of +the fall of the hammer-block C on the pile head. + +There was a great deal of curiosity in the dockyard as to the action of +the new machine. The pile-driving machine-men gave me a good-natured +challenge to vie with them in driving down a pile. They adopted the +old method, while I adopted the new one. The resident managers sought +out two great pile logs of equal size and length--70 feet long and +18 inches square. At a given signal we started together. +I let in the steam, and the hammer at once began to work. The four-ton +block showered down blows at the rate of eighty a minute; +and in the course of four and a half minutes my pile was driven down to +the required depth. The men working at the ordinary machine had only +begun to drive. It took them upwards of twelve hours to complete the +driving of their pile! + +Such a saving of time in the performance of similar work--by steam +versus manual labour--had never before been witnessed. +The energetic action of the steam hammer, sitting on the shoulders of +the pile high up aloft, and following it suddenly down, the rapidly +hammered blows keeping time with the flashing out of "the waste steam +at the end of each stroke, was indeed a remarkable sight. When my pile +was driven, the hammer-block and guide case were speedily re-hoisted by +the small engine that did all the labouring and locomotive work of the +machine; the steam hammer portion of which was then lowered on to the +shoulders of the next pile in succession. Again it set to work. +At this the spectators crowding about in boats, pronounced their +approval in the usual British style of "three cheers!" +My new pile-driver was thus acknowledged as another triumphant proof of +the power of steam. + +The whole of the piles for this great work were speedily driven in. +The wall was constructed, and the docks were completed in an unusually +short time. The success of my pile-driver was followed by numerous +orders. It was used for driving the immense piles required for the +High Level Bridge at Newcastle, the great Border Bridge at +Berwick-upon-tweed, the Docks at Tynemouth, the Docks at Birkenhead, +the Docks at Grimsby, the new Westminster Bridge, the great bridge at +Kief in Russia, the bridge at Petersburg, the forts at Cronstadt, +the Embarrage of the Nile, at Yokohama in Japan, and at other places. +It enabled a solid foundation to be laid for the enormous +superstructures erected over them, and thus contributed to the +permanence of many important undertakings. + +The mechanical principles on which the efficiency of the steam +pile-driver chiefly depends are as simple as I believe they are +entirely novel and original. The shoulder of the pile acts as the sole +supporter of the ponderous mass of the hammer-block, cylinder, +and guide-box. This heavy weight acts as a predisposing agency to +force the pile down, while the momentum given by the repeated fall of +the hammer, at eighty blows the minute, brings the constant dead weight +into full action. I am not aware of any other machine in which such a +combination of mechanical forces is employed. + +Another very effective detail consisted in employing the waste steam in +the upper part of the cylinder for the purpose of acting as a buffer to +resist any undue length of the upward stroke of the piston. +But for this the cylinder covers might have been knocked off. +The elastic buffer of waste steam also acted as a help to the downward +blow of the hammer-block. The simplicity and effectiveness of these +arrangements form--if I may be allowed to say so--a happy +illustration of my "Definition of Engineering," the application of +common sense in the use of materials. + +The folding-up steam pipe with which the steam was conveyed from the +boiler to the cylinder at all heights, and the way in which the folding +joints accommodated themselves to the varying height of the cylinder, +was another of my happy thoughts. In fact, this invention, like most +others, was the result of a succession of happy thoughts. +The machine in its entirety was the result of a number of common-sense +contrivances, such as I generally delight in. At all events, this most +effective and novel machine was a special favourite with me. + +I may mention, before concluding this branch of my subject, +that pile-driving had before been conducted on what I might term the +artillery or cannon-ball principle. A small mass of iron was drawn +slowly up, and suddenly let down on the head of the pile at a high +velocity. This was destructive, not impulsive action. Sometimes the +pile was shivered into splinters, without driving it into the soil; +in many cases the head of the pile was shattered into matches, and this +in spite of a hoop of iron about it to keep the layers of wood +together. Yet the whole was soon beat into a sort of brush. +Indeed, a great portion of the men's time was consumed in "reheading" +the piles. On the contrary, I employed great mass and moderate +velocity. The fall of the steam hammer-block was only three or four +feet, but it went on at eighty blows the minute, and the soil into +which the pile was driven never had time to grip or thrust it up-- +an impediment well known to ordinary pile-drivers. At the end of the +driving by my steam hammer, the top of the pile was always found neat +and smooth, indeed more so than when the driving began. + +I may again revert to my interview with the Lords of the Admiralty on +the occasion of my first meeting them at Devonport. I was residing at +the hotel where they usually took up their quarters while making their +annual visitation of the dockyard. I was honoured with an invitation +to confer with Sir George Cockburn, Mr. Sidney Herbert, and Captain +Brandreth on a subject of considerable importance; namely, the proving +of chain cables and anchors required for the Royal Navy. The question +was mooted as to whether or not some permanent injury was done to both +by the test strains to which they were submitted before being put on +board ship. This was a subject of vital importance. The members of +the Board requested me to act as one of a committee to inquire into the +subject. I felt much gratified by the invitation and gladly accepted +it. + +On discussing the subject with these gentlemen that evening, I found +that Sir George Cockburn entertained an ingenious theory in support of +his apprehensions as the effect of "over-proof" straining of cables and +anchors. It was that they were originally in the condition of a strong +man who had to lift some heavy weight, requiring him to exert his +muscular strength to the utmost; and, although he might perform the +feat, it was at the cost of a permanent injury, and that he might never +be able to lift the same weight again. This, however true it might be +with regard to flesh and bone structures, was scarcely true with +respect to mechanical agencies. I proposed a simple experiment with +chain cables, which, it occurred to me, would show quite a different +result--namely, that the capability of resisting the severest +proof-strain would rise rather than fall at each successive proof of +the same chain cable. + +To test the correctness of my supposition, we had a first-class chain +cable put into the proof machine,and subjected it to such a strain as +to break it again and again, until at last it was divided almost into +single links. As I expected, the proof or breaking strain kept rising +and rising as each successive remaining portion of the cable was torn +asunder, thus showing that no injury to the natural tenacity of the +chain had resulted from the increased proofs to which it had been +subjected, and that the last broken links had been much more resisting +than the first. The same class of demonstrative experiments was made +with anchors, and other wrought-iron work used in the service. +The Admiralty officers were much gratified with the result, as removing +a groundless but very natural apprehension, heightened, no doubt, +by the suggestions that had been made to the Admiralty, that their +standard proof strain was not only too high in itself, but produced +permanent damage to what at the outset was of the toughest iron. +My system of continued proof-straining was, in fact, another +exemplification of the "Survival of the Fittest"! + +A very interesting truth came out in the course of our experiments. +It was that the chief cause of failure in the links of chain cables +arose, not so much from their want of tenacity, or from the quality of +the iron, but from some defective welding in the making of the links. +To get at this truth, many excellent cables as received from the +contractors, as well as veteran ones that had held great ships riding +at anchor in terrible gales, were pulled asunder link by link by an +intentional destructive strain by the proving machine. +An exact account was taken of the nature of the fracture of each. +The result was that in eight cases out of ten, the fracture was found +to result from a defectively welded part of the chain-link. +The practically trained eye could see the scoria which indicates the +defective welding. Though long unseen, it was betrayed at once when +the link was torn open by the proof strain. + +My services on this committee proved a source of great enjoyment to me. +I had frequent occasion to visit the dockyards and workshops, +accompanied by Captain Brandreth, surveyor-general of the Admiralty +landworks,Mr. Thomas Lloyd, engineer-in-chief of the Admiralty, and +Mr. Jeremiah Owen, chief of the metal material required in the +equipment of the navy I was requested to suggest any improvement in the +workshops that I thought would add to the efficiency of the department; +and I trust that my recommendations proved of practical good to the +service. At the same time, I have reason to know that many of the +recommendations of the committee, though cordially acknowledged by the +higher powers, were by a sort of passive resistance practically +shelved. + +I was much amused, when I first went to Devonport dockyard, to notice +the punctilious observance of forms and ceremonies with respect to the +various positions of officials--from the admiral-superintendent down +the official grades of dignity, to the foremen of departments, +and so on. I did not care for all this panjandrum of punctiliousness, +but was, I hope, civil and chatty with everybody. I had a good word +for the man as well as for the foreman. I received some kind and +good-natured hints as to the relative official superiority that +prevailed in the departments, and made out a scale or list of the +various strata accordingly. This gamut of eminence was of use to me in +my dealings with dockyard officials. I was enabled to mind my p's and +q's in communicating with them. + +The first Sunday that I spent at Devonport I went to the dockyard +church--the church appointed for officials and men employed by the +Government. The seats were appointed in the order of rank, +employments, and rate of pay. The rows of seats were all marked with +the class of employers that were expected to sit in them. Labourers +were near the door. The others were in successive rows forward, +until the pew of the "Admiral Superintendent," next the Altar rails, +was reached. I took my seat among the "artificers," being of that +order. On coming out of church the master-attendant, next in dignity to +the admiral-superintendent, came up to me to say how distressed he was +to see me "among the artificers," and begged me in future to use his +seat. No doubt this was kindly intended, and I thanked him for his +courtesy. Nevertheless I kept to my class of artificers. +I did not like the "breest o' the laft'"* + [footnote... +The breest o' the laft is the seat of dignity. The best places in +churches are occupied by "superior" people. In Scotland the chief men +--the Provosts, Bailies, and Councillors--have a seat appropriated to +them in the front part of the gallery, generally opposite the minister. +That is "the breest o' the laft." +The same principle pervades society generally. + ...] +principle. No doubt the love of distinction, within reasonable limits, +is a great social prime mover; but at Devonport, with the splitting up +into ranks, even amongst workmen, I found it simply amusing, especially +when introduced into a church. + +I afterwards met with several veterans in the service of the Admiralty, +who are well served by such experienced and well-selected men. +It is the schemers and the satellites who haunt the contractors that +are the vermin of dockyards. I gave them all a very wide berth. +But worst of all are the men who get their employment through +parliamentary influence. They are a detestable set. They always have +some "grievance" to pester people about. I hope things are better now. + +I may add, with respect to the steam hammer pile-driving machines, +that I received an order for two of them from Mohammed Ali, the Pasha +of Egypt. These were required for driving the piles in that great work +--the barrage of the Nile near Cairo. The good services of these +machines so pleased the Pasha that he requested us to receive three +selected Arab men into our works. He asked that they should have the +opportunity of observing the machinery processes and the system of +management of an English engineering factory. The object of the Pasha +was that the men should return to Egypt and there establish an engine +manufactory, so as to render him in a measure independent of foreign +help. For British workmen, when imported into Egypt, had a great +tendency to degenerate when removed from the wholesome stimulus to +exertion in competition with their fellows. + +My firm had no objection to the introduction of the Arab workmen. +Accordingly, one day we received a visit from an excellent Egyptian +officer, Edim Bey, accompanied by his secretary Rushdi Effendi, +who spoke English fluently. He thus made our interview with the Bey +easy and agreeable. He conveyed to us, in the most courteous manner, +the wishes of the Pasha; and the three workmen were at once received. +Every opportunity was given them to observe and understand the works +going forward. They were intelligent-looking young men, about +twenty-five years of age. One of them was especially bright looking, +quick in the expression of his eyes, and active in his manner, +His name was Affiffi Lalli; the names of the others I forget. + +These young men were placed under charge of the foremen of the +departments that each fancied to be most to his taste. Affiffi was +placed in the fitting department, in which skilful manipulation was +required. He exhibited remarkable aptitude, and was soon able to hold +his own alongside of our best workmen. Another was set to the turning +department, and did fairly well. The third was placed in the foundry, +where he soon became efficient in moulding and casting brass and iron +work. He lent a hand all round, and picked up a real practical +knowledge of the various work in his department. During their sojourn +in our works they became friendly with their colleagues; and in fact +became quite favourites with the men, who were always willing to help +them. But Affiffi Lalli was regarded as the genius of the trio. +He showed a marked and intelligent aptitude for acquiring technical +skill in all the branches of our business. + +After remaining with us for about four years they were ready to return +to Cairo, and show what they had learned in practical and technical +mechanical knowledge during their stay in England. The three Arab +workmen were placed in their suitable departments in the Pasha's work +shops. But such was the natural energy of Affiffi, that when he was +set to work beside the slow, dilatory, and stupid native workmen, +he became greatly irritated. The contrast between the active energetic +movements which he had seen at the Bridgewater Foundry and the +ineffective, blundering, and untechnical work of his fellows was such +that he could not stand it any longer. So one fine day he disappeared +from the works, took refuge on board a British steamer, and at the risk +of his neck made his way back to the Bridgewater Foundry! + +As we were reluctant to take back a man who had escaped from the +Pasha's employment--excellent workman though he was--we declined to +employ him. But I gave Affiffi a note of introduction to Boulton and +Watt of Soho, Birmingham, and there he was employed. He afterwards +passed into other firms, and having employed his skill in making some +needle machinery at Redditch, he settled down there. He married a +Warwickshire lass, and had a family--half Arab, half English-- +and has now a thriving foundry and engineer workshop of his own. +This little narrative shows that the Arab has still much of the +wonderful energy and skill that once made the Moors masters of a large +part of South-Western Europe. + +We had many visitors at the foundry--from London, +from the manufacturing districts, and from foreign countries. +One day a young gentleman presented a letter from Michael Faraday, +dated "Royal Institution, 29th May 1847," requesting me to pay him some +attention and show him round the works. I did so with all my heart, +and wrote to Mr. Faraday intimating how much pleasure it gave me to +serve him in any respect. I cannot refrain from giving his answer. +He said: + +"MY DEAR SIR--That you should both show kindness to the bearer of my +letter, and prove that you did so with pleasure by writing me a letter +in return, was indeed more than I ought or could have expected; +but it was very gratifying and pleasant to my mind. I only wish that +the circumstances of my life were such as to enable me to take +advantage of such goodwill on your part, and to be more in your company +and conversation than is at present possible. + +"I could imagine great pleasure from such a condition of things; +but though our desires, and even our hopes at times spread out +beforehand over a large extent, it is wonderful how, as the future +becomes the present, the circumstances that surround us limit the +sphere to which our real life is circumscribed If ever I come your way +I hope to see your face; and the hope is pleasant, though the reality +may never arrive. + +"You tell me of the glorious work of your pile-driver, and it must be +indeed a great pleasure to witness the result. Is it not Shakespeare +who says, 'The pleasure we delight in physics pain'? In all your +fatigue and labour you must have this pleasure in abundance, and a most +delightful and healthy enjoyment it is. I shall rejoice to see some +day a blow of the driver and a tap of the hammer. + +"You speak of some experiments on hardening and tempering steel in +which we can help you. I hope when you do come to town you will let us +have the pleasure of doing so. Our apparatus, such as it is, shall be +entirely at your service. I made, a long while ago, a few such +experiments on steel wire, but could eliminate no distinct or peculiar +results. You will know how to look at things, and at your hand I +should expect much. + +"Here we are just lecturing away, and I am too tired to attempt +anything, much less to do anything just now; but the goodwill of such +men as you is a great stimulus, and will, I trust even with me, +produce something else praiseworthy. + +Ever, my dear Nasmyth, yours most truly, M. FARADAY." + + +CHAPTER 16. Nuremberg--St. Petersburg--Dannemora. + +In the autumn of 1842 I had occasion to make a journey to Nuremberg in +company with my partner Mr. Gaskell. We had been invited to a +conference with the directors of the Nuremberg and Munich Railroad as +to the supply of locomotives for working their line. As this was +rather an important and extensive transaction, we thought it better not +to trust to correspondence, but to see the directors on the spot. +We found that there were several riskful conditions attached to the +proposed contract, which we considered it imprudent to agree to. +We had afterwards good reason to feel satisfied that we had not yielded +to the very tempting commercial blandishments that were offered to us, +but that we refrained from undertaking an order that required so many +important modifications. + +Nevertheless, I was exceedingly delighted with the appearance of the +city of Nuremberg. It carries one back to the mediaeval times! +The architecture, even of the ordinary houses, is excellent. +St. Lawrence, St. Sebald's, and the Frauenkirche, are splendid specimens +of Gothic design. The city is surrounded by old walls and turrets, +by ramparts and bastions, enclosed by a ditch faced with masonry. +Very few cities have so well escaped the storm of war and sieges in the +Middle Ages, and even in modern times. Everything has been carefully +preserved, and many of the best houses are still inhabited by the +families whose forefathers originally constructed them. But "progress" +is beginning to affect Nuremberg. It is the centre of railways; +buildings are extending in all directions; tram-cars are running in the +streets; and before long, I fear, the ditch will be filled up, +the surrounding picturesque walls and towers demolished, and the city +thrown open to the surrounding country. + +I visited the house of Albert Durer, one of the greatest artists who +ever lived. He was a man of universal genius--a painter, sculptor, +engraver, mathematician, and engineer. He was to Germany what Leonardo +da Vinci was to Italy. His house is wonderfully preserved. +You see his entrance hall, his exhibition room, his bedroom, +his studio, and the opening into which his wife--that veritable Xantippe +--thrust the food that was to sustain him during his solitary hours of +labour. I saw his grave, too, in the old churchyard beyond the +Thiergarten gate. I saw the bronze plate commemorating the day of his +death. "Emigravit 8 idus Aprilis 1528." "Emigravit" only, for the true +artist never dies. Hans Sachs's grave is there too--the great +Reformation poet of Luther's time. + +Adam Krafft must have been a great sculptor, though his name is little +known out of Nuremberg. Perhaps his finest work is in St. Lawrence +Cathedral--the Sacramentshauslein, or the repository for the sacred +wafer--a graceful tapering stone spire of florid Gothic open work, +more than sixty feet high, which stands at the opening of the right +transept. Its construction and decoration occupied the sculptor and +his two apprentices no less than five years; and all that he received +for his hard labour and skilful work was 770 gulden, or about #80 +sterling. No wonder that he died in the deepest distress. +St. Sebald's and the Frauenkirche also contain numerous specimens of +his admirable work. + +In the course of the following year (1843) it was necessary for me to +make a journey to St. Petersburg. My object was to endeavour to +obtain an order for a portion of the locomotives required for working +the line between that city and Moscow. The railway had been +constructed under the engineership of Major Whistler, father of the +well-known artist; and it was shortly about to be opened. It appeared +that the Emperor Nicholas was desirous of securing a home supply of +locomotives, and that, like a wise monarch, he wished to employ his own +subjects rather than foreigners in producing them. No one could object +to this. + +The English locomotive manufacturers were not aware of the Emperor's +intention. When I arrived in the city I expected an order for +locomotives. The representatives of the principal English firms were +there like myself; they, too, expected a share of the order. +It so happened that at the table d'hote dinner I sat near a very +intelligent American, with whom I soon became intimate. He told me +that he was very well acquainted with Major Whistler, and offered to +introduce me to him. By all means! There is no thing like friendly +feelings in matters of business. + +The Major gave me a frank and cordial reception, and informed me of the +position of affairs. The Emperor, he said, was desirous of training a +class of Russian mechanics to supply not only the locomotives but to +keep them constantly in repair. He could not solely depend upon +foreign artisans for the latter purpose. The locomotives must be made +in Russia. The Emperor had given up the extensive premises of the +Imperial China Manufactory, which were to be devoted to the manufacture +of engines. + +The Major appointed Messrs. Eastwick, Harrison, and Wynants, to supply +the entire mechanical plant of the railway. I saw that it would be of +no use to apply for any order for locomotives; but I offered to do all +that I could to supply the necessary details. In the course of a few +days I was introduced to Joseph Harrison, the chief mechanic of the +firm; and I then entered into a friendship which proved long and +lasting. He gave me a large order for boilers, and for detail parts of +the Moscow engines--all of which helped him forward in the completion +of the locomotives. We also supplied many of our special machine tools, +without which engines could not then be very satisfactorily made or +kept in repair. In this way I was in all respects highly remunerated +for my journey. + +The enjoyment of my visit to St. Petersburg was much enhanced by +frequent visits to my much valued friend General Alexander Wilson. +He was a native of Edinburgh, and delighted to enjoy cracks with me +upon subjects of mutual interest. His sister, who kept house for him, +joined in our conversation. She had been married to the Emperor Paul's +physician, who was also a Scotsman, and was able to narrate many +terrible events in relation to Russian Court affairs. The General had +worked his way upwards, like the rest of us. During the principal part +of his life he had superintended the great mechanical establishments at +Alexandrosky and Colpenha, where about 3000 operatives were employed. +These establishments were originally founded by the Empress Catherine +for the purpose of creating a native manufacturing population capable +of carrying on textile and mechanical works of all kinds. +The sail-cloth for the Russian navy was manufactured at Alexandrosky by +excellent machinery. Cotton fabrics were also manufactured, as well as +playing cards, which were a Crown monopoly. The great establishment at +Colpenha consisted of a foundry, a machine manufactory, and a mint-- +where the copper money of the empire was coined. General Wilson was +the directing chief officer of all these establishments. + +Through him I had the happiness of being introduced to General Greg, +son of the great admiral who shed such honour on the Russian flag +during the reign of the Empress Catherine. He was then well advanced +in years, but full of keen intelligence and devoted to astronomical +pursuits. He was in a great measure the founder of the Imperial +Observatory at Pulkowa, situated on an appropriate eminence about eight +miles from St. Petersburg. The observatory was furnished under his +directions with the most magnificent astronomical instruments. +I had the honour to be introduced by him to the elder Struve, whose +astronomical labours procured him a well-earned reputation throughout +Europe. I had the rare happiness of spending some nights with Struve, +when he showed me the wonderful capabilities of his fine instruments. +The observatory is quite imperial in its arrangement and management, +and was supported in the most liberal manner by the Emperor Nicholas. +Indeed, it is a perfect example of what so noble an establishment +should be. + +Struve most kindly invited me to come whenever the state of the weather +permitted him to show forth the wonderful perfection of his +instruments,--a rare chance, which I seized every opportunity of +enjoying. It was quite a picture to see the keen interest and intense +enjoyment with which the profound astronomer would seat himself at his +instrument and pick out some exquisite test objects, such as the double +stars in Virgo, Cygnus, or Ursa Major. The beautiful order and +neatness with which the instruments were kept in their magnificent +appropriate apartments, each having its appropriate observer proceeding +quietly with his allotted special work, with nothing to break the +silence but the "tick, tack!" of the sidereal clock--this was indeed +a most impressive sight! And the kindly companionable manner of the +great master of the establishment was in all respects in harmony with +the astronomical work which he conducted in this great Temple of the +Universe! + +Through my friendship with General Wilson I was enabled to extend my +acquaintance with many of my countrymen who had been long settled at +St. Petersburg in connection with commercial affairs. I enjoyed their +kind hospitality, and soon found myself quite at home amongst them. +I remained in the city for about two months. During that time I was +constantly about. The shops, the streets, the houses, the museums, +were objects of great interest. The view of the magnificent buildings +along the sides of the quay is very imposing. Looking from the front +of the statue of Peter the Great you observe the long facade of the +Admiralty, the column of Alexander, the Winter Palace, and other public +buildings. The Neva flows in front of them in a massive volume of pure +water. On an island opposite stands the citadel. The whole presents a +coup d'oeil of unexampled architectural magnificence. + +I was much interested by the shops and their signboards. The latter +were fixed all over the fronts of the shops, and contained a +delineation of the goods sold within. There was no necessity for +reading. The pictorial portraits told their own tale. +They were admirable specimens of what is called still-life pictures; +not only as regards the drawing and colouring of each object, but with +respect to the grouping, which was in most cases artistic and natural. +Two reasons were given me for this style of artistic sign-painting: +one was that many of the people could not read the written words +defining the articles sold within; and the other was that the severe +and long-continued frosts of the St. Petersburg winter rendered large +shop windows impossible for the proper display of the goods. +Hence the small shop-windows to keep out the cold, and the large +painted signboards to display the articles sold inside. + +I was also greatly pleased with the manner in which the Russians employ +ivy in screening their windows during summer. Ivy is a beautiful +plant, and is capable of forming a most elegant window-screen. +Nothing can be more beautiful than to look through green leaves. +Nearly every window of the ground flat of the houses in St. Petersburg +is thus screened. The neat manner in which the ivy plants are trained +over ornamental forms of cane is quite a study in its way. And though +the ivy is very common, yet a common thing, being a thing of beauty, +may be a "joy for ever." In the finer and most important mansions, +the sides of the flight of wide steps that lead up to the reception +rooms were beautifully decorated by oleander plants, growing in great +vigour, with their fine flowers as fresh as if in a carefully-kept +conservatory. Other plants of an ornamental kind were mixed with the +oleander, but the latter appeared to be the favourite.* + [footnote... +While passing through Lubeck on my way out to St. Petersburg I was much +struck with the taste for flower-plants displayed by the people of that +old-world city. The inner side of the lower house windows were all +beautifully decorated with flowers, which were evidently well cared +for. Some of the windows were almost made up with flowers. +Perhaps the long-continued winter of these parts has caused the people +to study and practise within-door culture with such marked success. +It is a most elegant pursuit, and should be cultivated everywhere. +It is thoroughly in character with the exquisite cleanliness and +tidiness of the houses at Lubeck. + ...] + +About the end of my visit I was about to call upon one of my customers +with reference to my machine tools; for though I pursued pleasure at +occasional times, I never lost sight of business. It was a very dull +day, and the streets about the Winter Palace were almost deserted. +I was sitting in my drosky with my roll of drawings resting on my thigh +--somewhat in the style of a commander-in-chief as represented in the +old pictures--when I noticed a drosky coming out of the gates of the +Winter Palace. I observed that it contained a noble-looking officer in +a blue military cloak sitting behind his drosky driver. My driver +instantly took off his hat, and I, quickly following his example, +took off my hat and bowed gracefully, keeping my extended hand on the +level of my head--a real royal salute. The person was no other than +the Emperor Nicholas! He fixed his pecuniarily fine eyes upon me and +gave me one of the grandest military salutes, accompanied, as I thought, +with a kindly smile from his magnificent eyes as he passed close by me. + +As I had been lunching with a Dutch engineer about half an hour before, +and had a glass or two of champagne, this may have had something to do +with my daring to give the Emperor, in his own capital, what I was +afterwards told was not a bow but a brotherly recognition between +potentates, and only by royal usage allowed to be so given,--namely, +swaying off the hat at arm's length level with the head, so as to infer +royal equality, or something of that sort. When I narrated to some +Russian friends what I had done, they told me that I need not be +surprised if I received a visit from the chief of police next morning +for my daring to salute the Emperor in such a style. But the Emperor +was doubtless more amused than offended, and I never received the +expected visit. + +To anticipate a little. Soon afterwards the Emperor sent me a present +of a magnificent diamond ring through his ambassador in England-- +Baron Brunnow. It was also accompanied, as the Baron informed me, +with the Emperor's most gracious thanks for the manner in which my +steam hammer had driven the piles for his new forts at Cronstadt, which +he had seen in full action. The steam-hammer pile-driver had also been +used for driving the piles of the great bridge at Kieff. +I next received an order for one of my largest steam hammers for the +Imperial Arsenal, and it was followed by many more. It is a singular +fact, as showing the readiness of the Russian and other foreign +Governments to adopt at an early date any mechanical improvement of +ascertained utility, that I supplied steam hammers to the Russian +Government twelve months before our Admiralty availed themselves of its +energetic action. The French were the first to adopt the invention; +thanks to the insight of M. Bourdon, who had the opportunity of +recognising its importance. + +Before I leave this part of my subject, I must not omit to mention my +friend Mr. Francis Baird, the zealous son of Sir Charles Baird. +The latter was among the first to establish iron foundries and engine +works at St. Petersburg. At the time of my visit he was far advanced +in years, and unable to attend personally to the very large business +which he had established. But he was nevertheless full of geniality. +He greatly enjoyed the long conversations which he had with me about +his friends in Scotland, many of whom I knew. He also told me about +the persons in his employment. He said that the workmen were all +serfs, or the sons of serfs. The Empress Catherine had given them to +him for the purpose of being trained in his engine foundry, and in his +sugar refinery, which was another part of the business. I had rarely +seen a more faithful and zealous set of workmen than these Russian +serfs. They were able and skilful, and attached to their employers by +some deeper and stronger tie than that of mere money wages. +Indeed, they were treated by Sir Charles Baird and his son with the +kindest and most paternal care, and they duly repaid their attachment +by their zeal in his service and the excellent quality of their work. + +The most important business in hand at the time of my visit to the +foundry was the moulding and casting of the magnificent bronze capitals +of the grand portico of the Izak Church. This building is one of the +finest in St. Petersburg. It is of grand proportions,--simple, +noble, and massive. It is built upon a forest of piles. The walls of +the interior are covered with marble. The malachite columns for the +screen are fifty feet high, and exceed everything that has yet been +done in that beautiful mineral. The great dome is of iron covered +with gilt copper. This, as well as the Corinthian capitals of bronze, +was manufactured at the foundry of the Bairds. The tympanum of the +four great porticos consisted of colossal groups of alto-relievo +figures, many of which were all but entirely detached from the +background. It was a kind of foundry work of the highest order, +all the details and processes requiring the greatest care. +To my surprise every one engaged in this gigantic and refined metal +work was a serf. The full-sized plaster models which they used in +moulding were executed by a resident French sculptor. He was a true +artist, and of the highest order. But to see the skilful manner in +which these native workmen, drawn from the staff of the Bairds' +ordinary foundry workers, performed their duties, was truly surprising. +It would make our best bronze statuary founders wince to be asked to +execute such work. Judging from what I saw of the Russian workmen in +this instance, I should say that Russia has a grand future before it. + +Having satisfactorily completed all my business arrangements in +St. Petersburg, I prepared to set out homewards. But as I had some +business to transact at Stockholm and Copenhagen I resolved to visit +those cities. I left St. Petersburg for Stockholm by a small steamer, +which touched at Helsingfors and Abo, both in Finland. The weather was +beautiful. Clear blue shy and bright sunshine by day, and the light +prolonged far into the night. Even in September the duration of the +sunshine is so great and the night so short that the air has scarcely +time to cool till it gets heated again by the bright morning rays. +Even at twelve at night the sun dips but a little beneath the bright +horizon on the north. The night is so bright in the Abo latitude that +one can read the smallest print. + +Nothing can be more beautiful than the charming scenery we passed +through in our tortuous voyage to Stockholm. We threaded between the +granite islands which crowd the shores of the Baltic. They are covered +with pines, which descend to the water's edge. We swept them with our +paddle-boxes, and dipped their bright green fronds into the perfectly +clear sea. For about two days our course lay through those beautiful +small islands. It seemed like a voyage through fairyland. +And it continued in this exquisite tranquil way until we reached that +crowning feature of all--the magnificent city of Stockholm, sleeping, +as it were, on the waters of the Malar Lake, and surrounded by noble +mountains clad with pines. With the exception of Edinburgh, Genoa, +and Naples, I had never beheld so noble a city with such magnificent +surroundings. + +I spent but a short time in Stockholm, but quite sufficient to enable +me to see much that was grandly beautiful in its neighbourhood. +Lakes, rocks, and noble trees abounded, and exquisite residences peeped +out through the woods, giving evidences of high civilisation. Elegance +of taste and perfect domestic arrangements supplied every form of +rational comfort and enjoyment. My old friend Sir John Ross, of Arctic +celebrity, was settled at Stockholm as chief consul for Her Majesty. +He introduced me to several of the leading English merchants, from whom +I received much kind attention. Mr. Erskine invited me to spend a day +or two at his beautiful villa in the neighbourhood. It was situated on +the side of a mountain, and overlooked a lake that reminded me very +much of Loch Katrine. Fine timber grew about, in almost inaccessible +places, on the tops of precipices, and in shelves and clefts among the +rocks. The most important result of my visit was an introduction to +Baron Tam, the proprietor and chief director of the great Dannemora +Iron Mine. + +I was at once diverted for a time from my voyage to Copenhagen. +I was most desirous of seeing in person this celebrated mine. +The baron most willingly furnished me with several letters of +introduction to his managers, and I proceeded to Dannemora by way of +Upsala. I was much interested by this city, by its cathedral, +containing the tomb of Gustavas Vasa, and by its many historical +associations. But I was still more impressed by Old Upsala, about +three miles distant. This is a place of great antiquity. It is only a +little hamlet now, though at one time it must have been the centre of a +large population. The old granite church was probably at one time a +pagan temple. Outside, and apart from it, is a wooden bell-tower, +erected in comparatively modem times. In a wooden box inside the +church is a wooden painted god, a most unlikely figure to worship. +And yet the Swedes in remote parts of the country carefully preserve +their antique wooden gods. + +The great sacrifices to Odin were made at Old Upsala. +Outside the church, in a row, are three great mounds of earth, erected +in commemoration of Odin, Thor, and Freia--hence our Wednesday, +Thursday, and Friday. These mounds, of about 60 feet high and 232 feet +in diameter, were in former times used as burying-places for the great +and valiant. I went into a cottage near the tumuli, and drank a bumper +of mead to the memory of Thor from a very antique wooden vessel. +I made an especial reverential obeisance to Thor, because I had a great +respect for him as being the great Hammerman, and one of our craft,-- +the Scandinavian Vulcan. + +I drove back to Upsala, and remained there for the night. +It is a sleepy silent place. The only sound I heard was the voice of +the watchman calling out the small hours of the morning from his +station on the summit of the cathedral tower. As the place is for the +most part built of wood, this precaution in the shape of a watchman who +can see all points of the city is a necessary one in case of fire. + +Next morning I hired a small sort of gig of a very primitive +construction, with a boy for driver. His duty was to carry me to the +next post-house, and there leave me to be carried forward by another +similar conveyance. But the pony No. 2 was about a mile off, occupied +in drawing a plough, so that I had to wait until the job was over. +In about an hour or so I was again under weigh. And so on da capo, +until about six in the evening, when I found myself within sight of the +great mine. The post-house where I was set down was an inn, though +without a signboard. The landlady was a bright, cheery, jolly woman. +She could not speak a word of English, nor I a word of Dannemora +Swedish. I was very thirsty and hungry, and wanted something to eat. +How was I to communicate my wishes to the landlady? I resorted, +as I often did, to the universal language of the pencil. I took out my +sketch-book, and in a few seconds made a sketch of a table, with a dish +of smoking meat upon it, a bottle and a glass, a knife and fork, +a loaf, a saltcellar, and a corkscrew. She looked at the drawing and +gave a hearty laugh. She nodded pleasantly, showing that she clearly +understood what I wanted. She asked me for the sketch, and went into +the back garden to show it to her husband, who inspected it with great +delight. I went out and looked about the place, which was very +picturesque. After a short time, the landlady came to the door and +beckoned me in, and I found spread out on the table everything that I +desired--a broiled chicken, smoking hot from the gridiron, a bottle +of capital home-brewed ale, and all the et ceteras of an excellent +repast. I made use of my pencil in many ways. I always found that a +sketch was more useful than a blundering sentence. Besides, +it generally created a sympathy between me and my entertainers. + +[Image] The order for dinner + +My visit to the Dannemora Mine at Osterby was one of peculiar interest. +I may in the first place say that the immense collection of iron ore at +that point has been the result of the upheaval of a vast volume of +molten igneous ore, which has been injected into the rock, or deposited +in masses under the crust of the earth. In some cases the quarried ore +yields from 50 to 70, and even as much as 90 per cent of iron. +The Dannemora Mine is a vast quarry open to the sky. When you come near +it the place looks like a vast deep pit, with an unfathomable bottom. +Ghostlike, weird-looking pinnacles of rocks stand out from its profound +depths; but beyond these you see nothing but wreaths of smoke curling +up from below. The tortuous chasm in the earth, caused by the quarries +beneath, is about half a mile long, and about a thousand feet wide. + +[Image] Dannemora iron mine. After a drawing by James Nasmyth. + +The first process of the workmen in the quarries below is devoted to +breaking into small fragments the great masses of ore scattered about +by the previous night's explosions. These are sent to the surface in +great tubs attached to wire ropes, which are drawn up by gins worked by +horses. Other miners are engaged in boring blast holes in the ore, +which displays itself in great wide veins in the granite sides of the +vast chasm. These blast holes are charged with gunpowder, each with a +match attached. At the end of the day the greater number of the miners +are drawn up in the cages or tubs, while a few are left below to light +the slow-burning matches attached to about a hundred charged bore +holes. The rest of the miners are drawn up, and then begins the +tremendous bombardment. I watched the progress of it from a stage +projecting over the wild-looking yawning gulph. It was grand to hear +the succession of explosions that filled the bottom of the mine far +beneath me. Then the volumes of smoke, through the surface of which +masses of rock were sometimes sent whirling up into the clear blue sky, +and fell back again into the pit below. Such an infernal cannonade I +have never witnessed. In some respects it reminded me of the crater of +Vesuvius, from which such dense clouds of steam and smoke and fire are +thrown up. In the course of the night, the suffocating smoke and +sulphureous gases has time to pass away, and next morning the workmen +were ready to begin their operations as before. + +The ore extracted from this great mine is smelted in blast furnaces +with wood charcoal, and forged into bars. The charcoal is, of course, +entirely free from sulphur. When sent to Sheffield the iron is placed +in fire-brick troughs closely surrounded by powdered charcoal. +After a few days' exposure to red heat, the iron is converted into +splendid steel, which has given such a reputation to that great +manufacturing town. It is also the steel from which the firm of Stubbs +and Company, of Warrington (to which I have already referred), +produce their famous P.S. files. + +After the explosions had ceased at the mine, I went with one of the +managers to see the great Bar forge. It was a picturesque sight to see +the forgemen at work with the tilt hammers under the glowing light of +the furnaces. I inspected the machinery and forge works throughout, +and had thus the opportunity of seeing the whole proceeding, from the +blasting and quarrying of the ore in the mine, the forging and rolling +of the worked iron into their proper lengths, down to the final stamp +or "mark" driven in by the blow of the tilt hammer at the end of each +bar. Having now thoroughly examined everything connected with this +celebrated iron mine, I prepared to set out for Stockholm in the same +way as I had come. To prepare the landlord for my setting out, +I again resorted to my pencil. I made a drawing of the little gig and +pony, with the sun rising, and the hour at which I wished to start. +He understood it in a moment, and next morning the trap was at the door +at the specified time. + +Before I left Stockholm I made a careful and elaborate panoramic sketch +of the city, as a companion to the one I had made of Genoa from the +harbour a year before. I made this one from the summit of the King's +Park, which is the favourite pleasure-ground of the people. +I was ferried across in a little paddle-wheel boat, worked by +Dalecarlian women in their peculiar costumes. The King's Park, +or Djurgard, is doubly beautiful, not only from its panoramic view of +the city, the Malar Lake, and the arm of the Baltic, which comes up to +the Skeppsbron Quay, but also from the magnificent oak trees with which +it is studded. These noble trees, as foreground objects, are perfect +pictures. The masses of rock are grand, and the drives are beautifully +kept. No wonder that the Swedes are so proud of this beautiful park, +for it is the finest in Europe. + +I left Stockholm for Gottenburg by steamer. This is one of the most +picturesque routes in Sweden. First, we passed through the Malar Lake +--one of the most beautiful pieces of water in the world. It contains +no less than fourteen hundred islands, mostly covered with wood. +Of course we did not see one twentieth part of the lake; we only +steamed along its eastern shore for about twenty miles on our way to +Sodertelye, where the Gotha Canal begins. We then reached the small +Maran Lake, and afterwards an arm of the Baltic. We passed numberless +islands and rocks and reached the Slatbacken Fiord, which we entered. +Beautiful scenery surrounds the entrance to the fiord. In the morning, +after rising up the locks between Mariehop and Wenneberga, and passing +through Lakes Roxen and Boren, we found ourselves at Motala, near the +entrance to the Wettern Lake. + +Motala is a place of great importance in the manufacturing industry of +Sweden. When I visited it, the iron-foundry was in charge of +Mr. Caulson, a native of the country. I had known him some years +before in London, and had the highest opinion of his ability as a +constructive engineer. He was surrounded at Motala with everything in +the way of excellently arranged workshops, good machine tools, +as well as abundant employment for them. Indeed, this is the largest +iron-foundry in Sweden, where iron steamers, steam-engines, and rolling +mills are made. From its central position it has a great future before it. + +The steamer crosses the lake to Carlsborg, at the entrance to the fiord +and canal that leads to Lakes Wiken and Wenern. The latter is an +immense lake--in fact, an inland sea. During a great part of the +time we were out of sight of land. At length we reached Wenersborg, +and passed down the Charles Canal. A considerable time is required to +enable the steamer to pass from lock to lock--nine locks in all-- +down to the level of the Gotha River. During that time an opportunity +was afforded us for seeing the famous Trollhatten Falls--a very fine +piece of Nature's workmanship. + +[Image] Part of Trollhatten Falls + +Before leaving the subject of Sweden, I feel that I must say a word or +two about the Swedish people. I admired them exceedingly. +They are tall, fair, good-looking. They are among the most civil and +obliging people that I have ever met. I never encountered a rude word +or a rude look from them. In their homes they are simple and natural. +I liked the pleasing softness of their voices, so sweet and musical-- +"a most excellent thing in woman." There was a natural gentleness in +their deportment. All classes, even the poorest, partook of it. +Their domestic habits are excellent. They are fond of their homes; +and, above all things, they are clean and tidy. They strew the floors +of their ground apartments with spruce pine twigs, which form a natural +carpet as well as give out a sweet balsamic perfume. These are swept +away every morning and replaced with fresh material. + +With their many virtues, the Swedes are a most self-helping people. +They are hard-working and honest, true and straightforward. +In matters of commerce they are men of their word. They are +clear-headed, honest-minded, and keen in their desire for knowledge. +Their natural simple common sense enables them to clear away all +parasitical and traditional rubbish from their minds, and to stand +before us as men of the highest excellence. All happiness and +prosperity to dear old Sweden! + +I set out from Gottenburg to Helsingborg, along the shores of the +Kattegat. From Helsingborg I crossed the Sound by a small steamer to +Elsinore, famous for its connection with Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. +The old dreary looking castle still stands there. From Elsinore I went +to Copenhagen, and occupied myself for a few days in visiting the +wonderful museums. There I saw, in the Northern Antiquities +Collection, the unwritten history of civilisation in the stone, bronze, +and iron tools which have brought the world to what it is now. +This museum is perfectly unrivalled. I saw there the first section of +kitchen-middens--that is, the refuse of oyster shells, fish-bones, +and other stuff thrown out by the ancient inhabitants of the country +after their meals; together with accumulations of rude stone +implements, kelts, arrow-heads, and such like. +Then there were the articles of the Bronze Age, with war trumpets; +the articles of the early Iron Age, which also contain some remarkable +golden war horns. These are followed by the middle Iron Age, +and then by the later Iron Age. This part of the collection is superb. +But it is impossible for me to describe the wonders of the museum. + +I was greatly interested too by the collection of articles at the +Rosenburg Castle. This is the only museum at Copenhagen which is not +free; but the price charged is very small. It contains an extraordinary +collection of royal clothes (what would Sartor Resartus say?), armour, +furniture, drinking vessels, and all manner of personal antiquities +connected with the Kings of Denmark. + +I was especially interested by the collection of royal drinking +vessels, from the earliest, made of wood, down to the latest, +grand gold and silver flagons. What most amused me in respect to these +boozing implements were the pegs that marked the depths down to which +the stalwart Dane was able to swig at a pull one enormous draught of +wine. In some cases the name and date of the achievement of the heavy +drinker was engraved on the flagon to record his feat. +"Take him a peg down" was the ordinary saying, and the words have +become a proverb amongst ourselves. For we unquestionably have derived +a great deal of our drinking capabilities from our ancestors the Danes. +The whole of the museums at Copenhagen are excellent. + +Besides those I have mentioned, are the Ethnographic Museum--the best +of its kind; the Museum of Coins, the most complete I have seen; +the Thorwaldsen Museum; the Mineralogical Museum; the Zoological +Museum, and many more. The custodians are most kind and civil; and +when they see any visitor interested in the collection, they take a +special pleasure in going round with him and pointing out the beauty +and rarity of the articles, imparting at the same time most interesting +information. I wish those melancholy taciturn "staff-in-hand" +attendant custodians of our British Museums could or would follow their +example, and thus aid the chief object of these costly institutions. + +Holding the memory of Tycho Brahe in the highest regard as one of the +great pioneers of astronomy, I was much interested by a contemporary +portrait of him in the Town Hall; but still more so by the remains of +his observatory at the top of the great Round Tower, where he carried +on his careful observations by instruments of his own design and +construction. These, with many additions, he afterwards transported to +the island of Hveen, where the remains of his castle and observatory +are still to be seen; While I was mounting the Round Tower I could not +but think of the footsteps of the great astronomer who has made it +classic ground. + +I left Copenhagen for Hamburg by coach. After passing through the +island of Zealand, I was ferried across to the island of Fyen, and +after that I proceeded along the mainland of Sleswick and Holstein. +I was much pleased with what I saw of the people of these provinces. +Their farmhouses and cottages were wonderfully clean and neat. +The women were all engaged in scrubbing and polishing. I believe I saw +more brass in the shape of bright door-knockers during my journey than +I had seen in all England. Even the brass and iron hoops round the +milk pails, by constant scrubbing, looked like gold and silver. +Every window had its neat dimity curtains edged with snow-white +trimming. The very flower-pots were painted red, to fetch up their +brightness to the general standard. I never saw a more cheerful and +happy-looking people than those whom I observed between Copenhagen and +Hamburg. They seemed to me to be very like the people of England-- +especially in the northern and eastern parts--in their oval faces, +their bright blue eyes, and their light and golden hair, as well as +their active minds and bodies, which enable them to do their work with +hearty cheerful energy. + +I went from Hamburg to Amsterdam by steamer; and after doing a few +days' business I went to take a peep at the fine collections of +pictures there, as well as at the Hague. Then I proceeded to +Rotterdam, and took ship for England by the Batavian steamer. +I reached home safely after my prolonged tour. Everything was going on +well at the Bridgewater Foundry. The seeds which I had sown in the +northern countries of Europe were already springing up plentifully in +orders for machine tools; and the clang of the hammer and the whirl of +the lathes and planing machines were working cheerily on from morning +till night. + + +CHAPTER 17. More about Bridgewater Foundry--Woolwich Arsenal. + +The rapid extension of railways and steam navigation, both at home and +abroad, occasioned a largely increased demand for machinery of all +kinds. Our order-book was always full; and every mechanical workshop +felt the impulse of expanding trade. There was an increased demand for +skilled mechanical labour--a demand that was far in excess of the +supply. Employers began to outbid each other, and wages rapidly rose. +At the same time the disposition to steady exertion on the part of the +workmen began to decline. + +This state of affairs had its usual effect. It increased the demand +for self-acting tools, by which the employers might increase the +productiveness of their factories without having resort to the costly +and untrustworthy method of meeting the demand by increasing the number +of their workmen. Machine tools were found to be of much greater +advantage. They displaced hand-dexterity and muscular force. +They were unfailing in their action. They could not possibly go wrong +in planing and turning, because they were regulated by perfect +self-acting arrangements. They were always ready for work, and never +required a Holiday or a Saint Monday. + +As the Bridgewater Foundry had been so fortunate as to earn for itself +a considerable reputation for mechanical contrivances, the workshops +were always busy. They were crowded with machine tools in full action, +and exhibited to all comers their effectiveness in the most +satisfactory manner, Every facility was afforded to those who desired +to see them at work; and every machine and machine tool that was turned +out became in the hands of its employers the progenitor of a numerous +family. + +Indeed, on many occasions I had the gratification of seeing my +mechanical notions adopted by rival or competitive machine +constructors, often without acknowledgment; though, notwithstanding +this point of honour, there was room enough for all. Though the parent +features were easily recognisable, I esteemed such plagiarisms as a +sort of left-handed compliment to their author. I also regarded them +as a proof that I had hit the mark in so arranging my mechanical +combinations as to cause their general adoption, and many of them +remain unaltered to this day. + +The machine tools when in action did not require a skilled workman to +guide or watch them. All that was necessary to superintend them was a +well-selected labourer. The self-acting machine tools already +possessed the requisite ability to plane, to turn, to polish, and to +execute the work when firmly placed in situ. The work merely required +to be shifted from time to time, and carefully fixed for another action +of the machine. + +Besides selecting clever labourers, I made an extensive use of active +handy boys to superintend the smaller class of self-acting machine +tools. To do this required little exertion of muscular force, +but only observant attention. The machine tools did all the working +(for the thinking had been embodied in them beforehand), and they +turned out all manner of geometrical forms with the utmost correctness. +This sort of training educated the faculties of the lads, and trained +their ideas to the perception of exactness of form, at the same time +that it gave them an intimate acquaintance with the nature of the +materials employed in mechanical structures. The rapidity with which +they thus acquired the efficiency of thoroughly practical mechanics was +surprising. + +As the lads grew in strength they were promoted to the higher classes +of work. We gave to the foreman of each department the right to +recommend to a special rise of wages any lad who showed an extra +intelligent earnestness and assiduity in superintending his machine. +This produced an active spirit of emulation, which not only advanced +their efficiency but relieved the foreman from a source of irritation +in the discharge of his duties. I have already referred to the subject +in a former portion of this narrative; but it cannot be too strongly +urged upon the attention of proprietors of mechanical works. +Besides making first-rate workmen, this method prevents the lads from +getting into habits of workshop dishonesty, i.e. "skulking," and other +annoyances. + +My system of non-binding of apprentices was the "perfect cure," +if I may so speak. All that existed between us was mutual satisfaction +with each other, and that alone proved from first to last in every +respect a perfect bond. + +So completely were the workmen in attendance on self-acting machines +relieved from the necessity of labour, that many of the employers, +to keep the men from falling asleep, allowed them to attend to other +machines within their powers of superintendence. This kept them fully +awake. The workmen cheerfully acquiesced in this arrangement, +as a relief from tedium, and especially when a shilling extra was added +to their wages for each additional machine. All went well for a time, +for men as well as masters. But now came the difficulty. +The system was opposed to the rules of the Trades' Union. +Their committee held that setting one man to superintend more than one +machine was keeping out of employment some other man who ought to be +employed. And yet, at the time that the objection was made, such +persons were not to be had. The increased demand for skilled labour +had employed every spare workman. + +Nevertheless the system, in the eyes of the Union, "must be put down." +The demand was made that every machine must have a Union man to +superintend it, and that he must be paid the full Union regulation +wages. All labourers and lads were to be discharged, and Union men +employed in their places. As the times were good, and the workshops +were full of orders, it was thought by the Union that the time had come +to put the matter to the test. The campaign was opened by the +organisation of a powerful body, entitled "The Amalgamated Society of +Mechanical Engineers." It included every class of workmen employed in +the trade--ironfounders, turners, fitters, erectors, pattern-makers, +and such like. All were invited to make common cause against the +employers. + +In order to make a conspicuous demonstration of their power, +the Council of the Union first attacked the extensive firm of +Platt Brothers, Oldham. The Council sent them a mandate to discharge +all their labourers or other "illegal hands" from their works--all who +were employed in superintending their vast assortment of machinery-- +and to fill their places with "legal mechanics" at the then regulation +wages. The plan of the Union was to attack the employers one by one-- +to call out the hands of one particular workshop until the employers +were subdued and obeyed the commands of the Union; and then to attack +another employer in the same way. The sagacity of this policy very +much resembled that of the ostrich, which hides its head in hole and +thinks it is concealed. The employers knew the drift of the policy, +and took steps to circumvent it. + +A mutual defence association was formed, and a decree was issued that, +unless the demand of the Council against Platt's factory was withdrawn +by a certain day, every employer would at once close his concern. +The Union, nevertheless, stuck to their guns--but only for a time. +A strike took place. The works of some of the most extensive employers +of labour were closed. Everything was paralysed for a time; +the men went about with their hands in their pockets, while the women +and children at home were wanting food. After a few weeks the funds of +the Amalgamated Society became so reduced that the men gradually +retired from the contest. Meanwhile, such concerns as contrived to +keep their workmen in full employment--of whom we were one made use +of the occasion to act on the healthy system of what I have termed +"Free trade in ability." We added, so far as we could, to the number of +intelligent labourers, advanced them to the places which the Unionist +workmen had left at the order of their Council, and thus kept our men +on full wages until the strike was over. This was the last contest I +had with Trades' Unions. One of the results was that I largely +increased the number of self-acting machines, and gave a still greater +amount of employment to my unbound apprentices. I placed myself in an +almost impregnable position, and showed that I could conduct my +business with full activity and increasing prosperity, and at the same +time maintain good-feeling between employed and employer. + +Another important point was this,--that I always took care to make my +foremen comfortable, and consequently loyal. A great part of a man's +success in business consists in his knowledge of character. +It is not so much what he himself does, as what he knows his heads of +departments can do. He must know them intimately, take cognisance of +the leading points of their character, pick and choose from them, +and set them to the work which they can most satisfactorily +superintend. Edward Tootal, of Manchester, said to me long before, +"Never give your men cause to look over the hedge." He meant that I +should never give them any reason for looking for work elsewhere. +It was a wise saying, and I long remembered it. I always endeavoured +to make my men and foremen as satisfied as possible with their work, +as well as with their remuneration. + +I never had any cause to regret that I had struck out an independent +course in managing the Bridgewater Foundry. The works were always +busy. A cheerful sort of contentment and activity pervaded the entire +establishment. Our order-book continued to be filled with the most +satisfactory class of entries. The railway trucks in the yard, +and the canal barges at the wharf, presented a busy scene,-- +showing the influx of raw material and the output of finished work. +This happy state of affairs went on in its regular course without any +special incident worthy of being mentioned. The full and steady influx +of prosperity that had been the result of many years of interesting +toil and cheerful exertion, had caused the place to assume the aspect +of a smoothly working self-acting machine. + +Being blessed with a sound constitution, I was enabled to perform all +my duties with hearty active good-will. And as I had occasional +journeys to make in connection with our affairs and interests, +these formed a very interesting variety in the ordinary course of my +daily work. The intimate and friendly intercourse which I was so +fortunate as to cultivate with the heads of the principal engineering +firms of my time, kept me well posted up in all that was new and +advanced in the way of improvements in mechanical processes. I had at +the same time many pleasant opportunities of making suggestions as to +further improvements, some of which took root and yielded results of no +small importance. These visits to my friends were always acceptable, +if I might judge from the hearty tone of welcome with which I was +generally received. + +I do not know what may be the case in other classes of businesses or +professions, but as regards engineer mechanists and metal workers +generally, there is an earnest and frank intercommunication of ideas-- +an interchange of thoughts and suggestions--which has always been a +source of the highest pleasure to me, and which I have usually found +thoroughly reciprocated. The subjects with which engineers have to +deal are of a wide range, and jealousy in intercommunication is almost +entirely shut out. Many of my friends were special "characters." +For the most part they had made their own way in the world, +like myself. I found among them a great deal of quaint humour. +Their talk was quite unconventional; and yet their remarks were well +worth being treasured up in the memory as things to be thought about +and pondered over. Sometimes they gave the key to the comprehension of +some of the grandest functions in Nature, and an insight into the +operation of those invariable laws which regulate the universe. +For all Nature is, as it were, a grand workshop, ruled over by an ever +present Almighty Master,--of whose perfect designs and works we are +as yet only permitted to obtain hasty and imperfect glimpses. + +To return to my own humbler progress. From an early period of my +efforts as a mechanical engineer, I had been impressed with the great +advantages that would result from the employment of small high-pressure +steam-engines of a simple and compact construction. These, I thought, +might suit the limited means and accommodation of small factories and +workshops where motive power was required. The highly satisfactory +results which followed the employment of steam-engines of this class, +such as I supplied shortly after beginning business in Manchester, +led to a constantly increasing demand for them. They were used for +hoisting in and out the weighty bales of goods from the lofty +Manchester warehouses. They worked the "lifts," and also the pumps of +the powerful hydraulic presses used in packing the bales. + +These small engines were found of service in a variety of ways. +When placed in the lower parts of the building the waste steam was +utilised in warming the various apartments of the house. The steam was +conveyed in iron pipes, and thus obviated the risk of fire which +attended the use of stoves and open fire-grates. I remember being much +pleased with seeing a neat arrangement of a "hot-closet" heated by the +waste steam conveyed from the bottom of the building. This was used +for holding the dinners and teas of the minor clerks and workpeople. +Another enclosed place, heated by waste steam, was used for drying wet +clothes and jackets during rainy weather. Much attention was paid by +the employers to their workpeople in these respects. The former +exhibited a great deal of kindly thoughtfulness. But men and master +were alike. It was a source of the greatest pleasure to me, +when looking round the warehouses and factories, to see the intelligent +steady energy that pervaded every department, from the highest to the +lowest. + +I never lost sight of the importance of extending the use of my small +steam-engine system. It was the most convenient method of applying +steam power to individual machines. Formerly, the power to drive a +machine was derived from a very complicated arrangement of shafting and +gearing brought from a distant engine. But by my system I conveyed the +power to the machine by means of a steam pipe, which enabled the engine +to which it was attached to be driven either fast or slow, or to be +stopped or started, just as occasion required. It might be run while +all the other machines were at rest; or, in the event of a breakdown of +the main engine of the factory, the small engine might still be kept +going or even assist in the repairs of the large one. + +An important feature in this mode of conveying power by means of piping +--in place of gearing and shifting belts and belt pulleys--was the ease +with which the steam could be conveyed into intricate parts of the +building. The pipes which I used were of wrought-iron, similar to +those used in conveying gas. They could be curved to suit any +peculiarity of the situation; and when the pipes were lapped with felt, +or enclosed in wooden troughs filled with sawdust, the loss of heat by +radiation was reduced to a minimum. The loss of power was certainly +much less than in the friction of a long and perhaps tortuous line of +shafting. With steam of 50 lbs. to the inch, a pipe of one-inch bore +will convey sufficient steam to give forth five horse-power at a +distance of two or three hundred feet from the boiler.* + [footnote... +In the case of rambling premises, such as iron shipbuilding yards, +the conveyance of steam by well-protected pipes put underground for the +purpose of driving engines to work punching and plate-shearing machines +(which have to be near at hand when the work is required), has very +great practical advantages. + ...] + +I adopted the same practice in working the refined and complex machines +used in printing coloured patterns on calico. A great variety of +colours has to be transferred by a combination of rollers--each carrying +its proper colour; these are printed on the calico with the utmost +exactness, and result in the complete pattern. My system of having a +separate engine to give motion to these colour-printing machines was +found to be of great service, and its value was recognised by its +speedy and almost universal adoption. Every connection with the main +shaft, with its gearing and belts and pulleys--by which colour-printing +had before been accomplished--was entirely done away with, because each +machine had its own special engine. The former practice had led to +much waste, and the printing was often confused and badly done. +The power was conveyed from a great central steam-engine; the printing +machines were ranged by the side of a long gallery, and by means of a +"clutch" each machine was started at once into action. + +The result of this was a considerable shock to the machine, +and an interference with the relative adjustments of the six or +eight colour rollers, which were often jerked out of their exact +relative adjustment. Then the machines had to be stopped and the +rollers readjusted, and sometimes many yards of calico had been spoiled +before this could be done. + +These difficulties were now entirely removed. When all was adjusted, +the attendant of the print-machine had only to open gradually the steam +admission valve of his engine, and allow it to work the machine gently +at its first off-go; and when all was seen to be acting in perfect +concert, to open the valve further and allow the machine to go at full +speed. The same practice was adopted in slowing off the machine, +so as to allow the attendant to scrutinise the pattern and the position +of the work, or in stopping the machine altogether. So satisfactory +were the results of the application of this mode of driving calico +printing machines, that it was adopted for the like processes as +applied to other textile fabrics; and it is now, I believe, universally +applied at home as well as abroad. I may also add that the waste +steam, as it issued from the engine after performing its mechanical +duty there, was utilised in a most effective manner by heating a series +of steam-tight cylinders, over which the printed cloth travelled as it +issued from the printing machine, when it was speedily and effectively +dried. In these various improvements in calico printing I was most +ably seconded by Mr. Joseph Lese, of Manchester, whose practical +acquaintance with all that related to that department of industry +rendered him of the greatest service. There was no "Invention," +so to speak, in this almost obvious application of the steam-engine to +calico-printing. It required merely the faculty of observation, and +the application of means to ends. The main feature of the system, +it will be observed, was in enabling the superintendent of each machine +to have perfect control over it,--to set it in motion and to regulate +its speed without the slightest jerk or shock to its intricate +mechanism. In this sense the arrangement was of great commercial value. + +I had another opportunity of introducing my small engine system into +the Government Arsenal at Woolwich. In 1847 the attention of the Board +of Ordnance was, directed to the inadequacy of the equipment of the +workshops there. The mechanical arrangements, the machine tools, +and other appliances, were found insufficient for the economical +production of the apparatus of modern warfare. The Board did me the +honour to call upon me to advise with them, and also with the heads of +departments at the arsenal. Sir Thomas Hastings, then head of the +Ordnance, requested me to accompany him at the first inspection. +I made a careful survey of all the workshops, and although the +machinery was very interesting as examples of the old and primitive +methods of producing war material, I found that it was better fitted +for a Museum of Technical Antiquity than for practical use in these +days of rapid mechanical progress. Everything was certainly far behind +the arrangements which I had observed in foreign arsenals. +The immediate result of my inspection of the workshops and the +processes conducted within them was, that I recommended the +introduction of machine tools specially adapted to economise labour, +as well as to perfect the rapid production of war material. +In this I was heartily supported by the heads of the various departments. +After several conferences with them, as well as with Sir Thomas Hastings, +it was arranged that a large extension of the workshop space should be +provided. I was so fortunate as to make a happy suggestion on this +head. It was, that by a very small comparative outlay nearly double +the workshop area might be provided--by covering in with light iron +roofs the long wide roadway spaces that divided the parallel ranges of +workshops from each other. + +This plan was at once adopted. Messrs. Fox and Henderson, +the well-known railway roofing contractors, were entrusted with the +order; and in a very short time the arsenal was provided with a noble +set of light and airy workshops, giving ample accommodation for present +requirements, as well as surplus space for many years to come. +In order to supply steam power to each of these beautiful workshops, +and for working the various machines placed within them, I reverted to +my favourite system of small separate steam-engines. This was adopted, +and the costly ranges of shafting that would otherwise have been +necessary were entirely dispensed with. + +A series of machine tools of the most improved modern construction, +specially adapted for the various classes of work carried on in the +arsenal, together with improved ranges of smiths' forge hearths, +blown by an air blast supplied by fans of the best construction, and a +suitable supply of small hand steam hammers, completed the arrangements; +and quite a new era in the forge work of the arsenal was begun. +I showed the managers and the workmen the docile powers of the steam +hammer, in producing in a few minutes, by the aid of dies, many forms +in wrought-iron that had heretofore occupied hours of the most skilful +smiths, and that, too, in much more perfect truth and exactitude. +Both masters and men were delighted with the result: and as such +precise and often complex forms of wrought-iron work were frequently +required by hundreds at a time for the equipment of naval gun carriages +and other purposes, it was seen that the steam hammer must henceforward +operate as a powerful auxiliary in the productions of the arsenal. + +In the introduction of all these improvements I received the frank and +cordial encouragement of the chief officers of the Board of Ordnance +and Admiralty. My suggestions were zealously carried out by +Colonel J. N. Colquhoun, then head of the chief mechanical department +of the Ordnance works at Woolwich. He was one of the most clear-headed +and intelligent men I have ever met with. He had in a special degree +that happy power of inspiring his zeal and energy into all who worked +under his superintendence, whether foremen or workmen. A wonderfully +sympathetic effect is produced when the directing head of the +establishment is possessed of the valuable faculty of cheerful and +well-directed energy. It works like an electric thrill, and soon +pervades the whole department. I may also mention General Dundas, +director of the Royal Gun-Factory, and General Hardinge, head of the +Royal Laboratories.* + [footnote... +The term "Laboratory" may appear an odd word to use in connection with +machinery and mechanical operations. Yet its original signification +was quite appropriate, inasmuch as it related to the preparation of +explosive substances, such as shells, rockets, fusees, cartridges, +and percussion caps, where chemistry was as much concerned as mechanism +in producing the required results. + ...] + +This latter department included all processes connected with explosives. +It was superintended by Captain Boxer, an officer of the highest talent +and energy, who brought everything under his control to the highest +pitch of excellence. I must also add a most important person, +my old and much esteemed friend John Anderson, then general director of +the Machinery of the arsenal. He was an admirable mechanic, a man of +clear practical good sense and judgment, and he eventually raised +himself to the highest position in the public service. + +The satisfactory performance of the machinery which had been supplied +to the workshops of the royal dock yards and arsenals, led to further +demands for similar machinery for foreign Governments. Foreign visitor +were allowed freely to inspect all that had been done whatever may be +said of the wisdom of this proceeding it is certainly true that no +mechanical improvement can long be kept secret nowadays. Everything is +published and illustrated in our engineering journals. And if the +foreigners had not been allowed to obtain their new machines from +England, they were provided with facilities enough for constructing +them for themselves. At all events, one result of the improved working +of the new machines at the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, was the receipt +of large orders for our firm for the supply of foreign Governments. +For instance, that of Spain employed us liberally, principally tor the +equipment of the royal dockyards of Ferrol and Cartagena. +These orders came to us through Messrs. Zuluatta Brothers, +who conducted their proceedings with us in a prompt and business-like +way for many years. Through the same firm we obtained orders to +furnish machinery for the Spanish royal dockyard at Havana. + +In 1849 we received an extensive order from the Russian Government. +This was transmitted to us through the Imperial Consulate in London. +The machinery was required for the equipment of a very extensive rope +factory at the naval arsenal of Nicolaiev, on the Black Sea This order +included all the machinery requisite for the factory, from the heckling +of the hemp to the twisting of the largest ropes and cables required in +the Russian naval service. The design and organisation of this machinery +in its minutest detail caused me to made a special study of the art of +rope-making. It was a comparatively new subject to me; but I found it +full of interest. It was difficulty, and therefore to be overcome. +And in this lies a great deal of the pleasure of contriving and +inventing. + +During the progress of the work I had the advantage of the frequent +presence of an able Russian officer, Captain Putchkraskey, +whose intelligent supervision was a source of much satisfaction. +We had also occasional visits from Admiral Kornileff, a man of the +highest order of intelligence. He was not only able to appreciate our +exertions to execute the order in first-rate style, but to enter into +all the special details and contrivances of the work while in progress. +I had often occasion to meet Russian officers while at the Bridgewater +Foundry. They were usually men of much ability, selected by the +Russian Government to act as their agents abroad, in order to keep them +well posted up in all that had a bearing upon their own interests. +They certainly reflected the highest credit on their Government, +as proving their careful selection of the best men to advance the +interests of Russia. + +During the visit of the Grand Duke Constantine to England about that +time, he resided for some days with the Earl of Ellesmere at +Worsley Hall, about a mile and a half from Bridgewater Foundry. +We were favoured with several visits from the Grand Duke, accompanied +by Baron Brunnow, Admiral Hoyden, and several other Russian officials. +They came by Lord Ellesmere's beautiful barge, which drew up alongside +our wharf, where the party landed and entered the works. The Grand Duke +carefully inspected the whole place, and expressed himself as greatly +pleased with the complete mastery which man had obtained over obdurate +materials, through the unfailing agency of mechanical substitutes for +manual dexterity and muscular force. + +I was invited to meet this distinguished party at Worsley Hall on more +than one occasion, and was much pleased with the frank and intelligent +conversation of the Grand Duke, in his reference to what he had seen in +his visits to our works. It was always a source of high pleasure to me +to receive visits from Lord Ellesmere, as he was generally accompanied +by men of distinction who were well able to appreciate the importance +of what had been displayed before them. The visits, for instance, +of Rajah Brooke, the Earl of Elgin, the Duke of Argyll, Chevalier Bunsen, +and Count Flahault, stand out bright in my memory. + +But to return to my rope-making machinery. It was finished to the +satisfaction of the Russian officers. It was sent off by ship to the +Black Sea in July 1851, and fitted up at Nicolaiev shortly after. +I received a kind and pressing invitation from Admiral Kornileff to +accompany him on the first trip of a magnificent steamer which had been +constructed in England under his supervision. His object was, not only +that I might have a pleasant voyage in his company, but that I might +see my machinery in full action at Nicolaiev, and also that I might +make a personal survey of the arsenal workshops at Sebastopol. +It would, no doubt, have been a delightful trip, but it was not to be. +The unfortunate disruption occurred between our Government and that of +Russia, which culminated in the disastrous Crimean War. +One of the first victims was Admiral Kornileff. He was killed by one +of our first shots while engaged in placing some guns for the defence +of the entrance to the harbour of Sebastopol. + + +CHAPTER 18. Astronomical pursuits. + +Let me turn for a time from the Foundry, the whirr of the self-acting +tools, and the sound of the steam hammers, to my quieter pursuits at home. +There I had much tranquil enjoyment in the company of my dear wife. +I had many hobbies. Drawing was as familiar to me as language. +Indeed, it was often my method of speaking. It has always been the way +in which I have illustrated my thoughts. In the course of my journeys +at home and abroad I made many drawings of places and objects, which +were always full of interest, to me at least; and they never ceased to +bring up a store of happy remembrances. + +Now and then I drew upon my fancy, and with pen and ink I conjured up +"The Castle of Udolpho," " A Bit of Old England," "The Fairies are Out," +and "Everybody for Ever." The last is crowded with thousands of figures +and heads, so that it is almost impossible to condense the drawing into +a small compass. To these I added "The Alchemist," "Old Mortality," +"Robinson Crusoe," and a bit of English scenery, which I called +"Gathering Sticks." I need not say with how much pleasure I executed +these drawings in my evening hours. They were not "published," but I +drew them with lithographic ink, and had them printed by Mr. Maclure. +I afterwards made presents of the series to some of my most intimate +friends. + +[Image] The Antiquarian. By James Nasmyth (Facsimile) + +In remembrance of the great pleasure which I had derived from the +perusal of Washington Irving's fascinating works, I sent him a copy of +my sketches. His answer was charming and characteristic. +His letter was dated " Sunnyside," Massachusetts, where he lived. +He said (17th January 1859): + +DEAR SIR--Accept my most sincere and hearty thanks for the exquisite +fancy sketches which you have had the kindness to send me, and for the +expressions of esteem and regard in the letter which accompanied them. +It is indeed a heartfelt gratification to me to think that I have been +able by any exercise of my pen to awaken such warm and delicate +sympathies, and to call forth such testimonials of pleasure and +approbation from a person of your cultivated taste and intellectual +elevation. With high respect and regard, I remain, nay dear sir, +your truly obliged friend, Washington Irving." + +[Image] The Fairies. By James Nasmyth. (Facsimile) + +Viscount Duncan, afterwards Earl Camperdown, also acknowledged receipt +of the drawings in a characteristic letter. He said: --"We are quite +delighted with them, especially with 'The Fairies,' which a lady to +whom I showed them very nearly stole, as she declared that it quite +realised her dreams of fairyland. I am only surprised that amidst your +numerous avocations you have found time to execute such detailed works +of art; and I shall have much pleasure in being reminded as I look at +the drawings that the same hand and head that executed them invented +the steam hammer, and many other gigantic pieces of machinery which +will tend to immortalise the Anglo-saxon race." + +But my most favourite pursuit, after my daily exertions at the Foundry, +was Astronomy. There were frequently clear nights when the glorious +objects in the Heavens were seen in most attractive beauty and brilliancy. + +I cannot find words to express the thoughts which the impressive +grandeur of the Stars, seen in the silence of the night, suggested to +me; especially when I directed my Telescope, even at random, +on any portion of the clear sky, and considered that each Star of the +multitude it revealed to me, was a SUN! the centre of a system! +Myriads of such stars, invisible to the unassisted eye, were rendered +perfectly distinct by the aid of the telescope. The magnificence of +the sight was vastly increased when the telescope was directed to any +portion of the Milky Way. It revealed such countless multitudes of +stars that I had only to sit before the eyepiece, and behold the +endless procession of these glorious objects pass before me. +The motion of the earth assisted in changing this scene of +inexpressible magnificence, which reached its climax when some object +such as the "Cluster in Hercules" came into sight. The component stars +are so crowded together there as to give the cluster the appearance of +a gray spot; but when examined with a telescope of large aperture, +it becomes resolved into such myriads of stars as to defy all attempts +to count them. Nothing can convey to the mind, in so awful and +impressive a manner, the magnificent and infinite extent of Creation, +and the inconceivable power of its Creator! + +I had already a slight acquaintance with Astronomy. My father had +implanted in me the first germs. He was a great admirer of that +sublimest of sciences. I had obtained a sufficient amount of technical +knowledge to construct in 1827 a small but very effective reflecting +telescope of six inches diameter. Three years later I initiated +Mr. Maudslay into the art and mystery of making a reflecting telescope. +I then made a speculum of ten inches diameter, and but for the unhappy +circumstance of his death in 1831, it would have been mounted in his +proposed observatory at Norwood. After I had settled down at Fireside, +Patricroft, I desired to possess a telescope of considerable power in +order to enjoy the tranquil pleasure of surveying the heavens in their +impressive grandeur at night. + +As I had all the means and appliances for casting specula at the +factory, I soon had the felicity of embodying all my former +self-acquired skill in this fine art by producing a very perfect +casting of a ten-inch diameter speculum. The alloy consisted of +fifteen parts of pure tin and thirty-two parts of pure copper, +with one part of arsenic. It was cast with perfect soundness, and was +ground and polished by a machine which I contrived for the purpose. +The speculum was so brilliant that when my friend William Lassell saw it, +he said "it made his mouth water." It was about this time (1840) that I +had the great happiness of becoming acquainted with Mr. Lassell,* + [footnote... +Mr. Lassell was a man of superb powers. Like many others who have done +so much for astronomy, he started as an amateur. He was first +apprenticed to a merchant at Liverpool. He then began business as a +brewer. Eventually he devoted himself to astronomy and astronomical +mechanics. When in his twenty-first year he began constructing +reflecting telescopes for himself. He proceeded to make a Newtonian of +nine inches aperture, which he erected in an observatory at his +residence near Liverpool, happily named "Starfield." +With this instrument he worked diligently, and detected the sixth star +in the trapezium of Orion. In 1844 he conceived the bold idea of +constructing a reflector of two feet aperture, and twenty feet focal +length, to be mounted equatorially. Sir John Herschel, in mentioning +Mr. Lassell's work, did me the honour of saying "that in Mr Nasmyth he +was fortunate to find a mechanist capable of executing in the highest +perfection all his conceptions, and prepared by his own love of +astronomy and practical acquaintance with astronomical observations, +and with the construction of specula, to give them their full effect." +With this fine instrument Mr. Lassell discovered the satellite of +Neptune. He also discovered the eighth satellite of Saturn, of extreme +minuteness, as well as two additional satellites of Uranus. +But perhaps his best work was done at Malta with a much larger +telescope, four feet in aperture, and thirty-seven feet focus, erected +there in 1861. He remained at Malta for three years, and published a +catalogue of 600 new nebulae, which will be found in the Memoirs of the +Royal Astronomical Society. One of his curious sayings was, +"I have had a great deal to do with opticians, +some of them--like Cooke of York--are really opticians; +but the greater number of them are merely shopticians!" + ...] +and profiting by his devotion to astronomical pursuits and his profound +knowledge of the subject. He had acquired much technical skill in the +construction of reflecting telescopes, and the companionship between us +was thus rendered very agreeable. There was an intimate exchange of +opinions on the subject, and my friendship with him continued during +forty successive years. I was perhaps a little ahead of him in certain +respects. I had more practical knowledge of casting, for I had begun +when a boy in my bedroom at Edinburgh. In course of time I contrived +many practical "dodges" (if I may use such a word), and could nimbly +vault over difficulties of a special kind which had hitherto formed a +barrier in the way of amateur speculum makers when fighting their way +to a home-made telescope. I may mention that I know of no mechanical +pursuit in connection with science, that offers such an opportunity for +practising the technical arts, as that of constructing from first to +last a complete Newtonian or Gregorian Reflecting Telescope. +Such an enterprise brings before the amateur a succession of the most +interesting and instructive mechanical arts, and obliges the +experimenter to exercise the faculty of delicate manipulation. +If I were asked what course of practice was the best to instil a true +taste for refined mechanical work, I should say, set to and make for +yourself from first to last a reflecting telescope with a metallic +speculum. Buy nothing but the raw material, and work your way to the +possession of a telescope by means of your own individual labour and +skill. If you do your work with the care, intelligence, and patience +that is necessary, you will find a glorious reward in the enhanced +enjoyment of a night with the heavens--all the result of your own +ingenuity and handiwork. It will prove a source of abundant pleasure +and of infinite enjoyment for the rest of your life. + +I well remember the visit I received from my dear friend Warren de la Rue +in the year 1840. I was executing some work for him with respect to a +new process which he had contrived for the production of white lead. +I was then busy with the casting of my thirteen-inch speculum. +He watched my proceedings with earnest interest and most careful +attention. He told me many years after, that it was the sight of my +special process of casting a sound speculum that in a manner caused him +to turn his thoughts to practical astronomy, a subject in which he has +exhibited such noble devotion as well as masterly skill. Soon after +his visit I had the honour of casting for him a thirteen-inch speculum, +which he afterwards ground and polished by a method of his own. +He mounted it in an equatorial instrument of such surpassing excellence +as enabled him, aided by his devotion and pure love of the subject, +to record a series of observations and results which will hand his name +down to posterity as one of the most faithful and patient of +astronomical observers. + +[Image] Fireside, Patricroft. After a drawing by James Nasmyth + +But to return to my own little work at Patricroft. I mounted my +ten-inch home-made reflecting telescope, and began my survey of the +heavens. Need I say with what exquisite delight the harmony of their +splendour filled me. I began as a learner, and my learning grew with +experience. There were the prominent stars, the planets, the Milky Way +--with thousands of far-off suns--to be seen. My observations were +at first merely general; by degrees they became particular. +I was not satisfied with enjoying these sights myself; +I made my friends and neighbours sharers in my pleasure; +and some of them enjoyed the wonders of the heavens as much as I did. + +In my early use of the telescope I had fitted the speculum into a light +square tube of deal to which the eye-piece was attached, so as to have +all the essential parts of the telescope combined together in the most +simple and portable form. I had often to remove it from place to place +in my small garden at the side of the Bridgewater Canal, in order to +get it clear of the trees and branches which intercepted some object in +the heavens which I wished to see. How eager and enthusiastic I was in +those days! Sometimes I got out of bed in the clear small hours of the +morning, and went down to the garden in my night-shirt. I would take +the telescope in my arms and plant it in some suitable spot, where I +might get a peep at some special planet or star then above the horizon. + +It became bruited about that a ghost was seen at Patricroft! +A barge was silently gliding along the canal near midnight, +when the boatman suddenly saw a figure in white. +"It moved among the trees with a coffin in its arms!" +The apparition was so sudden and strange that he immediately concluded +that it was a ghost. The weird sight was reported at the stations +along the canal, and also at Wolverhampton, which was the boatman's +headquarters. He told the people at Patricroft on his return journey +what he had seen, and great was the excitement produced. The place was +haunted: there was no doubt about it! After all, the rumour was +founded on fact, for the ghost was merely myself in my night-shirt, +and the coffin was my telescope, which I was quietly shifting from one +place to another in order to get a clearer sight of the heavens at +midnight. + +My ambition expanded. I now resolved to construct a reflecting +telescope of considerably greater power than that which I possessed. +I made one of twenty inches diameter, and mounted it on a very simple +plan, thus removing many of the inconveniences and even personal risks +that attend the use of such instruments. (For illustration of the plan +of mounting a large telescope, see p. 338) It had been necessary to +mount steps or ladders to get at the eyepiece, especially when the +objects to be observed were at a high elevation above the horizon. +I now prepared to do some special work with this instrument. +In 1842 I began my systematic researches upon the Moon. I carefully +and minutely scrutinised the marvellous details of its surface, +a pursuit which I continued for many years, and still continue with +ardour until this day. My method was as follows: -- + +I availed myself of every favourable opportunity for carrying on the +investigation. I made careful drawings with black and white chalk on +large sheets of grey-tinted paper, of such selected portions of the +Moon as embodied the most characteristic and instructive features of +her wonderful surface. I was thus enabled to graphically represent the +details with due fidelity as to form, as well as with regard to the +striking effect of the original in its masses of light and shade. +I thus educated my eye for the special object by systematic and careful +observation, and at the same time practised my hand in no less careful +delineation of all that was so distinctly presented to me by the +telescope--at the side of which my sheet of paper was handily fixed. +I became in a manner familiar with the vast variety of those distinct +manifestations of volcanic action, which at some inconceivably remote +period had produced these wonderful features and details of the moon's +surface. So far as could be observed, there was an entire absence of +any agency of change, so that their formation must have remained +absolutely intact since the original cosmical heat of the moon had +passed rapidly into space. The surface, with all its wondrous details, +presents the same aspect as it did probably millions of ages ago. + +This consideration vastly enhances the deep interest with which we look +upon the moon and its volcanic details. It is totally without an +atmosphere, or of a vapour envelope, such as the earth possesses, +and which must have contributed to the conservation of the cosmical +heat of the latter orb. The moon is of relatively small mass, +and is consequently inferior in heat-retaining power. It must thus +have parted with its original stock of cosmical heat with such rapidity +as to bring about the final termination of those surface changes which +give it so peculiar an aspect. In the case of the earth the internal +heat still continues in operation, though in a vastly reduced degree of +activity. Again in the case of the moon, the total absence of water as +well as atmosphere has removed from it all those denudative activities +which, in the earth, have acted so powerfully in effecting changes of +its surfaces as well as in the distribution of its materials. +Hence the appearance of the wonderful details of the moon's surface +presents us with objects of inconceivably remote antiquity. + +[Image] General structure of Lunar craters. + +Another striking characteristic of the moon's surface is the enormous +magnitude of its volcanic crater formations. In comparison with these, +the greatest on the surface of the earth are reduced to insignificance. +Paradoxical as the statement may at first appear, the magnitude of the +remains of the primitive volcanic energy in the moon is simply due to +the smallness of its mass. Being only about one-eightieth part of the +bulk of the earth, the force of gravity on the moon's surface is only +about one-sixth. And as eruptive force is quite independent, +as a force, of the law of gravitation, and as it acted with its full +energy on matter, which in the moon is little heavier than cork, +it was dispersed in divergent flight from the vent of the volcanoes, +free from any atmospheric resistance, and thus secured an enormously +wider dispersion of the ejected scoriae. Hence the building up of +those enormous ring-formed craters which are seen in such vast numbers +on the moon's surface--some of them being no less than a hundred +miles in diameter, with which those of Etna and Vesuvius are the merest +molehills in comparison. + +I may mention, in passing, that the frequency of a central cone within +these ring-shaped lunar craters supplies us with one of the most +distinct and unquestionable evidences of the true nature and mode of +the formation of volcanoes. + +They are the result of the expiring energy of the volcanic discharge, +which, when near its termination, not having sufficient energy to eject +the matter far from its vent, becomes deposited around it, and thus +builds up the central cone as a sort of monument to commemorate its +expiring efforts. In this way it recalls the exact features of our own +terrestrial craters, though the latter are infinitely smaller in +comparison. When we consider how volcanoes are formed-- +by the ejection and exudation of material from beneath the solid crust-- +it will be seen how the lunar eminences are formed; that is, by the +forcible projection of fluid molten matter through cracks or vents, +through which it makes its way to the surface. + +[Image] Pico, an isolated Lunar Mountain 8000 feet high. + +It was in reference to this very interesting subject that I made a +drawing of the great isolated volcanic mountain Pico, about 8000 feet +high.* + [footnote... +this illustration exhibits a class of volcanic formations that may be +seen on many portions of the moon's surface. They are what I would +term exudative volcanic mountains, the results of a comparatively +gentle discharge of volcanic matter, which has resulted in heaped up +eminences; a vast group of which were displayed in the illustration, +some of them being upwards of 20,000 feet high. + ...] + +It exhibits a very different appearance from that of our mountain +ranges, which are for the most part the result of a tangential action. +In the case of the earth, the hard stratified crust had to adapt itself +to the shrunken diameter of the once much hotter globe. This tangential +action is illustrated in our own persons, when age causes the body to +shrink in bulk, while the skin, which does not shrink to the same +extent, has to accommodate itself to the shrunken interior, and so +forms wrinkles--the wrinkles of age. This theory opens up a chapter +in geology and physiology well worthy of consideration. It may alike +be seen in the structure of the surface of the earth, in an old apple, +and in an old hand.* + [footnote... +The shrunken hand on the other side is that of Mr. Nasmyth, +photographed by himself. According to The Psychonomy of the Hand, +by R. Beamish, F.R.S., author of The Life of Sir M. I. Brunel, +it exhibits a thoroughly mechanical hand, as well as the hand of a +delicate manipulator; illustrating that remarkable expression in the +Book of Job, that "in the hand of all the sons of men God places marks, +that all the sons of men may know their own works."--ED. + ...] + +[Image] Shrunken Apple and Hand.* + [footnote... +These illustrations serve to illustrate one of the most potent of +geological agencies which has given the earth's surface its grandest +characteristics. I mean the elevation of mountain ranges through the +contraction of the globe as a whole. By the action of gravity the +former larger surface crushes down, as it were, the contracting +interior; and the superfluous matter, which belonged to a bigger globe, +arranges itself by tangential displacement, and accommodates itself to +the altered or decreased size of the globe. Hence our mountain ranges, +which though apparently enormous when seen near at hand are merely the +wrinkles on the face of the earth. + ...] + +While earnestly studying the details of the moon's surface, it was a +source of great additional interest to me to endeavour to realise in +the mind's eye the possible landscape effect of its marvellous +elevations and depressions. Here my artisic faculty came into +operation. I endeavoured to illustrate the landscape. scenery of the +Moon, in like manner as we illustrate the landscape scenery of the +Earth. The telescope revealed to me distinctly the volcanic craters, +the cracks, and the ranges of mountains--by means of the light and +shade on the moon's surface. One of the most prominent conditions of +the awful grandeur of lunar scenery is the brilliant light of the sun, +far transcending that which we experience upon the earth--enhanced by +the contrast with the jet-black background of the lunar heavens,-- +the result of the total absence of atmosphere. One portion of the +moon, on which the sun is shining, is brilliantly illuminated, +while all in shade is dark. + +While the disc of the sun appears a vast electric light of overpowering +rayless brilliancy, every star and planet in the black vault of the +lunar heavens is shining with steady brightness at all times; +as, whether the Sun be present or absent during the long fourteen days' +length of the lunar day or night, no difference on the absolutely black +aspect of the lunar heavens can appear. That aspect must be eternal +there. No modification* + [footnote... +a small degree of illumination is, however, given to some portions of +the Moon's surface by the Earth-shine, when the earth is in such a +position with regard to the Moon, as to reflect some light on to it, +as the Moon does to the earth. + ...] +of the darkness of shadows in the Moon can result from the illuminative +effect, as in our case in the earth, from light reflected into shadows +by the blue sky of our earthly day The intensity of the contrast +between light and shade must thus lend another awful aspect to the +scenery of the Moon, while deprived of all those charming effects which +artists term "aerial perspective," by which relative distances are +rendered cognisable with such tender and exquisite beauty. The absence +of atmosphere on the Moon causes the most distant objects to appear as +close as the nearest; while the comparatively rapid curvature of the +moon, owing to its being a globe only one-fourth the diameter of the +earth, must necessarily limit very considerably the range of view. + +[Image] Lunar Mountains and Extinct Volcanic Craters + +It is the combination of all these circumstances, which we know with +absolute certainty must exist in the Moon, that gives to the +contemplation of her marvellous surface, as revealed by the aid of +powerful telescopes,--one of the grandest and most deeply interesting +subjects that can occupy our thoughts; especially when we regard the +physical constitution and the peculiar structure of her surface, +as that of our nearest planetary neighbour, and also as our serviceable +attendant by night. + +Then there are the Tides, so useful to man, preserving the sanitary +condition of the river mouths and tide-swept shores. +We must be grateful for the Moon's existence on that account alone. +She is the grand scavenger and practical sanitary commissioner of the +earth. Then consider the work she does! She moves hundreds of ships and +barges, filled with valuable cargoes, up our tidal rivers, +to the commercial cities on their banks. She thus performs a vast +amount of daily and nightly mechanical drudgery. She is the most +effective of all Tugs; and now that we understand the convertibility +and conservation of force, we may be able to use her Tide-producing +powers through the agency of electricity for mechanical purposes. +It is even possible that the Tides may yet light our streets and +houses!* + [footnote... +It is not quite a century since London was in part supplied with water +by the Moon, through employing the tidal action by the waters at +Old London Bridge, where the tide mills worked the water-supplying pumps. + ...] + +Is the moon inhabited? It seems to me that the entire absence of +atmosphere and water forbids the supposition--at least of any form of +life with which we are acquainted. Add to this adverse condition, +the fact of the moon's day being equal to fourteen of our days; +the sun shining with much more brilliancy of effect in the moon than on +the earth, where atmosphere and moisture act as an important agent in +modifying its scorching rays; whilst no such agency exists in the moon. +The sun shines there without intermission for fourteen days and nights. +During that time the heat must accumulate to almost the melting point +of lead; while, on the other hand, the absence of the sun for an equal +period must be followed by a period of intense cold, such as we have no +experience of, even in the Arctic regions. The highest authorities +state that the cold during the Moon's long night must reach as low as +250 degrees below the freezing point of water. These considerations, +I think, reasonably suggest that the existence of any form of life in +the Moon is in the highest degree improbable. + +The first occasion on which I exhibited my series of drawings of the +Moon, together with a map six feet in diameter of its entire visible +surface, was at the meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh in +1850. I always looked forward to these meetings with great pleasure, +and attended them with supreme interest. My dear wife always +accompanied me. It was our scientific holiday. It was also our +holiday of friendship. We met many of our old friends, and made many +new friends. Alas, how many of them have departed! Herschel, Faraday, +Robinson, Taylor, Phillips, Brewster, Rosse, Fairbairn, Lassell, +and a host of minor stars, who, although perhaps wanting in the +brightness or magnitude of those I have named, made good amends by the +warmth of their cheerful rays. We saw the younger lights emerging +above the horizon: the men who still continue to shed their glory over +the meetings of the Association. + +How delightful was our visit to Edinburgh in 1850. It was +"mine own romantic town." I remembered its striking features so well. +There was the broad mass of the Old Town, with its endless diversity of +light and shade. There was the grand old fortress, with its towers and +turrets and black portholes. Towards evening the distant glories of +the departing sun threw forward, in dark outline, the wooded hill of +Corstorphine. The rock and Castle assumed a new aspect every time I +looked at them. The long-drawn gardens filling the valley between the +Old Town and the New, and the thickly-wooded scars of the Castle rock, +were a charm of landscape and a charm of art. Arthur's Seat, like a +lion at rest, seemed perfect witchcraft. And from the streets in the +New Town, or from Calton Hill, what singular glances of beauty were +observed in the distance--the gleaming waters of the Firth, +and the blue shadows among the hills of Fife. + +I remembered it all, from the days in which I sat, as a child, beside +the lassies watching the "claes" on the Calton Hill and hearing the +chimes of St. Giles's tinkling across the Nor' Loch from the Old Town; +the walks, when a boy, in the picturesque country round Edinburgh, +with my father and his scientific and artistic friends; my days at the +High School, and then my evenings at the School of Arts; my castings of +brass in my bedroom, and the technical training I enjoyed in the +workshop of my old schoolfellow; my roadway locomotive and its success; +and finally, the making of my tools and machines intended for Manchester, +at the foundry of my dear old friend Douglass. It all came back to me +like a dream. And now, after some twenty years, I had returned to +Edinburgh on a visit to the British Association. Many things had been +changed--many relatives and friends had departed--but still Edinburgh +remained to me as fascinating as ever. + +The excursions formed our principal source of enjoyment during these +scientific gatherings. The season was then at its happiest. +Nature was in her most enjoyable condition, and the excursionists were +usually in their holiday mood. The meeting of the British Association +at Edinburgh was presided over by Sir David Brewster. The geologists +visited the remarkable displays of volcanic phenomena with which the +neighbourhood of Edinburgh singularly abounds. Indeed, Edinburgh owes +much of its picturesque beauty to volcanoes and earthquake upheavings. +Our excursions culminated in a visit to the Bass Rock. The excursion +had been carefully planned, and was successfully carried out. +The day was beautiful, and the party was of the choicest. +After reaching the little cove of Canty Bay, overlooked by the gigantic +ruins of Tantallon Castle, we were ferried across to the Bass; +through a few miles of that capricious sea, the Firth of Forth, near to +where it joins the German Ocean. We were piloted by that fine old +British tar, Admiral Malcolm, while the commissariat was superintended +by General Pasley. + +We were safely landed on that magnificent sea-girt volcanic rock-- +the Bass. After inspecting the ruins of what was once a castellated +State prison, where the Covenanters were immured for conscience' sake, +we wandered up the hill towards the summit. There we were treated +to a short lecture by Professor Owen on the Solan Goose, +which was illustrated by the clouds of geese flying over us. +They freely exhibited their habits on land as well as in mid-air, +and skimmed the dizzy crags with graceful and apparently effortless +motions. The vast variety of seafowl screamed their utmost, +and gave a wonderfully illustrative chorus to the lecture. +It was a most impressive scene. We were high above the deep blue sea of +the German Ocean, the waves of which leapt up as if they would sweep us +away into the depths below. + +Another of our delightful excursions was made under the guidance of my +old and dear friend Robert Chambers.* + [footnote... +I cannot pass over the mention of Robert Chambers's name without adding +that I was on terms of the most friendly intimacy with him from a very +early period of his life to its termination in 1871. +I remember when he made his first venture in business in Leith Walk. +By virtue of his industry, ability, and energy, he became a prosperous +man. I had the happiness of enjoying his delightful and instructive +society on many occasions. We had rare cracks on all subjects, but +especially respecting old places and old characters whom we had known +at Edinburgh. His natural aptitude to catch up the salient and most +humorous points of character, with the quaint manner in which he could +describe them, gave a vast charm to his company and conversation. +Added to which, the wide range and accuracy of his information, +acquired by his own industry and quick-witted penetration, caused the +hours spent in his society to remain among the brightest points in my +memory. + ...] + +The object of this excursion was to visit the remarkable series of +grooved and scratched rocks which had been discovered* + [footnote... +They had been first seen, some twenty years before, by Sir James Hall, +one of the geologic lights of Edinburgh. + ...] +on the western edge of the cliff-like boundary of Corstorphine Hill. +The glacial origin of these groovings on the rocks was then occupying +the attention of geologists. It was a subject that Robert Chambers had +carefully studied, in the Lowlands, in the Highlands, in Rhine-land, +in Switzerland, and in Norway. He had also published his Ancient Sea +Margins and his Tracings of the North of Europe in illustration of his +views. He was now enabled to show us these groovings and scratchings +on the rocks near Edinburgh. In order to render the records more +accessible, he had the heather and mossy turf carefully removed-- +especially from some of the most distinct evidences of glacial +rock-grooving. Thus no time was lost, and we immediately saw the +unquestionable markings. Such visits as these are a thousand times +more instructive and interesting than long papers read at scientific +meetings. They afford the best opportunity for interchange of ideas, +and directly produce an emphatic result; for one cannot cavil about +what he has seen with his eyes and felt with his hands. + +We returned to the city in time to be present at a most interesting +lecture by Hugh Miller on the Boulder Clay. +He illustrated it by some scratched boulders which he had collected +in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. He brought the subject before his +audience in his own clear and admirable viva voce style. +The Duke of Argyll was in the chair, and a very animated discussion +took place on this novel and difficult subject. +It was humorously brought to a conclusion by the Rev. Dr. Fleming, +a shrewd and learned geologist. Like many others, he had encountered +great difficulties in arriving at definite conclusions on this +mysterious subject. He concluded his remarks upon it by describing the +influence it had in preventing his sleeping at night. +He was so restless on one occasion that his wife became seriously alarmed. +"What's the matter wi' ye, John? are ye ill?" "On no," replied the doctor, +"it's only that confounded Bounder Clay!" This domestic anecdote +brought down the house, and the meeting terminated in a loud and hearty +laugh. + +I, too, contributed my little quota of information to the members of +the British Association. I had brought with me from Lancashire a +considerable number of my large graphic illustrations of the details of +the Moon's surface. I gave a viva voce account of my lunar researches +at a crowded meeting of the Physical Section A. The novel and +interesting subject appeared to give so much satisfaction to the +audience that the Council of the Association requested me to repeat the +account at one of the special evenings, when the members of all the +various sections were generally present. It was quite a new thing for +me to appear as a public lecturer; but I consented. The large hall of +the Assembly Rooms in George Street was crowded with an attentive +audience. The Duke of Argyll was in the chair. It is a difficult +thing to give a public lecture especially to a scientific audience. +To see a large number of faces turned up, waiting for the words of the +lecturer, is a somewhat appalling sight. But the novelty of the +subject and the graphic illustrations helped me very much. I was quite +full of the Moon. The words came almost unsought; and I believe the +lecture went off very well, and terminated with "great applause." +And thus the meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh came to an +end. + +This, however, was not the end of our visit to Scotland. +I was strongly urged by the Duke of Argyll to pay him a visit at his +castle at Inverary. I had frequently before had the happiness of +meeting the Duke and Duchess at the Earl of Ellesmere's mansion at +Worsley Hall He had made us promise that if we ever came to Scotland we +were not to fail to pay him a visit. It was accordingly arranged at +Edinburgh that we should carry out our promise, and spend some days +with him at Inverary before our return home. We were most cordially +welcomed at the castle, and enjoyed our visit exceedingly. We had the +pleasure of seeing the splendid scenery of the Western Highlands the +mountains round the head of Loch Fyne, Loch Awe, and the magnificent +hoary-headed Ben Cruachan, requiring a base of more than twenty miles +to support him,--besides the beautiful and majestic scenery of the +neighbourhood. + +But my chief interest was in the specimens of high geological interest +which the Duke showed me. He had discovered them in the Island of Mull, +in a bed of clay shale, under a volcanic basaltic cliff over eighty feet +high, facing the Atlantic Ocean. He found in this bed many beautifully +perfect impressions of forest tree leaves, chiefly of the plane-tree +class. They appeared to have been enveloped in the muddy bottom of a +lake, which had been sealed up by the belching forth from the bowels of +the earth of molten volcanic basaltic lava, and which indeed formed the +chief material of the Island of Mull. This basaltic cliff now fronts +the Atlantic, and resists its waves like a rock of iron. To see all +the delicate veins and stalklets, and exact forms of what had once been +the green fresh foliage of a remotely primeval forest, thus brought to +light again, as preserved in their clay envelope, after they had lain +for ages and ages under what must have been the molten outburst of some +tremendous volcanic discharge, and which now formed the rock-bound +coast of Mull, filled one's mind with an idea of the inconceivable +length of time that must have passed since the production of these +Wonderful geological phenomena. + +I felt all the more special interest in these specimens, as I had many +years before, on my return visit from Londonderry, availed myself of +the nearness of the Giant's Causeway to make a careful examination of +the marvellous volcanic columns in that neighbourhood. Having scrambled +up to a great height, I found a thick band of hematitic clay underneath +the upper bed of basalt, which was about sixty feet thick. In this +clay I detected a rich deposit of completely charred branches of what +had once been a forest tree. The bed had been burst through by the +outburst of molten basalt, and converted the branches into charcoal. +I dug out some of the specimens, and afterwards distributed them +amongst my geological friends. The Duke was interested by my account, +which so clearly confirmed his own discovery. On a subsequent occasion +I revisited the Giant's Causeway in company with my dear wife. +I again scrambled up to the hematitic bed of clay under the basaltic cliff, +and dug out a sufficient quantity of the charred branches, which I sent +to the Duke, in confirmation of his theory as to the origin of the +leaf-beds at Mull.* + [footnote... + +I received the following reply from the Duke of Argyll dated "Inverary, +Nov. 19, 1850": -- + +"MY DEAR SIR--Am I right in concluding, from the description which; +you were so kind as to send to me, that the lignite bed, with its +superincumbent basalts, lies above those particular columnar basalts +which form the far-famed Giant's Causeway? I see from your sketch that +basalts of great thickness, and in some views beautifully columnar, +do underlie the lignite bed; but I am not quite sure that these +columnar basalts are those precisely which are called the Causeway. +I had never heard before that the Giant's Causeway rested on chalk, +which all the basalts in your sketch do. + +[Image] The Astrologers Tower--A Day Dream. By James Nasmyth. + (Facsimile.) + +"I have been showing your drawing of 'Udolpho Castle' and +'The Astrologer's Tower' to the Duchess of Sutherland, who is enchanted +with the beauty of the architectural details, and wishes she had seen +them before Dunrobin was finished; for hints might have been taken +from bits of your work. --Very truly yours, + +ARGYLL." + ...] + +In the year following the meeting of the British Association at +Edinburgh, the great Exhibition of all nations at London took place. +The Commissioners appointed for carrying out this noble enterprise had +made special visits to Manchester and the surrounding manufacturing +districts for the purpose of organising local committees, so that the +machinery and productions of each might be adequately represented in +the World's Great Industrial Exhibition. The Commissioners were met +with enthusiasm; and nearly every manufacturer was found ready to +display the results of his industry. The local engineers and tool-makers +were put upon their mettle, and each endeavoured to do his best. Like +others, our firm contributed specimens of our special machine tools, +and a fair average specimen of the steam hammer, with a 30 cwt. +hammer-block. + +I also sent one of my very simple and compact steam-engines, in the +design of which I had embodied the form of my steam hammer--placing the +crank where the anvil of the hammer usually stands. The simplicity and +grace of this arrangement of the steam-engine were much admired. +Its merits were acknowledged in a way most gratifying to me, +by its rapid adoption by engineers of every class, especially by marine +engineers. It has been adopted for driving the shafts of +screw-propelled steamships of the largest kind. The comparatively +small space it occupies, its compactness, its get-at-ability of parts, +and the action of gravity on the piston, which, working vertically, +and having no undue action in causing wearing of the cylinder on one +side (which was the case with horizontal engines), has now brought my +Steam Hammer Engine into almost universal use* + [footnote... +Sir John Anderson, in his Report on the machine tools, textile, and +other machinery exhibited at Vienna in 1873, makes the following +observations: --"Perhaps the finest pair of marine engines yet produced +by France, or any other country, were those exhibited by Schneider and +Company, the leading firm in France. These engines were not large, +but were perfect in many respects; yet comparatively few of those who +were struck with admiration seemed to know that the original of this +style of construction came from the same mind as the Steam Hammer. +Nasmyth's Infant Hercules was the forerunner of all the steam hammer +engines that have yet been made from that type, which is now being so +extensively employed for working the screw propeller of steam vessels." + ...] + +The Commissioners, acting on the special recommendation of the jury, +awarded me a medal for the construction of this form of steam-engine* + [footnote... +The Council of the Exhibition thus describe the engine in the awards: -- +"Nasmyth, J., Patricroft, Manchester, a small portable direct-acting +steam-engine. The cylinder is fixed, vertical and inverted, the crank +being placed beneath it, and the piston working downwards. +The sides of the frame which support the cylinder serve as guides, +and the bearings of the crank-shaft and fly-wheel are firmly fixed in +the bed-plate of the engine. The arrangement is compact and economical, +and the workmanship practically good and durable." +(See illustration of the design, page 424.) + ...] +as it was merely a judicious arrangement of the parts, and not, in any +correct sense of the term, an invention, I took out no patent for it, +and left it free to work its own way into general adoption. +It has since been used for high as well as low-pressure steam-- +an arrangement which has come into much favour on account of the great +economy of fuel which results from using it. + +A Council Medal was also awarded to me for the Steam Hammer. +But perhaps what pleased me most was the Prize Medal which I received +for my special hobby--the drawings of the Moon's surface. I sent a +collection of these, with a map, to the Exhibition. They attracted +considerable attention, not only because of their novelty, but because +of the accurate and artistic style of their execution. The Jurors, in +making the award, gave the following description of them: "Mr. Nasmyth +exhibits a well-delineated map of the Moon on a large scale, which is +drawn with great accuracy, the irregularities upon the surface being +shown with much force and spirit; also separate and enlarged +representations of certain portions of the Moon as seen through a +powerful telescope: they are all good in detail, and very effective." + +My drawings of the Moon attracted the special notice of the Prince +Consort. Shortly after the closing of the Exhibition, in October 1851, +the Queen and the Prince made a visit to Manchester and Liverpool, +during which time they were the guests of the Earl of Ellesmere at +Worsley Hall. Finding that I lived near at hand, the Prince expressed +his desire to the Earl that I should exhibit to Her Majesty some of my +graphic lunar studies. + +On receiving a note to that effect from the Countess of Ellesmere, +I sent a selection of my drawings to the Hall, and proceeded there in +the evening. I had then the honour of showing them to the Queen and +the Prince, and explaining them in detail. Her Majesty took a deep +interest in the subject, and was most earnest in her inquiries. +The Prince Consort' said that the drawings opened up quite a new +subject to him, which he had not before had the opportunity of +considering. It was as much as I could do to answer the numerous keen +and incisive questions which he put to me. They were all so distinct +and cogent. Their object was, of course, to draw from me the necessary +explanations on this rather recondite subject. I believe, however, +that notwithstanding the presence of Royalty, I was enabled to place +all the most striking and important features of the Moon's surface in a +clear and satisfactory manner before Her Majesty and the Prince, + +I find that the Queen in her Diary alludes in the most gratifying +manner to the evening's interview. In the Life of the Prince Consort +(vol. ii. p. 398), Sir Theodore Martin thus mentions the subject: -- +"The evening was enlivened by the presence of Mr. Nasmyth, the inventor +of the steam hammer, who had extensive works at Patricroft. +He exhibited and explained the map and drawings in which he had +embodied the results of his investigations of the conformations of the +surface of the Moon. The Queen in her Diary dwells at considerable +length on the results of Mr. Nasmyth's inquiries. The charm of his +manner, in which the simplicity, modesty, and enthusiasm of genius are +all strikingly combined, are warmly dwelt upon. Mr. Nasmyth belongs to +a family of painters, and would have won fame for himself as an artist +--for his landscapes are as true to Nature as his compositions are +full of fancy and feeling--had not science and mechanical invention +claimed him for their own. His drawings were submitted on this +occasion. and their beauty was generally admired.* + [footnote... +In his lecture on the "Geological Features of Edinburgh and its +Neighbourhood," in the following year, Hugh Miller, speaking of the +Castle Rock, observed: --"The underlying strata, though geologically +and in their original position several hundred feet higher than those +which underlie the Castle esplanade, are now, with respect to the +actual level, nearly 200 feet lower. In a lecture on what may be +termed the geology of the Moon, delivered in the October of last year +before Her Majesty and Prince Albert by Mr. Nasmyth, he referred to +certain appearances on the surface of that satellite that seemed to be +the results, in some very ancient time, of the sudden falling in of +portions of an unsupported crust, or a retreating nucleus of molten +matter; and took occasion to suggest that some of the great slips and +shifts on the surface of our own planet, with their huge downcasts, may +have had a similar origin. The suggestion is at once bold and ingenious." + ...] + +The next time I visited Edinburgh was in the autumn of 1853. +Lord Cockburn, an old friend, having heard that I was sojourning in the +city, sent me the following letter, dated "Bonally, 3rd September," +inviting me to call a meeting of the Faithful: + +"MY DEAR Sir--Instead of being sketching, as I thought, in Switzerland, +I was told yesterday that you were in Auld Reekie. Then why not come +out here next Thursday, or Friday, or Saturday, and let us have a +Hill Day? I suppose I need not write to summon the Faithful, because +not having been in Edinburgh except once for above a month, I don't +know where the Faithful are. But you must know their haunts, and it +can't give you much trouble to speak to them. I should like to see +Lauder here. And don't forget the Gaberlunzie.--Ever, + +H. COCKBURN"* + [footnote... +James Ballantine, author of The Gaberlunzie's Wallet. In August 1865 +Mr. Ballantine wrote to me saying: "If ever you are in Auld Reekie I +should feel proud of a call from you. I have not forgotten the +delightful day we spent together many years ago at Bonny Bonally with +the eagle-eyed Henry Cockburn!" + ...] + +The meeting came off. I collected a number of special friends about +me, and I took my wife to the meeting of the Faithful. There were +present David Roberts, Clarkson Stanfield, Louis and Carl Haag, +Sir George Harvey, James Ballantine, and D. O. Hill--all artists. +We made our way to Bonny Bonally, a charming residence, situated at the +foot of the Pentland Hills.* + [footnote... +The house was afterwards occupied by the lamented Professor Hodgson, +the well-known Political Economist. + ...] +The day was perfect--in all respects "equal to bespoke." With that most +genial of men, Lord Cockburn, for our guide, we wandered far up the +Pentland Hills. After a rather toilsome walk we reached a favourite +spot. It was a semicircular hollow in the hillside, scooped out by the +sheep for shelter. It was carpeted and cushioned with a deep bed of +wild thyme, redolent of the very essence of rural fragrance. + +We sat down in a semicircle, our guide in the middle. He said in his +quaint peculiar way, "Here endeth the first lesson." After gathering +our breath, and settling ourselves to enjoy our well-earned rest, +we sat in silence for a time. The gentle breeze blew past us, and we +inhaled the fragrant air. It was enough for a time to look on, for the +glorious old city was before us, with its towers, and spires, and lofty +buildings between us and the distance. On one side Arthur's Seat, and +on the other the Castle, the crown of the city. The view extended far +and wide--on to the waters of the Forth and the blue hills of Fife. +The view is splendidly described by "Delta": -- + + "Traced like a map, the landscape lies + In cultured beauty, stretching wide: + Here Pentland's green acclivities,-- + There ocean, with its swelling tide,-- + There Arthur's Seat and gleaming through + Thy Southern wing, Dull Edin blue! + While, in the Orient, Lammer's daughters,-- + A distant giant range, are seen; + North Berwick Law, with cone of green, + And Bass amid the waters." + +Then we began to crack, our host leading the way with his humorous +observations. After taking our fill of rest and talk, we wended our +way down again, with the "wimplin' burn" by our side, fresh from the +pure springs of the hill, whispering its welcome to us. + +We had earned a good appetite for dinner, which was shortly laid before us. +The bill of fare was national, and included a haggis: + + "Fair fa' your honest sonsie face, + Great chieftain o' the puddin' race! + Weel are ye wordy o'a grace + As lang's my arm!" + +The haggis was admirably compounded and cooked, and was served forth by +our genial host with all appropriate accompaniments. But the most +enjoyable was the conversation of Lord Cockburn, who was a master of +the art--quick ready, humorous, and full of wit. At last, the day +came to a close, and we wended our way towards the city. + +Let me, however, before concluding, say a few words in reference to my +dear departed friend David Oswald Hill. His name calls up many +recollections of happy hours spent in his company. He was, in all +respects, the incarnation of geniality. His lively sense of humour, +combined with a romantic and poetic constitution of mind, and his fine +sense of the beautiful in Nature and art, together with his kindly and +genial feeling, made him, all in all, a most agreeable friend and +companion. "D. O. Hill," as he was generally called, was much attached +to my father. He was a very frequent visitor at our Edinburgh +fireside, and was ever ready to join in our extemporised walks and +jaunts, when he would overflow with his kindly sympathy and humour. +He was a skilful draughtsman, and possessed a truly poetic feeling for +art. His designs for pictures were always attractive, from the fine +feeling exhibited in their composition and arrangement. But somehow, +when he came to handle the brush, the result was not always +satisfactory--a defect not uncommon with artists. Altogether, +he was a delightful companion and a staunch friend, and his death made +a sad blank in the artistic society of Edinburgh. + + +CHAPTER 19. More about Astronomy. + +Astronomy, instead of merely being an amusement, became my chief study. +It occupied many of my leisure hours. Desirous of having the advantage +of a Reflecting Telescope of large aperture, I constructed one of +twenty-inches diameter. In order to avoid the personal risk and +inconvenience of having to mount to the eye-piece by a ladder, +I furnished the telescope tube with trunnions, like a cannon, with one +of the trunnions hollow so as to admit of the eye-piece. Opposite to +it a plain diagonal mirror was placed, to transmit the image to the +eye. The whole was mounted on a turn-table, having a seat opposite to +the eye-piece, as will be seen in the engraving on the other side. + +[Image] "Trunnion Vision" Reflecting telescope of 20-inch diameter + mounted on a turn-table. + +The observer, when seated, could direct the telescope to any part of +the heavens without moving from his seat. Although this arrangement +occasioned some loss of light, that objection was more than compensated +by the great convenience which it afforded for the prosecution of the +special class of observations in which I was engaged namely, that of +the Sun, Moon, and Planets. + +I wrote to my old friend Sir David Brewster, then living at St. Andrews, +in 1849, about this improvement and he duly congratulated me upon my +devotion to astronomical science. In his letter to me he brought to +mind many precious memories. + +"I recollect," he said, "with much pleasure the many happy hours that I +spent in your father's house; and ever since I first saw you in your +little workshop at Edinburgh,--then laying the foundation of your +future fortunes,--I have felt a deep interest in your success, and +rejoiced at your progress to wealth and reputation. + +"I have perused with much pleasure the account you have sent me of your +plan of shortening and moving large telescopes, and I shall state to +you the opinion which I have formed of it. If you will look into the +article 'Optics' in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia (vol. xv. p. 643), +you will find an account of what has been previously done to reduce by +one-half the length of reflecting telescopes. The advantage of +substituting, as you propose, a convex for a plane mirror arises from +two causes that a spherical surface is more easily executed than a +plane one; and that the spherical aberration of the larger speculum, +if it be spherical, will be diminished by the opposite aberration of +the convex one. This advantage, however, will disappear if the plane +mirror of the old construction is accurately plane; and in your case, +if the large speculum is parabolic and the small one elliptical in +their curvature. + +"The only objection to your construction is the loss of light; +first of one-fourth of the whole incident light by obstruction, and +then one-half of the remainder by reflection from the convex mirror, +thus reducing 100 rays of incident light to 37 1/2 before the pencil is +thrown out of the tube by a prism or a third reflector. This loss of +light, it is true, may be compensated by an additional inch or two to +the margin of the large speculum; but still it is the best part of the +large speculum that is made unproductive by the eclipse of it by the +convex speculum. "With regard to the mechanical contrivance which you +propose for working the instrument, I think it is singularly ingenious +and beautiful, and will compensate for any imperfection in the optical +arrangements which are rendered necessary for its adoption. +The application of the railway turn-table is very happy, and not less +so is the extraction of the image through the hollow trunnions. + +"I am much obliged to you for the beautiful drawing of the apparatus +for grinding and polishing specula, invented by Mr. Lassell and +constructed by yourself. I shall be glad to hear of your further +progress in the construction of your telescope; and I trust that I +shall have the pleasure of meeting you and Mr. Lassell at the +Birmingham meeting of the British Association. + +In the course of the same year (1849) I sent a model of my Trunnion +turn-table telescope for exhibition at a lecture at the Royal +Institution, given by my old friend Edward Cowper. In the model I had +placed a neat little figure of the observer, but the head had +unfortunately been broken off during its carriage to London. +Mrs. Nasmyth had made the wearing apparel; but Edward Cowper wrote to +her, before the lecture, that he had put "Sir Fireside Brick" all to +rights in respect of his garb. His letter after the lecture was quite +characteristic. + +"The lecture," he said, "went off very well last night. +All the models performed their duty, and were duly applauded for doing so. +My new equatorial was approved of by astronomers and by instrument-makers. +The last gun I fired was a howitzer, but mounted swivel-gun fashion; +on a sort of revolving platform, or something like a turn-table proper +--the gunner at the side of the carriage. Do you know anything of the +kind? Bang! Invented by one Nasmyth. Bang! The observer is sitting at +ease; the stars are brought down to you instead of your creeping up a +scaffolding after the stars. Well, the folks came to the table after +the lecture, and 'The Nasmyth Telescope' kept banging away for a +quarter of an hour, and was admired by everybody. The loss of light +was not much insisted on, but it was said that you ran the risk of +error of form in three surfaces instead of two. I see that Sir J. South +states that Lord Rosse would increase the light of his telescope from +five to seven by adopting Herschel's plan. + +"De La Rue was quite delighted. He said, 'Well, I congratulate you on +a most splendid lecture--I cannot call it anything else.' My father, +who takes very little interest in these things, said, 'Well, Edward has +made me understand more about telescopes than I ever did in my life.' +The theatre was full, gallery and all. They were very attentive, +and I never felt more comfortable in a lecture. I am happy to say that, +having administered a dose of cement to Mrs. Nasmyth's friend, +Sir Fireside Brick of Green Lanes, he is now in a convalescent state. +The lecture is to be repeated in another fortnight. With many thanks +for your kind assistance, yours very sincerely, + +"EDWARD COWPER." + +In the course of my astronomical inquiries I had occasion to consider +the causes of the sun's light. I observed the remarkable phenomena of +the variable and some times transitory brightness of the stars. In +connection with geology, there was the evidence of an arctic or glacial +climate in regions where such cannot now naturally exist; thus giving +evidence of the existence of a condition of climate, for the +explanation of which we look in vain for any at present known cause. +I wrote a paper on the subject, which I sent to the Astronomical +Society. It was read in May 1851. In that paper I wrote as follows: + +"A course of observations on the solar spots, and on the remarkable +features which from time to time appear on the sun's surface, which I +have examined with considerable assiduity for several years, had in the +first place led me to entertain the following conclusion: namely, that +whatever be the nature of solar light, its main source appears to +result from an action induced on the exterior surface of solar +sphere,-- a conclusion in which I doubt not all who have attentively +pursued observations on the structure of the sun's surface will agree. + +"Impressed with the correctness of this conclusion, I was led to +consider whether we might not reasonably consider the true source of +the latent element of light to reside, not in the solar orb, but in +space itself; and that the grand function and duty of the sun was to +act as an agent for bringing forth into vivid existence its due portion +of the illuminating or luciferous element, which element I suppose to +be diffused throughout the boundless regions of space, and which in +that case must be exhaustless. + +Assuming, therefore, that the sun's light is the result of some +peculiar action by which it brings forth into visible existence the +element of light, which I conceive to be latent in, and diffused +throughout space, we have but to imagine the existence of a very +probable condition, namely, the unequal diffusion of this +light-yielding element, to catch a glimpse of a reason why our sun may, +in common with his solar brotherhood, in some portions of his vast +stellar orbit, have passed, and may yet have to pass, through regions +of space, in which the light-yielding element may either abound or be +deficient, and so cause him to beam forth with increased splendour, +or fade in brilliancy, just in proportion to the richness or poverty of +this supposed light-yielding element as may occur in those regions of +space through which our sun, in common with every stellar orb, +has passed, is now passing, or is destined to pass, in following up +their mighty orbits. + +"Once admit that this light-yielding element resides in space, and that +it is not equally diffused, we may then catch a glimpse of the cause of +the variable and transitory brightness of stars,and more especially of +those which have been known to beam forth with such extraordinary +splendour, and have again so mysteriously faded away; many instances of +which abound in historical record. + +"Finally, in reference to such a state of change having come over our +sun, as indicated by the existence of a glacial period, as is now +placed beyond doubt by geological research, it appears to me no very +wild stretch of analogy to suppose that in such former periods of the +earth's history our sun may have passed through portions of his stellar +orbit in which the light-yielding element was deficient, and in which +case his brilliancy would have suffered the while, and an arctic +climate in consequence spread from the poles towards the equator, +and thus leave the record of such a condition in glacial handwriting on +the everlasting walls of our mountain ravines, of which there is such +abundant and unquestionable evidence. As before said, it is the +existence of such facts as we have in stars of transitory brightness, +and the above named evidence of an arctic climate existing in what are +now genial climates, that renders some adequate cause to be looked for. +I have accordingly hazarded the preceding remarks as suggestive of a +cause, in the hope that the subject may receive that attention which +its deep interest entitles it to obtain. + +"This view of the source of light, as respects the existence of the +luciferous element throughout space, accords with the Mosaic account of +creation, in so far as that light is described as having been created +in the first instance before the sun was called forth." +Dr Siemens read a paper before the Royal Society in March 1882, +on "A New Theory of the Sun". His views in many respects coincided +with mine.* + [footnote... +Interstellar space, according to Dr. Siemens, is filled with +attenuated matter, consisting of highly rarefied gaseous bodies-- +including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and aqueous vapour; +that these gaseous compounds are capable of being dissociated by +radiant solar energy while in a state of extreme attenuation; and that +the vapours so dissociated are drawn towards the sun in consequence of +solar rotation, are flashed into flame in the photosphere, and rendered +back into space in the condition of products of combustion. +With respect to the influence of the sun's light on geology, Dr. Siemens +says: "The effect of this continuous outpour of solar materials could +not be without very important influences as regards the geological +conditions of our earth. Geologists have long acknowledged the +difficulty of accounting for the amount of carbonic acid that must have +been in our atmosphere at one time or another in order to form with +lime those enormous beds of dolomite and limestone of which the crust +of our earth is in great measure composed. It has been calculated that +if this carbonic acid had been at one and the same time in our +atmosphere it would have caused an elastic pressure fifty times that of +our present atmosphere; and if we add the carbonic acid that must have +been absorbed in vegetation in order to form our coal-beds we should +probably have to double that pressure. Animal life, of which we had +abundant traces in these 'measures,' could not have existed under such +conditions, we are almost forced to the conclusion that the carbonic +acid must have been derived from an external source." + ...] + +Soon after my paper was read, Lord Murray of Henderland, an old friend, +then a Judge on the Scottish Bench, wrote to me as follows: --"I shall +be much obliged to you for a copy, if you have a spare one, of your +printed note on Light. It is expressed with great clearness and +brevity. If you wish to have a quotation for it, you may have recourse +to the blind Milton, who has expressed your views in his address to +Light: -- + + "'Hail, holy Light! offspring of heaven first-born + Or of the Eternal co-eternal beam + May I express thee unblamed? since God is light, + And never but in unapproached light + Dwelt from eternity--dwelt then in thee, + Bright effluence of bright essence increate!"' + +About the same time Sir Thomas Mitchell, Surveyor General of Australia, +communicated his notions on the subject. "My dear Sir," he wrote, +"Your kind and valuable communications are as welcome to me as the +sun's light, and I now thank you most gratefully for the last, with its +two enclosures. These, and especially your views as to the source of +light, afford me new scope for satisfactory thinking--a sort of +treasure one can always carry about, and, unlike other treasures, +is most valuable in the solitude of a desert. The beauty of your +theory as to the nature of the source of light is, that it rather +supports all preconceived notions respecting the soul, heaven, and an +immortal state." + +I still continued the study of astronomy. The sun, moon, and planets +yielded to me an inexhaustible source of delight. I gazed at them with +increasing wonder and awe. Among the glorious objects which the +telescope reveals, the most impressive is that of the starry heavens in +a clear dark night. When I directed my 20-inch reflecting telescope +almost at random to any part of the firmament, especially to any +portion of the Milky Way, the sight of myriads of stars brought into +view within the field of the eye-piece was overpoweringly sublime. + +When it is considered that every one of these stars which so +bewilderingly crowd the field of vision is, according to rational +probability, and, I might even say, absolute certainty, are Suns as +vast in magnitude as that which gives light to our globe, and yet +situated so inconceivably deep in the abyss of space as to appear +minute points of light even to the most powerful telescope, it will be +felt what a sublime subject appears before us. Turn the telescope to +any part of the heavens, it is the same. + +Let us suppose ourselves perched upon the farthest star which we are +enabled to see by the aid of the most powerful telescope. There, too, +we should see countless myriads of Suns, rolling along in their +appointed orbits, and thus on and on throughout eternity. What an idea +of the limitless extent of Creative Power--filling up infinite space +with the evidences of His Almighty Presence! The human mind feels its +utter impotency in endeavouring to grasp such a subject. + +I also turned my attention to the microscope. In 1851 I examined, by +the aid of this instrument, the infusoria in the Bridgewater Canal. +I found twenty-seven of them, of the most varied form, colour, +and movements. This was almost as remarkable a revelation as the +mighty phenomena of the heavens. I found these living things moving +about in the minutest drop of water. The sight of the wonderful range +of creative power--from the myriads of suns revealed by the +telescope, to the myriads of moving organisms revealed by the +microscope--filled me with unutterably devout wonder and awe. + +Moreover, it seemed to me to confer a glory even upon the instruments +of human skill, which elevated man to the Unseen and the Divine. +When we examine the most minute organisms, we find clear evidence in +their voluntary powers of motion that these creatures possess a will, +and that such Will must be conveyed by a nervous system of an +infinitesimally minute description. When we follow out such a train of +thought, and contrast the myriads of suns and planets at one extreme, +with the myriads of minute organised atoms at the other, we cannot but +feel inexpressible wonder at the transcendent range of Creative Power. + +Shortly after, I sent to the Royal Astronomical Society a paper on +another equally wonderful subject, "The Rotatory Movements of the +Celestial Bodies. As the paper is not very long, and as I endeavoured +to illustrate my ideas in a familiar manner, I may here give it entire: + +"What first set me thinking on this subject was the endeavour to get at +the reason of why water in a basin acquires a rotatory motion when a +portion of it is allowed to escape through a hole in the bottom. +Every well-trained philosophical judgment is accustomed to observe +illustrations of the most sublime phenomena of creation in the most +minute and familiar operations of the Creator's laws, one of the most +characteristic features of which consists in the absolute and wonderful +integrity maintained in their action whatsoever be the range as to +magnitude or distance of the objects on which they operate. + +"For instance, the minute particles of dew which whiten the grass-blade +in early morn are moulded into spheres by the identical law which gives +to the mighty sun its globular form! + +"Let us pass from the rotation of water in a basin to the consideration +of the particles of a nebulous mass just summoned into existence by the +fiat of the Creator--the law of gravitation coexisting. "The first +moment of the existence of such a nebulous mass would be inaugurated by +the election of a centre of gravity, and, instantly after, every +particle throughout the entire mass of such nebulae would tend to and +converge towards that centre of gravity. + +"Now let us consider what would be the result of this. It appears to +me that the inevitable consequence of the convergence of the particles +towards the centre of gravity of such a nebulous mass would not only +result in the formation of nucleus, but by reason of the physical +impossibility that all the converging particles should arrive at the +focus of convergence in directions perfectly radial and diametrically +opposite to each other, however slight the degree of deviation from the +absolute diametrically opposite direction in which the converging +particles coalesce at the focus of attraction, a twisting action would +result, and Rotation ensue, which, once engendered, be its intensity +ever so slight, from that instant forward the nucleus would continue to +revolve, and all the particles which its attraction would subsequently +cause to coalesce with it, would do so in directions tangential to its +surface, and not diametrically towards its centre. + +"In due course of time the entire of the remaining nebulous mass would +become affected with rotation from the more rapidly moving centre, and +would assume what appears to me to be their inherent normal condition, +namely, spirality, as the prevailing character of their structure; +and as that is actually the aspect which may be said to characterise the +majority of those marvellous nebulae, as revealed to us by Lord Rosse's +magnificent telescope, I am strongly impressed with the conviction that +such reasons as I have assigned have been the cause of their spiral +aspect and arrangement. + +"And by following up the same train of reasoning, it appears to me that +we may catch a glimpse of the primeval cause of the rotation of every +body throughout the regions of space, whether they be nebulae, stars, +double stars, or planetary systems. + +"The primary cause of rotation which I have endeavoured to describe in +the preceding remarks is essentially cosmical, and is the direct and +immediate offspring of the action of gravitation on matter in a +diffused, nebulous, and, as such, highly mobile condition. + +"It will be obvious that in the case of a nebulous mass, whose matter +is unequally distributed, that in such a case several sub-centres of +gravity would be elected, that is to say, each patch of nebulous matter +would have its own centre of gravity; but these in their turn +subordinate to that of the common centre of gravity of the whole +system, about which all such outlaying parts would revolve. +Each of the portions above alluded to would either be attracted by the +superior mass, and pass in towards it as a wisp of nebulous matter, +or else establish perfect individual and distinct rotation within +itself, and finally revolve about the great common centre of gravity of +the whole. + +"Bearing this in mind, and referring to some of the figures of the +marvellous spiral nebulae which Lord Rosse's telescope has revealed to +us, I shall now bring these suggestions to a conclusion. +I have avoided expanding them to the extent I feel the subject to be +worthy and capable of; but I trust such as I have offered will be +sufficient to convey a pretty clear idea of my views on this sublime +subject, which I trust may receive the careful consideration its nature +entitles it to. Let any one carefully reflect on the reason why water +assumes a rotatory motion when a portion of it is permitted to escape +from an aperture in the bottom of the circular vessel containing it; +if they will do so in the right spirit, I am fain to think they will +arrive at the same conclusion as the contemplation of this familiar +phenomenon has brought me to. + +" BRIDGEWATER FOUNDARY, June 7, 1855." + +I was present at a meeting of the Geological Society at Manchester in +1853, in the discussions of which I took part. + +I was much impressed by an address of the Rev. Dr. Vaughan +(then Principal of the Independent College at Manchester), which is as +interesting now as it was then. After referring to the influence which +geological changes had produced upon the condition of nations, and the +moral results which oceans, mountains, islands, and continents have had +upon the social history of man, he went on to say: "Is not this island +of ours indebted to these great causes? Oh, that blessed geological +accident that broke up a strait between Calais and Dover! It looks but +a little thing; it was a matter to take place; but how mighty the moral +results upon the condition and history of this country, and, through +this country's influence, upon humanity! Bridge over the space between, +and you have directly the huge continental barrack-yard system all over +England. And once get into the condition of a great continental +military power, and you get the arbitrary power; you cramp down the +people, and you unfit them from being what they ought to be--FREE And +all the good influences together at work in this country could not have +secured us against this, but for that blessed separation between this +Isle and the Continent." + +In 1853 I was appointed a member of the Small Arms Committee for the +purpose of re-modelling and, in fact, re-establishing the Small Arms +Factory at Enfield. The wonderful success of the needle gun in the war +between Prussia and Denmark in 1848 occasioned some alarm amongst our +military authorities as to the state of affairs at home. The Duke of +Wellington to the last proclaimed the sufficiency of "Brown Bess" as a +weapon of offence and defence; but matters could no longer be deferred. +The United States Government, though possessing only a very small +standing army, had established at Springfield a small arms factory, +where, by the use of machine tools specially designed to execute with +the most unerring precision all the details of muskets and rifles, +they were enabled to dispense with mere manual dexterity, and to +produce arms to any amount. It was finally determined to improve the +musketry and rifle systems of the English army. The Government +resolved to introduce the American system, by which Arms might be +produced much more perfectly, and at a great diminution of cost. +It was under such circumstances that the Small Arms Committee was +appointed. + +Colonel Colt had brought to England some striking examples of the +admirable machine tools used at Springfield, and he established a +manufactory at Pimlico for the production of his well-known revolvers. +The committee resolved to make a personal visit to the United States +Factory at Springfield. My own business engagements at home prevented +me accompanying the members who were selected; but as my friend John +Anderson (now Sir John), acted as their guide, the committee had in him +a most able and effective helper. He directed their attention to the +most important and available details of that admirable establishment. +The United States Government acted most liberally in allowing the +committee to obtain every information on the subject; and the heads of +the various departments, who were intelligent and zealous, rendered +them every attention and civility. + +The members of the mission returned home enthusiastically delighted +with the results of their inquiry.The committee immediately proceeded +with the entire re-modelling of the Small Arms Factory at Enfield. +The workshops were equipped with a complete series of special machine +tools, chiefly obtained from the Springfield factory. +The United States Government also permitted several of their best and +workman and superintendents to take service under the English Government. +Such was the origin of the Enfield rifle. The weapon came as near to +absolute perfection as possible, It was perfect in action, durable and +excellent in every respect even in it's conversion to the breechloader +it is still one of the best weapons. It is impossible to give too much +praise to Sir John Anderson and Colonel Dixon for the untiring and +intelligent zeal with which they carried out the plans, as well as for +the numerous improvements which they introduced. These have rendered +the Enfield Small Arms Factory one of the most perfect and best +regulated establishments in the kingdom. + + +CHAPTER 20. Retirement from Business. + +I had been for some time contemplating the possibility of retiring +altogether from business. I had got enough of the world's goods, and +was willing to make way for younger men. But I found it difficult to +break loose from old associations. Like the retired tallow-chandler, +I might wish to go back "on melting days." I had some correspondence +with my old friend David Roberts, Royal Academician, on the subject. +He wrote to me on the 2d June 1853, and said: + +"I rejoice to learn, from the healthy tone that breathes throughout +your epistle, that you are as happy as every one who knows you wishes +you to be, and as prosperous as you deserve. Knowing, also, as I do, +your feeling for art and all that tends to raise and dignify man, +I most sincerely congratulate you on the prospect of your being able to +retire, in the full vigour of manhood, to follow out that sublime +pursuit, in comparison with which the painter's art is but a faint +glimmering. 'The Landscape of other worlds' you alone have sketched +for us, and enlightened us on that with which the ancient world but +gazed upon and worshipped in the symbol of Astarte, Isis, and Diana. +We are matter-of-fact now, and have outlived childhood. What say you +to a photograph of those wonderful drawings? It may come to that."* + [footnote... +It did indeed "come to that," for I shortly after learned the art of +photography, chiefly for this special purpose. + ...] + +But I had something else yet to do in my special vocation. +In 1854 I took out a patent for puddling iron by means of steam. +Many of my readers may not know that cast-iron is converted into +malleable iron by the process called puddling. The iron, while in a +molten state, is violently stirred and agitated by a stiff iron rod, +having its end bent like a hoe or flattened hook, by which every +portion of the molten metal is exposed to the oxygen of the air, +and the supercharge of carbon which the cast iron contains is +thus "burnt out." When this is effectually done the iron becomes +malleable and weldable. + +This state of the iron is indicated by a general loss of fluidity, +accompanied by a tendency to gather together in globular masses. +The puddler, by his dexterous use of the end of the rabbling bar, +puts the masses together, and, in fact, welds the new-born particles of +malleable iron into puddle-balls of about three-quarters of a +hundredweight each. These are successively removed from the pool of +the puddling furnace, and subjected to the energetic blows of the steam +hammer, which drives out all the scoriae lurking within the spongy +puddle-balls, and thus welds them into compact masses of malleable iron. +When reheated to a welding heat, they are rolled out into flat bars or +round rods, in a variety of sizes, so as to be suitable for the consumer. + +The manual and physical labour of the puddler is tedious, fatiguing, +and unhealthy. The process of puddling occupies about an hour's +violent labour, and only robust young men can stand the fatigue and +violent heat. I had frequent opportunities of observing the labour and +unhealthiness of the process, as well as the great loss of time +required to bring it to a conclusion. It occurred to me that much of +this could be avoided by employing some other means for getting rid of +the superfluous carbon, and bringing the molten cast-iron into a +malleable condition. + +The method that occurred to me was the substitution of a small steam +pipe in the place of the puddler's rabbling bar. By having the end of +this steam pipe bent downwards so as to reach the bottom of the pool, +and then to discharge a current of steam beneath the surface of the +molten cast iron, I thought that I should by this simple means supply a +most effective carbon-oxidating agent, at the same time that I produced +a powerful agitating action within the pool. Thus the steam would be +decomposed and supply oxygen to the carbon of the cast-iron, while the +mechanical action of the rush of steam upwards would cause so violent a +commotion throughout the pool of melted iron as to exceed the utmost +efforts of the labour of the puddler. All the gases would pass up the +chimney of the puddling furnace, and the puddler would not be subject +to their influence. Such was the method specified in my patent of +l854* + [footnote... +Specification of James Nasmyth--Employment of steam in the process of +puddling iron. May 4, 1854; No. 1001. + ...] + +My friend, Thomas Lever Rushton, proprietor of the Bolton Ironworks, +was so much impressed with the soundness of the principle, as well as +with the great simplicity of carrying the invention into practical +effect, that he urged me to secure the patent, and he soon after gave +me the opportunity of trying the process at his works. The results +were most encouraging. There was a great saving of labour and time +compared with the old puddling process; and the malleable iron +produced was found to be of the highest order as regarded strength, +toughness, and purity. My process was soon after adopted by several +iron manufacturers with equally favourable results. Such, however, +was the energy of the steam, that unless the workmen were most careful +to regulate its force and the duration of its action, the waste of iron +by undue oxidation was such as in a great measure to neutralise its +commercial gain as regarded the superior value of the malleable iron +thus produced. + +Before I had time or opportunity to remove this commercial difficulty, +Mr. Bessemer had secured his patent of the l7th of October, 1855. +By this patent he employed a blast of air to do the same work as I had +proposed to accomplish by means of a blast of steam, forced up beneath +the surface of the molten cast iron. He added some other improvements, +with that happy fertility of invention which has always characterised +him. The results were so magnificently successful as to totally +eclipse my process, and to cast it comparatively into the shade. +At the same time I may say that I was in a measure the pioneer of his +invention, that I initiated a new system, and led to one of the most +important improvements in the manufacture of iron and steel that has +ever been given to the world. + +Mr. Bessemer brought the subject of his invention before the meeting of +the British Association at Cheltenham in the autumn of 1856. There he +read his paper "On the Manufacture of Iron into Steel without Fuel."* + [footnote... +On the morning of the day on which the paper was to be read, +Mr. Bessemer was sitting at breakfast at his hotel, when an ironmaster +(to whom he was unknown) said, laughing, to a friend within his +hearing, "Do you know that there is somebody come down from London to +read us a paper on making steel from cast iron without fuel? Did you +ever hear of such nonsense?" The title of the paper was perhaps a +misnomer, but the correctness of the principles on which the pig iron +was converted into malleable iron, as explained by the inventor, +was generally recognised, and there seemed every reason to anticipate +that the process would before long come into general use. + ...] + +I was present on the occasion, and listened to his statement with +mingled feelings of regret and enthusiasm--of regret, because I had +been so clearly superseded and excelled in my performances; and of +enthusiasm--because I could not but admire and honour the genius who +had given so great an invention to the mechanical world. +I immediately took the opportunity of giving my assent to the +principles which he had propounded. My words were not reported at the +time, nor was Mr. Bessemer's paper printed by the Association, perhaps +because it was thought of so little importance but, on applying to +Mr. (now Sir Henry) Bessemer, he was so kind as to give me the following +as his recollection of the words which I used on the occasion. + +"I shall ever feel grateful," says Sir Henry, "for the noble way in +which you spoke at the meeting at Cheltenham of my invention. +If I remember rightly, you held up a piece of my malleable iron, saying +words to this effect: 'Here is a true British nugget! Here is a new +process that promises to put an end to all puddling; and I may mention +that at this moment there are puddling furnaces in successful operation +where my patent hollow steam Rabbler is at work, producing iron of +superior quality by the introduction of jets of steam in the puddling +process. I do not, however, lay any claim to this invention of +Mr. Bessemer; but I may fairly be entitled to say that I have advanced +along the road on which he has travelled so many miles, and has +effected such unexpected results that I do not hesitate to say that I +may go home from this meeting and tear up my patent, for my process of +puddling is assuredly superseded.'" + +After giving an account of the true origin of his process, in which he +had met with failures as well as successes, but at last recognised the +decarburation of pig iron by atmospheric air, Sir Henry proceeds to +say: + +"I prepared to try another experiment, in a crucible having no hole the +the bottom, but which was provided with an iron pipe put through a hole +in the cover, and passing down nearly to the bottom of the crucible. +The small lumps and grains of iron were packed around fit, so as nearly +to fill the crucible. A blast of air was to be forced down the pipe so +as to rise up among the pieces of granular iron and partially +decarburise them. The pipe could then be withdrawn, and the fire urged +until the metal with its coat of oxyde was fused, and cast steel +thereby produced. + +"While the blowing apparatus for this experiment was being fitted up, +I was taken with one of those short but painful illnesses to which I +was subject at that time. I was confined to my bed, and it was then +that my mind, dwelling for hours together on the experiment about to be +made, suggested that instead of trying to decarburise the granulated +metal by forcing the air down the vertical pipe among the pieces of +iron, the air would act much more energetically and more rapidly if I +first melted the iron in the crucible, and forced the air down the pipe +below the surface of the fluid metal, and thus burn out the carbon and +silicum which it contained. + +"This appeared so feasible, and in every way so great an improvement, +that the experiment on the granular pieces was at once abandoned, and, +as soon as I was well enough, I proceeded to try the experiment of +forcing the air under the fluid metal. The result was marvellous. +Complete decarburation was effected in half an hour. The heat produced +was immense, but, unfortunately more than half the metal was blown out +of the pot. This led to the use of pots with large hollow perforated +covers, which effectually prevented the loss of metal. +These experiments continued from January to October 1855. I have by me +on the mantelpiece at this moment, a small piece of rolled bar iron +which was rolled at Woolwich arsenal, and exhibited a year later at +Cheltenham. + +"I then applied for a patent, but before preparing my provisional +specification (dated October 17, 1855), I searched for other patents to +ascertain whether anything of the sort had been done before. +I then found your patent for puddling with the steam rabble, and also +Martin's patent for the use of steam in gutters while molten iron was +being conveyed from the blast furnace to a finery, there to be refined +in the ordinary way prior to puddling. + +"I then tried steam in my cast steel process, alone, and also mixed +with air. I found that it cooled the metal very much, and of itself +could not be used, as it always produced solidification. +I was nevertheless advised to claim the use of steam as well as air in +my particular process (lest it might be used against me), at the same +time disclaiming its employment for any purpose except in the +production of fluid malleable iron or steel. And I have no doubt it is +to this fact that I referred when speaking to you on the occasion you +mention. I have deemed it best that the exact truth--so far as a +short history can give it--should be given at once to you, who are so +true and candid. Had it not been for you and Martin I should probably +never have proposed the use of steam in my process, but the use of air +came by degrees, just in the way I have described." + +It was thoroughly consistent with Mr. Bessemer's kindly feelings +towards me, that, after our meeting at Cheltenham, he made me an offer +of one-third share of the value of his patent. This would have been +another fortune to me. But I had already made money enough. +I was just then taking down my signboard and leaving business. +I did not need to plunge into any such tempting enterprise, +and I therefore thankfully declined the offer. + +Many long years of pleasant toil and exertion had done their work. +A full momentum of prosperity had been given to my engineering business +at Patricroft. My share in the financial results accumulated with +accelerated rapidity to an amount far beyond my most sanguine hopes. +But finding, from long continued and incessant mental efforts, that my +nervous system was beginning to become shaken, especially in regard to +an affection of the eyes, which in some respects damaged my sight, +I thought the time had arrived for me to retire from commercial life. + +Some of my friends advised me to "slack off," and not to retire +entirely from Bridgewater Foundry. But to do so was not in my nature. +I could not be indifferent to any concern in which I was engaged. +I must give my mind and heart to it as before. I could not give half +to leisure, and half to business. I therefore concluded that a final +decision was necessary. Fortunately I possessed an abundant and +various stock of hobbies. I held all these in reserve to fall back +upon. They would furnish me with an almost inexhaustible source of +healthy employment. They might give me occupation for mind and body as +long as I lived. I bethought me of the lines of Burns: + + "Wi' steady aim some Fortune chase; + Keen hope does ev'ry sinew brace; + Thro' fair, thro' foul, they urge the race, + And seize the prey: + Then cannie, in some cosy place, + They close the day." + +It was no doubt a great sorrow for me and my dear wife to leave the +Home in which we had been so happy and prosperous for so many years. +It was a cosy little cottage at Patricroft. We had named it "Fireside." +It was small, but suitable for our requirements. +We never needed to enlarge it, for we had no children to accommodate. +It was within five minutes' walk of the Foundry, and I was scarcely +ever out of reach of the Fireside, where we were both so happy. +It had been sanctified by our united love for thirteen years. +It was surrounded by a nice garden, planted with trees and shrubs. +Though close to the Bridgewater Canal, and a busy manufacturing +population was not far off, the cottage was perfectly quiet. +It was in this garden, when I was arranging the telescope at night, +that I had been detected by the passing boatman as "The Patricroft Ghost" + +When we were about to leave Patricroft, the Countess of Ellesmere, +who, as well as the Earl, had always been our attached friends, +wrote to my wife as follows: "I can well understand Mr. Nasmyth's +satisfaction at the emancipation he looks forward to in December next. +But I hope you do not expect us to share it! for what is so much +natural pleasure to you is a sad loss and privation to us. +I really don't know how we shall get on at Worsley without you. +You have nevertheless my most sincere and hearty good wishes that the +change may be as grateful to you both as anything in this world can be." + +Yet we had to tear ourselves away from this abode of peace and +happiness. I had given notice to my partner* + [footnote... +The "Partner" here referred to, was my excellent friend Henry Garnett, +Esq., of Wyre Side, near Lancaster. He had been my sleeping partner or +"Co." for nearly twenty years, and the most perfect harmony always +existed between us. + ...] +that it was my intention to retire from business at the end of 1856. +The necessary arrangements were accordingly made for carrying on the +business after my retirement. All was pleasantly and satisfactorily +settled several months before I finally left; and the character and +prosperity of the Bridgewater Foundry have been continued to the +present day. + +But where was I to turn to for a settled home? Many years before I had +seen a charming picture by my brother Patrick of "A Cottage in Kent" +It took such a hold of my memory and imagination that I never ceased to +entertain the longing and ambition to possess such a cottage as a cosy +place of refuge for the rest of my life. Accordingly, about six months +before my final retirement, I accompanied my wife in a visit to the +south. In the first place we made a careful selection from the +advertisements in the Times of "desirable residences" in Kent. +One in particular appeared very tempting. We set out to view it. +It seemed to embody all the conditions that we had pictured in our +imagination as necessary to fulfil the idea of our "Cottage in Kent." +It had been the property of F. R. Lee, the Royal Academician. +With a few alterations and additions it would entirely answer our +purpose. So we bought the property. + +I may mention that when I retired from business, and took out of it the +fortune that had accumulated during my twenty-two years of assiduous +attention and labour, I invested the bulk of it in Three per cent +Consols. The rate of interest was not high, but it was nevertheless +secure. High interest, as every one knows, means riskful security. +I desired to have no anxiety about the source of my income, such as +might hinder my enjoying the rest of my days in the active leisure +which I desired. I had for some time before my retirement been +investing in consols, which my dear wife termed "the true antibilious +stock," and I have ever since had good reason to be satisfied with that +safe and tranquillising investment. All who value the health-conserving +influence of the absence of financial worry will agree with me that +this antibilious stock is about the best. + +The "Cottage in Kent" was beautiful, especially in its rural +surroundings. The view from it was charming, and embodied all the +attractive elements of happy-looking English scenery. The noble old +forest trees of Penshurst Park were close alongside, and the grand old +historic mansion of Penshurst Place was within a quarter of a mile's +distance from our house. There were many other beautiful parks and +country residences in our neighbourhood; the railway station, which was +within thirty-five minutes' pleasant walk, enabling us to be within +reach of London, with its innumerable attractions, in little more than +an hour and a quarter. Six acres of garden-ground at first surrounded +our cottage, but these were afterwards expanded to sixteen; and the +whole was made beautiful by the planting of trees and shrubs over the +grounds. In all this my wife and myself took the greatest delight. + +[Image] Hammerfield, Penshurst. + +From my hereditary regard for hammers--two broken hammer-shafts being +the crest of our family for hundreds of years--I named the place +Hammerfield; and so it remains to this day. The improvements and +additions to the house and the grounds were considerable. A greenhouse +was built, 120 feet long by 32 feet wide. Roomy apartments were added +to the house. The trees and shrubs planted about the grounds were +carefully selected. The coniferae class were my special favourites. +I arranged them so that their natural variety of tints should form the +most pleasing contrasts. In this respect I introduced the beech-tree +with the happiest effect. It is bright green in spring, and in the +autumn it retains its beautiful ruddy-tinted leaves until the end of +winter, when they are again replaced by the new growth. + +The warm tint of the beech contrasts beautifully with the bright green +of the coniferae, especially of the Lawsoniania and the Douglassi-- +the latter being one of the finest accessions to our list of conifers. +It is graceful in form, and perfectly hardy. I also interspersed with +these several birch-trees, whose slender and graceful habit of growth +forms so fine a contrast to the dense foliage of the conifers. +To thus paint, as it were, with trees, is a high source of pleasure in +gardening. Among my various enjoyments this has been about the greatest. + +During the time that the alterations and enlargements were in progress +we rented a house for six months at Sydenham, close to the beautiful +grounds of the Crystal Palace. This was a most happy episode in our +lives, for, besides the great attractions of the place, both inside and +out, there were the admirable orchestral daily concerts, at which we +were constant attendants. We had the pleasure of listening to the +noble compositions of the great masters of music, the perfectly trained +band being led by Herr Manns, who throws so much of his fine natural +taste and enthusiastic spirit into the productions as to give them +every possible charm. + +From a very early period of my life I have derived the highest +enjoyment from listening to music, especially to melody, which is to me +the most pleasing form of composition. When I have the opportunity of +listening to such kind of music, it yields me enjoyment that transcends +all others. It suggests ideas, and brings vividly before the mind's +eye scenes that move the imagination. This is, to me, the highest +order of excellence in musical composition. I used long ago, and still +continue, to whistle a bit, especially when engaged in some pleasant +occupation. I can draw from my mental repository a vast number of airs +and certain bits of compositions that I had once heard. I possess that +important qualification for a musician--"a good ear;" and I always +worked most successfully at a mechanical drawing when I was engaged in +whistling some favourite air. The dual occupation of the brain had +always the best results in the quick development of the constructive +faculty. And even in circumstances where whistling is not allowed I +can think airs, and enjoy them almost as much as when they are +distinctly audible. This power of the brain, I am fain to believe, +indicates the natural existence of the true musical faculty. But I had +been so busy during the course of my life that I had never any +opportunity of learning the practical use of any musical instrument. +And here I must leave this interesting subject. + +So soon as I was in due possession of my house, I had speedily +transported thither all my art treasures--my telescopes, my home +stock of tools, the instruments of my own construction, made from the +very beginning of my career as a mechanic, and associated with the most +interesting and active parts of my life. I lovingly treasured them, +and gave them an honoured place in the workshop which I added to my +residence. There they are now, and I often spend a busy and delightful +hour in handling my tools. It is curious how the mere sight of such +objects brings back to the memory bygone incidents and recollections. +Friends long dead seem to start up while looking at them. You almost +feel as if you could converse with the departed. I do not know of +anything so touchingly powerful in vividly bringing back the treasured +incidents and memories of one's life as the sight of such humble +objects. Every one has, no doubt, a treasured store of such material +records of a well-remembered portion of his past life. These strike, +as it were, the keynote to thoughts that bring back in vivid form the +most cherished remembrances of our lives. On many occasions I have +seen at sale rooms long treasured hoards of such objects thrown +together in a heap as mere rubbish. And yet these had been to some the +sources of many pleasant thoughts and recollections, But the last final +break-up has come, and the personal belongings of some departed kind +heart are scattered far and wide. These touching relics of a long +life, which had almost become part of himself, are "knocked down" to +the lowest class of bidders. It is a sad sight to witness the uncared +for dispersion of such objects--objects that had been lovingly stored +up as the most valued of personal treasures. I could have wished that, +as was the practice in remote antiquity, such touching relics were +buried with the dead, as their most fitting repository. Then they +might have left some record, instead of being desecrated by the harpies +who wait at sales for such "job lots." + +Behold us, then, settled down at Hammerfield for life. We had plenty +to do. My workshop was fully equipped. My hobbies were there, +and I could work them to my heart's content. The walls of our various +rooms were soon hung with pictures, and other works of art, suggestive +of many pleasant associations of former days. Our library book-case +was crowded with old friends, in the shape of books that had been read +and re-read many times, until they had become almost part of ourselves. +Old Lancashire friends made their way to us when "up in town," +and expressed themselves delighted with our pleasant house and its +beautiful surroundings. + +The continuous planting of the shrubs and trees gave us great pleasure. +Those already planted had grown luxuriantly, fed by the fertile soil +and the pure air. Indeed, in course of time they required the +judicious use of the axe in order to allow the fittest to survive and +grow at their own free will. Trees contrive to manage their own +affairs without the necessity of much labour or interference. +The "survival of the fittest" prevails here as elsewhere. It is always +a pleasure to watch them. There are many ordinary old-fashioned +roadside flowering plants which I esteem for their vigorous beauty, +and I enjoy seeing them assume the careless grace of Nature. + +The greenhouse is also a source of pleasure, especially to my dear +wife. It is full of flowers of all kinds, of which she is devotedly +fond. They supply her with subjects for her brush or her needle. +She both paints them and works them by her needle in beautiful forms +and groups. This is one of her many favourite hobbies. All this is +suitable to our fireside employments, and makes the days and the +evenings pass pleasantly away. + + +CHAPTER 21. Active leisure. + +When James Watt retired from business towards the close of his useful +and admirable life, he spoke to his friends of occupying himself with +"ingenious trifles," and of turning "some of his idle thoughts" upon +the invention of an arithmetical machine and a machine for copying +sculpture. These and other useful works occupied his attention for +many years. + +It was the same with myself. I had good health (which Watt had not) +and abundant energy. When I retired from business I was only +forty-eight years old, which may be considered the prime of life. +But I had plenty of hobbies, perhaps the chief of which was Astronomy. +No sooner had I settled at Hammerfield than I had my telescopes brought +out and mounted. The fine clear skies with which we were favoured, +furnished me with abundant opportunities for the use of my instruments. +I began again my investigations on the Sun and the Moon, and made some +original discoveries, of which more anon. + +Early in the year 1858 I received a pressing invitation from the +Council of the Edinburgh Philosophical Society to give a lecture before +their members on the Structure of the Lunar Surface. As the subject +was a favourite one with me, and as I had continued my investigations +and increased my store of drawings since I had last appeared before an +Edinburgh audience, I cheerfully complied with their request. +I accordingly gave my lecture before a crowded meeting in the +Queen Street Lecture Hall. + +The audience appeared to be so earnestly interested by the subject that +I offered to appear before them on two successive evenings and give any +viva voce explanations about the drawings which those present might +desire. This deviation from the formality of a regular lecture was +attended with the happiest results. Edinburgh always supplies a +highly-intelligent audience, and the cleverest and brightest were ready +with their questions. I was thus enabled to elucidate the lecture and +to expand many of the most interesting points connected with the moon's +surface, such as might formerly have appeared obscure. These questioning +lectures gave the highest satisfaction. They satisfied myself as well +as the audience, who went away filled with the most graphic information +I could give them on the subject. + +But not the least interesting part of my visit to Edinburgh on this +occasion was the renewed intercourse which I enjoyed with many of my +old friends. Among these were my venerable friend Professor Pillans, +Charles Maclaren (editor of the Scotsman), and Robert Chambers. +We had a long dander together through the Old Town, our talk being in +broad Scotch. Pillans was one of the fine old Edinburgh Liberals, +who stuck to his principles through good report and through evil. +In his position as Rector of the High School, he had given rare +evidence of his excellence as a classical scholar. He was afterwards +promoted to be a Professor in the University. He had as his pupils +some of the most excellent men of my time. Amongst his intimate +friends were Sydney Smith, Brougham, Jeffrey, Cockburn--men who gave +so special a character to the Edinburgh society of that time. + +We had a delightful stroll through some of the most remarkable parts of +the Old Town, with Robert Chambers as our guide. We next mounted +Arthur's Seat to observe some of the manifestations of volcanic action, +which had given such a remarkable structure to the mountain. +On this subject, Charles Maclaren was one of the best living expounders. +He was an admirable geologist, and had closely observed the features of +volcanic action round his native city. Robert Chambers then took us to +see the glacial grooved rocks on another part of the mountain. +On this subject he was a master. It was a vast treat to me to see +those distinct evidences of actions so remotely separated in point of +geological time--in respect to which even a million of years is a +humble approximate unit* + [footnote... +"It is to our ever-dropping climate, with its hundred and fifty-two days +of annual rain, that we owe our vegetable mould with its rich and +beauteous mantle of sward and foliage. And next, stripping from off +the landscape its sands and gravels, we see its underlying boulder-clays, +dingy and gray, and here presenting their vast ice-borne stones, +and there its iceberg pavements. And these clays in turn stripped away, +the bare rocks appear, various in colour and uneven in surface, +but everywhere grooved and polished, from the sea level and beneath it, +to the height of more than a thousand feet, by evidently the same agent +that careered along the pavements and transported the great stones. + +HUGH MILLER'S Geological Features of Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood. + ...] + +What a fine subject for a picture the group would have made! with the +great volcanic summit of the mountain behind, the noble romantic city +in the near distance, and the animated intelligent countenaces of the +demonstrators, with the venerable Pillans eagerly listening--for the +Professor was then in his eighty-eighth year. I had the happiness of +receiving a visit from him at Hammerfield in the following year. +He was still hale and active; and although I was comparatively a boy to +him, he was as bright and clear-headed as he had been forty years before. + +In the course of the same year I accompanied my wife and my sister +Charlotte on a visit to the Continent. It was their first sojourn in +foreign parts. I was able, in some respects, to act as their guide. +Our visit to Paris was most agreeable. During the three weeks we were +there, we visited the Louvre, the Luxembourg, Versailles, and the parts +round about. We made many visits to the Hotel Cluny, and inspected its +most interesting contents, as well as the Roman baths and that part of +the building devoted to Roman antiquities. We were especially +delighted with the apartments of the Archbishop of Paris, now hung with +fine old tapestry and provided with authentic specimens of mediaeval +furniture. The quaint old cabinets were beautiful studies; and many +artists were at work painting them in oil. Everything was in harmony. +When the sun shone in through the windows in long beams of coloured +light, illuminating portions of the antique furniture, the pictures +were perfect. We were much interested also by the chapel in which +Mary Queen of Scots was married to the Dauphin. It is still in complete +preservation. The Gothic details of the chapel are quite a study; +and the whole of these and the contents of this interesting Museum form +a school of art of the best kind. + +From Paris we paid a visit to Chartres, which contains one of the most +magnificent cathedrals in France. Its dimensions are vast, +its proportions are elegant, and its painted glass is unequalled. +Nothing can be more beautiful than its three rose-windows. But I am +not writing a guide-book, and I must forbear. After a few days more at +Paris we proceeded south, and visited Lyons, Avignon, and Nismes, on +our way to Marseilles. I have already described Nismes in my previous +visit to France. I revisited the Roman amphitheatre, the Maison Quarree, +that perfect Roman temple, which, standing as it does in an open +square, is seen to full advantage. We also went to see the magnificent +Roman aqueduct at Pont du Gard. The sight of the noble structure well +repays a visit. It consists of three tiers of arches. Its magnitude, +the skilful fitting of its enormous blocks, makes a powerful impression +on the mind. It has stood there, in that solitary wooded valley, +for upwards of sixteen centuries; and it is still as well fitted for +conveying its aqueduct of water as ever. I have seen nothing to +compare with it, even at Rome. It throws all our architectural buildings +into the shade. On our way back from Marseilles to Paris we visited +Grenoble and its surrounding beautiful Alpine scenery. +Then to Chambery, and afterwards to Chamounix, where we obtained a +splendid view of Mont Blanc. We returned home by way of Geneva and +Paris, vastly delighted with our most enjoyable journey. + +I return to another of my hobbies. I had an earnest desire to acquire +the art and mystery of practical photography. I bought the necessary +apparatus, together with the chemicals; and before long I became an +expert in the use of the positive and negative collodion process, +including the printing from negatives, in all the details of that +wonderful and delightful art. To any one who has some artistic taste, +photography, both in its interesting processes and glorious results, +becomes a most attractive and almost engrossing pursuit. It is a +delightful means of educating the eye for artistic feeling, as well as +of educating the hands in delicate manipulation. I know of nothing +equal to photography as a means of advancing one's knowledge in these +respects. I had long meditated a work "On the Moon," and it was for +this purpose more especially that I was earnest in endeavouring to +acquire the necessary practical skill. I was soon enabled to obtain +photographic copies of the elaborate models of parts of the moon's, +surface, which I had long before prepared. These copies were hailed by +the highest authorities in this special department of astronomical +research as the best examples of the moon's surface which had yet been +produced. + +In reference to this subject, as well as to my researches into the +structure of the sun's surface, I had the inestimable happiness of +securing the friendship of that noble philosopher, Sir John Herschel. +His visits to me, and my visits to him, have left in my memory the most +cherished and happy recollections. Of all the scientific men I have +had the happiness of meeting, Sir John stands supremely at the head of +the list. He combined profound knowledge with perfect humility. +He was simple, earnest, and companionable, He was entirely free from +assumptions of superiority, and, still learning, would listen +attentively to the humblest student. He was ready to counsel and +instruct, as well as to receive information. He would sit down in my +workshop, and see me go through the various technical processes of +casting, grinding, and polishing specula for reflecting telescopes. +That was a pleasure to him, and a vast treat to me. + +I had been busily occupied for some time in making careful investigations +into the dark spots upon the Sun's surface. These spots are of +extraordinary dimensions, sometimes more than 10,000 miles in diameter. +Our world might be dropped into them. I observed that the spots were +sometimes bridged over by a streak of light, formed of +willow-leaf-shaped objects. They were apparently possessed of +voluntary motion, and moved from one side of the spot to the other. +These flakes were evidently the immediate sources of the solar light +and heat. I wrote a paper on the subject, which I sent to the Literary +and Philosophical Society of Manchester.* + [footnote... +Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, +3d series, vol. i. p. 407. My first discovery of the "Willow-leaf" +objects on the Sun's surface was made in June 1860.I afterwards +obtained several glimpses of them from time to time.But the occasions +are very rare when the bright sun can be seen in a tranquil atmosphere +free from vibrations, and when the delicate objects on its surface can +be clearly defined. It was not until the 5th of June 1864 that I +obtained the finest sight of the Sun's spots and the Willow-leaf objects; +it was then that I made a careful drawing of them, from which the +annexed faithful engraving has been produced. Indeed I never had a +better sight of this extraordinary aspect of the Sun than on that day. + ...] + +The results of my observations were of so novel a character that +astronomers for some time hesitated to accept them as facts. +Yet Sir John Herschel, the chief of astronomers, declared them to be +"a most wonderful discovery" + +[Image] Group of sun spots as seen by James Nasmyth, 5th June 1864. + +I received a letter from Sir John, dated Collingwood, 2lst of May 1861, +in which he said: + +"I am very much obliged to you for your note, and by the sight of your +drawings, which Mr. Maclaren was so kind as to bring over here the +other day. I suppose there can be no doubt as to the reality of the +willow-leaved flakes, and in that case they certainly are the most +marvellous phenomena that have yet turned up--had almost said in all +Nature--certainly in all Astronomy. + +"What can they be? Are they huge phosphorised fishes? If so, what +monsters! Or are they crystals? a kind of igneous snow-flakes? +floating in a fluid of their own, or very nearly their own, specific +gravity? Some kind of solidity or coherence they must have, or they +would not retain their shape in the violent movements of the atmosphere +which the change of the spots indicate. + +"I observe that in the bridges all their axes have an approximate +parallelism, and that in the penumbra they are dispersed, radiating +from the inside and the outside of the spot, giving rise to that +striated appearance which is familiar to all observers of the spots. + +"I am very glad that you have pitched your tent in this part of the +world, and I only wish it were a little nearer. You will anyhow have +the advantage at Penshurst of a much clearer atmosphere than in the +north; but here, nearer the coast, I think we are still better off. +"Mr. Maclaren holds out the prospect of our meeting you at Pachley at +no distant period, and I hope you will find your way ere long to +Collingwood. I have no instruments or astronomical apparatus to show +you, but a remarkably pretty country, which is beginning to put on +(rather late) its gala dress of spring?' + +Sir John afterwards requested my permission to insert in his +Outlines of Astronomy, of which a new edition was about to appear, a +representation of "the willow-leaved structure of the Sun's surface," +--which had been published in the Manchester transactions,--to which +I gladly gave my assent. Sir John thus expresses himself on the +subject: --"The curious appearance of the 'pores' of the Sun's surface +has lately received a most singular and unexpected interpretation from +the remarkable discovery of Mr. J. Nasmyth, who, from a series of +observations made with a reflecting telescope of his own construction +under very high magnifying powers, and under exceptional circumstances +of tranquillity and definition, has come to the conclusion that these +pores are the polygonal interstices between certain luminous objects of +an exceedingly definite shape and general uniformity of size, +whose form (at least as seen in projection in the central portions of +the disc) is that of the oblong leaves of a willow tree. These cover +the whole disc of the Sun (except in the space occupied by spots) in +countless millions, and lie crossing each other in every imaginable +direction.... This most astonishing revelation has been confirmed to a +certain considerable extent, and with some modifications as to the form +of the objects, their exact uniformity of size and resemblance of +figure, by Messrs. De la Rue, Pritchard and Stone in England, +and M. Secchi in Rome." + +On the 25th of February 1864, I received a communication from +Mr. E. J. Stone, first assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. + +The Astronomer-Royal, he said, "has placed in my hands your letter of +February 20. Your discovery of the 'willow leaves' on the Solar +photosphere having been brought forward at one of the late meetings of +the Royal Astronomical Society, my attention was attracted to the +subject. At my request, the Astronomer-Royal ordered of Mr. J. Simms a +reflecting eye-piece for our great equatorial. The eye-piece was +completed about the end of January last, and at the first good +opportunity I turned the telescope on the Sun. + +"I may state that my impression was, and it appears to have been the +impression of several of the assistants here, that the willow leaves +stand out dark against the luminous photosphere. On looking at the +Sun, I was at once struck with the apparent resolvability of its +mottled appearance. The whole disc of the Sun, so far as I examined +it, appeared to be covered over with relatively bright rice-like +particles, and the mottled appearance seemed to be produced by the +interlacing of these particles. + +"I could not observe any particular arrangement of the particles, but +they appeared to be more numerous in some parts than in others. +I have used the word 'rice-like' merely to convey a rough impression of +their form. I have seen them on two occasions since, but not so well +as on the first day, when the definition was exceedingly good. + +"on the first day that I saw them I called Mr Dunkin's attention to +them. He appears to have seen them. He says, however, that he should +not have noticed them if his attention had not been called to them." + +The Astronomer Royal, in his report to the Admiralty on my discovery, +said: + +"an examination of the Sun's surface with the South-East Equatorial, +under favourable circumstances, has convinced me of the accuracy of the +description, which compares it with interlacing willow leaves or rice +grains." + +In March 1864 I received a letter from my friend De la Rue, dated from +his observatory at Cranford, Middlesex, in which he said: "I like good +honest doubting. Before I had seen with my own eyes your willow +leaves, I doubted their real existence, but I did not doubt your having +seen what you had drawn. But when I actually saw them for the first +time, I could not restrain the exclamation, ' Why, here are Nasmyth's +willow leaves! ' It requires a very fine state of the atmosphere to +permit of their being seen, as I have seen them on three or four +occasions, when their substantial reality can no longer be doubted."* + [footnote... +Let me give another letter from my friend, dated the Observatory, +Cranford, Middlesex, October 26, 1864. He said:- +"I am quite pleased to learn that you like the large photograph. +The first given to my friend was destined for and sent to you. +No one has so great a claim on the fruit of my labours; for you +inoculated me with the love of star-gazing, and gave me invaluable aid +and advice in figuring specula. I daresay you may remember the first +occasion on which I saw a reflecting telescope, which was then being +tried on the sun in a pattern loft at Patricroft. You may also recall +the volumes you wrote in answer to my troublesome questions. +Yours very sincerely WARREN DE LA RUE." + ...] + +Sir John Herschel confirmed this information in a letter which I +received from him in the following May. He said "that Mr. De la Rue +and a foreign gentleman, Hugo Muller, had been very successful in +seeing and delineating the 'willow leaves' They are represented by +Mr. M. as packed together on the edge of a spot, and appear rather like +a bunch of bristles or thorns. In other respects the individual forms +agree very well with your delineations." Another observer had +discovered a marvellous resemblance between the solar spots and the +hollows left by the breaking and subsidence of bubbles, which rise when +oil varnish, which has moisture in it, is boiled, and the streaky +channels are left by the retiring liquid. "I cannot help," adds +Sir John, "fancying a bare possibility of some upward outbreak, +followed by a retreat of some gaseous matter, or some dilated portion +of the general atmosphere struggling upwards, and at the same time +expanding outwards. I can conceive of an up-surge of some highly +compressed matter, which relieved of pressure, will dilate laterally +and upwards to an enormous extent (as Poullett Scrope supposes of his +lavas full of compressed gases and steam), producing the spots, and, +in that case, the furrows might equally well arise in the origination +as in the closing in of a spot." + +I had the honour and happiness of receiving a visit from Sir John +Herschel at my house at Hammerfield in the summer of 1864. +He was accompanied by his daughter. They spent several days with us. +The weather was most enjoyable. I had much conversation with Sir John +as to the Sun spots and willow-leaf-shaped objects on the Sun's +surface, as well as about my drawings of the Moon. I exhibited to him +my apparatus for obtaining sound castings of specula for reflecting +telescopes. I compounded the alloy, melted it, and cast a 10-inch +speculum on my peculiar common-sense system. I introduced the molten +alloy, chilled it in a metal mould, by which every chance of flaws and +imperfections is obviated. I also showed him the action and results of +my machine, by which I obtained the most exquisite polish and figure +for the speculum. Sir John was in the highest degree cognisant of the +importance of these details, as contributing to the final excellent +result. It was therefore with great pleasure that I could exhibit +these practical details before so competent a judge. + +We had a great set-to one day in blowing iridescent soap bubbles from a +mixture of soap and glycerine. Some of the bubbles were of about +fifteen inches diameter. By carefully covering them with a bell glass, +we kept them for about thirty-six hours, while they went through their +changes of brilliant colour, ending in deep blue. I contrived this +method of preserving them by placing a dish of water below, within the +covering bell glass, by means of which the dampness of the air +prevented evaporation of the bubble. This dodge of mine vastly +delighted Sir John, as it allowed him to watch the exquisite series of +iridescent tints at his tranquil leisure. + +[Image] From a photograph of the Moon, exhibiting the bright radial + lines. + +[Image] Glass globe cracked by internal pressure, in illustration of + the cause of the bright radial lines seen on the moon. + +I had also the pleasure of showing him my experiment of cracking a +glass globe filled with water and hermetically sealed. The water was +then slightly expanded, on which the glass cracked. This was my method +of explaining the nature of the action which, at some previous period +of the cosmical history of the Moon, had produced those bright +radiating lines that diverge from the lunar volcanic craters. +Sir John expressed his delight at witnessing my practical illustration +of this hitherto unexplained subject, and he considered it quite +conclusive. I also produced my enlarged drawings of the Moon's +surface, which I had made at the side of my telescope. These greatly +pleased him and he earnestly urged me to publish them, accompanied with +a descriptive account of the conclusions I had arrived at. +I then determined to proceed with the preparations which I had already +made for my long contemplated work. + +Among the many things that I showed Sir John while at Hammerfield, was +a piece of white calico on which I had got printed one million spots. + [footnote... +At a recent meeting of the Metropolitan Railway Company +I exhibited one million of letters, in order to show the number of +passengers (thirty-seven millions) that had been conveyed during the +previous twelve months. This number was so vast that my method only +helped the meeting to understand what had been done in the way of +conveyance. Mr. Macdonald of the Times, supplied me with one million +type impressions, contained in sixty average columns of the Times +newspaper. + ...] + +This was for the purpose of exhibiting one million in visible form. +In astronomical subjects a million is a sort of unit, and it occurred +to me to show what a million really is. Sir John was delighted and +astonished at the sight. He went carefully over the outstretched piece +with his rule, measured its length and breath, and verified its +correctness. + +I also exhibited to him a diagram, which I had distributed amongst the +geologists at the meeting of the British Association at Ipswich in +1851, showing a portion of the earth's curve, to the scale of one-tenth +of an inch to a mile. I set out the height of Mont Blanc, Etna, and +also the depth of the deepest mine, as showing the almost incredible +minimum of knowledge we possess about even the merest surface of the +globe. This diagram was hailed by many as of much value, as conveying +a correct idea of the relative magnitude of geological phenomena in +comparison with that of the earth itself: + +On this subject Sir Thomas Mitchell, Surveyor-General of Australia, +wrote to me at the time: "I will not obtrude upon you my crude notions +of my own, but merely say that you could not have sent the 'Geological +Standard Scale' to one who better deserved it, if the claim in such +favour is, as I suppose, to be estimated by the amount of the time of +one whole life, applied to the survey of great mountain ranges, and +coasts, rivers, etc. By this long practice of mine, you may know how +appreciable this satisfactory standard scale is to your humble servant. + +In the winter of 1865 I visited Italy. While at Rome, in April, I had +the pleasure of meeting Otto W. von Struve, the celebrated Russian +astronomer. He invited me to accompany him on a visit to Father Secchi +at his fine observatory of the Collegio Romano. I accepted the +invitation with pleasure. We duly reached the Observatory when Struve +introduced me to the Father. Secchi gave me a most cordial and +unlooked-for welcome. "This," he said, "is a most extraordinary +interview; as I am at this moment making a representation of your +willow-leaf-shaped constituents of the Solar surface!" He then pointed +to a large black board, which he had daubed over with glue and was +sprinkling over ( when we came in) with rice grains "That," said he, +"is what I feel to be a most excellent representation of your discovery +as I see it, verified by the aid of my telescope." It appeared to +Father Secchi so singular a circumstance that I should come upon him in +this sudden manner, while he was for the first time engaged in +representing what I had (on the spur of the moment when first seeing +them) described as willow-leaf-shaped objects. I thought that his +representation of them, by scattering rice grains over his glue-covered +black board, was apt and admirable; and so did Otto Struve. +This chance meeting with these two admirable astronomers was one of the +little bits of romance in my life. + +I returned to England shortly after. Among our visitors at Hammerfield +was Lord Lyndhurst. He was in his ninetieth year when he paid a visit +to Tunbridge Wells. Charles Greville, Secretary to the Privy Council, +wrote to me, saying that his Lordship complained much of the want of +society, and asked me to call upon him. I did so, and found him +cheerful and happy. + +I afterwards sent him a present of some of my drawings. He answered: +"A thousand thanks for the charming etchings. I am especially +interested in Robinson Crusoe. He looks very comfortable, but I can't +see his bed, which troubles me. The election ('Everybody for ever!') +is wonderful. I should not like to be there. I hope we shall go to +you again one of these days, and have another peep into that wonderful +telescope." + +To return to Sir John Herschel, We returned his visit at his house at +Collingwood, near Hawkhurst. I found him in the garden, down upon his +knees, collecting crocus bulbs for next year's planting. Like myself, +he loved gardening, and was never tired of it. I mention this as an +instance of his simple zeal in entering practically into all that +interested him. At home he was the happy father and lover of his +family. One of his favourite pastimes, when surrounded by his children +in the evening, was telling them stories. He was most happy and +entertaining in this tranquil occupation. His masterly intellect could +grasp the world and all its visible contents, and yet descend to +entertain his children with extemporised tales. He possessed +information of the most varied kind, which he communicated with perfect +simplicity and artlessness! His profound astronomical knowledge was +combined with a rich store of mechanical and manipulative faculty, +which enabled him to take a keen interest in all the technical arts +which so materially aid in the progress of science. I shall never +forget the happy days that he spent with me in my workshop. His visits +have left in my mind the most cherished recollections. Our friendly +intercourse continued unbroken to the day of his death. The following +is the last letter I received from him: + +COLLINGWOOD, March 10, 1871. +"MY DEAR SIR--A great many thanks for the opportunity of seeing your +most exquisite photographs from models of lunar mountains. I hope you +will publish them. They will create quite an electric sensation. +Would not one or two specimens of the apparently nonvolcanic mountain +ranges, bordering on the great plains, add to the interest? Excuse my +writing more, as I pen this lying on my back in bed, to which a fierce +attack of bronchitis condemns me. With best regards to Mrs. Nasmyth, +believe me yours very truly, + +" J. F. W. HERSCHEL." + +Scientific knowledge seems to travel slowly, It was not until the year +1875, more than fourteen years after my discovery of the willow-leaved +bridges over the Sun's spots that I understood they had been accepted +in America. I learned this from my dear friend William Lassell. +His letter was as follows: --"I see the Americans are appreciating +your solar observations. A communication I have lately received from +the Alleghany Observatory remarks 'that he (Mr. Nasmyth) appears to +have been the first to distinctly call attention to the singular +individuality of the minute components of the photosphere; and this +seems in fairness to entitle him to the credit of an important +discovery, with which his name should remain associated.'" + +I proceeded to do that which Sir John Herschel had so earnestly +recommended, that is, to write out my observations on the Moon. +It was a very serious matter, for I had never written a book before. +It occupied me many years, though I had the kind assistance of my +friend James Carpenter, then of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. +The volcanoes and craters, and general landscape scenery of the Moon, +had to be photographed and engraved, and this caused great labour. + +At length the book, entitled The Moon, considered as a Planet, a World, +and a Satellite, appeared in November 1874. It was received with much +favour and passed into a second edition. A courteous and kind review +of the book appeared in the Edinburgh; and the notices in other +periodicals were equally favourable. I dedicated the volume to the +Duke of Argyll, because I had been so long associated with him in +geological affairs, and also because of the deep friendship which I +entertained for his Grace. I presented the volume to him as well as to +many other of my astronomical friends. I might quote their answers at +great length, from the Astronomer-Royal downwards. But I will quote +two--one from a Royal Academician and another from a Cardinal. +The first was from Philip H. Calderon. He said: + +"Let me thank you many times for your kind letter, and for your +glorious book. It arrived at twelve to-day, and there has been no +painting since. Once having taken it up, attracted by the +illustrations, I could not put it down again. I forgot everything; +and, indeed, I have been up in the Moon. As soon as these few words of +thanks are given, I am going up into the Moon again. What a comfort it +is to read a scientific work which is quite clear, and what a gift it +is to write thus! + +"The photographs took my breath away. I could not understand how you +did them, and your explanation of how you built the models from your +drawings only changed the wonder into admiration. Only an artist could +have said what you say about the education of the eye and of the hand. +You may well understand how it went home to me. Ever gratefully yours, + +PHILIP H. CALDERON." + +I now proceed to the Cardinal. I was present at one of the receptions +of the President of the Royal Society at Burlington House, when I was +introduced to Cardinal Manning as "The Steam Hammer!" After a cordial +reception he suddenly said, "But are you not also the Man in the Moon?" +Yes, your Eminence. I have written a book about the Moon, and I shall +be glad if you will accept a copy of it?" "By all means," he said, +"and I thank you for the offer very much." I accordingly sent the copy, +and received the following answer: + +"MY DEAR MR.NASMYTH--When I asked you to send me your book on the +Moon, I had no idea of its bulk and value, and I feel ashamed of my +importunity, yet more than half delighted at my sturdy begging. + +"I thank you for it very sincerely. My life is one of endless work, +leaving me few moments for reading. But such books as yours refresh me +like a clover field. + +"I hope I may have an opportunity of renewing our conversation. +Believe me always truly yours, HENRY, CARDINAL MANNING." + +I may also mention that I received a charming letter from Miss Herschel, +the daughter of the late Astronomer. + +"Is it possible," she said, "that this beautiful book is destined by +you as a gift to my most unworthy self? I do not know, indeed, how + sufficiently to thank you, or even to express my delight in being +possessed of so exquisite and valuable a work, made so valuable, too, +by the most kind inscription on the first page! I fear I shall be very +very far from understanding the theories developed in the book, though +we have been endeavouring to gather some faint notion of them from the +reviews we have seen; but it will be of the greatest interest for us to +try and follow them under your guidance, and with the help of these +perfectly enchanting photographs, which, I think, one could never be +tired of looking at. + +"How well I remember the original photographs, and the oil painting +which you sent for dear papa's inspection, and which he did so enjoy! +and also the experiment with the glass globe, in which he was so +interested, at your own house. We cannot but think how he would have +appreciated your researches, and what pleasure this lovely book would +have given him. Indeed, I shall treasure it especially as a +remembrance of that visit, which is so completely connected in my +thoughts with him, as well as with your cordial kindness, as a precious +souvenir, of which let me once more offer you my heartfelt thanks. +I remain, my dear sir, yours very truly and gratefully, + +"ISABELLA HERSCHEL." + +I cannot refrain from adding the communication I received from my dear +old friend William Lassell. "I do not know," he said, +"how sufficiently to thank you for your most kind letter, and the +superb present which almost immediately followed it. My pleasure was +greatly enhanced by the consideration of how far this splendid work +must add to your fame and gratify the scientific world. +The illustrations are magnificent, and I am persuaded that no book has +ever been published before which gives so faithful, accurate, +and comprehensive a picture of the surface of the Moon. The work must +have cost you much time, thought, and labour, and I doubt not you will +now receive a gratifying, if not an adequate reward." + +After reading the book Mr. Lassell again wrote to me. "I am indebted +to your beautiful book, "he said, "for a deeper interest in the Moon +than I ever felt before.... I see many of your pictures have been +taken when the Moon was waning, which tells me of many a shivering +exposure you must have had in the early mornings,... I was sorry to +find from your letter that you had a severe cold, which made you very +unwell. I hope you have ere this perfectly recovered. I suppose +maladies of this kind must be expected to take rather severe hold of us +now, as we are both past the meridian of life. I am, however, +very thankful for the measure of health I enjoy, and the pleasure +mechanical pursuits give me. I fully sympathise with you in the +contempt (shall I say?) which you feel for the taste of so many people +who find their chief pleasure in 'killing something,' and how often +their pleasures are fatal! Two distinguished men killed only the other +day in hunting. For my part I would rather take to the bicycle and do +my seventeen miles within the hour." + +He proceeds: "I have no doubt your windmill is very nicely contrived, +and has afforded you much pleasure in constructing it. +The only drawback to it is, that in this variable climate it is apt to +strike work, and in the midst of a job of polishing I fear no increase +of wages would induce it to complete its task! If water were plentiful, +you might make it pump up a quantity when the wind served, to be used +as a motive power when you chose." + +This reference alludes to a windmill which I erected on the top of my +workshop, to drive the apparatus below. It was the mirror of a +reflecting telescope which was in progress. The windmill went on night +and day, and polished the speculum while I slept. In the small hours +of the morning I keeked through the corner of the window blinds and saw +it hard at work. I prefer, however, a small steam-engine, which works +much more regularly. + +It is time to come to an end of my Recollections. I have endeavoured +to give a brief resume of my life and labours. I hope they may prove +interesting as well as useful to others. Thanks to a good constitution +and a frame invigorated by work, I continue to lead, with my dear wife, +a happy life. I still take a deep interest in mechanics, in astronomy, +and in art. It is a pleasure to me to run up to London and enjoy the +collections at the National Gallery, South Kensington, and the Royal +Academy. The Crystal Palace continues to attract a share of my +attention, though, since the fire, it has been greatly altered. +I miss, too, many of the dear accustomed faces of the old friends we +used to meet there. Still we visit it, and leave to memory the filling +up of what is gone. All things change, and we with them. +The following Dial of Life gives a brief summary of my career. +It shows the brevity of life, and indicates the tale that is soon told. +The first part of the semicircle includes the passage from infancy to +boyhood and manhood. While that period lasts, time seems to pass very +slowly. We long to be men, and doing men's work. What I have called +The Tableland of Life is then reached. Ordinary observation shows that +between thirty and fifty the full strength of body and mind is reached; +and at that period we energise our faculties to the utmost. + +[Image] The Dial of Life + +Those who are blessed with good health and a sound constitution may +prolong the period of energy to sixty or even seventy; but Nature's +laws must be obeyed, and the period of decline begins, and goes on with +accelerated rapidity. Then comes Old Age; and as we descend the +semicircle towards eighty, we find that the remnant of life becomes +vague and cloudy. By shading off, as I have done, the portion of the +area of the diagram according to the individual age, every one may see +how much of life is consumed, and what is left--D.V.. Here is my +brief record: + +AGE YEAR. +-- 1808. BORN 19TH AUGUST. +9 1817. WENT TO THE HIGH SCHOOL, EDINBURGH. +13 1821. ATTENDED THE SCHOOL OF ARTS. +21 1829. WENT TO LONDON, TO MAUDSLAY'S. +23 1831. RETURNED TO EDINBURGH, TO MAKE MY ENGINEERS' TOOLS. +26 1834. WENT TO MANCHESTER, TO BEGIN BUSINESS. +28 1836. REMOVED TO PATRICROFT, AND BUILT THE BRIDGEWATER FOUNDRY. +31 1839. INVENTED THE STEAM HAMMER. +32 1840. MARRIAGE. +34 1842. FIRST VISIT TO FRANCE AND ITALY. +35 1843. VISIT TO ST. PETERSBURG, STOCKHOLM, DANNEMORA. +37 1845. APPLICATION OF THE STEAM HAMMER TO PILE-DRIVING. +48 1856. RETIRED FROM BUSINESS, TO ENJOY THE REST OF MY LIFE IN THE + ACTIVE PURSUIT OF MY MOST FAVOURITE OCCUPATIONS. + +I have not in this list referred to my investigations in connection +with astronomy. All this will be found referred to in the text. +It only remains for me to say that I append a resume of my inventions, +contrivances, and workshop "dodges," to give the reader a summary idea +of the Active Life of a working mechanic. And with this I end my tale. + + +CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND TECHNICAL CONTRIVANCES. + +by James Nasmyth. + +1825. A mode of applying Steam Power for the Traction of Canal Barges, + without injury to the Canal Banks. + +A CANAL having been formed to connect Edinburgh with the Forth and +Clyde Canal, and so to give a direct waterway communication between +Edinburgh and Glasgow, I heard much talk about the desirableness of +substituting Steam for Horse power as the means of moving the boats and +barges along the canal. But, as the action of paddle wheels had been +found destructive to the canal banks, no scheme of that nature could be +entertained. Although a tyro in such matters, I made an attempt to +solve the problem, and accordingly prepared drawings, with a +description of my design, for employing Steam power as the tractive +agency for trains of canal barges, in such a manner as to obviate all +risk of injury to the banks. + +[Image] + +The scheme consisted in laying a chain along the bottom of the canal, +and of passing any part of its length between three grooved and notched +pulleys or rollers, made to revolve with suitable velocity by means of +a small steam-engine placed in a tug-boat, to the stern of which a +train of barges was attached.* + [footnote... +Had this simple means of "tugging" vessels through water-ways been +employed in our late attempts to ascend the rapids of the Nile, some +very important results might have issued from its adoption. + ...] +The steam-engine could thus warp its way along the chain, taking it up +between the rollers of the bow of the tug-boat, and dropping it into +the water at the stern, so as to leave the chain at the service of the +next following tug-boat with its attached train of barges. By this +simple mode of employing the power of a steam-engine for canal boat +traction, all risk of injury to the banks would be avoided, as the +chain and not the water of the canal was the fulcrum or resistance +which the steam-engine on the tug-boat operated upon in thus warping +its way along the chain; and thus effectually, without slip or other +waste of power, dragging along the train of barges attached to the +stern of the steam-tug. I had arranged for two separate chains, +so as to allow trains of barges to be conveyed along the canal in +opposite directions, without interfering with each other. + +I submitted a complete set of drawings, and a full description of my +design in all its details, to the directors of the Canal Company; +and I received a complimentary acknowledgment of them in writing. But +such was the prejudice that existed, in consequence of the injury to +the canal banks resulting from the use of paddle Wheels, that it +extended to the use of steam power in any form, as a substitute for +ordinary horse traction; and although I had taken every care to point +out the essential difference of my system (as above indicated) by which +all such objections were obviated, my design was at length courteously +declined, and the old system of horse traction continued. + +In 1845 I had the pleasure to see this simple mode of moving vessels +along a definite course in most successful action at the ferry across +the Hamoaze at Devonport, in which my system of employing the power of +a steam-engine on board the ferry boat, to warp its way along a +submerged chain lying along the bottom of the channel from side to side +of the ferry, was most ably carried out by my late excellent friend, +James Rendell, Esq., C.E., and is still, I believe, in daily action, +giving every satisfaction. + + +1826. An Instrument for Measuring the Total and Comparative Expansion + of all Solid Bodies. + +My kind friend and patron, Professor Leslie, being engaged in some +investigations in which it was essential to know the exact comparative +total expansion in bulk of metals and other solid bodies, under the +same number of degrees of heat, mentioned the subject in the course of +conversation. The instrument at that time in use was defective in +principle as well as in construction, and the results of its +application were untrustworthy. As the Professor had done me the honour +to request me to assist him in his experiments, I had the happiness to +suggest an arrangement of apparatus which I thought might obviate the +sources of error; and, with his approval, I proceeded to put it in +operation. + +My contrivance consisted of an arrangement by means of which the metal +bar or other solid substance, whose total expansion under a given +number of degrees of heat had to be measured, was in a manner itself +converted into a thermometer. Absolutely equal bulks of each solid were +placed inside a metal tube or vessel, and surrounded with an exact +equal quantity of water at one and the same normal temperature. +A cap or cover, having a suitable length of thermometer tube attached +to it, was then screwed down, and the water of the index tube was +adjusted to the zero point of the scale attached to it, the whole being +at say 50deg of heat, as the normal temperature in each case. The +apparatus was then heated up to say 200deg by immersion in water at +that temperature. The expansion of the enclosed bar of metal or other +solid substance under experiment caused the water to rise above the +zero, and it was accordingly so indicated on the scale attached to the +cap tube. In this way we had a thermometer whose bulb was for the time +being filled with the solid under investigation,--the water surrounding +it imply acting as the means by which the expansion of each solid under +trial was rendered visible, and its amount capable of being ascertained +and recorded with the utmost exactness, as the expansion of the water +was in every case the same, and also that of the instrument itself +which was "a constant quantity." + +In this way we obtained the correct relative amount of expansion in +bulk of all the solid substances experimented upon. That each bar of +metal or other solid substance was of absolutely equal bulk, was +readily ascertained by finding that each, when weighed in water, +lost the exact same weight. + +[Image] James Nasmyth's Expansometer, 1826. + +My friend, Sir David Brewster, was so much pleased with the instrument +that he published a drawing and description of it in the Edinburgh +Philosophical Journal, of which he was then editor. + + +1827. A Method of increasing the Effectiveness of Steam by + super-heating it on its Passage from the Boiler to the Engine. + +One or the earliest mechanical contrivances which I made was for +preventing water, in a liquid form, from passing along with the steam +from the boiler to the cylinder of the steam-engine. +The first steam-engine I made was employed in grinding oil colours for +my father's use in his paintings. When I set this engine to work for +the first time I was annoyed by slight jerks which now and then +disturbed the otherwise smooth and regular action of the machine. +After careful examination I found that these jerks were caused by the +small quantities of water that were occasionally carried along with the +current of the steam, and deposited in the cylinder, where it +accumulated above and below the piston, and thus produced the jerks. + +In order to remove the cause of these irregularities, I placed a +considerable portion of the length of the pipe which conveyed the steam +from the boiler to the engine within the highly heated side flue of the +boiler, so that any portion of water in the liquid form which might +chance to pass along with the steam, might, ere it reached the +cylinder, traverse this highly-heated steam pipe, and, in doing so, +be converted into perfectly dry steam, and in that condition enter the +cylinder. On carrying this simple arrangement into practice, I found +the result to be in every way satisfactory. The active little +steam-engine thence-forward performed its work in the most smooth and +regular manner. + +So far as I am aware, this early effort of mine at mechanical +contrivance was the first introduction of what has since been termed +"super-heated steam"--a system now extensively employed, and yielding +important results, especially in the case of marine steam-engines. +Without such means of supplying dry steam to the engines, the latter +are specially liable to "break-downs," resulting from water, +in the liquid form, passing into the cylinders along with the steam. + + +1828. A Method of "chucking" delicate Metal-work, in order that it may + be turned with perfect truth + +In fixing portions of work in the turning-lathe, one of the most +important points to attend to is, that while they are held with +sufficient firmness in order to be turned to the required form, they +should be free from any strain which might in any way distort them. +In strong and ponderous objects this can be easily accomplished by due +care on the part of an intelligent workman. It is in operating by the +lathe on delicate and flexible objects that the utmost care is +requisite in the process of chucking, as they are easily strained out +of shape by fastening them by screws and bolts, or suchlike ordinary +means. This is especially the case with disc-like objects. As I had on +several occasions to operate in the lathe with this class of work I +contrived a method of chucking or holding them firm while receiving the +required turning process, which has in all cases proved most handy and +satisfactory. + +This method consisted of tinning three, or, if need be, more parts of +the work, and laying them down on a tinned face-plate or chuck, +which had been heated so as just to cause the solder to flow. As soon +as the solder is cooled and set, the chuck with its attached work may +then be put in the lathe, and the work proceeded with until it is +completed. By again heating the chuck, by laying upon it a piece of +red-hot iron, the work, however delicate, can be simply lifted off, +and will be found perfectly free from all distortion. + +I have been the more particular in naming the use of three points of +attachment to the chuck or face-plate, as that number is naturally free +from any risk of distortion. I have on so many occasions found the +great value of this simple yet most secure mode of fixing delicate work +in the lathe, that I feel sure that any one able to appreciate its +practical value will be highly pleased with the results of its +employment. + +The same means can, in many cases, be employed in fixing delicate work +in the planing-machine. All that is requisite is to have a clean-planed +wrought-iron or brass fixing-plate, to which the work in hand can be +attached at a few suitable parts with soft solder, as in the case of +the turning lathe above described. + + +1828. A Method of casting Specula for Reflecting Telescopes, so as to + ensure perfect Freeness from Defects, at the same time enhancing + the Brilliancy of the Alloy. + +My father possessed a very excellent achromatic spy-glass of 2 inches +diameter. The object-glass was made by the celebrated Ramsden. +When I was about fifteen I used it to gaze at the moon, planets, and +sun-spots. Although this instrument revealed to me the general +characteristic details of these grand objects, my father gave me a +wonderful account of what he had seen of the moon's surface by means of +a powerful reflecting telescope of 12 inches diameter, made by Short-- +that justly celebrated pioneer of telescope making. It had been erected +in a temporary observatory on the Calton Hill, Edinburgh. These +descriptions of my father's so fired me with the desire to obtain a +sight of the glorious objects in the heavens through a more powerful +instrument than the spy-glass, that I determined to try and make a +reflecting telescope which I hoped might in some degree satisfy my +ardent desires. + +I accordingly searched for the requisite practical instruction in the +pages of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and in other books that professed +to give the necessary technical information on the subject. I found, +however, that the information given in books--at least in the books +to which I had access was meagre and unsatisfactory. Nevertheless I set +to work with all earnestness, and began by compounding the requisite +alloy for casting a speculum of 8 inches diameter. This alloy consisted +of 32 parts of copper, 15 parts of grain tin, and 1 part of white arsenic. +These ingredients, when melted together, yielded a compound metal which +possessed a high degree of brilliancy. Having made a wooden pattern for +my intended 8-inch diameter speculum, and moulded it in sand, +I cast this my first reflecting telescope speculum according to the +best book instructions. I allowed my casting to cool in the mould in +the slowest possible manner; for such is the excessive brittleness of +this alloy (though composed of two of the toughest of metals) that in +any sudden change of temperature, or want of due delicacy in handling +it, it is very apt to give way, and a fracture more or less serious is +sure to result. Even glass, brittle though it be, is strong in +comparison with speculum metal of the above proportions, though, +as I have said, it yields the most brilliant composition. + +Notwithstanding the observance of all due care in respect of the +annealing of the casting by slow cooling, and the utmost care and +delicate handling of it in the process of grinding the surface into the +requisite curve and smoothness suitable to receive the final polish,-- +I was on more than one occasion inexpressibly mortified by the sudden +disruption and breaking up of my speculum. Thus many hours of anxious +care and labour proved of no avail. I had to begin again and proceed +da capo. I observed, however, that the surplus alloy that was left in +the crucible, after I had cast my speculum, when again melted and +poured out into a metal ingot mould, yielded a cake that, brittle +though it might be, was yet strong in comparison with that of the +speculum cast in the sand mould; and that it was also, judging from the +fragments chipped from it, possessed of even a higher degree of +brilliancy. + +The happy thought occurred to me of substituting an open metal mould +for the closed sand one. I soon had the metal mould ready for casting. +It consisted of a base plate of cast iron, on the surface of which I +placed a ring or hoop of iron turned to fully the diameter of the +intended speculum, so as to anticipate the contraction of the alloy. +The result of the very first trial of this simple metal mould was most +satisfactory. It yielded me a very perfect casting: and it passed +successively through the ordeal of the first rough grinding, and +eventually through the processes of polishing, until in the end it +exhibited a brilliancy that far exceeded that of the sand mould +castings. + +The only remaining difficulty that I had to surmount was the risk of +defects in the surface of the speculum. These sometimes result from the +first splash of the melted metal as it is poured into the ring mould. +The globules sometimes got oxidised before they became incorporated +with the main body of the inflowing molten alloy: and dingy spots in +the otherwise brilliant alloy were thus produced. I soon mastered this, +the only remaining source of defect, by a very simple arrangement. +In place of pouring the melted alloy direct into the ring mould, I +attached to the side of it what I termed a "pouring pocket;" +which communicated with an opening at the lower edge of the ring, +and by a self-acting arrangement by which the mould plate was slightly +tilted up, the influx of the molten alloy advanced in one unbroken +tide. As soon as the entire surface of the mould plate was covered by +the alloy, its weight overcame that of my up-tilting counterpoise, +and allowed the entire apparatus to resume its exact level. The +resulting speculum was, by these simple arrangements, absolutely +perfect in soundness. It was a perfect casting, in all respects worthy +of the care and labour which I invested in its future grinding and +polishing, and enabled it to perform its glorious duties as the grand +essential part of a noble reflecting telescope! + +[Image] + +A. Chill plate of cast iron turned to the curve of the speculum B. +Turned hoop of wrought iron with opening at O. C. Pouring pocket. D. +Counterpoise, By which the chill plate is tilted up The largest figure +in the engraving is the annealing tub of cast iron filled with sawdust, +where the speculum is placed to cool as slowly as possible. + +The rationale of the strength of specula cast in this metal mould +system, as compared with the treacherous brittleness of those cast in +sand moulds, arises simply from the consolidation of the molten metal +pool taking place first at the lower surface, next the metal base of +the mould--the yet fluid alloy above satisfying the contractile +requirements of that immediately beneath it; and so on in succession, +until the last to consolidate is the top or upper stratum. +Thus all risk of contractile tension, which is so dangerously eminent +and inherent in the case of sand-mould castings, made of so exceedingly +brittle an alloy as that of speculum metal, is entirely avoided. +By the employment of these simple and effective improvements in the art +of casting the specula for reflecting telescopes, and also by the +contrivance and employment of mechanical means for grinding and +polishing them, I at length completed my first 8-inch diameter +speculum, and mounted it according to the Newtonian plan. I was most +amply rewarded for all the anxious labour I had gone through in +preparing it, by the glorious views it yielded me of the wonderful +objects in the heavens at night. My enjoyment was in no small degree +enhanced by the pleasure it gave to my father, and to many intimate +friends. Amongst these was Sir David Brewster, who took a most lively +and special interest in all my labours on this subject. + +In later years I resumed my telescope making enjoyments, as a +delightful and congenial relaxation from the ordinary run of my +business occupations. I constructed several reflecting telescopes, +of sizes from 10-inch to 20-inch diameter specula. I had also the +pleasure of assisting other astronomical friends, by casting and +grinding specula for them. Among these I may mention my late dear +friend William Lassell, and my excellent friend Warren de la Rue, +both of whom have indelibly recorded their names in the annals of +astronomical science. I know of no subject connected with the pursuit +of science which so abounds with exciting and delightful interest as +that of constructing reflecting telescopes. It brings into play every +principle of constructive art, with the inexpressibly glorious reward +of a more intimate acquaintance with the sublime wonders of the +heavens, I communicated in full detail all my improvements in the art +of casting, grinding, and polishing the specula of reflecting +telescopes, to the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, +illustrating my paper with many drawings. But as my paper was of +considerable length, and as the illustrations would prove costly to +engrave, it was not published in the Society's Transactions. They are +still, however, kept in the library for reference by those who take a +special interest in the subject. + + +1829. A Mode of transmitting Rotary Motion by means of a Flexible + Shaft, formed of a Coiled Spiral Wire or Rod of Steel. + +While assisting Mr. Maudslay in the execution of a special piece of +machinery, in which it became necessary to have some holes drilled in +rather inaccessible portions of the work in hand, and where the +employment of the ordinary drill was impossible, it occurred to me that +a flexible shaft, formed of a closely coiled spiral of steel wire, +might enable us to transmit the requisite rotary motion to a drill +attached to the end of this spiral shaft. Mr. Maudslay was much pleased +with the notion, and I speedily put it in action by a close coiled +spiral wire of about two feet in length. + +This was found to transmit the requisite rotary motion to the drill at +the end of the spiral with perfect and faithful efficiency. +The difficulty was got over, to Mr. Maudslay's great satisfaction. + +So far as I am aware, such a mode of transmitting rotary motion was new +and original. The device was useful, and proved of essential service in +other important applications. By a suitably close coiled spiral steel +wire I have conveyed rotary motion quite round an obstacle, such as is +indicated in the annexed figure. + +[Image] + +It has acted with perfect faithfulness from the winch handle at A to +the drill at B. Any ingenious mechanic will be able to appreciate the +value of such a flexible shaft in many applications. Four years ago I +saw the same arrangement in action at a dentist's operating-room, when +a drill was worked in the mouth of a patient to enable a decayed tooth +to be stopped. It was said to be the last thing out in "Yankee notions." +It was merely a replica of my flexible drill of 1829. + +1829. A Mode of cutting Square or Hexgonal Collares Nuts or Bolt-Heads + by means of a Revolving File or Cutter. + +This method is refrered to, and drawings given, in the text, +pp. 141, 142. + + +1829. A Investigation into the Origin and Mode of writing the Cuneiform + Character + +This will be found described in the next and final chapter + + +1836. A Machine for cutting the Key-Grooves in Metal Wheels and Belt + Pulleys, of ANY Diameter. + +The fastening of wheels and belt pulleys to shafts, so as to enable +them to transmit rotary motion, is one of the most frequently-recurring +processes in the construction of machinery. This is best effected by +driving a slightly tapered iron or steel wedge, or "key" as it is +technically termed, into a corresponding recess, or flat part of the +shaft, so that the wheel and shaft thus become in effect one solid +structure. + +The old mode of cutting such key-grooves in the eyes of wheels was +accomplished by the laborious and costly process of chipping and +filing. Maudslay's mortising machine, which he contrived for the Block +machinery, although intended originally to operate upon wood, contained +all the essential principles and details required for acting on metals. +Mr. Richard Roberts, by some excellent modifications, enabled it to +mortise or cut out the key-grooves in metal wheels, and this method +soon came into general use. This machine consisted of a vertical slide +bar, to the lower end of which was attached the steel mortising tool, +which received its requisite up and down motion from an adjustable +crank, through a suitable arrangement of the gearing. The wheel to be +operated upon was fixed to a slide-table, and gradually advanced, +so as to cause the mortising tool to take successive cuts through the +depth of the eye of the wheel, until the mortise or key-groove had +attained its required depth. + +The only drawback to this admirable machine was that its service was +limited in respect to admitting wheels whose half diameter did not +exceed the distance from the back of the jaw of the machine to the face +of the mortise tool; so that to give to this machine the requisite +rigidity and strength to resist the strain on the jaw, due to the +mortising of the key-grooves, in wheels of say 6 feet diameter, +a more massive and cumbrous frame work was required, which was most +costly in space as well as in money. + +In order to obviate this inconvenience, I designed an arrangement of a +key-groove mortising machine. It was capable of operating upon wheels +of any diameter, having no limit to it capacity in that respect. +It was, at the same time, possessed in respect of the principle on +which it was arranged, of the power of taking a much deeper cut, +there being an entire absence of any source of springing or elasticity +in its structure. This not only enabled the machine to perform its work +with more rapidity, but also with more precision. Besides, it occupied +much less space in the workshop, and did not cost above one-third of +the machines formerly in use. It gave the highest satisfaction to those +who availed themselves of its effective Services. + +[Image] + +A comparison of Fig. 1--which represents the general arrangement of +the machine in use previous to the introduction of mine--with that of +Fig. 2, may serve to convey some idea of their relative sizes. Fig. 1 +shows a limit to the admission of wheels exceeding 6 feet diameter, +Fig. 2 shows an unlimited capability in that respect. + + +1836. An Instrument for finding and marking the Centres of Cylindrical + Rods or Bolts about to be turned on the Lathe. + +One of the most numerous details in the structure of all classes of +machines is the bolts which serve to hold the various parts together. +As it is most important that each bolt fits perfectly the hole it +belongs to, it is requisite that each bolt should, by the process of +turning, be made perfectly cylindrical. In preparing such bolts, +as they come from the forge, in order to undergo the process of +turning, they have to be "centred;" that is, each end has to receive a +hollow conical indent, which must agree with the axis of the bolt. +To find this in the usual mode, by trial and frequent error, is a most +tedious process, and consumes much valuable time of the workman as well +as his lathe. + +[Image] + +In order to obviate the necessity for this costly process, I devised +the simple instrument, a drawing of which is annexed. The use of this +enabled any boy to find and mark with absolute exactness and rapidity +the centres of each end of bolts, or suchlike objects. All that was +required was to place the body of the bolt in the V-shaped supports, +and to gently cause it to revolve, pressing it longitudinally against +the steel-pointed marker, which scratched a neat small circle in the +true centre or axis of the bolt. This small circle had its centre +easily marked by the indent of a punch, and the work was thus ready for +the lathe. This humble but really important process was accomplished +with ease, rapidity, and great economy. + + +1836. Improvement in Steam-Engine Pistons, and in Water and Air-Pump + Buckets, so as to lessen Friction and dispense with Packing. + +The desire to make the pistons of steam-engines and air-pump buckets of +condensing engines perfectly steam and water tight has led to the +contrivance of many complex and costly constructions for the purpose of +packing them. When we take a commonsense view of the subject, we find +that in most cases the loss of power resulting from the extra friction +neutralises the expected saving. This is especially the case with the +air-pump bucket of a condensing steam-engine, as it is in reality much +more a water than an air pump. But when it is constructed with a deep +well-fitted bucket, entirely without packing, the loss sustained by +such an insignificant amount of leakage as may occur from the want of +packing is more than compensated by the saving of power resulting from +the total absence of friction. + +The first condensing steam-engine to which I applied an air-pump +bucket, entirely without packing, was the forty horsepower engine, +which I constructed for the Bridgewater Foundry. It answered its +purpose so well that, after twenty years' constant working, +the air-pump cover was taken off, out of curiosity, to examine the +bucket, when it was found in perfect order. This system, in which I +dispensed with the packing for air-pump buckets of condensing +steam-engines, I have also applied to the pistons of the steam +cylinders, especially those of high-pressure engines of the smaller +vertical construction, the stroke of which is generally short and +rapid. Provided the cylinder is bored true, and the piston is carefully +fitted, and of a considerable depth in proportion to its diameter, +such pistons will be found to perform perfectly all their functions, +and with a total absence of friction as a direct result of the absence +of packing. By the aid of our improved machine tools, cylinders can now +be bored with such perfect accuracy, and the pistons be fitted to them +with such absolute exactness, that the small quantity of water which +the steam always deposits on the upper side of the piston, not only +serves as a frictionless packing, but also serves as a lubricant of the +most appropriate kind. I have applied the same kind of piston to +ordinary water-pumps, with similar excellent results. In most cases of +right packed pistons we spend a shilling--to save sixpence-- +a not unfrequent result of "so-called" refined improvements. + + +1836. An instantaneous Mode of producing graceful Curves, suitable for + designing Vases and other graceful objects in Pottery and Glass. + +The mode referred to consists in giving a rapid "switch" motion to a +pencil upon a piece of paper, or a cardboard, or a smooth metal plate; +and then cutting out the curve so produced, and employing it as a +pattern or "template," to enable copies to be traced from it. +When placed at equal distances, and at equal angles on each side of a +central line, so as to secure perfect symmetry of form according to the +nature of the required design, the beauty of these "instantaneous" +curves, as I term them, arises from the entire absence of any sudden +variation in their course. This is due to the momentum of the hand when +"switching" the pencil at a high velocity over the paper. +By such simple means was the beautiful curve produced, which is given +on the following page. It was produced "in a twinkling," if I may use +the term to express the rapidity with which it was "switched." +The chief source of the gracefulness of these curves consists in the +almost imperceptible manner in which they pass in their course from one +degree of curvature into another. I have had the pleasure of showing +this simple mode of producing graceful curves to several potters, +who have turned the idea to good account. The illustrative figures on +the next page have all been drawn from "templates" whose curves were +"switched" in the manner of Fig. A. + +[Image] + + +1836. A Machine for planing the smaller or detail parts of Machinery, + whether Flat or Cylindrical. + +Although the introduction of the planing machine into the workshops of +mechanical engineers yielded results of the highest importance in +perfecting and economising the production of machinery generally, yet, +as the employment of these valuable machine tools was chiefly intended +to assist in the execution of the larger parts of machine manufacture, +a very considerable proportion of the detail parts still continued to +be executed by hand labour, in which the chisel and the file were the +chief instruments employed. The results were consequently very +unsatisfactory, both as regards inaccuracy and costliness. + +[image] + +With the desire of rendering the valuable services of the Planing +Machine applicable to the smallest detail parts of machine manufacture, +I designed a simple and compact modification of it, such as should +enable any attentive lad to execute all the detail parts of the +machines in so unerring and perfect a manner as not only to rival the +hand work of the most skilful mechanic, but also at such a reduced cost +as to place the most active hand workman far into the background. +The contrivance I refer to is usually known as "Nasmyth's Steam Arm." +None but those who have had ample opportunities of watching the process +of executing the detail parts of machines, can form a correct idea of +the great amount of time that is practically wasted and unproductive, +even when highly-skilled and careful workmen are employed. They have so +frequently to stop working, in order to examine the work in hand, +to use the straight edge, the square, or the calipers, to ascertain +whether they are "working correctly." During that interval, the work is +making no progress: and the loss of time on this account is not less +than one-sixth of the working hours, and sometimes much more; +though all this lost time is fully paid for in wages. + +[Image] Apparatus for enabling the machine to execute segmented work + +But by the employment of such a machine as I describe, even when placed +under the superintendence of well-selected intelligent lads, in whom +the faculty of good sight and nicety of handling is naturally in a high +state of perfection, any deficiency in their physical strength is amply +compensated by these self-acting machines. The factory engine supplies +the labour or the element of Force, while the machines perform their +work with practical perfection. The details of machinery are thus +turned out with geometrical accuracy, and are in the highest sense +fitted to perform their intended purposes. + + +1837. Solar Ray Origin of the form of the Egyptian Pyramids, Obelisks, + etc. + +This will be found described summarily in the next and final chapter. + + +1837. Method of reversing the action of Slide Lathes. + +In the employment of Slide Turning Lathes, it is of great advantage to +be able to reverse the motion of the Slide so as to enable the turning +tool to cut towards the Head of the Lathe or away from it, and also to +be able to arrest the motion of the Slide altogether, while all the +other functions of the lathe are continued in action. All these objects +are attained by the simple contrivance represented in the annexed +illustration. + +[Image] + +It consists of a lever E, moving on a stud-pin S, attached to the back +of the head stock of the lathe T. This lever carries two wheels of +equal diameter marked B and G. These wheels can pitch into a +corresponding wheel A, fixed on the back end of the lay spindle. +When the handle of the lever E is depressed (as seen in the drawing) +the wheel B is in gear with wheel A. while C is in gear with the +slidescrew wheel D, and so moves the slide (say from the Head Stock of +the lathe). On the other hand, when the lever E is elevated in position +E", wheel B is taken out of gear with A, while G is put in gear with A, +and B is put in gear with D; and thus the Slide is caused to move +towards the Head Stock of the lathe. Again, where it is desired to +arrest the motion of the Slide altogether, or for a time, as occasion +may require, the lever handle is put into the intermediate position E', +which entirely severs the communication between A and D, and so arrests +the motion of the slide. This simple contrivance effectually served all +its purposes, and was adopted by many machine tool-makers and +engineers. + + +1838. Self-adjusting Bearings for the Shafts of Machinery + +A frequent cause of undue friction and heating of rapidly rotating +machinery arises from some inaccuracy or want of due parallelism +between the rotating shaft or spindle and its bearing. This is +occasioned in most cases by some accidental change in the level of the +supports of the bearings. Many of the bearings are situated in dark +places, and cannot be seen. There are others that are difficult of +access--as in the case of bearings of screw-propeller shafts. +Serious mischief may result before the heating of the bearing proclaims +its dangerous condition. In some cases the timber work is set on fire, +which may result in serious consequences. + +In order to remove the cause of such serious mischief, I designed an +arrangement of bearing, which enabled it, and the shaft working in it, +to mutually accommodate themselves to each other under all +circumstances, and thus to avoid the danger of a want of due and mutual +parallelism in their respective axes. This arrangement consisted in +giving to the exterior of the bearing a spherical form, so as, within +moderate limits, to allow it to accommodate itself to any such changes +in regard to mutual parallelism, as above referred to. In other cases, +I employed what I may call Rocking centres, on which the Pedestal or +"Plumber Block" rested; and thus supplied a self-adjusting means for +obviating the evils resulting from any accidental change in the proper +relative position of the shaft and its bearing. In all cases in which I +introduced this arrangement, the results were most satisfactory. + +In the case of the bearings of Blowing Fans, in which the rate of +rotation is naturally excessive, a spherical resting-place for the +bearings enabled them to keep perfectly cool at the highest speed. +This was also the case in the driving apparatus for machine tools, +which is generally fixed at a considerable height above the machine. +These spherical or self-adjusting bearings were found of great service. +The apparatus, being generally out of convenient reach, is apt to get +out of order unless duly attended to. But, whether or not, the saving +of friction is in itself a reason for the adoption of such bearings. +This may appear a trifling technical matter of detail; but its great +practical value must be my excuse for mentioning it. + + +1838. Invention of Safety Foundry Ladle. + +The safety ladle is described in the text, p. 202. + + +1838. Invention of the Steam Ram + +My invention was made at this early date, long before the attack by the +steam-ram Merrimac upon the Cumberland, and other ships, in Hampton Roads, +United States. I brought my plans and drawings under the notice of the +Admiralty in 1845; but nothing was done for many years. Much had been +accomplished in rendering our ships shot-proof by the application of +iron plates; but it appeared to me that not one of them could exist +above water after receiving on its side a single blow from an +iron-plated steam-ram of 2000 tons. I said, in a letter to the Times, +"As the grand object of naval warfare is the destruction by the most +speedy mode of the ships of the enemy, why should we continue to +attempt to attain this object by making small holes in the hull of the +enemy when, by one single masterly crashing blow from a steam ram, +we can crush in the side of any armour-plated ship, and let the water +rush in through a hole, 'not perhaps as wide as a church door or as +deep as a well, but 'twill serve'; and be certain to send her below +water in a few minutes.* + [footnote... +In these days of armour-clad warships, when plates of enormous +thickness are relied on as invulnerable, our Naval Constructors appear +to forget that the actual structural strength of such ships depends on +the backing of the plates, which, be it ever so thick, would yield to +the cramming blow of a moderate-sized Ram. + ...] + +I published my description of the steam ram and its apparatus in the +Times of January 1853, and again addressed the Editor on the subject +in April 1862. General Sir John Burgoyne took up the subject, +and addressed me in the note at the foot of this page.* + [footnote... +The following is the letter of General Sir John Burgoyne: + +WAR OFFICE, PALL MALL, LONDON, 8th April 1862. + +"General Sir John Burgoyne presents his compliments to Mr. Nasmyth, +and was much pleased to find, by Mr. Nasmyth's letter in the Times of +this day, certain impressions that he has held for some time confirmed +by so good an authority. "A difficulty seems to be anticipated by many +that a steamer used as a ram with high velocity, if impelled upon a +heavy ship, would, by the revulsion of the sudden shock, be liable to +have much of her gear thrown entirely out of order, parts displaced, +and perhaps the boilers burst. Some judgment, however, may be formed on +this point by a knowledge of whether such circumstances have occurred +on ships suddenly grounding; and even so, it may be a question whether +so great a velocity is necessary. "An accident occurred some twenty +years ago, within Sir John Burgoyne's immediate cognisance, that has +led him particularly to consider the great power of a ship acting as a +ram. A somewhat heavy steamer went, by accident or mismanagement, end +on to a very substantial wharf wall in Kingstown Harbour, Dublin Bay. +Though the force of the blow was greatly checked through the measures +taken for that purpose, and indeed so much so that the vessel itself +suffered no very material injury, yet several of the massive granite +stones of the facing were driven some inches in, showing the enormous +force used upon them. "Superior speed will be very essential to the +successful action of the ram; but by the above circumstance we may +assume that even a moderate speed would enable great effects to be +produced, at least on any comparatively weak point of even ironclad +ships, such as the rudder." + ...] + +In June 1870, I received a letter from Sir E. J. Reed, containing the +following extracts: --"I was aware previously that plans had been +proposed for constructing unarmoured steam rams, but I was not +acquainted with the fact that you had put forward so well-maturerd a +scheme at so early a date; and it has given me much pleasure to find +that such is the case. It has been a cause both of pleasure and +surprise to me to find that so long ago you incorporated into a design +almost all the features which we now regard as essential to ramming +efficiency--twin screws and moderate dimensions for handiness, +numerous water-tight divisions for safety, and special strengthenings +at the bow. Facts such as these deserve to be put on record.... +Meanwhile accept my congratulations on the great skill and foresight +which your ram-design displays." + +Collisions at sea unhappily afford ample evidence of the fatal +efficiency of the ramming principle. Even ironclad ships have not been +able to withstand the destructive effect. The Vanguard and the Kurfurst + now lie at the bottom of the sea in consequence of an accidental +"end-on" ram from a heavy ship going at a moderate velocity. High speed +in a Steam Ram is only desirable when the attempt is made to overtake +an enemy's ship; but not necessary for doing its destructive work. +A crash on the thick plates of the strongest Ironclad, from a Ram of +2000 tons at the speed of four miles an hour, would drive them inwards +with the most fatal results. + + +1839. Invention of the Steam Hammer, in its general principles and + details. + +Described in text, p. 231. + + +1839. Invention of the Floating Mortar or Torpedo Ram. + +For particulars and details, see Report of Torpedo Committee. + + +1839. A Double-faced Wedge-shaped Sluice-Valve for Main Street + Water-pipes. + +The late Mr. Wicksteed, engineer of the East London Water Company, +having stated to me the inconvenience which had been experienced from +the defects in respect of water-tightness, as well as the difficulty of +opening and closing the valves of the main water-pipes in the streets, +I turned my attention to the subject. The result was my contrivance of +a double-faced wedge-shaped sluice-valve, which combined the desirable +property of perfect water-tightness with ease of opening and closing +the valve. + +This was effected by a screw which raised the valve from its bearings +at the first partial turn of the screw, after which there was no +further resistance or friction, except the trifling friction of the +screw in its nut on the upper part of the sluice-valve. When screwed +down again, it closed simultaneously the end of the entrance pipe and +that of the exit pipe attached to the valve case in the most effective +manner. + +[image] + +Mr. Wicksteed was so much pleased with the simplicity and efficiency of +this valve that he had it applied to all the main pipes of his Company. +When its advantages became known, I received many orders from other +water companies, and the valves have since come into general use. +The prefixed figure will convey a clear idea of the construction. +The wedge form of the double-faced valve is conspicuous as the +characteristic feature of the arrangement.* + [footnote... +At a meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, May 23, 1883, +when various papers were read on Waterworks, Mr. H. I. Marten observed +in the course of the discussion: --"It has been stated in Mr. Gamble's +paper (on the waterworks of Port Elizabeth) that the sluice valves are +of the usual pattern. The usual patterns of the present day are in +wonderful advance of those of thirty or forty years since. The great +improvement originated with the introduction of 'the double-faced +sluice-cock.' This sluice-cock, which had now superseded every other +description, was the creation of Mr. James Nasmyth's inventive genius. +Mr. Marten said he well remembered the first reception of this useful +invention, as he happened at that time to be a pupil of Mr. Thomas +Wicksteed. He was present when Mr. Wicksteed explained to Mr. Nasmyth +the want he had experienced of a sluice-cock for Waterworks purposes, +which should shut and remain perfectly tight against a pressure coming +from either side. Mr. Marten had a lively recollection of the +instantaneous rapidity with which Mr. Nasmyth not only grasped but +provided for the requirement; so that almost by the time Mr. Wicksteed +had completed the statement of his want, Mr. Nasmyth had drawn upon the +back of an old letter a rough sketch of the first double-faced +sluice-cock; and in less than an hour had converted this rough sketch +into a full-sized working drawing; in the preparation of which it fell +to Mr. Marten's lot to have the honour to assist. In his +'Autobiography' Mr. Nasmyth referred to the conversation with +Mr. Wicksteed, and introduced a print of the drawing made upon the +occasion. The invention has been of the greatest use to the Waterworks +Engineer, especially in connection with the constant supply system, in +which it frequently happened that the pressure was sometimes against +one face of the sluice-cock, and sometimes against the other."-- +See Proceedings and Discussions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, +1883, pp. 88, 89. + ...] + + +1839. A Hydraulic Mattress Press, capable of exerting a pressure of + Twenty thousand tons. + +Being under the impression that there are many processes in the +manufacturing arts, in which a perfectly controllable compressing power +of vast potency might be serviceable, I many years ago prepared a +design of an apparatus of a very simple and easily executed kind, +which would supply such a desideratum. It was possessed of a range of +compressing or squeezing power, which far surpassed anything of the +kind that had been invented. As above said, it was perfectly +controllable; so as either to yield the most gentle pressure, or to +possess the power of compressing to upwards of twenty thousand tons; +the only limit to its power being in the materials employed in its +construction. + +The principle of this enormously powerful compressing machine is +similar to that of the Hydraulic Press; the difference consisting +principally in the substitution of what I term a Hydraulic Mattress in +place of the cylinder and ram of the ordinary hydraulic press. +The Hydraulic Mattress consists of a square or circular water-tight +vessel or flat bag formed of 1/2-inch thick iron or steel plates +securely riveted together; its dimensions being, say 15 feet square by +3 feet deep, and having semicircular sides, which form enables the +upper flat part of the Mattress to rise say to the extent of 6 inches, +without any injury to the riveted joints, as such a rise or alteration +of the normal form of the semicircular sides would be perfectly +harmless, and not exceed their capability of returning to their normal +curve when the 6-inch rise was no longer necessary, and the elevating +pressure removed. + +[image] + +The action of this gigantic press is as follows. The Mattress A A +having been filled with water, an additional quantity is supplied by a +force pump, capable of forcing in water with a pressure of one ton to +the square inch; thus acting on an available surface of at least 144 +square feet surface--namely, that of the upper flat surface of the +Mattress. It will be forced up by no less a pressure than twenty +thousand tons, and transfer that enormous pressure to any article that +is placed between the rising table of the press and the upper table. +When any object less thick than the normal space is required to receive +the pressure, the spare space must be filled with a suitable set of +iron flat blocks, so as to subject the article to be pressed to the +requisite power. + +As before stated, there may be many processes in the manufacturing arts +in which such an enormous pressure may be useful; and this can be +accomplished with perfect ease and certainty. I trust that this account +of the principles and construction of such a machine may suggest some +employment worthy of its powers. In the general use of the Mattress +press, it would be best to supply the pressure water from an +accumulator, which should be kept constantly full by the action of +suitable pumps worked by a small steam-engine. The great press would +require the high-pressure water only now and then; so that it would not +be necessary to wait for the small pump to supply the pressure water +when the Mattress was required to be in action. + + +1840. A Tapping Square, or instrument by which Perfect Verticality of + the Tapping of Screwed Holes is insured. + +[image] + +The letter X shows how Screws are frequently made when tapped in the +old mode; the letter T as they are always made when the Tapping Square +is employed. + + +1840. A Mode of turning Segmental Work in the Ordinary Lathe + +In executing an order for twenty locomotive engines for the Great +Western Railway Company, there was necessarily a repetition of detail +parts. Many of them required the labour of the most skilful workmen, +as the parts referred to did not admit of their being executed by the +lathe or planing-machine in their ordinary mode of application. +But the cost of their execution by hand labour was so great, and the +risk of inaccuracy was so common (where extreme accuracy was essential), +that I had recourse to the aid of special mechanical contrivances and +machine tools for the purpose of getting over the difficulty. +The annexed illustration has reference to only one class of objects in +which I effected great saving in the production, as well as great +accuracy in the work. It refers to a contrivance for producing by the +turning-lathe the eighty bands of the eccentrics for these twenty +engines. Being of a segmental form, but with a projection at each +extremity, which rendered their production and finish impossible by the +ordinary lathe, I bethought me of applying what is termed the mangle +motion to the rim of a face plate of the lay, with so many pins in it +as to give the required course of segmental motion for the turning tool +to operate upon, between the projections C C in the illustration. + +[image] + +I availed myself of the limited to-and-fro horizontal motion of the +shaft of the mangle motion wheel, as it, at each end of the row of pegs +--in the face plate (when it passes from the exterior to the interior +range of them) in giving the feed motion to the tool in; the slide +rest, "turned" the segmental exterior of the eccentric hoops. +This it did perfectly, as the change of position of the small shaft +occurred at the exact time when the cut was at its termination,--that +being the correct moment to give the tool "the feed, or advance for the +taking of the next cut. The saving, in respect to time, was 10 to 1 in +comparison with the same amount of work done by hand labour; while the +"truth" or correctness of the work done by this handy little +application of the turning-lathe was absolutely perfect I have been the +more particular in my allusion to this contrivance, as it is applicable +to any lathe, and can perform work which no lathe without it can +accomplish. The unceasing industry of such machines is no small +addition to their attractions, in respect to the production of +unquestionably accurate work. + + +1843. Invention of the Steam Hammer Pile-driver. + +Described in text, p. 261. + + +1843. A Universal Flexible Joint for Steam and Water-pipes. + +[Image] + +The chief novelty in this swivel joint is the manner in which the +packing of the joints is completely enclosed, thereby rendering them +perfectly and permanently watertight. + + +1844. An Improvement in Blowing Fans and their Bearings. + +The principle on which Blowing Fans act, and to which they owe their +efficiency, consists in their communicating Centrifugal action to the +air within them. + +In order to obtain the maximum force of blast, with the minimum +expenditure of power, it is requisite so to form the outside rim of the +Fan-case as that each compartment formed by the space between the ends +of the blades of the Fan shall in its course of rotation possess an +equal facility of exit for the passage of the air it is discharging. +Thus, in a Fan with six blades, the space between the top of the blades +and the case of the Fan should increase in area in the progressive +ratios of 1-2-3-4-5-6. + +[Image] + +If a Fan be constructed on this common-sense principle, we shall secure +the maximum of blast from the minimum of driving power. And not only so; +but the humming sound--so disagreeable an accompaniment to the action +of the Fans (being caused by the successive sudden escape of the air +from each compartment as it comes opposite the space where it can +discharge its confined block of air)--will be avoided. When the outer +case of a Fan is formed on the expanding or spiral principle, +as above described, all these important advantages will attend its use. +As the inward current of air rushes in at the circular openings on each +side of the Fan-case, and would thus oppose each other if there was a +free communication between them, this is effectually obviated by +forming the rotating portion of the fan by a disc of iron plate, +which prevents the opposite in-rushing currents from interfering with +each other, and at the same time supplies a most substantial means of +fastening the blades, as they are conveniently riveted to this central +disc. On the whole, this arrangement of machinery supplies a most +effective "Noiseless Blowing Fan." + + +1845. A direct Action "Suction" Fan for the Ventilation of Coal-Mines. + +The frequency of disastrous colliery explosions induced me to give my +attention to an improved method for ventilating coal mines. +The practice then was to employ a furnace, placed at the bottom of the +upcast shaft of the coal-pit, to produce the necessary ventilation. +This practice was highly riskful. It was dangerous as well as +ineffective. It was also liable to total destruction when an explosion +occurred, and the means of ventilation were thus lost when it was most +urgently required. The ventilation of mines by a current of air forced +by a Fan into the workings, had been proposed by a German named George +Agricola, as far back as 1621. The arrangement is found figured in his +work entitled De Re Metalicat, p. 162. But in all cases in which this +system of forcing air through the workings and passages of a mine has +been tried, it has invariably been found unsuccessful as a means of +ventilation. + +As all rotative Blowing Fans draw in the air at their centres, +and expel it at their circumference, it occurred to me that if we were +to make a communication between the upcast shaft of the mine and the +centre or suctional part of the Fan closing the top of the upcast +shaft, a Fan so arranged would draw out the foul air from the mine, +and allow the fresh air to descend by the downcast shaft, +and so traverse the workings. And as a Suction Fan so placed would be +on the surface of the ground, and quite out of the way of any risk of +injury--being open to view and inspection at all times--we should +thus have an effective and trustworthy means for thorough ventilation. + +[Image] + +Having communicated the design for my Direct Action Suction Fan for +coal-pit ventilation to the Earl Fitzwilliam, through his agent +Mr. Hartop, in 1850, his lordship was so much pleased with it that I +received an order for one of 14 feet diameter, for the purpose of +ventilating; one of his largest coalpits. I arranged the steam-engine +which gave motion to the large Fan, so as to be a part of it; +and by placing the crank of the engine on the end of the Fan-shaft, +the engine transferred its power to it in the most simple and direct +manner. The high satisfaction which this Ventilating Fan gave to the +Earl and to all connected with his coal-mines, led to my receiving +orders for several of them. + +I took out no patent for the invention, but sent drawings and +descriptions to all whom I knew to be interested in coalmine ventilation. +I read a paper on the subject, and exhibited the necessary drawings, at +the meeting of the British Association at Ipswich in 1851. These were +afterwards published in the Mining Journal. The consequence is that +many of my Suction Ventilating Fans are now in successful action at +home and abroad. + + +1845. An improvement in the Links of Chain Cables. + + + +1845. An Improved Method of Welding Iron. + +One of the most important processes in connection with the production +of the details of machinery, and other purposes in which malleable iron +is employed, is that termed welding, namely, when more or less complex +forms are, so to speak, "built up" by the union of suitable portions of +malleable iron united and incorporated with each other in the process +of welding. This consists in heating the parts which we desire to unite +to a white heat in a smith's forge fire, or in an air furnace, by means +of which that peculiar adhesive "wax-like" capability; of sticking +together is induced,--so that when the several parts are forcibly +pressed into close contact by blows of a hammer, their union is +rendered perfect. + +But as the intense degree of heat which is requisite to induce this +adhesive quality is accompanied by the production of a molten oxide of +iron that clings tenaciously to the white-hot surfaces of the iron, +the union will not be complete unless every particle of the adhesing +molten scoriae is thoroughly discharged and driven out from between the +surfaces we desire to unite by welding. If by any want of due care on +the part of the smith, the surfaces be concave or have hollows in them, +the scoriae will be sure to lurk in the recesses, and result in a +defective welding of a most treacherous nature. Though the exterior may +display no evidence of the existence of this fertile cause of failure, +yet some undue or unexpected strain will rend and disclose the shut-up +scoriae, and probably end in some fatal break-down. The annexed figures +will perhaps serve to render my remarks on this truly important subject +more clear to the reader. + +[Image] + +Fig.1 represents an imperfectly prepared surface of two pieces of +malleable iron about to be welded. The result of their concavity of +form is that the scoriae are almost certain to be shut up in the hollow +part,--as the pieces will unite first at the edges and thus include +the scoriae, which no amount of subsequent hammering will ever +dislodge. They will remain lurking between, as seen in Fig.2. Happily, +the means of obviating all such treacherous risks are as simple as they +are thoroughly effective. All that has to be done to render their +occurrence next to impossible is to give to the surfaces we desire to +unite by welding a convex form as represented in Fig. 3; the result of +which is that we thus provide an open door for the scoriae to escape +from between the surfaces,--as these unite first in the centre, as +due to the convex form, and then the union proceeds outwards, until +every particle of scoriae is expelled, and the union is perfectly +completed under the blows of the hammer or other compressing agency. +Fig. 4 represents the final and perfect completion of the welding, +which is effected by this common-sense and simple means,--that is, +by giving the surfaces a convex form instead of a concave one. + +When I was called by the Lords of the Admiralty in 1846 to serve on a +Committee, the object of which was to investigate the causes of failure +in the wrought-iron smith work of the navy, many sad instances came +before us of accidents which had been caused by defective welding, +especially in the vitally important articles of Anchors and Chain Cables. +In the case of the occasional failure of chain cables, the cause was +generally assigned to defective material; but circumstances led me to +the conclusion that it was a question of workmanship or maltreatment of +what I knew to be of excellent material. I therefore instituted a +series of experiments which yielded conclusive evidence upon the +subject; and which proved that defective welding was the main and chief +cause of failure. In order to prove this, several apparently excellent +cables were, by the aid of "the proving machine," pulled to pieces, +link by link, and a careful record was kept of the nature of the +fracture. The result was, that out of every 100 links pulled asunder +80 cases clearly exhibited defective welding; while only 20 were broken +through the clear sound metal. This yielded a very important lesson to +those specially concerned. + + +1845. Introduction of the V Anvil. + +In connection with my Steam Hammer, when employed in forging great +cylindrical shafts, I introduced what I termed my V anvil. +Its employment has most importantly contributed to secure perfect +soundness in such class of forgings. + +In the old system of forging cylindrical shafts, the bar was placed +upon a flat-faced anvil. The effect of each blow of the hammer upon the +work was to knock the shaft into an oval form (see Fig. 1); and the +inevitable result of a succession of such blows was destruction of the +soundness of the centre or axis of the shaft. + +[image] + +In order to remedy this grave defect, arising from the employment of a +flat-faced anvil, I introduced my V anvil face (see Fig. 2), the effect +of which was, that the dispersive action of the blow of the hammer was +changed into a converging action, which ensured the perfect soundness +of the work; while the V or fork-like form of the angle face kept the +work steadily under the centre of the hammer, allowing the scale or +scoriae to fall into the apex or bottom of the V, which thus passed +away, leaving the faces of the angle quite clear. + +This simple and common-sense improvement was eagerly and generally +adopted, and has been productive of most satisfactory and important +results. + + +1847. A Spherical-seated Direct-weighted Safety Valve. + +Having been on several occasions called to investigate the causes of +steam boiler explosions, my attention was naturally directed to the +condition of the Safety Valve. I found the construction of them in many +cases to be defective in principle as well as in mechanical details; +resulting chiefly from the employment of a conical form in the valve, +which necessitated the use of a guide spindle to enable it to keep in +correct relative position to its corresponding conical seat, as seen at +A in Fig. 1. As this guide spindle is always liable to be clogged with +the muddy deposit from the boiling water, which yields a very adhesive +encrustation, the result is a very riskful tendency to impede the free +action of the Safety Valve, and thereby prevent its serving its +purpose. + +[image] + +With a view to remove all such causes of uncertainty in the action of +this vitally important part of a steam boiler I designed a Safety Valve, +having a spherical valve and corresponding seat, as seen in B C, +Fig. 2. This form of Safety Valve had the important property of fitting +to its bearing-seat in all positions, requiring no other guide than its +own spherical seat to effect that essential purpose. And as the weight +required to keep the valve closed until the exact desired maximum +pressure of steam has been attained, is directly attached to the under +side of the valve by the rod, the weight, by being inside the boiler, +is placed out of reach from any attempt to tamper with it. + +The entire arrangement of this Safety Valve is quite simple. It is free +from all Lever Joints and other parts which might become clogged; +and as there is always a slight pendulous motion in the weight by the +action of the water in the boiler, the spherical surfaces of the valve +and its seat are thus ever kept in perfect order. As soon as the +desired pressure of steam has been reached, and the gravity of the +weight overcome, the valve rises from its seat, and gives perfectly +free egress to any farther accumulation of steam. It is really quite a +treat, in its way, to observe this truly simple and effective Safety +Valve in action. After I had contrived and introduced this Safety +Valve, its valuable properties were speedily acknowledged, and. its +employment has now become very general. + + +1847. A Machine for cutting out Cottar Slots and Key-Groove Recesses in + Parts of Machinery by a Traversing Drill. + +One of the most tedious and costly processes in the execution of the +detail parts of machinery is the cutting out of Cottar Slots in piston +rods, connecting rods, and key recesses in shafts. This operation used +to be performed by drilling a row of holes through the solid body of +the object, and then chipping away the intermediate metal between the +holes, and filing the rude slot, so produced, into its required form. +The whole operation, as thus conducted, was one of the most tedious and +irksome jobs that an engineer workman could be set to, and could only +be performed by those possessed of the highest skill. + +What with broken chisels and files, and the tedious nature of the work, +it was a most severe task to the very best men, not to speak of the +heavy cost in wages. + +In order to obviate all these disadvantages, I contrived an arrangement +of a drilling machine, with a specially formed drill, which at once +reduced the process to one of the easiest conducted in an engineer's +workshop. + +[Image] + +The. "special" form of the Drill consisted in the removal of the centre +portion of its flat cutting face by making it with a notch O. +This enabled it to cut sideways, as well as downwards, and thus to cut +a slit or oblong hole. No labour, as such, was required; but only the +intelligent superintendence of a lad to place the work in the machine, +and remove it for the next piece in its turn. The machine did the +labour, and by its self-action did the work in the most perfect manner. + +I may further mention that the arrangement of the machine consisted in +causing the object to traverse to and fro in a straight line, of any +required length, under the action of the drill. The traversing action +was obtained by the employment of an adjustable crank, which gave the +requisite motion to a slide table, on which the work was fastened. +The "feed" downwards of the drill was effected by the crank at the +moment of its reversing the slide, as the drill reached the end of the +traverse; and, as there is a slight pause of the traverse at each end +of it, the "feed" for the next cutting taking place at that time, +the drill has the opportunity given to perfect its cut ere it commences +the next cutting traverse in succession. This action continues in +regular course until the drill makes its way right through the piece of +work under its action; or can be arrested at any required depth +according to the requirements of the work. Soap and water as a +lubricator continues to drop into the recess of the slot, and is always +in its right place to assist the cutting of the drill. + +As before said, the entire function of this most effective machine tool +is self-acting. It only required an intelligent lad or labourer to +attend to it; and, as there was ample time to spare, the +superintendence of two of these machines was quite within his ability. +The rates of the productive powers of this machine, as compared with +the former employment of hand labour, was at least ten to one; +to say nothing of the superior quality of the work executed. + +Such were the manifold advantages of this machine, that its merits soon +became known and appreciated; and although I had taken out no patent +for it, we always had an abundance of orders, as it was its own best +advertisement. + + +1848. A Steam Hammer Form of Steam-Engine. + +[Image] + +This engine is of great simplicity and get-at-ability of parts. +It is specially adapted for screw-propelled steamships, and many other +purposes. It is now in very general use. The outline is given above. + + +1848. Application of Hydraulic Power to the Punching of Large Holes in + Iron Bars, and Plates of Great Thickness. + +Dr. Faraday having applied to me to furnish him, for one of his +lectures at the Royal Institution, with some striking example of the +Power of Machinery in overcoming the resistance to penetration in the +case of some such material as cold malleable iron, it occurred to me to +apply the tranquil but vast power of a hydraulic press to punch out a +large hole in a thick cake of malleable iron. Knowing that my excellent +friend John Rick had in his works at Bolton one of the most powerful +hydraulic presses then existing, contrived and constructed by his +ingenious father, the late Benjamin Hick, I proceeded to Bolton, and +explained Dr. Faraday's requirement, when, with his usual liberal zeal, +Mr. Hick at once placed the use of his great hydraulic press at my +service. + +Having had a suitable cake of steam-hammered malleable iron given to me +for the purpose in question, by my valued friend Thomas Lever Rushton +of the Bolton Ironworks, we soon had the cake of iron placed in the +great press. It was 5 inches thick,18 inches long, and 15 inches wide. +Placing a cylindrical coupling box of cast-iron on the table of the +press, and then placing the thick cake of iron on it, and a short +cylindrical mass of iron (somewhat of the size and form of a Stilton +Cheese) on the iron cake, the coupling box acting as the Bolster of the +extemporised punching machine,--the press was then set to work. +We soon saw the Stilton Cheese-like punch begin to sink slowly and +quietly through the 5-inch thick cake of iron, as if it had been stiff +clay. The only sound heard was when the punched-out mass dropped into +the recess of the coupling below. Such a demonstration of tranquil but +almost resistless power of a hydraulic press had never, so far as we +were aware, been seen before. The punched of iron, together with the +punched-out disc, were then packed off to Faraday; and great was his +delight in having his request so promptly complied with. Great also was +the wonder of his audience when the punched plate was placed upon the +lecture table. This feat of Benjamin Hick's great hydraulic press set +me a-thinking. I conceived the idea that the application of hydraulic +press power might serve many similar purposes in dealing with ultra +thick plates or bar iron,--such as the punching out of holes, +and cutting thick bars and plates into definite shapes, as might be +required. I suggested the subject to my friend Charles Fox, head of the +firm of Fox, Henderson, and Co. He had taken a large contract for a +chain bridge, the links of which were to be of thick flat iron bars, +with the ends broadened out for the link-pins to pass through. +He had described to me the trouble and cost they had occasioned him in +drilling the holes, and in cropping the rude-shaped ends of the bars +into the required form. I advised him to try the use of the hydraulic +press as a punching-machine, and also as a cutting-machine to dress the +ends of the great links. He did so in due time, and found the +suggestion of great service and value to him in this, and in other +cases of a similar kind. The saving of cost was very great, +and the work was much more perfect than under the former system. + + +1848. An Alternately-pegged "Shive" or Pulley for Rope Band Power + Transmission. + + +1848. A Turn-table "Trunnion Vision" Reflecting Telescope. + +This is so arranged that the observer can direct the Telescope and view +an object in any part of the heavens without moving from his seat, +which is attached to the turn-table. For explanations, see text, p. 337. + + + +1850. A Double or Ambidexter Self-acting Turning-Lathe, + with "Dead Gutters," specially adapted for turning Bolts and + suchlike detail Parts of Machinery. + +[Image] + +[Image] + + This is a very valuable tool. It requires only one attendant. +It is especially useful as regards efficiency and economy. It will be +sufficiently understood by mechanical engineers from the annexed +drawings. + + +1852. A Solid-bar "Link-Valve Motion," especially valuable for the + larger class of Marine Steam-Engines. + + +1854. Steam Puddling Patent. + +This was the "pioneer" of the Bessemer process. See Bessemer +correspondence, p. 354 + + +1854. A Reversible Rolling Mill without Fly-wheel. + +This Rolling Mill consists of two combined steam-engines, acting on +cranks at right angles, the reversing of the rolls being effected by +the link motion. The requisite rolling power is obtained by suitable +wheel and pinion gear, so as to be entirely independent of the momentum +of a fly-wheel, which is entirely dispensed with. + +I did not patent the invention. As usual in such cases, I made no +secret of it, but sent sketches explanatory of the arrangement to many +professional friends interested in mechanical improvements. +It was adopted by many, especially for rolling long and heavy bars and +plates. It enabled the workmen to "see-saw" these ponderous objects, +and pass them to and fro through the rolls with the utmost case,-- +to the great saving of heat, time, and labour. The invention was first +brought into use by Mr. Ramsbotham at the Crewe works of the London and +North-Western Railway. On the 4th December 1866 I received the +following letter from him: + +"DEAR SIR--I must crave your forgiveness for my great delay in +acknowledging the receipt of your kind letter of the 29th August, +in which you refer to the successful carrying out at these works of +your idea of a 'Reversible Rolling Mill without a Fly-wheel.' +It has long been to me a matter of astonishment that your idea has not +been reduced to practice years ago, particularly when it is considered +how well the arrangement is adapted to the rolling of Armour Plates, or +other work requiring a sustained effort, whilst it is at the same time +more effective than the ordinary mill arrangement for very light work. +So much is this latter true, that the men who are left to their own +choice in the matter, will reverse the mill rather than pass a light +sheet of 8 or 10 lbs. weight over the upper roll. This country is much +indebted to you for so valuable a suggestion; and now that it has been +brought to a successful issue, I have no doubt but it will be widely +acted upon. I need not add that it will afford me much pleasure to show +you the mill, and also what we are doing generally, if you should at +any time visit Crewe.-- +Believe me very faithfully yours, " J. RAMSBOTHAM." + +I also communicated the invention to Mr. Thomas Gillott of the Farnley +Ironworks, Yorkshire, and received from him the following letter, dated +the 2d January 1877: + +" DEAR SIR--I was much gratified to see by your letter in Engineering + the interest you have shown with respect to the large Reversing Plate +Mill erected by me at these works, and drawn on the plan suggested by +you. Allow me to thank you for the complimentary manner in which you +have mentioned my work. Since the notice appeared, we have done a deal +of heavy work in this mill; and a plate large enough to shear 11' 0" +and 10' 2" and 1/2" thick has been rolled in five minutes. The slab +went through the roll 17 times before being rolled to the width and +turned round, and 18 times after turning and of the full width; +making a total of 35 passes--the turning occupying 20 seconds. +When it is remembered how rapidly a thin plate cools, this performance +will sufficiently indicate the severe work this mill is capable of +doing; notwithstanding the many predictions that such large plates +could not be rolled without a fly-wheel. As to repairs, none have been +required; so I cannot compare this with the Clutch systems. In respect +of steam used, the direct acting engines compare favourably with an +expansion beam condensing engine doing similar but lighter work. +Should it ever be your wish to see this mill at work, I should be much +pleased to have the opportunity of showing it to you.-- +I am, dear sir, your obedient servant, + +"THOMAS GILLOTT." + + +1854. Drilling Tunnels through Hard Rock. + +Besides these contrivances and methods of accomplishing mechanical +objects, I have on several occasions read papers, prepared drawings, +and given suggestions, out of which have come so-called "inventions" +made by others. For instance, at the meeting of the British Association +in Liverpool in 1854, I read a paper and exhibited drawings before the +Mechanical Science Section, on my method of drilling tunnels through +hard rock. The paper and drawings excited considerable interest among +the railway engineers who were present. I afterwards met Mr. George +Newmann, C.E., who consulted me on the same subject. Several years +after (21st April 1863) I received the following letter from him: + +"DEAR Sir--Some few years ago, I had the pleasure of spending an +evening in your company at my relative's (Mr. G. Withington) house at +Pendleton. As I was then Engineer to the Victor Emmanuel Railway, and +had made a survey of the Mout Cenis for the purpose of the Tunnel, +I consulted you as to the application of the machinery for that work. +You suggested the driving of drills in a manner similar to a piston-rod, +with other details. On my return to Savoy, I communicated these ideas +to Mr. Bartlett, the contractor's agent, and I recommended him to get a +small trial machine made. This he had done in a few months, and then he +claimed the whole idea as his own. The system has since been carried +out (see Times, 4th April 1863) by compressed air instead of steam. +I call your attention to this, as you may contradict, if you think +proper, the assertion in the article above mentioned, that the idea +originated with Bartlett." + +I did not, however, contradict the assertion. I am glad that my +description and drawings proved in any way useful towards the +completion of that magnificent work, the seven-mile tunnel under +Mont Cenis. + +1862. Chilled Cast-iron Shot. + +In like manner, I proposed the use of Chilled Cast-Iron Shot at a +meeting of the Mechanical Science Section of the British Association, +held at Cambridge in October 1862. Up to that time hardened steel shot +had been used to penetrate thick iron plates, but the cost was +excessive, about #30 a ton. I proposed that Chilled Cast-Iron should be +substituted; it was more simple and inexpensive. Considerable +discussion took place on the subject; and Sir William Fairbairn, +who was President of the Section, said that "he would have experiments +made, and he hoped that before the next meeting of the Association, the +matter would be proved experimentally. A brief report of the discussion +is given in the Times of the 7th October, and in the Athenaeum of the +18th October, 1862. Before, however, the matter could be put to the +test of experiment, Major Palliser had taken out his Patent for the +invention of Chilled Cast-Iron Shot, in May 1863, for which he was +afterwards handsomely rewarded. + +I do not wish to "grasp" at any man's inventions, but it is right to +claim my own, and to state the facts. The discussion above mentioned +took place upon a paper read by J. Aston, Esq., Q.C., who thus refers +to the subject in his letter to me, dated the 7th January 1867: + +"I perfectly remember the discussion which took place at the meeting of +the British Association at Cambridge in 1862, upon the material proper +to be used as projectiles. The discussion arose after a paper had been +read by me in the Mechanical Section upon 'Rifled guns and projectiles +adapted for attacking armour plates.' The paper was, I think, printed +by the Association in their Report for 1862. You spoke, I believe, +at some length on the occasion; and I recollect that you surprised and +much interested all who were present, by strenuously urging the use of +Chilled Cast-iron for shot and shell, intended for penetrating armour +plates. + +"Having embraced all opportunities, and I had many at that time, +of ascertaining all that was done in the way of improving rifled +projectiles, I entertained a very strong opinion that experiments had +shown that ordinary cast-iron was, as compared with steel, of very +little value for shot and shell to be used against iron plates. +For that reason, I remember I took an opportunity, after the +termination of the discussion, in which you held your own against all +comers in favour of chilled cast-iron, of questioning you closely on +the subject, and you gave me, I admitted, good reason for the opinion +you expressed. You also urged me to cause a trial to be made of chilled +cast-iron for shell, such as I had shown to the section, and which (in +hardened steel shot) had been fired by Mr. Whitworth through thick iron +plates. This I had not an opportunity of doing. Term began soon after, +and Temple occupations then took up all my time. "There can be no doubt +whatever that any one who may claim to have been before you in teaching +the public the use of Chilled Cast Iron for projectiles intended to +penetrate iron plates, must give proof of having so done prior to your +vigorous advocacy of that material at the Cambridge Meeting in 1862.-- +Yours very sincerely, "J.Aston." + +In another letter Mr. Aston says--"It is quite right of you to assert +your claim to that which in fact belongs to you." I did not, however, +assert my claim; and, with these observations and extracts, I leave the +matter, stating again the fact that my public communication of the +invention was made in October 1862; and that the patent for the +invention was taken out by Major Palliser in May 1863. + + +Mr Nasmyth's final comments on his inventions and contrivances. + +I have only mentioned the more prominent of my inventions and +contrivances. Had I described them fully I should have required another +volume. I have the satisfaction to know that many of them have greatly +advanced the progress of the mechanical arts, though they may not be +acknowledged as mine. I patented very few of my inventions. The others +I sowed broadcast over the world of practical mechanics. My reward is +in the knowledge that these "children of my brain" are doing, and will +continue to do, good service in time present and in time to come. + +In mechanical structures and contrivances, I have always endeavoured to +attain the desired purpose by the employment of the Fewest Parts, +casting aside every detail not absolutely necessary, and guarding +carefully against the intrusion of mere traditional forms and +arrangements. The latter are apt to insinuate themselves, +and to interfere with that simplicity and directness of action +which is in all cases so desirable a quality in mechanical structures. +PLAIN COMMON SENSE should be apparent in the general design, +as in the form and arrangement of the details; and a general character +of severe utility pervade the whole, accompanied with as much attention +to gracefulness of form as is consistent with the nature and purpose of +the structure. + + +THE SUN-RAY ORIGIN OF THE PYRAMIDS AND CUNEIFORM CHARACTER. + +Before I take my leave of the public, I wish to put on record my +speculations as to the origin of two subjects of remote antiquity, viz. +the Sun-ray origin of the Pyramids, and the origin of the Arrow-head +or Cuneiform Character. + +First, with respect to the Sun-ray origin of the Egyptian Pyramids. + +In pursuing a very favourite subject of inquiry, namely the origin of +forms, no portion of it appears to me to be invested with so deep an +interest as that of the Worship of the Sun, one of the most primitive +and sacred foundations of adorative religion,--affecting as it has +done, architectural structures and numerous habits and customs which +have come clown to us from remote antiquity, and which owe their origin +to its influence. + +On many occasions, while beholding the sublime effects of the Sun's +Rays streaming down on the earth through openings in the clouds near +the horizon, I have been forcibly impressed with the analogy they +appear to suggest as to the form of the Pyramid, while the single +vertical ray suggests that of the Obelisk. + +In following up this subject, I was fortunate enough to find what +appears to me a strong confirmation of my views, namely, that the +Pyramid, as such, was a sacred form. I met with many examples of this +in the Egyptian Collection at the Louvre at Paris; especially in small +pyramids, which were probably the objects of household worship. +In one case I found a small pyramid, on the upper part of which +appeared the disc of the Sun, with pyramidal rays descending from it on +to figures in the Egyptian attitude of adoration. This consists in the +hands held up before the eyes--an attitude expressive of the brightness +of the object adored. It is associated with the brightness of the Sun, +and it still survives in the Salaam, which expresses profound reverence +and respect among Eastern nations. It also survives in the disc of the +Sun, which has for ages been placed like a halo behind the heads of +sacred and exalted personages, as may be seen in Eastern and early +paintings, as well as in church windows at the present day. + +This is also intimately connected with lighted lamps and candles, which +latter may often be met with in Continental churches, as well as in +English Ritualist Churches at the present day. In Romish Continental +churches they are stuck on to pyramidal stands, and placed before +pictures and images of sacred personages. All such lighted lamps or +candles are survivals of that most ancient form of worship,-- +that of THE SUN! + +The accompanying illustrations will serve in some degree to confirm the +correctness of my views as to this very. interesting subject. + +[Image] Fig. 1 is from a "rubbing" of one of the many small or + "Household" pyramids in the Louvre Collection at Paris; + +[Image] while Fig. 2 is an attempt to illustrate in a graphic manner + the derivation of the form of the Pyramid and Obelisk from the + Sun's Rays. + +In connection with the worship of the Sun and other heavenly bodies, as +practised in ancient times by Eastern nations, it may be mentioned that +their want of knowledge of the vast distances that separate them from +the earth led them to the belief that these bodies were so near as to +exert a direct influence upon man and his affairs. Hence the origin of +Astrology, with all its accompanying mystifications; this was practised +under the impression that the Sun, Moon, and planets were near to the +earth. The summits of mountains and "High Places" thus became "sacred," +and were for this reason resorted to for the performance of the most +important religious ceremonies. + +As the "High Places" could not be transported to the Temples, +the cone-bearing trees, which were naturally associated with these +elevated places, in a manner partook of their sacred character, and the +fruit of the trees became in a like manner sacred. Hence the Fir Cone +became a portable emblem of their sacredness; and, accordingly in the +Assyrian Worship, so clearly represented to us in the Assyrian +Sculptures in our Museums, we find the Fir Cone being presented by the +priests towards the head of their kings as a high function of +Beatification. So sacred was the Fir Cone, as the fruit of the sacred +tree, that the priest who presents it has a reticule-shaped bag in +which, no doubt, the sacred emblem was reverently deposited when not in +use for the performance of these high religious ceremonies. + +The same emblem "survived" in the Greek worship. I annex a tracing +from a wood engraving in Fellows's Researches in Asia Minor, 1852 +(p. 175), showing the Fir Cone as the finial to the staff of office of +the Wine-god Bacchus. + +[Image] + +To this day it is employed to stir the juice of the grape previous to +fermentation, and so sanctifying it by contact with the fruit of the +Sacred Tree. This is still practised by the Greeks in Asia Minor and +in Greece, though introduced in times of remote antiquity. +The Fir Cone communicates to most of the Greek wines that peculiar +turpentine or resinous flavour which is found in them. Although the +sanctification motive has departed, the resinous flavour is all that +survives of a once most sacred ceremony, as having so close a relation +to the worship of the Sun and the heavenly bodies. + +In like manner, it appears to me highly probable that "The Christmas Tree" +with its lighted tapers, which is introduced at that sacred season for +the entertainment of our young people, is "a survival" of the worship +of the sacred tree and of the Sun. The toys which are hung on the twigs +of the tree may also be "survivals" of the offerings which were usually +made to the Sun and the heavenly bodies. If I am correct in my +conjecture on this subject, it throws a very interesting light on +what is considered as a mere agent for the amusement of children. + + + +Next, with respect to the Cuneiform Character. When I first went to +reside in London, in 1829, I often visited the British Museum. +It was the most instructive and interesting of all the public +institutions which I had yet seen. I eagerly seized every opportunity +I could spare to spend as many hours as possible in wandering through +its extensive galleries, especially those which contained the Assyrian, +Egyptian, and Greek antiquities. By careful and repeated examination +of the objects arranged in them, I acquired many ideas that afforded me +subjects for thought and reflection. + +Amongst these objects, I was specially impressed and interested with +the so-called "Arrow-head" or "Cuneiform Inscriptions" in the Assyrian +Department. These remarkable inscriptions were on large tablets of +burnt clay. They formed the chief portion of the then comparatively +limited collection of Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum. + +[Image] Fig 1. + +I was particularly impressed with the precision and simple beauty of +these cuneiform inscriptions,--especially with the strikingly +distinctive nature of what I may term the fundamental or elementary +wedge-like form, of which the vast variety of letters or words of these +inscriptions were composed. The triangular or three-sided indentation +will be observed in the above engraving (Fig. 1). This elementary +form, placed in various positions with respect to each other, appeared +to be capable of yielding an infinite variety of letters and words, +as seen in Fig. 2. + +[Image] Fig 2. + +I may here mention that I entered upon this interesting subject with no +pretensions as a linguist, nor with any idea of investigating the +meaning of these remarkable inscriptions; but only as a Mechanic, to +ascertain the manner in which the striking characters were produced, so +as to convey words and ideas through their variety of combinations. +I soon perceived that the simple but distinctive characters shown in +the above representations were essentially connected with the +employment of plastic clay; this being the material most suitable for +their impression, by means of a three-sided instrument or stylus. +The angular extremity of this instrument, when depressed into the +surface of a tablet of plastic clay in different positions and +directions, would leave these cuneiform impressions in all their +beautifully distinct and characteristic forms. And thus, after the +tablets had been subjected to fire and made into hard brick, +the impressions have come down to us, after the lapse of thousands of +years, as fresh and distinct as if they had been produced but +yesterday! + +I was so fortunate as to have my conjectures confirmed with respect to +the exact form of the instrument by which these remarkable characters +are produced, observing, in what appeared to be a hastily-formed +inscription on the edge of a large brick, that the inscriber had +apparently used rather more pressure on his stylus than was requisite. +In consequence of which, the end of it had been so deeply depressed +into the soft clay as to leave an exact counterpart of its size and +form. I secured a cast of this over-deep impression of the stylus, +from which Fig. 3 is taken, after a photograph. + +[Image] Fig 3. + +In order further to illustrate the simple mode of producing +inscriptions on tablets of clay, I give in Fig. 4 a tablet inscription +produced by means of the stylus which is seen laid over the tablet. + +[Image] Fig 4. + +The next illustration (Fig.5) is intended to convey an idea of the +manner in which the stylus was held and applied to the surface of the +clay when a cuneiform inscription was being produced. The upper, flat, +or third side of the stylus enabled the inscriber to keep it in correct +relative position in respect to the tablet, yielding at the same time a +convenient flat surface upon which to rest the end of his finger when +indenting the angular end into the clay. + +[Image] Fig 5. + +Refer back to Fig. 2, and it will be found that any variety in the +size of the cuneiform inscriptions may be produced by the same stylus, +by simply depressing the angular end of it to a greater or less depth +into the surface of the clay. In many of the most elaborate +inscriptions, a certain lob-sidedness of the cuneiform character may be +observed. This is due to the inscriber having held his stylus somewhat +askew, as we do a pen in ordinary writing. Referring to my remark that +the distinctive shape of the cuneiform character was essentially due to +the use of plastic clay as the most suitable material for its +production, I think it highly probable that the origin of these +inscriptions took its rise not only from the facility with which the +characters could be indented on the material, but from the abundance of +plastic mud which forms the natural soil of the lands adjoining the +great Assyrian rivers. This when made into bricks, became the chief +building material of the energetic people of Babylon and the other +great cities of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. The laborious work +of brickmaking was generally assigned to captives as taskwork, and it +appears to me highly probable that "the tale" of the brickmaker or his +taskmaster might be most readily marked by simply indenting the side of +the soft tale brick with the corner angle of a dry one; and that thus +the strikingly peculiar character of the cuneiform character was +produced (see Fig. 6). + +[Image] Fig 6. + +In course of time the elementary form was expanded into this most +beautifully simple mode of communicating ideas through the agency of +conventional signs or letters; being also especially suited for making +historical or other records on tablets of moist clay, which, when +"fired", became absolutely indestructible, so far as time is concerned. + +This is abundantly proved by those marvellously perfect burnt clay +tablets, covered with exquisitely minute and perfect inscriptions, +which, after having remained hid in mounds of rubbish for thousands of +years, among the ruins of the Assyrian cities, are brought to light as +fresh and perfect as on the day on which they were executed. +These tablets now excite the wonder and admiration of all who are able +to appreciate the beauty of the inscriptions, as well as of those who +are speculatively curious as to the origin of written language. +This attempt to explain the probable origin of the cuneiform character +may to some appear fanciful. But whether or not, it is certain that +this simple and impressive character can be readily produced by the +primitive means which I have ventured to suggest. I give a cuneiform +inscription (Fig. 7), which I have produced by simply employing the +corner angle of an ordinary brick as the stylus for indenting the +inscription on the tablet of soft clay. This might have been extended +to any length, in longer as well as minuter impressions. + +[Image] Fig 7. + +As soon as the capability of the cuneiform impression was adopted as +the Assyrian character, it was in due time employed for inscriptions on +stone or other materials, such as marble or alabaster. The chisel was +then substituted for the stylus; but the characters remained in a great +measure the same. In some cases a slight modification was observable, +being naturally due to the change of material and the method of carving +it; but in most respects the departure from the clay prototype is very +slight, and the original is adhered to with remarkable integrity. + +When examining some early Greek inscriptions in marble, in the British +Museum, in the year 1837, I was much interested to observe the +appearance of a cuneiform element in the limbs of several Greek +letters, especially in the terminals, as illustrated in Fig. 8, +each limb of the letter being in itself a perfect cuneiform; +and as such the terminal of each limb is at right angles to the axis, +and not as now (in our modern capital letters) parallel to the line of +inscription. + +[Image] Fig 8. + +This apparent presence of the cuneiform element in these early Greek +inscriptions suggests some very interesting historic causes which led +to their introduction, and so passed from the Greek into the Roman, +and eventually into the capital letters of our own alphabet. To give +one instance,--though many might be cited,--take the capital letter T, +and it will be found that it went from the Cuneiform into the Greek, +then into the Roman, and lastly into our own letter, thus presenting a +remarkable instance of the survival of a form from remote antiquity +down to the present day. + +[Image] Fig 9. + +The letters A K H I K M N Y X have the distinct remains of their +Babylonian origin in the top and bottom stroke, which is nothing more +nor less than a corruption of the original or primitive arrow-headed +impression of the stylus in the moist clay, begun thousands of years +ago. + +In a lecture which I gave at the Royal Institution in London, in 1839, +and in another at the British Association at Cheltenham, in 1856, +I referred to this presence of the cuneiform element in the Greek +letters, illustrating the subject by actual casts from the inscriptions +themselves. At Cheltenham the question gave rise to a most animated +and interesting discussion, in which Dr. Whewell and Sir Thomas +Phillips (the great antiquarian) took a prominent part. I understood +that Sir Thomas Phillips assigned that the intermixture of cuneiform +with the Greek alphabet proceeded from the Samaritans, who were +originally an Assyrian colony. I find that many Greek inscriptions +exhibit the cuneiform element in nearly all the letters composing them. +This is a subject well worthy of the attention of our antiquarian Greek +scholars, as pointing to an intimate intercourse with the Assyrians at +some remote age. The distinctive character of the cuneiform in the +Greek inscriptional letters could not have arisen from chance. +Some intercommunication with the Assyrians must have taken place. + +This subject is all the more interesting, as the cuneiform element +appears to have passed from the Greek inscriptional letters into those +of the Romans, and from thence into our own capital letters. +This affords a very remarkable instance of the "survival" of a form, +which, however naturally due to the plastic material in connection with +which it originated, nevertheless led to its use for ages after the +circumstances which led to its adoption had passed away. This tendency +in mankind to cling to shapes and forms through mere traditional +influences is widely observable, especially in connection with +architectural forms, arrangements, and decorative details. It offers a +subject of great interest to those who have a natural aptitude to +investigate what I may term the etymology of form, a subject of the +most attractive nature, especially to those who enjoy thinking and +reflecting upon what they have specially observed. + +[Image] Assyrian roller-seal. + +Before concluding this subject I may mention that the Assyrians +employed a cylindrical roller-seal in order to produce impressions in a +wholesale way. This is exemplified in the above engraving. +The mechanical principles inherent in this beautifully simple form of +roller-seal, indicate a high order of ingenuity, well worthy of the +originators of the arrow-headed character. In fact it is the prototype +not only of the modern system of calico-printing but of the Waiter +Printing Press, by which the Times and many other newspapers are now +printed--a remarkable instance of the survival or restoration of a +very old method of impression. + +[Image] His Autograph and Thumb Mark. + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Etext of James Nasmyth's Autobiography + Binary files differdiff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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