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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-28 05:23:31 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-28 05:23:31 -0800 |
| commit | 6930aec0dc58d7626a84b52e07726fd97b4dec8c (patch) | |
| tree | 2ffcec3838b80dbb8bd02e567c7943a7b23ae9bd /47435-h | |
| parent | fcf0a48f0f46c72dcd6dbf41d0869324a371ed0d (diff) | |
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diff --git a/47435-h/47435-h.htm b/47435-h/47435-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb1f308 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/47435-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7311 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of British Canals, by Edwin A. Pratt. + </title> + <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + +.chapter {page-break-before: always} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + +hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} +hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%} + +ul.index { list-style-type: none; } +li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } +li.indx { margin-top: .5em; } +li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} +li.isub2 {text-indent: 2em;} +li.isub3 {text-indent: 3em;} + +ul { + list-style-type:none; + margin:0em; + margin-left: 10%; + padding:0; + max-width:40em; +} + +li { + margin:0em; + page-break-inside:avoid; + padding:0 1em 0 0em; + text-indent: 0em; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +table.bordered {border-spacing: 0; border-collapse: collapse;} + + .tdl {text-align: left;} + .tdr {text-align: right;} + .tdc {text-align: center;} + + .bt0 {border-top: none;} + .bb0 {border-bottom: none;} + .bl0 {border-left: none;} + .br0 {border-right: none;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.right {text-align: right;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +em.smcap {font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; font-variant: small-caps;} + +.lowercase { text-transform:lowercase;} + +.u {text-decoration: underline;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +.mt2 {margin-top: 2em;} +.mt4 {margin-top: 4em;} + +.titlepage {page-break-before: always} + +ins {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} +.tnote {border: dashed 1px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; + padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + +.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} +.big {font-size: 1.2em;} +.bigger {font-size: 1.8em; font-weight: bold;} +.huge {font-size: 2.5em;} + +.block {text-align: center;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + +.covernote {visibility: hidden; display: none;} + +@media handheld /* Place this at the end of the CSS */ +{ + body + { + margin: 0; + padding: 0; + width: 95%; + } + + .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block;} +} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 47435 ***</div> + +<div class="transnote covernote"> + <p class="center">The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> +</div> + + +<h1>BRITISH CANALS</h1> + +<hr class="chap" /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" width="600" height="336" alt="AQUEDUCT AT PONTCYSYLLTE (IN THE DISTANCE)." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">AQUEDUCT AT PONTCYSYLLTE (IN THE DISTANCE).</p> + + <p class="center">(Constructed by Telford to carry Ellesmere Canal over River Dee. Opened 1803. Cost £47,000. Length, 1007 feet.)</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>Frontispiece.</i></p> +</div></div> + + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="titlepage"> + +<p class="center bigger">BRITISH CANALS:</p> + +<p class="center big mt2">IS THEIR RESUSCITATION +PRACTICABLE?</p> + +<p class="center big mt2">BY EDWIN A. PRATT</p> + +<p class="center mt2">AUTHOR OF "RAILWAYS AND THEIR RATES," "THE ORGANIZATION<br /> +OF AGRICULTURE," "THE TRANSITION IN AGRICULTURE," ETC.</p> + +<p class="center mt4">LONDON<br /> +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.<br /> +1906 +</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>The appointment of a Royal Commission on Canals +and Waterways, which first sat to take evidence on +March 21, 1906, is an event that should lead to an +exhaustive and most useful enquiry into a question +which has been much discussed of late years, but on +which, as I hope to show, considerable misapprehension +in regard to actual facts and conditions has hitherto +existed.</p> + +<p>Theoretically, there is much to be said in favour of +canal restoration, and the advocates thereof have not +been backward in the vigorous and frequent ventilation +of their ideas. Practically, there are other all-important +considerations which ought not to be overlooked, +though as to these the British Public have hitherto +heard very little. As a matter of detail, also, it is +desirable to see whether the theory that the decline +of our canals is due to their having been "captured" +and "strangled" by the railway companies—a theory +which many people seem to believe in as implicitly as +they do, say, in the Multiplication Table—is really +capable of proof, or whether that decline is not, rather, +to be attributed to wholly different causes.</p> + +<p>In view of the increased public interest in the +general question, it has been suggested to me that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>the Appendix on "The British Canal Problem" in +my book on "Railways and their Rates," published in +the Spring of 1905, should now be issued separately; +but I have thought it better to deal with the subject +afresh, and at somewhat greater length, in the present +work. This I now offer to the world in the hope that, +even if the conclusions at which I have arrived are not +accepted, due weight will nevertheless be given to the +important—if not (as I trust I may add) the interesting—series +of facts, concerning the past and present +of canals alike at home, on the Continent, and in +the United States, which should still represent, I +think, a not unacceptable contribution to the present +controversy.</p> + +<p class="right">EDWIN A. PRATT.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">London</span>, <i>April 1906</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="toc"> + <tr><td class="tdr">CHAP.</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td class="tdl">INTRODUCTORY</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td class="tdl">EARLY DAYS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td class="tdl">RAILWAYS TO THE RESCUE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl">RAILWAY-CONTROLLED CANALS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">V.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE BIRMINGHAM CANAL AND ITS STORY</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">VI.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE TRANSITION IN TRADE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td class="tdl">CONTINENTAL CONDITIONS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdl">WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">IX.</td> + <td class="tdl">ENGLISH CONDITIONS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr">X.</td> + <td class="tdl">CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl">APPENDIX—THE DECLINE IN FREIGHT TRAFFIC ON THE MISSISSIPPI</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdl">INDEX</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a><br /><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS</h2> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="toi"> + <tr><td class="tdc"><span class="big">HALF-TONE ILLUSTRATIONS</span></td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdr"> </td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">AQUEDUCT AT PONTCYSYLLTE (in the distance)</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">WHAT CANAL WIDENING WOULD MEAN: COWLEY TUNNEL AND EMBANKMENTS</td> + <td class="tdc"><i>To face page</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_032fp">32</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">LOCKS ON THE KENNET AND AVON CANAL AT DEVIZES</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_042fp">42</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">WAREHOUSES AND HYDRAULIC CRANES AT ELLESMERE PORT</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_048fp">48</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">WHAT CANAL WIDENING WOULD MEAN: SHROPSHIRE UNION CANAL AT CHESTER</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_070fp">70</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">"FROM PIT TO PORT": PROSPECT PIT, WIGAN</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_082fp">82</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">THE SHIPPING OF COAL: HYDRAULIC TIP ON G.W.R., SWANSEA</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_088fp">88</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">A CARGO BOAT ON THE MISSISSIPPI</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_110fp">110</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">SUCCESSFUL RIVALS OF MISSISSIPPI CARGO BOATS</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_114fpa">114</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">WATER SUPPLY FOR CANALS: BELVIDE RESERVOIR, STAFFORDSHIRE</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_128fp">128</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdr"> </td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdc"><span class="big">MAPS AND DIAGRAMS</span></td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdr"> </td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">INDEPENDENT CANALS AND INLAND NAVIGATIONS</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_054fp">54</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">CANALS AND RAILWAYS BETWEEN WOLVERHAMPTON AND BIRMINGHAM</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_056fp">56</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="tdl">SOME TYPICAL BRITISH CANALS</td> + <td class="tdc">" "</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_098fp">98</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<p class="center bigger">BRITISH CANALS</p> + + + +<h2 title="I. INTRODUCTORY">CHAPTER I<br /> + +<small>INTRODUCTORY</small></h2> + + +<p>The movement in favour of resuscitating, if not also +of reconstructing, the British canal system, in conjunction +with such improvement as may be possible +in our natural waterways, is a matter that concerns +various interests, and gives rise to a number of more +or less complicated problems.</p> + +<p>It appeals in the most direct form to the British +trader, from the point of view of the possibility of +enabling him to secure cheaper transit for his goods. +Every one must sympathise with him in that desire, +and there is no need whatever for me to stay here +to repeat the oft-expressed general reflections as to +the important part which cheap transit necessarily +plays in the development of trade and commerce. +But when from the general one passes to the particular, +and begins to consider how these transit +questions apply directly to canal revival, one comes +at once to a certain element of insincerity in the +agitation which has arisen.</p> + +<p>There is no reason whatever for doubt that, whereas +one section of the traders favouring canal revival +would themselves directly benefit therefrom, there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>is a much larger section who have joined in the +movement, not because they have the slightest idea +of re-organising their own businesses on a water-transport +basis, but simply because they think the +existence of improved canals will be a means of compelling +the railway companies to grant reductions of +their own rates below such point as they now find +it necessary to maintain. Individuals of this type, +though admitting they would not use the canals +themselves, or very little, would have us believe that +there are enough of <em>other</em> traders who would patronise +them to make them pay. In any case, if only +sufficient pressure could be brought to bear on the +railway companies to force them to reduce their rates +and charges, they would be prepared to regard with +perfect equanimity the unremunerative outlay on the +canals of a large sum of public money, and be quite +indifferent as to who might have to bear the loss +so long as they gained what they wanted for themselves.</p> + +<p>The subject is, also, one that appeals to engineers. +As originally constructed, our British canals included +some of the greatest engineering triumphs of their day, +and the reconstruction either of these or even of the +ordinary canals (especially where the differences of +level are exceptionally great), would afford much +interesting work for engineers—and, also, to come +to commonplace details, would put into circulation +a certain number of millions of pounds sterling which +might lead some of those engineers, at least, to take +a still keener interest in the general situation. There +is absolutely no doubt that, from an engineering +standpoint, reconstruction, however costly, would +present no unsurmountable technical difficulties; but +I must confess that when engineers, looking at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>problem exclusively from their own point of view, +apart from strictly economic and practical considerations, +advise canal revival as a means of improving +British trade, I am reminded of the famous remark +of Sganerelle, in Molière's "<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">L'Amour Médecin"—"Vous +êtes orfévre, M. Josse.</span>"</p> + +<p>The subject strongly appeals, also, to a very large +number of patriotic persons who, though having no +personal or professional interests to serve, are rightly +impressed with the need for everything that is in any +way practicable being done to maintain our national +welfare, and who may be inclined to assume, from the +entirely inadequate facts which, up to the present, +have been laid before them as to the real nature and +possibilities of our canal system, that great results +would follow from a generous expenditure of money +on canal resuscitation here, following on the example +already set in Continental countries. It is in the +highest degree desirable that persons of this class +should be enabled to form a clear and definite opinion +on the subject in all its bearings, and especially from +points of view that may not hitherto have been +presented for their consideration.</p> + +<p>Then the question is one of very practical interest +indeed to the British taxpayer. It seems to be +generally assumed by the advocates of canal revival +that it is no use depending on private enterprise. +England is not yet impoverished, and there is plenty +of money still available for investment where a modest +return on it can be assured. But capitalists, large or +small, are not apparently disposed to risk their own +money in the resuscitation of English canals. Their +expectation evidently is that the scheme would not +pay. In the absence, therefore, of any willingness +on the part of shrewd capitalists—ever on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>look-out for profitable investments—to touch the +business, it is proposed that either the State or the +local authorities should take up the matter, and carry +it through at the risk, more or less, either of taxpayers +or ratepayers.</p> + +<p>The Association of Chambers of Commerce, for +instance, adopted, by a large majority, the following +resolution at its annual meeting, in London, in +February 1905:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"This Association recommends that the improvement +and extension of the canal system of the United +Kingdom should be carried out by means of a public +trust, and, if necessary, in combination with local +or district public trusts, and aided by a Government +guarantee, and that the Executive Council be +requested to take all reasonable measures to secure +early legislation upon the subject."</p></div> + +<p>Then Sir John T. Brunner has strongly supported +a nationalisation policy. In a letter to <cite>The Times</cite> he +once wrote:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"I submit to you that we might begin with the +nationalisation of our canals—some for the most +part sadly antiquated—and bring them up to one +modern standard gauge, such as the French gauge."</p></div> + +<p>Another party favours municipalisation and the +creation of public trusts, a Bill with the latter +object in view being promoted in the Session of +1905, though it fell through owing to an informality +in procedure.</p> + +<p>It would be idle to say that a scheme of canal +nationalisation, or even of public trusts with "Government +guarantee" (whatever the precise meaning of +that term may be) involving millions of public +money, could be carried through <em>without</em> affecting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>the British taxpayer. It is equally idle to say that +if only the canal system were taken in hand by the +local authorities they would make such a success of +it that there would be absolutely no danger of the +ratepayers being called upon to make good any +deficiency. The experiences that Metropolitan ratepayers, +at least, have had as the result of County +Council management of the Thames steamboat service +would not predispose them to any feeling of confidence +in the control of the canal system of the +country by local authorities.</p> + +<p>At the Manchester meeting of the Association +of Chambers of Commerce, in September 1904, +Colonel F. N. Tannett Walker (Leeds) said, during +the course of a debate on the canal question: +"Personally, he was not against big trusts run by +local authorities. He knew no more business-like +concern in the world than the Mersey Harbour +Board, which was a credit to the country as +showing what business men, not working for their +own selfish profits, but for the good of the community, +could do for an undertaking. He would +be glad to see the Mersey Boards scattered all over +the country." But, even accepting the principle of +canal municipalisation, what prospect would there be +of Colonel Walker's aspiration being realised? The +Mersey Harbour Board is an exceptional body, not +necessarily capable of widespread reproduction on +the same lines of efficiency. Against what is done +in Liverpool may be put, in the case of London, the +above-mentioned waste of public money in connection +with the control of the Thames steamboat service by +the London County Council. If the municipalised +canals were to be worked on the same system, or +any approach thereto, as these municipalised steamboats, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>it would be a bad look-out for the ratepayers +of the country, whatever benefit might be gained by +a small section of the traders.</p> + +<p>Then one must remember that the canals, say, +from the Midlands to one of the ports, run through +various rural districts which would have no interest +in the through traffic carried, but might be required, +nevertheless, to take a share in the cost and responsibility +of keeping their sections of the municipalised +waterways in an efficient condition, or in helping +to provide an adequate water-supply. It does not +follow that such districts—even if they were willing +to go to the expense or the trouble involved—would +be able to provide representatives on the managing +body who would in any way compare, in regard to +business capacity, with the members of the Mersey +Harbour Board, even if they did so in respect to +public spirit, and the sinking of their local interests +and prejudices to promote the welfare of manufacturers, +say, in Birmingham, and shippers in +Liverpool, for neither of whom they felt any direct +concern.</p> + +<p>Under the best possible conditions as regards +municipalisation, it is still impossible to assume +that a business so full of complications as the transport +services of the country, calling for technical +or expert knowledge of the most pronounced type, +could be efficiently controlled by individuals who +would be essentially amateurs at the business—and +amateurs they would still be even if assisted by +members of Chambers of Commerce who, however +competent as merchants and manufacturers, would +not necessarily be thoroughly versed in all these +traffic problems. The result could not fail to be +disastrous.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<p>I come, at this point, in connection with the +possible liability of ratepayers, to just one matter +of detail that might be disposed of here. It is +certainly one that seems to be worth considering. +Assume, for the sake of argument, that, in accordance +with the plans now being projected, (1) public +trusts were formed by the local authorities for the +purpose of acquiring and operating the canals; +(2) that these trusts secured possession—on some +fair system of compensation—of the canals now +owned or controlled by railway companies; (3) that +they sought to work the canals in more or less +direct competition with the railways; (4) that, after +spending large sums of money in improvements, +they found it impossible to make the canals pay, or +to avoid heavy losses thereon; and (5) that these +losses had to be made good by the ratepayers. I +am merely assuming that all this might happen, +not that it necessarily would. But, admitting that +it did, would the railway companies, as ratepayers, +be called upon to contribute their share towards +making good the losses which had been sustained +by the local authorities in carrying on a direct +competition with them?</p> + +<p>Such a policy as this would be unjust, not alone +to the railway shareholders, but also to those traders +who had continued to use the railway lines, since +it is obvious that the heavier the burdens imposed +on the railway companies in the shape of local rates +(which already form such substantial items in their +"working expenses"), the less will the companies +concerned be in a position to grant the concessions +they might otherwise be willing to make. Besides, +apart from monetary considerations, the principle of +the thing would be intolerably unfair, and, if only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>to avoid an injustice, it would surely be enacted that +any possible increase in local rates, due to the failure +of particular schemes of canal municipalisation, should +fall exclusively on the traders and the general public +who were to have been benefited, and in no way on +the railway companies against whom the commercially +unsuccessful competition had been waged.</p> + +<p>This proposition will, I am sure, appeal to that +instinct of justice and fair play which every Englishman +is (perhaps not always rightly), assumed to +possess. But what would happen if it were duly +carried out, as it ought to be? Well, in the Chapter +on "Taxation of Railways" in my book on "Railways +and their Rates," I gave one list showing that in a +total of eighty-two parishes a certain British railway +company paid an average of 60·25 per cent. of the +local rates; while another table showed that in sixteen +specified parishes the proportion of local rates paid +by the same railway company ranged from 66·9 per +cent. to 86·1 per cent. of the total, although in twelve +parishes out of the sixteen the company had not +even a railway station in the place. But if, in all +such parishes as these, the railway companies were +very properly excused from having to make good +the losses incurred by their municipalised-canal competitors +(in addition to such losses as they might +have already suffered in meeting the competition), +then the full weight of the burden would fall upon +that smaller—and, in some cases, that very small—proportion +of the general body of ratepayers in the +locality concerned.</p> + +<p>The above is just a little consideration, <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en passant</i>, +which might be borne in mind by others than those +who look at the subject only from a trader's or an +engineer's point of view. It will help, also, to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>strengthen my contention that any ill-advised, or, +at least, unsuccessful municipalisation of the canal +system of the country might have serious consequences +for the general body of the community, +who, in the circumstances, would do well to "look +before they leap."</p> + +<p>But, independently of commercial, engineering, +rating and other considerations, there are important +matters of principle to be considered. Great +Britain is almost the only country in the world +where the railway system has been constructed +without State or municipal aid—financial or material—of +any kind whatever. The canals were built by +"private enterprise," and the railways which followed +were constructed on the same basis. This was recognised +as the national policy, and private investors +were allowed to put their money into British railways, +throughout successive decades, in the belief +and expectation that the same principle would be +continued. In other countries the State has (1) provided +the funds for constructing or buying up the +general railway system; (2) guaranteed payment of +interest; or (3) has granted land or made other concessions, +as a means of assisting the enterprise. Not +only has the State refrained from adopting any such +course here, and allowed private investors to bear +the full financial risk, but it has imposed on British +railways requirements which may certainly have led +to their being the best constructed and the most complete +of any in the world, but which have, also, +combined with the extortions of landowners in the +first instance, heavy expenditure on Parliamentary +proceedings, etc., to render their construction per +mile more costly than those of any other system +of railways in the world; while to-day local taxation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>is being levied upon them at the rate of £5,000,000 +per annum, with an annual increment of £250,000.</p> + +<p>This heavy expenditure, and these increasingly +heavy demands, can only be met out of the rates +and charges imposed on those who use the railways; +and one of the greatest grievances advanced +against the railways, and leading to the agitation +for canal revival, is that these rates and charges +are higher in Great Britain than in various other +countries, where the railways have cost less to build, +where State funds have been freely drawn on, and +where the State lines may be required to contribute +nothing to local taxation. The remedy proposed, +however, is not that anything should be done to +reduce the burdens imposed on our own railways, +so as to place them at least in the position of being +able to make further concessions to traders, but that +the State should now itself start in the business, +in competition, more or less, with the railway +companies, in order to provide the traders—if it +can—with something <em>cheaper</em> in the way of transport!</p> + +<p>Whatever view may be taken of the reasonableness +and justice of such a procedure as this, it would, +undoubtedly, represent a complete change in national +policy, and one that should not be entered upon +with undue haste. The logical sequel, for instance, +of nationalisation of the canals would be nationalisation +of the railways, since it would hardly do for +the State to own the one and not the other. Then, +of course, the nationalisation of all our ports would +have to follow, as the further logical sequel of the +State ownership of the means of communication with +them, and the consequent suppression of competition. +From a Socialist standpoint, the successive steps here +mentioned would certainly be approved; but, even +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>if the financial difficulty could be met, the country +is hardly ready for all these things at present.</p> + +<p>Is it ready, even in principle, for either the +nationalisation or the municipalisation of canals +alone? And, if ready in principle, if ready to +employ public funds to compete with representatives +of the private enterprise it has hitherto encouraged, +is it still certain that, when millions of pounds +sterling have been spent on the revival of our +canals, the actual results will in any way justify +the heavy expenditure? Are not the physical +conditions of our country such that canal construction +here presents exceptional drawbacks, and that +canal navigation must always be exceptionally slow? +Are not both physical and geographical conditions +in Great Britain altogether unlike those of most of the +Continental countries of whose waterways so much +is heard? Are not our commercial conditions equally +dissimilar? Is not the comparative neglect of our +canals due less to structural or other defects than +to complete changes in the whole basis of trading +operations in this country—changes that would +prevent any general discarding of the quick transit +of small and frequent supplies by train, in favour +of the delayed delivery of large quantities at longer +intervals by water, however much the canals were +improved?</p> + +<p>These are merely some of the questions and +considerations that arise in connection with this +most complicated of problems, and it is with the +view of enabling the public to appreciate more fully +the real nature of the situation, and to gain a clearer +knowledge of the facts on which a right solution +must be based, that I venture to lay before them +the pages that follow.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="II. EARLY DAYS">CHAPTER II<br /> + +<small>EARLY DAYS</small></h2> + + +<p>It seems to be customary with writers on the subject +of canals and waterways to begin with the Egyptians, +to detail the achievements of the Chinese, to record +the doings of the Greeks, and then to pass on to the +Romans, before even beginning their account of what +has been done in Great Britain. Here, however, I +propose to leave alone all this ancient history, which, +to my mind, has no more to do with existing +conditions in our own country than the system of +inland navigation adopted by Noah, or the character +of the canals which are supposed to exist in the planet +of Mars.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of the present work it will suffice +if I go no further back than what I would call the +"pack-horse period" in the development of transport +in England. This was the period immediately preceding +the introduction of artificial canals, which had +their rise in this country about 1760-70. It preceded, +also, the advent of John Loudon McAdam, that great +reformer of our roads, whose name has been immortalised +in the verb "to macadamise." Born in 1756, it +was not until the early days of the nineteenth century +that McAdam really started on his beneficent mission, +and even then the high-roads of England—and +especially of Scotland—were, as a rule, deplorably +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>bad, "being at once loose, rough, and perishable, +expensive, tedious and dangerous to travel on, and +very costly to repair." Pending those improvements +which McAdam brought about, adapting them to +the better use of stage-coaches and carriers' waggons, +the few roads already existing were practically available—as +regards the transport of merchandise—for +pack-horses only. Even coal was then carried by +pack-horse, the cost working out at about 2s. 6d. per +mile for as much as a horse could carry.</p> + +<p>It was from these conditions that canals saved the +country—long, of course, before the locomotive came +into vogue. As it happened, too, it was this very +question of coal transport that led to their earliest +development. There is quite an element of romance +in the story. Francis Egerton, third and last Duke +of Bridgewater (born 1736), had an unfortunate love +affair in London when he reached the age of twenty-three, +and, apparently in disgust with the world, he +retired to his Lancashire property, where he found +solace to his wounded feelings by devoting himself +to the development of the Worsley coal mines. As a +boy he had been so feeble-minded that the doubt +arose whether he would be capable of managing his +own affairs. As a young man disappointed in love, +he applied himself to business in a manner so +eminently practical that he deservedly became famous +as a pioneer of improved transport. He saw that if +only the cost of carriage could be reduced, a most +valuable market for coal from his Worsley mines +could be opened up in Manchester.</p> + +<p>It is true that, in this particular instance, the pack-horse +had been supplemented by the Mersey and +Irwell Navigation, established as the result of Parliamentary +powers obtained in 1733. This navigation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>was conducted almost entirely by natural waterways, +but it had many drawbacks and inconveniences, +while the freight for general merchandise between +Liverpool and Manchester by this route came to +12s. per ton. The Duke's new scheme was one +for the construction of an artificial waterway which +could be carried over the Irwell at Barton by means +of an aqueduct. This idea he got from the aqueduct +on the Languedoc Canal, in the south of France.</p> + +<p>But the Duke required a practical man to help him, +and such a man he found in James Brindley. Born in +1716, Brindley was the son of a small farmer in Derbyshire—a +dissolute sort of fellow, who neglected his +children, did little or no work, and devoted his chief +energies to the then popular sport of bull-baiting. In +the circumstances James Brindley's school-teaching +was wholly neglected. He could no more have passed +an examination in the Sixth Standard than he could +have flown over the Irwell with some of his ducal +patron's coals. "He remained to the last illiterate, +hardly able to write, and quite unable to spell. He +did most of his work in his head, without written +calculations or drawings, and when he had a puzzling +bit of work he would go to bed, and think it out." +From the point of view of present day Board School +inspectors, and of the worthy magistrates who, with +varied moral reflections, remorselessly enforce the +principles of compulsory education, such an individual +ought to have come to a bad end. But he didn't. +He became, instead, "the father of inland navigation."</p> + +<p>James Brindley had served his apprenticeship to +a millwright, or engineer; he had started a little +business as a repairer of old machinery and a maker +of new; and he had in various ways given proof of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>his possession of mechanical skill. The Duke—evidently +a reader of men—saw in him the possibility +of better things, took him over, and appointed him +his right-hand man in constructing the proposed +canal. After much active opposition from the +proprietors of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, +and also from various landowners and others, the +Duke got his first Act, to which the Royal assent +was given in 1762, and the work was begun. It +presented many difficulties, for the canal had to be +carried over streams and bogs, and through tunnels +costly to make, and the time came when the Duke's +financial resources were almost exhausted. Brindley's +wages were not extravagant. They amounted, in +fact, to £1 a week—substantially less than the +minimum wage that would be paid to-day to a +municipal road-sweeper. But the costs of construction +were heavy, and the landowners had unduly +big ideas of the value of the land compulsorily +acquired from them, so that the Duke's steward +sometimes had to ride about among the tenantry +and borrow a few pounds from one and another in +order to pay the week's wages. When the Worsley +section had been completed, and had become +remunerative, the Duke pledged it to Messrs Child, +the London bankers, for £25,000, and with the money +thus raised he pushed on with the remainder of the +canal, seeing it finally extended to Liverpool in 1772. +Altogether he expended on his own canals no less +than £220,000; but he lived to derive from them a +revenue of £80,000 a year.</p> + +<p>The Duke of Bridgewater's schemes gave a great +impetus to canal construction in Great Britain, though +it was only natural that a good deal of opposition +should be raised, as well. About the year 1765 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>numerous pamphlets were published to show the +danger and impolicy of canals. Turnpike trustees +were afraid the canals would divert traffic from the +roads. Owners of pack-horses fancied that ruin stared +them in the face. Thereupon the turnpike trustees +and the pack-horse owners sought the further support +of the agricultural interests, representing that, when +the demand for pack-horses fell off, there would be +less need for hay and oats, and the welfare of British +agriculture would be prejudiced. So the farmers +joined in, and the three parties combined in an effort +to arouse the country. Canals, it was said, would +involve a great waste of land; they would destroy +the breed of draught horses; they would produce +noxious or humid vapours; they would encourage +pilfering; they would injure old mines and works +by allowing of new ones being opened; and they +would destroy the coasting trade, and, consequently, +"the nursery for seamen."</p> + +<p>By arguments such as these the opposition actually +checked for some years the carrying out of several +important undertakings, including the Trent and +Mersey Navigation. But, when once the movement +had fairly started, it made rapid progress. James +Brindley's energy, down to the time of his death in +1772, was especially indomitable. Having ensured +the success of the Bridgewater Canal, he turned his +attention to a scheme for linking up the four ports +of Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, and London by a system +of main waterways, connected by branch canals with +leading industrial centres off the chief lines of route. +Other projects followed, as it was seen that the +earlier ventures were yielding substantial profits, +and in 1790 a canal mania began. In 1792 no +fewer than eighteen new canals were promoted. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>1793 and 1794 the number of canal and navigation +Acts passed was forty-five, increasing to eighty-one +the total number which had been obtained since +1790. So great was the public anxiety to invest in +canals that new ones were projected on all hands, +and, though many of them were of a useful type, +others were purely speculative, were doomed to +failure from the start, and occasioned serious losses +to thousands of investors. In certain instances +existing canals were granted the right to levy tolls +upon new-comers, as compensation for prospective +loss of traffic—even when the new canals were to +be 4 or 5 miles away—fresh schemes being actually +undertaken on this basis.</p> + +<p>The canals that paid at all paid well, and the +good they conferred on the country in the days of +their prosperity is undeniable. Failing, at that time, +more efficient means of transport, they played a most +important rôle in developing the trade, industries, +and commerce of our country at a period especially +favourable to national advancement. For half a +century, in fact, the canals had everything their +own way. They had a monopoly of the transport +business—except as regards road traffic—and in +various instances they helped their proprietors to +make huge profits. But great changes were impending, +and these were brought about, at last, with the +advent of the locomotive.</p> + +<p>The general situation at this period is well shown +by the following extracts from an article on "Canals +and Rail-roads," published in the <cite>Quarterly Review</cite> +of March 1825:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"It is true that we, who, in this age, are accustomed +to roll along our hard and even roads at the rate +of 8 or 9 miles an hour, can hardly imagine the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>inconveniences which beset our great-grandfathers +when they had to undertake a journey—forcing their +way through deep miry lanes; fording swollen rivers; +obliged to halt for days together when 'the waters +were out'; and then crawling along at a pace of 2 +or 3 miles an hour, in constant fear of being set +down fast in some deep quagmire, of being overturned, +breaking down, or swept away by a sudden +inundation.</p> + +<p>"Such was the travelling condition of our ancestors, +until the several turnpike Acts effected a gradual and +most favourable change, not only in the state of the +roads, but the whole appearance of the country; by +increasing the facility of communication, and the +transport of many weighty and bulky articles which, +before that period, no effort could move from one +part of the country to another. The pack-horse +was now yoked to the waggon, and stage coaches +and post-chaises usurped the place of saddle-horses. +Imperfectly as most of these turnpike roads were constructed, +and greatly as their repairs were neglected, +they were still a prodigious improvement; yet, for +the conveyance of heavy merchandise the progress +of waggons was slow and their capacity limited. +This defect was at length remedied by the opening +of canals, an improvement which became, with +regard to turnpike roads and waggons, what these +had been to deep lanes and pack-horses.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> But we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>may apply to projectors the observation of Sheridan, +'Give these fellows a good thing and they never +know when to have done with it,' for so vehement +became the rage for canal-making that, in a few +years, the whole surface of the country was intersected +by these inland navigations, and frequently in parts +of the island where there was little or no traffic to +be conveyed. The consequence was, that a large +proportion of them scarcely paid an interest of one +per cent., and many nothing at all; while others, +judiciously conducted over populous, commercial, +and manufacturing districts, have not only amply +remunerated the parties concerned, but have contributed +in no small degree to the wealth and prosperity +of the nation.</p> + +<p>"Yet these expensive establishments for facilitating +the conveyance of the commercial, manufacturing and +agricultural products of the country to their several +destinations, excellent and useful as all must acknowledge +them to be, are now likely, in their turn, +to give way to the old invention of Rail-roads. +Nothing now is heard of but rail-roads; the daily +papers teem with notices of new lines of them in +every direction, and pamphlets and paragraphs are +thrown before the public eye, recommending nothing +short of making them general throughout the kingdom. +Yet, till within these few months past, this old +invention, in use a full century before canals, has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>been suffered, with few exceptions, to act the part +only of an auxiliary to canals, in the conveyance of +goods to and from the wharfs, and of iron, coals, +limestone, and other products of the mines to the +nearest place of shipment....</p> + +<p>"The powers of the steam-engine, and a growing +conviction that our present modes of conveyance, +excellent as they are, both require and admit of +great improvements, are, no doubt, among the chief +reasons that have set the current of speculation in +this particular direction."</p></div> + +<p>Dealing with the question of "vested rights," the +article warns "the projectors of the intended railroads +... of the necessity of being prepared to +meet the most strenuous opposition from the canal +proprietors," and proceeds:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"But, we are free to confess, it does not appear to +us that the canal proprietors have the least ground +for complaining of a grievance. They embarked their +property in what they conceived to be a good speculation, +which in some cases was realised far beyond +their most sanguine hopes; in others, failed beyond +their most desponding calculations. If those that have +succeeded should be able to maintain a competition +with rail-ways by lowering their charges; what they +thus lose will be a fair and unimpeachable gain to +the public, and a moderate and just profit will still +remain to them; while the others would do well to +transfer their interests from a bad concern into one +whose superiority must be thus established. Indeed, +we understand that this has already been proposed +to a very considerable extent, and that the level beds +of certain unproductive canals have been offered for the +reception of rail-ways.</p> + +<p>"There is, however, another ground upon which, in +many instances, we have no doubt, the opposition of +the canal proprietors may be properly met—we mean, +and we state it distinctly, the unquestionable fact, that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>our trade and manufactures have suffered considerably +by the disproportionate rates of charge upon canal +conveyance. The immense tonnage of coal, iron, and +earthenware, Mr Cumming tells us,<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 'have enabled +one of the canals, passing through these districts +(near Birmingham), to pay an annual dividend to +the proprietary of £140 upon an original share of +£140, and as such has enhanced the value of each +share from £140 to £3,200; and another canal in the +same district, to pay an annual dividend of £160 +upon the original share of £200, and the shares +themselves have reached the value of £4,600 each.'</p> + +<p>"Nor are these solitary instances. Mr Sandars +informs us<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> that, of the only two canals which unite +Liverpool with Manchester, the thirty-nine original +proprietors of one of them, the Old Quay,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> have +been paid for every other year, for nearly half a +century, the <em>total amount of their investment</em>; and +that a share in this canal, which cost only £70, has +recently been sold for £1,250; and that, with regard +to the other, the late Duke of Bridgewater's, there is +good reason to believe that the net income has, for +the last twenty years, averaged nearly £100,000 per +annum!"</p></div> + +<p>In regard, however, to the supersession of canals in +general by railways, the writer of the article says:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"We are not the advocates for visionary projects +that interfere with useful establishments; we scout +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>the idea of a <em>general</em> rail-road as altogether impracticable....</p> + +<p>"As to those persons who speculate on making +rail-ways general throughout the kingdom, and +superseding all the canals, all the waggons, mail +and stage-coaches, post-chaises, and, in short, every +other mode of conveyance by land and water, we +deem them and their visionary schemes unworthy of +notice."</p></div> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="III. RAILWAYS TO THE RESCUE">CHAPTER III<br /> + +<small>RAILWAYS TO THE RESCUE</small></h2> + + +<p>It is not a little curious to find that, whereas the +proposed resuscitation of canals is now being actively +supported in various quarters as a means of effecting +increased competition with the railways, the railway +system itself originally had a most cordial welcome +from the traders of this country as a means of +relieving them from what had become the intolerable +monopoly of the canals and waterways!</p> + +<p>It will have been seen that in the article published +in the <cite>Quarterly Review</cite> of March 1825, from which +I gave extracts in the last Chapter, reference was +made to a "Letter on the Subject of the Projected +Rail-road between Liverpool and Manchester," by +Mr Joseph Sandars, and published that same year. +I have looked up the original "Letter," and found in +it some instructive reading. Mr Sandars showed that +although, under the Act of Parliament obtained by +the Duke of Bridgewater, the tolls to be charged +on his canal between Liverpool and Manchester +were not to exceed 2s. 6d. per ton, his trustees had, +by various exactions, increased them to 5s. 2d. per +ton on all goods carried along the canal. They had +also got possession of all the available land and +warehouses along the canal banks at Manchester, +thus monopolising the accommodation, or nearly so, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>and forcing the traders to keep to the trustees, +and not patronise independent carriers. It was, +Mr Sandars declared, "the most oppressive and +unjust monopoly known to the trade of this country—a +monopoly which there is every reason to believe +compels the public to pay, in one shape or another, +£100,000 more per annum than they ought to pay." +The Bridgewater trustees and the proprietors of the +Mersey and Irwell Navigation were, he continued, +"deaf to all remonstrances, to all entreaties"; they +were "actuated solely by a spirit of monopoly and +extension," and "the only remedy the public has +left is to go to Parliament and ask for a new line +of conveyance." But this new line, he said, would +have to be a railway. It could not take the form +of another canal, as the two existing routes had +absorbed all the available water-supply.</p> + +<p>In discussing the advantages of a railway over a +canal, Mr Sandars continued:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"It is computed that goods could be carried for +considerably less than is now charged, and for one-half +of what has been charged, and that they would +be conveyed in one-sixth of the time. Canals in +summer are often short of water, and in winter are +obstructed by frost; a Railway would not have to +encounter these impediments."</p></div> + +<p>Mr Sandars further wrote:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The distance between Liverpool and Manchester, +by the three lines of Water conveyance, is upwards +of 50 miles—by a Rail-road it would only be +33. Goods conveyed by the Duke and Old +Quay [Mersey and Irwell Navigation] are exposed +to storms, the delays from adverse winds, and the +risk of damage, during a passage of 18 miles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>in the tide-way of the Mersey. For days +together it frequently happens that when the wind +blows very strong, either south or north, their +vessels cannot move against it. It is very true +that when the winds and tides are favourable +they can occasionally effect a passage in fourteen +hours; but the average is certainly thirty. However, +notwithstanding all the accommodation they +can offer, the delays are such that the spinners +and dealers are frequently obliged to cart cotton on +the public high-road, a distance of 36 miles, for +which they pay four times the price which would +be charged by a Rail-road, and they are three +times as long in getting it to hand. The same +observation applies to manufactured goods which +are sent by land-carriage daily, and for which the +rate paid is five times that which they would be +subject to by the Rail-road. This enormous sacrifice +is made for two reasons—sometimes because conveyance +by water cannot be promptly obtained, +but more frequently because speed and certainty as +to delivery are of the first importance. Packages +of goods sent from Manchester, for immediate shipment +at Liverpool, often pay two or three pounds +per ton; and yet there are those who assert that +the difference of a few hours in speed can be no +object. The merchants know better."</p></div> + +<p>In the same year that Mr Sandars issued his +"Letter," the merchants of the port of Liverpool +addressed a memorial to the Mayor and Common +Council of the borough, praying them to support +the scheme for the building of a railway, and +stating:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The merchants of this port have for a long time +past experienced very great difficulties and obstructions +in the prosecution of their business, in consequence +of the high charges on the freight of goods +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>between this town and Manchester, and of the +frequent impossibility of obtaining vessels for days +together."</p></div> + +<p>It is clear from all this that, however great the +benefit which canal transport had conferred, as +compared with prior conditions, the canal companies +had abused their monopoly in order to secure what +were often enormous profits; that the canals themselves, +apart from the excessive tolls and charges +imposed, failed entirely to meet the requirements of +traders; and that the most effective means of obtaining +relief was looked for in the provision of railways.</p> + +<p>The value to which canal shares had risen at this +time is well shown by the following figures, which +I take from the <cite>Gentleman's Magazine</cite> for December, +1824:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="bordered" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" summary="canal shares"> +<tr><td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Canal.</span></td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4"><span class="smcap">Shares.</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Price.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdc br0 bb0">£</td> + <td class="tdc bl0 br0 bb0"><i>s.</i></td> + <td class="tdc bl0 br0 bb0"><i>d.</i></td> + <td class="tdc bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdc bb0">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Trent and Mersey</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 br0 bb0">75</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">2,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Loughborough</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 br0 bb0">197</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">4,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Coventry</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 br0 bb0">44</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">(and bonus)</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">1,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Oxford (short shares)</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 br0 bb0">32</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">" "</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">850</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Grand Junction</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 br0 bb0">10</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">" "</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">290</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Old Union</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 br0 bb0">4</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">103</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Neath</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">15</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Swansea</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">11</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Monmouthshire</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">10</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">245</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Brecknock and Abergavenny</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">8</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Staffordshire & Worcestershire</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">40</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">960</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Birmingham</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">12</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">10</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">350</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Worcester and Birmingham</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">1</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">10</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Shropshire</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">8</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">10</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Ellesmere</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">3</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">10</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">102</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Rochdale</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">4</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">140</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Barnsley</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">12</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">330</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Lancaster</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">1</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">Kennet and Avon</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 br0 bb0">1</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0">0</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bl0 br0 bb0"> </td> + <td class="tdr bt0 bb0">29</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> +<p>These substantial values, and the large dividends +that led to them, were due in part, no doubt, to the +general improvement in trade which the canals had +helped most materially to effect; but they had been +greatly swollen by the merciless way in which the +traders of those days were exploited by the representatives +of the canal interest. As bearing on this point, +I might interrupt the course of my narrative to say +that in the House of Commons on May 17, 1836, +Mr Morrison, member for Ipswich, made a speech +in which, as reported by Hansard, he expressed +himself "clearly of opinion" that "Parliament +should, when it established companies for the +formation of canals, railroads, or such like undertakings, +invariably reserve to itself the power to +make such periodical revisions of the rates and +charges as it may, under the then circumstances, +deem expedient"; and he proposed a resolution to +this effect. He was moved to adopt this course in +view of past experiences in connection with the +canals, and a desire that there should be no repetition +of them in regard to the railways then being +very generally promoted. In the course of his speech +he said:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The history of existing canals, waterways, etc., +affords abundant evidence of the evils to which I +have been averting. An original share in the Loughborough +Canal, for example, which cost £142, 17s. +is now selling at about £1,250, and yields a dividend +of £90 or £100 a year. The fourth part of a Trent +and Mersey Canal share, or £50 of the company's +stock, is now fetching £600, and yields a dividend +of about £30 a year. And there are various other +canals in nearly the same situation."</p></div> + +<p>At the close of the debate which followed, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>Mr Morrison withdrew his resolution, owing to the +announcement that the matter to which he had +called attention would be dealt with in a Bill then +being framed. It is none the less interesting thus +to find that Parliamentary revisions of railway rates +were, in the first instance, directly inspired by the +extortions practised on the traders by canal companies +in the interest of dividends far in excess of any that +the railway companies have themselves attempted to +pay.</p> + +<p>Reverting to the story of the Liverpool and +Manchester Railway—the projection of which, as +Mr Sandars' "Letter" shows, represented a revolt +against "the exorbitant and unjust charges of the +water-carriers"—the Bill promoted in its favour was +opposed so vigorously by the canal and other interests +that £70,000 was spent in the Parliamentary proceedings +in getting it through. But it was carried +in 1826, and the new line, opened in 1830, was so +great a success that it soon began to inspire many +similar projects in other directions, while with its +opening the building of fresh canals for ordinary +inland navigation (as distinct from ship canals) +practically ceased.</p> + +<p>There is not the slightest doubt that, but for the +extreme dissatisfaction of the trading interests in +regard alike to the heavy charges and to the shortcomings +of the canal system, the Liverpool and +Manchester Railway—that precursor of the "railway +mania"—would not have been actually constructed +until at least several years later. But there were +other directions, also, in which the revolt against +the then existing conditions was to bring about +important developments. In the pack-horse period +the collieries of Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>respectively supplied local needs only, the cost of +transport by road making it practically impossible +to send coal out of the county in which it was raised. +With the advent of canals the coal could be taken +longer distances, and the canals themselves gained +so much from the business that at one time shares +in the Loughborough Canal, on which £142 had been +paid, rose, as already shown, to £4,600, and were +looked upon as being as safe as Consols. But the +collapse of a canal from the Leicestershire coal-fields +to the town of Leicester placed the coalowners of +that county at a disadvantage, and this they overcame, +in 1832, by opening the Leicester and Swinnington +line of railway. Thereupon the disadvantage +was thrown upon the Nottinghamshire coalowners, +who could no longer compete with Leicestershire. +In fact, the immediate outlook before them was that +they would be excluded from their chief markets, +that their collieries might have to be closed, and +that the mining population would be thrown out of +employment.</p> + +<p>In their dilemma they appealed to the canal +companies, and asked for such a reduction in rates +as would enable them to meet the new situation; +but the canal companies—wedded to their big +dividends—would make only such concessions as +were thought by the other side to be totally inadequate. +Following on this the Nottinghamshire coalowners +met in the parlour of a village inn at Eastwood, in +the autumn of 1832, and formally declared that "there +remained no other plan for their adoption than to +attempt to lay a railway from their collieries to the +town of Leicester." The proposal was confirmed by +a subsequent meeting, which resolved that "a railway +from Pinxton to Leicester is essential to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>interests of the coal-trade of this district." Communications +were opened with George Stephenson, +the services of his son Robert were secured, the +"Midland Counties Railway" was duly constructed, +and the final outcome of the action thus taken—as +the direct result of the attitude of the canal companies—is +to be seen in the splendid system known to-day +as the Midland Railway.</p> + +<p>Once more, I might refer to Mr Charles H. +Grinling's "History of the Great Northern Railway," +in which, speaking of early conditions, he +says:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"During the winter of 1843-44 a strong desire arose +among the landowners and farmers of the eastern +counties to secure some of the benefits which other +districts were enjoying from the new method of +locomotion. One great want of this part of England +was that of cheaper fuel, for though there were +collieries open at this time in Leicestershire, +Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, the nearest pits +with which the eastern counties had practicable transport +communication were those of South Yorkshire +and Durham, and this was of so circuitous a +character that even in places situated on navigable +rivers, unserved by a canal, the price of coal often +rose as high as 40s. or even 50s. a ton. In remoter +places, to which it had to be carted 10, 20, or even +30 miles along bad cross-roads, coal even for house-firing +was a positive luxury, quite unattainable by +the poorer classes. Moreover, in the most severe +weather, when the canals were frozen, the whole +system of supply became paralysed, and even the +wealthy had not seldom to retreat shivering to bed +for lack of fuel."</p></div> + +<p>In this particular instance it was George Hudson, +the "Railway King," who was approached, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>first lines were laid of what is now the Great Northern +Railway.</p> + +<p>So it happened that, when the new form of transport +came into vogue, in succession to the canals, it +was essentially a case of "Railways to the Rescue."</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="IV. RAILWAY-CONTROLLED CANALS">CHAPTER IV<br /> + +<small>RAILWAY-CONTROLLED CANALS</small></h2> + + +<p>Both canals and railways were, in their early days, +made according to local conditions, and were intended +to serve local purposes. In the case of the former the +design and dimensions of the canal boat used were +influenced by the depth and nature of the estuary or +river along which it might require to proceed, and +the size of the lock (affecting, again, the size of the +boat) might vary according to whether the lock was +constructed on a low level, where there was ample +water, or on a high level, where economy in the use +of water had to be practised. Uniformity under these +varying conditions would certainly have been difficult +to secure, and, in effect, it was not attempted. The +original designers of the canals, in days when the +trade of the country was far less than it is now +and the general trading conditions very different, +probably knew better what they were about than +their critics of to-day give them credit for. They +realised more completely than most of those critics +do what were the limitations of canal construction +in a country of hills and dales, and especially in +rugged and mountainous districts. They cut their +coat, as it were, according to their cloth, and sought +to meet the actual needs of the day rather than +anticipate the requirements of futurity. From their +point of view this was the simplest solution of the +problem.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_032fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_032fp.jpg" width="600" height="335" alt="WHAT CANAL WIDENING WOULD MEAN." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">WHAT CANAL WIDENING WOULD MEAN.</p> + + <p class="center">(Cowley Tunnel and Embankments, on Shropshire Union Route between Wolverhampton and the Mersey.)</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 32.</i></p> +</div></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> +<p>But, though the canals thus made suited local +conditions, they became unavailable for through +traffic, except in boats sufficiently small to pass the +smallest lock or the narrowest and shallowest canal +<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i>. Then the lack of uniformity in construction +was accompanied by a lack of unity in management. +Each and every through route was divided among, +as a rule, from four to eight or ten different navigations, +and a boat-owner making the journey had to +deal separately with each.</p> + +<p>The railway companies soon began to rid themselves +of their own local limitations. A "Railway +Clearing House" was set up in 1847, in the interests +of through traffic; groups of small undertakings +amalgamated into "great" companies; facilities of +a kind unknown before were made available, while +the whole system of railway operation was simplified +for traders and travellers. The canal companies, +however, made no attempt to follow the example +thus set. They were certainly in a more difficult +position than the railways. They might have +amalgamated, and they might have established a +Canal Clearing House. These would have been +comparatively easy things to do. But any satisfactory +linking up of the various canal systems +throughout the country would have meant virtual +reconstruction, and this may well have been thought +a serious proposition in regard, especially, to canals +built at a considerable elevation above the sea level, +where the water supply was limited, and where, for +that reason, some of the smallest locks were to be +found. To say the least of it, such a work meant +a very large outlay, and at that time practically all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>the capital available for investment in transport was +being absorbed by new railways. These, again, had +secured the public confidence which the canals were +losing. As Mr Sandars said in his "Letter":—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"Canals have done well for the country, just as +high roads and pack-horses had done before canals +were established; but the country has now presented +to it cheaper and more expeditious means of conveyance, +and the attempt to prevent its adoption is +utterly hopeless."</p></div> + +<p>All that the canal companies did, in the first +instance, was to attempt the very thing which +Mr Sandars considered "utterly hopeless." They +adopted a policy of blind and narrow-minded hostility. +They seemed to think that, if they only fought them +vigorously enough, they could drive the railways off +the field; and fight them they did, at every possible +point. In those days many of the canal companies +were still wealthy concerns, and what their opposition +might mean has been already shown in the case of +the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The newcomers +had thus to concentrate their efforts and meet +the opposition as best they could.</p> + +<p>For a time the canal companies clung obstinately +to their high tolls and charges, in the hope that +they would still be able to pay their big dividends. +But, when the superiority of the railways over the +waterways became more and more manifest, and +when the canal companies saw greater and still +greater quantities of traffic being diverted from them +by their opponents, in fair competition, they realised +the situation at last, and brought down their tolls +with a rush. The reductions made were so substantial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>that they would have been thought incredible a few +years previously.</p> + +<p>In the result, benefits were gained by all classes +of traders, for those who still patronised the canals +were charged much more reasonable tolls than they +had ever paid before. But even the adoption of this +belated policy by the canal companies did not help +them very much. The diversion of the stream of +traffic to the railways had become too pronounced to +be checked by even the most substantial of reductions +in canal charges. With the increasing industrial +and commercial development of the country it was +seen that the new means of transport offered advantages +of even greater weight than cost of transport, +namely, speed and certainty of delivery. For the +average trader it was essentially a case of time +meaning money. The canal companies might now +reduce their tolls so much that, instead of being +substantially in excess of the railway rates, as they +were at first, they would fall considerably below; +but they still could not offer those other all-important +advantages.</p> + +<p>As the canal companies found that the struggle +was, indeed, "utterly hopeless," some of them adopted +new lines of policy. Either they proposed to build +railways themselves, or they tried to dispose of their +canal property to the newcomers. In some instances +the route of a canal, no longer of much value, was +really wanted for the route of a proposed railway, +and an arrangement was easily made. In others, +where the railway promoters did not wish to buy, +opposition to their schemes was offered by the canal +companies with the idea of forcing them either so to +do, or, alternatively, to make such terms with them as +would be to the advantage of the canal shareholders.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> +<p>The tendency in this direction is shown by the +extract already given from the <cite>Quarterly Review</cite>; and +I may repeat here the passage in which the writer +suggested that some of the canal companies "would +do well to transfer their interests from a bad concern +into one whose superiority must be thus established," +and added: "Indeed, we understand that this has +already been proposed to a very considerable extent, +and that the level beds of certain unproductive canals +have been offered for the reception of rail-ways." +This was as early as 1825. Later on the tendency +became still more pronounced as pressure was put +on the railway companies, or as promoters, in days +when plenty of money was available for railway +schemes, thought the easiest way to overcome actual +or prospective opposition was to buy it off by making +the best terms they could. So far, in fact, was +the principle recognised that in 1845 Parliament +expressly sanctioned the control of canals by railway +companies, whether by amalgamation, lease, +purchase, or guarantee, and a considerable amount +of canal mileage thus came into the possession, or +under the control, of railway companies, especially +in the years 1845, 1846, and 1847. This sanction +was practically repealed by the Railway and Traffic +Acts of 1873 and 1888. By that time about one-third +of the existing canals had been either voluntarily +acquired by, or forced upon, the railway +companies. It is obvious, however, that the responsibility +for what was done rests with Parliament +itself, and that in many cases, probably, the railway +companies, instead of being arch-conspirators, anxious +to spend their money in killing off moribund competitors, +who were generally considered to be on +the point of dying a natural death, were, at times, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>victims of the situation, being practically driven +into purchases or guarantees which, had they been +perfectly free agents, they might not have cared to +touch.</p> + +<p>The general position was, perhaps, very fairly +indicated by the late Sir James Allport, at one +time General Manager of the Midland Railway +Company, in the evidence he gave before the +Select Committee on Canals in 1883.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"I doubt (he said) if Parliament ever, at that time +of day, came to any deliberate decision as to the +advisability or otherwise of railways possessing canals; +but I presume that they did not do so without the +fullest evidence before them, and no doubt canal +companies were very anxious to get rid of their +property to railways, and they opposed their Bills, +and, in the desire to obtain their Bills, railway +companies purchased their canals. That, I think, +would be found to be the fact, if it were possible to +trace them out in every case. I do not believe that +the London and North-Western would have bought +the Birmingham Canal but for this circumstance. I +have no doubt that the Birmingham Canal, when +the Stour Valley line was projected, felt that their +property was jeopardised, and that it was then that +the arrangement was made by which the London and +North-Western Railway Company guaranteed them +4 per cent."</p></div> + +<p>The bargains thus effected, either voluntarily or +otherwise (and mostly otherwise), were not necessarily +to the advantage of the railway companies, who +might often have done better for themselves if +they had fought out the fight at the time with their +antagonists, and left the canal companies to their +fate, instead of taking over waterways which have +been more or less of a loss to them ever since. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>Considering the condition into which many of the +canals had already drifted, or were then drifting, +there is very little room for doubt what their fate +would have been if the railway companies had left +them severely alone. Indeed, there are various +canals whose continued operation to-day, in spite of +the losses on their wholly unremunerative traffic, is +due exclusively to the fact that they are owned +or controlled by railway companies. Independent +proprietors, looking to them for dividends, and +not under any statutory obligations (as the railway +companies are) to keep them going, would long ago +have abandoned such canals entirely, and allowed +them to be numbered among the derelicts.</p> + +<p>As bearing on the facts here narrated, I might +mention that, in the course of a discussion at the +Institution of Civil Engineers, in November 1905, +on a paper read by Mr John Arthur Saner, "Waterways +in Great Britain" (reported in the official "Proceedings" +of the Institution), Mr James Inglis, General +Manager of the Great Western Railway Company, +said that "his company owned about 216 miles of +canal, not a mile of which had been acquired +voluntarily. Many of those canals had been forced +on the railway as the price of securing Acts, and +some had been obtained by negotiations with the +canal companies. The others had been acquired in +incidental ways, arising from the fact that the traffic +had absolutely disappeared." Mr Inglis further told +the story of the Kennet and Avon Canal, which his +company maintain at a loss of about £4,000 per +annum. The canal, it seems, was constructed in +1794 at a cost of £1,000,000, and at one time +paid 5 per cent. The traffic fell off steadily with +the extension of the railway system, and in 1846 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>the canal company, seeing their position was hopeless, +applied to Parliament for powers to construct +a railway parallel with the canal. Sanction was +refused, though the company were authorised to +act as common carriers. In 1851 the canal owners +approached the Great Western Railway Company, +and told them of their intention to seek again for +powers to build an opposition railway. The upshot +of the matter was that the railway company took +over the canal, and agreed to pay the canal company +£7,773 a year. This they have done, with a loss +to themselves ever since. The rates charged on the +canal were successively reduced by the Board of Trade +(on appeal being made to that body) to 1¼d., then to +1d., and finally ½d. per ton-mile; but there had never +been a sign, Mr Inglis added, that the reduction had +any effect in attracting additional traffic.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + + +<p class="mt2">To ascertain for myself some further details as +to the past and present of the Kennet and Avon +Navigation, I paid a visit of inspection to the canal +in the neighbourhood of Bath, where it enters the +River Avon, and also at Devizes, where I saw the +remarkable series of locks by means of which the +canal reaches the town of Devizes, at an elevation +of 425 feet above sea level. In conversation, too, +with various authorities, including Mr H. J. Saunders, +the Canals Engineer of the Great Western Railway +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>Company, I obtained some interesting facts which +throw light on the reasons for the falling off of the +traffic along the canal.</p> + +<p>Dealing with this last mentioned point first, I +learned that much of the former prosperity of the +Kennet and Avon Navigation was due to a substantial +business then done in the transport of coal +from a considerable colliery district in Somersetshire, +comprising the Radstock, Camerton, Dunkerton, and +Timsbury collieries. This coal was first put on the +Somerset Coal Canal, which connected with the +Kennet and Avon at Dundas—a point between +Bath and Bradford-on-Avon—and, on reaching this +junction, it was taken either to towns directly served +by the Kennet and Avon (including Bath, Bristol, +Bradford, Trowbridge, Devizes, Kintbury, Hungerford, +Newbury and Reading) or, leaving the Kennet +and Avon at Semmington, it passed over the Wilts +and Berks Canal to various places as far as Abingdon. +In proportion, however, as the railways developed +their superiority as an agent for the effective distribution +of coal, the traffic by canal declined more and +more, until at last it became non-existent. Of the +three canals affected, the Somerset Coal Canal, +owned by an independent company, was abandoned, +by authority of Parliament, two years ago; the Wilts +and Berks, also owned by an independent company, +is practically derelict, and the one that to-day survives +and is in good working order is the Kennet and +Avon, owned by a railway company.</p> + +<p>Another branch of local traffic that has left the +Kennet and Avon Canal for the railway is represented +by the familiar freestone, of which large +quantities are despatched from the Bath district. +The stone goes away in blocks averaging 5 tons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>in weight, and ranging up to 10 tons, and at first +sight it would appear to be a commodity specially +adapted for transport by water. But once more the +greater facilities afforded by the railway have led +to an almost complete neglect of the canal. Even +where the quarries are immediately alongside the +waterway (though this is not always the case) horses +must be employed to get the blocks down to the +canal boat; whereas the blocks can be put straight +on to the railway trucks on the sidings which go +right into the quarry, no horses being then required. +In calculating, therefore, the difference between the +canal rate and the railway rate, the purchase and +maintenance of horses at the points of embarkation +must be added to the former. Then the stone could +travel only a certain distance by water, and further +cost might have to be incurred in cartage, if not in +transferring it from boat to railway truck, after all, +for transport to final destination; whereas, once put +on a railway truck at the quarry, it could be taken +thence, without further trouble, to any town in Great +Britain where it was wanted. In this way, again, +the Kennet and Avon (except in the case of consignments +to Bristol) has practically lost a once important +source of revenue.</p> + +<p>A certain amount of foreign timber still goes by +water from Avonmouth or Bristol to the neighbourhood +of Pewsey, and some English-grown timber +is taken from Devizes and other points on the canal +to Bristol, Reading, and intermediate places; grain +is carried from Reading to mills within convenient +reach of the canal, and there is also a small traffic +in mineral oils and general merchandise, including +groceries for shopkeepers in towns along the canal +route; but, whereas, in former days a grocer would +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>order 30 tons of sugar from Bristol to be delivered +to him by boat at one time, he now orders by post, +telegraph, or telephone, very much smaller quantities +as he wants them, and these smaller quantities are +consigned mainly by train, so that there is less for +the canal to carry, even where the sugar still goes +by water at all.</p> + +<p>Speaking generally, the actual traffic on the Kennet +and Avon at the western end would not exceed more +than about three or four boats a day, and on the +higher levels at the eastern end it would not average +one a day. Yet, after walking for some miles along +the canal banks at two of its most important points, +it was obvious to me that the decline in the traffic +could not be attributable to any shortcomings in the +canal itself. Not only does the Kennet and Avon +deserve to rank as one of the best maintained of any +canal in the country, but it still affords all reasonable +facilities for such traffic as is available, or seems +likely to be offered. Instead of being neglected by +the Great Western Railway Company, it is kept in +a state of efficiency that could not well be improved +upon short of a complete reconstruction, at a very +great cost, in the hope of getting an altogether +problematical increase of patronage in respect to +classes of traffic different from what was contemplated +when the canal was originally built.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_042fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_042fp.jpg" width="600" height="421" alt="LOCKS ON THE KENNET AND AVON CANAL AT DEVIZES." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">LOCKS ON THE KENNET AND AVON CANAL AT DEVIZES.</p> + + <p class="center">(A difference in level of 239 feet in 2½ miles is overcome by 29 locks. Of these, 17 immediately follow one another +in direct line, "pounds" being provided to ensure sufficiency of reserve water to work boats through.)</p> + + <p><i>Photo by Chivers, Devizes.</i>]</p> + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 42.</i></p> +</div></div> + + +<p>Within the last year or two the railway company +have spent £3,000 or £4,000 on the pumping +machinery. The main water supply is derived from +a reservoir, about 9 acres in extent, at Crofton, +this reservoir being fed partly by two rivulets +(which dry up in the summer) and partly by its +own springs; and extensive pumping machinery is +provided for raising to the summit level the water +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>that passes from the reservoir into the canal at a +lower level, the height the water is thus raised +being 40 feet. There is also a pumping station at +Claverton, near Bath, which raises water from the +river Avon. Thanks to these provisions, on no +occasion has there been more than a partial stoppage +of the canal owing to a lack of water, though in +seasons of drought it is necessary to reduce the +loading of the boats.</p> + +<p>The final ascent to the Devizes level is accomplished +by means of twenty-nine locks in a distance of 2½ +miles. Of these twenty-nine there are seventeen +which immediately follow one another in a direct line, +and here it has been necessary to supplement the +locks with "pounds" to ensure a sufficiency of reserve +water to work the boats through. No one who walks +alongside these locks can fail to be impressed alike by +the boldness of the original constructors of the canal +and by the thoroughness with which they did their +work. The walls of the locks are from 3 to 6 feet in +thickness, and they seem to have been built to last +for all eternity. The same remark applies to the +constructed works in general on this canal. For a +boat to pass through the twenty-nine locks takes +on an average about three hours. The 39½ miles +from Bristol to Devizes require at least two full +days.</p> + +<p>Considerable expenditure is also incurred on the +canal in dredging work; though here special difficulties +are experienced, inasmuch as the geological +formation of the bed of the canal between Bath +and Bradford-on-Avon renders steam dredging inadvisable, +so that the more expensive and less +expeditious system of "dragging" has to be relied +on instead.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> +<p>Altogether it costs the Great Western Railway +Company about £1 to earn each 10s. they receive +from the canal; and whether or not, considering +present day conditions of trade and transport, and +the changes that have taken place therein, they would +get their money back if they spent still more on the +canal, is, to say the least of it, extremely problematical. +One fact absolutely certain is that the canal is already +capable of carrying a much greater amount of traffic +than is actually forthcoming, and that the absence of +such traffic is not due to any neglect of the waterway +by its present owners. Indeed, I had the positive +assurance of Mr Saunders that, in his capacity as +Canals Engineer to the Great Western, he had never +yet been refused by his Company any expenditure he +had recommended as necessary for the efficient maintenance +of the canals under his charge. "I believe," +he added, "that any money required to be spent for +this purpose would be readily granted. I already +have power to do anything I consider advisable to +keep the canals in proper order; and I say without +hesitation that all the canals belonging to the Great +Western Railway Company are well maintained, and +in no way starved. The decline in the traffic is due +to obvious causes which would still remain, no +matter what improvements one might seek to carry +out."</p> + +<p class="mt2">The story told above may be supplemented by +the following extract from the report of the Great +Western Railway Company for the half-year ending +December 1905, showing expenses and receipts in +connection with the various canals controlled by +that company:—</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY CANALS,</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">for half-year ending 31st December 1905</span>.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="GWR expenses"> +<tr><td class="tdc">Canal.</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3">To Canal Expenses.</td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3"> By Canal Traffic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Bridgwater and Taunton</td> + <td class="tdr">£1,991</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr">£664</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Western</td> + <td class="tdr">197</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">119</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Kennet and Avon</td> + <td class="tdr">5,604</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td> + <td class="tdr">2,034</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Monmouthshire</td> + <td class="tdr">1,557</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">886</td> + <td class="tdr">16</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Stourbridge Extension</td> + <td class="tdr">450</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">765</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Stratford-upon-Avon</td> + <td class="tdr">1,349</td> + <td class="tdr">11</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td> + <td class="tdr">724</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Swansea</td> + <td class="tdr">1,643</td> + <td class="tdr">15</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + <td class="tdr">1,386</td> + <td class="tdr">14</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">————————</td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">————————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">£12,793</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">11</td> + <td class="tdr">£6,581</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">————————</td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">————————</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The capital expenditure on these different canals, +to the same date, was as follows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="GWR capital expenditure"> +<tr><td class="tdl">Brecon</td> + <td class="tdr">£61,217</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Bridgwater and Taunton</td> + <td class="tdr">73,989</td> + <td class="tdr">12</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Western</td> + <td class="tdr">30,629</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Kennet and Avon</td> + <td class="tdr">209,509</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Stourbridge Extension</td> + <td class="tdr">49,436</td> + <td class="tdr">15</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Stratford-on-Avon</td> + <td class="tdr">172,538</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Swansea</td> + <td class="tdr">148,711</td> + <td class="tdr">17</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">———————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Total,</span></td> + <td class="tdr">£746,034</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>These figures give point to the further remark +made by Mr Inglis at the meeting of the Institution +of Civil Engineers when he said, "It was not to +be imagined that the railway companies would +willingly have all their canal property lying idle; +they would be only too glad if they could see how +to use the canals so as to obtain a profit, or even +to reduce the loss."</p> + +<p>On the same occasion, Mr A. Ross, who also took +part in the debate, said he had had charge of a +number of railway-owned canals at different times, +and he was of opinion there was no foundation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>for the allegation that railway-owned canals were +not properly maintained. His first experience of +this kind was with the Sankey Brook and St Helens +Canal, one of wide gauge, carrying a first-class traffic, +connecting the two great chemical manufacturing +towns of St Helens and Widnes, and opening into +the Mersey. Early in the seventies the canal became +practically a wreck, owing to the mortar on the +walls having been destroyed by the chemicals in +the water which the manufactories had drained into +the canal. In addition, there was an overflow into +the Sankey Brook, and in times of flood the water +flowed over the meadows, and thousands of acres +were rendered barren. Mr Ross continued (I quote +from the official report):—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The London and North-Western Railway Company, +who owned the canal, went to great expense in +litigation, and obtained an injunction against the +manufacturers, and in the result they had to purchase +all the meadows outright, as the quickest way of +settling the question of compensation. The company +rebuilt all the walls and some of the locks. If that +canal had not been supported by a powerful corporation +like the London and North-Western Railway, it +must inevitably have been in ruins now. The next +canal he had to do with, the Manchester and Bury +Canal, belonging to the Lancashire and Yorkshire +Railway Company, was almost as unfortunate. The +coal workings underneath the canal absolutely wrecked +it, compelling the railway company to spend many +thousands of pounds in law suits and on restoring +the works, and he believed that no independent canal +could have survived the expense. Other canals he +had had to do with were the Peak Forest, the +Macclesfield and the Chesterfield canals, and the +Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation, which +belonged to the old Manchester Sheffield and Lincolnshire +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>Railway. Those canals were maintained in +good order, although the traffic was certainly not +large."</p></div> + +<p>On the strength of these personal experiences +Mr Ross thought that "if a company came forward +which was willing to give reasonable compensation, +the railway companies would not be difficult to deal +with."</p> + + +<p class="mt2">The "Shropshire Union" is a railway-controlled +canal with an especially instructive history.</p> + +<p>This system has a total mileage of just over 200 +miles. It extends from Wolverhampton to Ellesmere +Port on the river Mersey, passing through Market +Drayton, Nantwich and Chester, with branches to +Shrewsbury, Newtown (Montgomeryshire), Llangollen, +and Middlewich (Cheshire). Some sections +of the canal were made as far back as 1770, and +others as recently as 1840. At one time it was owned +by a number of different companies, but by a process +of gradual amalgamation, most of these were absorbed +by the Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company. In +1846 this company obtained Acts of Parliament which +authorised them to change their name to that of "The +Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company," +and gave them power to construct three lines of +railway: (1) from the Chester and Crewe Branch of +the Grand Junction Railway at Calveley to Wolverhampton; +(2) from Shrewsbury to Stafford, with a +branch to Stone; and (3) from Newtown (Montgomeryshire) +to Crewe. Not only do we get here a striking +instance of the tendency shown by canal companies +to start railways on their own account, but in each one +of the three Acts authorising the lines mentioned I +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>find it provided that "it shall be lawful for the Chester +and Holyhead Railway Company and the Manchester +and Birmingham Railway Company, or either of +them, to subscribe towards the undertaking, and hold +shares in the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal +Company."</p> + +<p>Experience soon showed that the Shropshire Union +had undertaken more than it could accomplish. In +1847 the company obtained a fresh Act of Parliament, +this time to authorise a lease of the undertakings of +the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company +to the London and North-Western Railway Company. +The Act set forth that the capital of the Shropshire +Union Company was £482,924, represented by shares +on which all the calls had been paid, and that the +indebtedness on mortgages, bonds and other securities +amounted to £814,207. Under these adverse conditions, +"it has been agreed," the Act goes on to say, +"between the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal +Company and the London and North-Western Railway +Company, with a view to the economical and +convenient working" of the three railways authorised, +"that a lease in perpetuity of the undertaking of the +Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company +should be granted to the London and North-Western +Railway Company, and accepted by them, at a rent +which shall be equal to ... half the rate per cent. per +annum of the dividend which shall from time to time +be payable on the capital stock of the London and +North-Western Railway Company."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 543px;"><a id="i_048fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_048fp.jpg" width="543" height="600" alt="WAREHOUSES AND HYDRAULIC CRANES AT ELLESMERE PORT." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">WAREHOUSES AND HYDRAULIC CRANES AT ELLESMERE PORT.</p> + + <p class="center"></p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 48.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p>We have in this another example of the way in +which a railway company has saved a canal system +from extinction, while under the control of the London +and North-Western the Shropshire Union Canal is +still undoubtedly one of the best maintained of any +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>in the country. There may be sections of it, especially +in out-lying parts, where the traffic is comparatively +small, but a considerable business is still done in the +conveyance of sea-borne grain from the Mersey to the +Chester district, or in that of tinplates, iron, and +manufactured articles from the Black Country to the +Mersey for shipment. For traffic such as this the +canal already offers every reasonable facility. The +Shropshire Union is also a large carrier of goods to +and from the Potteries district, in conjunction with +the Trent and Mersey. So little has the canal been +"strangled," or even neglected, by the London and +North-Western Railway Company that, in addition +to maintaining its general efficiency, the expenditure +incurred by that company of late years for the +development of Ellesmere Port—the point where the +Shropshire Union Canal enters the Manchester Ship +Canal—amounts to several hundred thousand pounds, +this money having been spent mainly in the interest +of the traffic along the Shropshire Union Canal. +Deep-water quay walls of considerable length have +been built; warehouses for general merchandise, +with an excellent system of hydraulic cranes, have +been provided; a large grain depôt, fully equipped +with grain elevators and other appliances, has been +constructed at a cost of £80,000 to facilitate, more +especially, the considerable grain transport by canal +that is done between the River Mersey and the +Chester district; and at the present time the dock +area is being enlarged, chiefly for the purpose of +accommodating deeper barges, drawing about 7 feet +of water.</p> + +<p>Another fact I might mention in regard to the +Shropshire Union Canal is in connection with +mechanical haulage. Elaborate theories, worked out +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>on paper, as to the difference in cost between rail +transport and water transport, may be completely +upset where the water transport is to be conducted, +not on a river or on a canal crossing a perfectly +level plain, but along a canal which is raised, by +means of locks, several hundred feet on one side of +a ridge, or of some elevated table-land, and must +be brought down in the same way on the other +side. So, again, the value of what might otherwise +be a useful system of mechanical haulage may be +completely marred owing to the existence of innumerable +locks.</p> + +<p>This conclusion is the outcome of a series of +practical experiments conducted on the Shropshire +Union Canal at a time when the theorists were still +working out their calculations on paper. The +experiments in question were directed to ascertaining +whether economy could be effected by making up +strings of narrow canal boats, and having them +drawn by a tug worked by steam or other motive +power, instead of employing man and horse for each +boat. The plan answered admirably until the locks +were reached. There the steam-tug was, temporarily, +no longer of any service. It was necessary to keep +a horse at every lock, or flight of locks, to get the +boats through, so that, apart from the tedious delays +(the boats that passed first having to wait for the +last-comers before the procession could start again), +the increased expense at the locks nullified any saving +gained from the mechanical haulage.</p> + + +<p class="mt2">As a further illustration—drawn this time from +Scotland—of the relations of railway companies to +canals, I take the case of the Forth and Clyde Navigation, +controlled by the Caledonian Railway Company.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> +<p>This navigation really consists of two sections—the +Forth and Clyde Navigation, and the Monkland +Navigation. The former, authorised in 1768, and +opened in 1790, commences at Grangemouth on +the Firth of Forth, crosses the country by Falkirk +and Kirkintilloch, and terminates at Bowling on the +Clyde. It has thirty-nine locks, and at one point +has been constructed through 3 miles of hard +rock. The original depth of 8 feet was increased to +10 feet in 1814. In addition to the canal proper, the +navigation included the harbours of Grangemouth +and Bowling, and also the Grangemouth Branch +Railway, and the Drumpeller Branch Railway, near +Coatbridge. The Monkland Canal, also opened in +1790, was built from Glasgow <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viâ</i> Coatbridge to +Woodhall in Lanarkshire, mainly for the transport +of coal from the Lanarkshire coal-fields to Glasgow +and elsewhere. Here the depth was 6 feet. The +undertakings of the Forth and Clyde and the Monkland +Navigations were amalgamated in 1846.</p> + +<p>Prior to 1865, the Caledonian Railway did not +extend further north than Greenhill, about 5 miles +south of Falkirk, where it joined the Scottish Central +Railway. This undertaking was absorbed by the +Caledonian in 1865, and the Caledonian system was +thus extended as far north as Perth and Dundee. +The further absorption of the Scottish North-Eastern +Railway Company, in 1866, led to the extension of +the Caledonian system to Aberdeen.</p> + +<p>At this time the Caledonian Railway Company +owned no port or harbour in Scotland, except the +small and rather shallow tidal harbour of South +Alloa. Having got possession of the railway lines +in Central Scotland, they thought it necessary to +obtain control of some port on the east coast, in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>interests of traffic to or from the Continent, and +especially to facilitate the shipment to the Continent +of coal from the Lanarkshire coal-fields, chiefly served +by them. The port of Grangemouth being adapted +to their requirements, they entered into negotiations +with the proprietors of the Forth and Clyde Navigation, +who were also proprietors of the harbour of +Grangemouth, and acquired the whole undertaking +in 1867, guaranteeing to the original company a +dividend of 6¼ per cent.</p> + +<p>Since their acquisition of the canal, the Caledonian +Railway Company have spent large sums annually +in maintaining it in a state of efficiency, and its +general condition to-day is better than when it was +taken over. Much of the traffic handled is brought +into or sent out from Grangemouth, and here the +Caledonian Railway Company have more than +doubled the accommodation, with the result that +the imports and exports have enormously increased. +All the same, there has been a steady decrease in +the actual canal traffic, due to various causes, such +as (<i>a</i>) the exhaustion of several of the coal-fields in +the Monkland district; (<i>b</i>) the extension of railways; +and (<i>c</i>) changes in the sources from which certain +classes of traffic formerly carried on the canal are +derived.</p> + +<p>In regard to the coal-fields, the closing of pits +adjoining the canal has been followed by the +opening of others at such a distance from the +canal that it was cheaper to consign by rail.</p> + +<p>In the matter of railway extensions, when the +Caledonian took over the canal in 1867, there were +practically no railways in the district through which +it runs, and the coal and other traffic had, perforce, +to go by water. But, year by year, a complete network +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>of railways was spread through the district by +independent railway companies, notwithstanding the +efforts made by the Caledonian to protect the interests +of the canal-efforts that led, in some instances, to +Parliament refusing assent to the proposed lines. +Those that were constructed (over a dozen lines +and branches altogether), were almost all absorbed +by the North British Railway Company, who are +strong competitors with the Caledonian Railway +Company, and have naturally done all they could +to get traffic for the lines in question. This, of +course, has been at the expense of the canal and +to the detriment of the Caledonian Railway Company, +who, in view of their having guaranteed a +dividend to the original proprietors, would prefer +that the traffic in question should remain on the +canal instead of being diverted to an opposition line +of railway. Other traffic which formerly went by +canal, and is now carried on the Caledonian Railway, +is of a character that would certainly go by +canal no longer, and for this the Caledonian and +the North British Companies compete.</p> + +<p>The third factor in the decline of the canal relates +to the general consideration that, during the last thirty +or forty years, important works have no longer been +necessarily built alongside canal banks, but have +been constructed wherever convenient, and connected +with the railways by branch lines or private sidings, +expense of cartage to or from the canal dock +or basin thus being saved. On the Forth and +Clyde Canal a good deal of coal is still carried, +but mainly to adjoining works. Coal is also +shipped in vessels on the canal for transport to +the West Highlands and Islands, where the +railways cannot compete; but even here there is an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>increasing tendency for the coal to be bought in +Glasgow (to which port it is carried by rail), so +that the shippers can have a wider range of markets +when purchasing. Further changes affecting the +Forth and Clyde Canal are illustrated by the fact +that whereas, at one time, large quantities of +grain were brought into Grangemouth from +Russian and other Continental ports, transhipped +into lighters, and sent to Glasgow by canal, the +grain now received at Glasgow comes mainly from +America by direct steamer.</p> + +<p>That the Caledonian Railway Company have done +their duty towards the Forth and Clyde Canal is +beyond all reasonable doubt. It is true that they +are not themselves carriers on the canal. They +are only toll-takers. Their business has been to +maintain the canal in efficient condition, and allow +any trader who wishes to make use of it so to do, +on paying the tolls. This they have done, and, +if the traders have not availed themselves of their +opportunities, it must naturally have been for +adequate reasons, and especially because of changes +in the course of the country's business which it is +impossible for a railway company to control, even +where, as in this particular case, they are directly +interested in seeing the receipts from tolls attain +to as high a figure as practicable.</p> + + +<p class="mt2">I reserve for another chapter a study of the +Birmingham Canal system, which, again, is "railway +controlled"; but I may say here that I think +the facts already given show it is most unfair to +suggest, as is constantly being done in the Press +and elsewhere, that the railway companies bought +up canals—"of malice aforethought," as it were—for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>the express purpose of killing such competition +as they represented—a form of competition in which, +as we have seen, public confidence had already +practically disappeared. One of the witnesses at the +canal enquiry in 1883 even went so far as to assert:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The railway companies have been enabled, in some +cases by means of very questionable legality, to obtain +command of 1,717 miles of canal, so adroitly selected +as to strangle the whole of the inland water traffic, +which has thus been forced upon the railways, to +the great interruption of their legitimate and lucrative +trade."</p></div> + +<p>The assertions here made are constantly being +reproduced in one form or another by newspaper +writers, public speakers, and others, who have gone +to no trouble to investigate the facts for themselves, +who have never read, or, if they have read, have +disregarded, the important evidence of Sir James +Allport, at the same enquiry, in reference to the +London coal trade (I shall revert to this subject +later on), and who probably have either not seen +a map of British canals and waterways at all, or +else have failed to notice the routes that still +remain independent, and are in no way controlled +by railway companies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;"><a id="i_054fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_054fp.jpg" width="479" height="600" alt="INDEPENDENT CANALS AND INLAND NAVIGATIONS IN ENGLAND" /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">INDEPENDENT CANALS AND INLAND NAVIGATIONS IN ENGLAND</p> + <p class="center">Which are not controlled by railway companies</p> + <p class="right">[To face page 54.</p> +</div></div> + +<ol> +<li>River Ouse Navigation (Yorkshire).</li> + +<li>River Wharfe Navigation.</li> + +<li>Aire and Calder Navigation.</li> + +<li>Market Weighton Navigation.</li> + +<li>Driffield Navigation.</li> + +<li>Beverley Beck Navigation.</li> + +<li>Leven Navigation.</li> + +<li>Leeds and Liverpool Canal.</li> + +<li>Manchester Ship Canal.</li> + +<li>Bridgewater portion of Manchester Ship Canal.</li> + +<li>Rochdale Canal.</li> + +<li>Calder and Hebble Navigation.</li> + +<li>Weaver Navigation.</li> + +<li>Idle Navigation.</li> + +<li>Trent Navigation Co.</li> + +<li>Aucholme Navigation.</li> + +<li>Caistor Canal.</li> + +<li>Louth Canal (Lincolnshire).</li> + +<li>Derby Canal.</li> + +<li>Nutbrook Canal.</li> + +<li>Erewash Canal.</li> + +<li>Loughborough Navigation.</li> + +<li>Leicester Navigation.</li> + +<li>Leicestershire Union Canal.</li> + +<li>Witham Navigation.</li> + +<li>Witham Navigation.</li> + +<li>Glen Navigation.</li> + +<li>Welland Navigation.</li> + +<li>Nen Navigation.</li> + +<li>Wisbech Canal.</li> + +<li>Nar Navigation.</li> + +<li>Ouse and Tributaries (Bedfordshire).</li> + +<li>North Walsham Canal.</li> + +<li>Bure Navigation.</li> + +<li>Blyth Navigation.</li> + +<li>Ipswich and Stowmarket Navigation.</li> + +<li>Stour Navigation.</li> + +<li>Colne Navigation.</li> + +<li>Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation.</li> + +<li>Roding Navigation.</li> + +<li>Stort Navigation.</li> + +<li>Lea Navigation.</li> + +<li>Grand Junction Canal.</li> + +<li>Grand Union Canal.</li> + +<li>Oxford Canal.</li> + +<li>Coventry Canal.</li> + +<li>Warwick and Napton Canal.</li> + +<li>Warwick and Birmingham Canal.</li> + +<li>Birmingham and Warwick Junction Canal.</li> + +<li>Worcester and Birmingham Canal.</li> + +<li>Stafford and Worcester Canal.</li> + +<li>Severn (Lower) Navigation.</li> + +<li>Gloucester and Berkeley Ship Canal.</li> + +<li>Lower Avon Navigation.</li> + +<li>Stroudwater Canal.</li> + +<li>Wye Navigation.</li> + +<li>Axe Navigation.</li> + +<li>Parrett Navigation.</li> + +<li>Tone Navigation.</li> + +<li>Wilts and Berks Canal.</li> + +<li>Thames Navigation.</li> + +<li>London and Hampshire Canal.</li> + +<li>Wey Navigation.</li> + +<li>Medway Navigation.</li> + +<li>Canterbury Navigation.</li> + +<li>Ouse Navigation (Sussex).</li> + +<li>Adur Navigation.</li> + +<li>Arun and Wey Canal.</li> + +<li>Portsmouth and Arunder Canal.</li> + +<li>Itchen Navigation.</li> +</ol> + +<p>I give, facing p. 54, a sketch which shows the +nature and extent of these particular waterways, and +the reader will see from it that they include entirely +free and independent communication (<i>a</i>) between +Birmingham and the Thames; (<i>b</i>) from the coal-fields +of the Midlands and the North to London; +and (<i>c</i>) between the west and east coasts, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viâ</i> +Liverpool, Leeds, and Goole. To say, therefore, +in these circumstances, that "the whole of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>inland water traffic" has been strangled by the +railway companies because the canals or sections of +which they "obtained command" were "so adroitly +selected," is simply to say what is not true.</p> + +<p>The point here raised is not one that merely +concerns the integrity of the railway companies—though +in common justice to them it is only right +that the truth should be made known. It really +affects the whole question at issue, because, so +long as public opinion is concentrated more or less +on this strangulation fiction, due attention will not +be given to the real causes for the decay of the +canals, and undue importance will be attached to +the suggestions freely made that if only the one-third +of the canal mileage owned or controlled by +the railway companies could be got out of their +hands, the revival schemes would have a fair chance +of success.</p> + +<p>Certain it is, therefore, as the map I give shows +beyond all possible doubt, that the causes for the +failure of the British canal system must be sought +for elsewhere than in the fact of a partial railway-ownership +or control. Some of these alternative +causes I propose to discuss in the Chapters that +follow my story of the Birmingham Canal, for +which (inasmuch as Birmingham and district, by +reason of their commercial importance and geographical +position, have first claim to consideration +in any scheme of canal resuscitation) I would beg +the special attention of the reader.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="V. THE BIRMINGHAM CANAL AND ITS STORY">CHAPTER V<br /> + +<small>THE BIRMINGHAM CANAL AND ITS STORY</small></h2> + + +<p>What is known as the "Birmingham Canal" is +really a perfect network of waterways in and around +Birmingham and South Staffordshire, representing a +total length of about 160 miles, exclusive of some +hundreds of private sidings in connection with +different works in the district.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;"><a id="i_056fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_056fp.jpg" width="383" height="600" alt="Map of the Canals & Railways between WOLVERHAMPTON & BIRMINGHAM" /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">Map of the Canals & Railways between</p> + + <p class="center">WOLVERHAMPTON & BIRMINGHAM</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 56.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p>The system was originally constructed by four +different canal companies under Acts of Parliament +passed between 1768 and 1818. These +companies subsequently amalgamated and formed +the Birmingham Canal Navigation, known later on +as the Birmingham Canal Company. From March +1816 to March 1818 the company paid £36 per +annum per share on 1,000 shares, and in the following +year the amount paid on the same number of +shares rose to £40 per annum. In 1823 £24 per +annum per share was paid on 2,000 shares, in 1838 +£9 to £16 on 8,000, in 1844 £8 on 8,800, and from +May 1845 to December 1846 £4 per annum per +share on 17,600 shares.</p> + +<p>The year 1845 was a time of great activity in +railway promotion, and the Birmingham Canal +Company, who already had a canal between that +town and Wolverhampton, proposed to supplement +it by a railway through the Stour Valley, using for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>the purpose a certain amount of spare land which +they already owned. A similar proposal, however, +in respect to a line of railway to take practically +the same route between Birmingham and Wolverhampton, +was brought forward by an independent +company, who seem to have had the support of +the London and Birmingham Railway Company; +and in the result it was arranged among the +different parties concerned (1) that the Birmingham +Canal Company should not proceed with their +scheme, but that they and the London and +Birmingham Railway Company should each subscribe +a fourth part of the capital for the construction +of the line projected by the independent +Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valley +Railway Company; and (2) that the London and +Birmingham Railway Company should, subject to +certain terms and conditions, guarantee the future +dividend of the Canal Company, whenever the net +income was insufficient to produce a dividend of +£4 per share on the capital, the Canal Company +thus being insured against loss resulting from +competition.</p> + +<p>The building of the Stour Valley Line between +Birmingham and Wolverhampton, with a branch to +Dudley, was sanctioned by an Act of 1846, which +further authorised the Birmingham Canal Company +and the London and Birmingham Railway Company +to contribute each one quarter of the necessary capital. +The canal company raised their quarter, amounting +to £190,087, by means of mortgages. In return for +their guarantee of the canal company's dividend, the +London and Birmingham Railway Company obtained +certain rights and privileges in regard to the working +of the canal. These were authorised by the London +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>and Birmingham Railway and Birmingham Canal +Arrangement Act, 1846, which empowered the two +companies each to appoint five persons as a committee +of management of the Birmingham Canal +Company. Those members of the committee chosen +by the London and Birmingham Railway Company +were to have the same powers, etc., as the members +elected by the canal company; but the canal company +were restricted from expending, without the consent of +the railway company, "any sum which shall exceed +the sum of five hundred pounds in the formation of +any new canal, or extension, or branch canal or otherwise, +for the purpose of any single work to be hereafter +undertaken by the same company"; nor, without +consent of the railway company, could the canal +company make any alterations in the tolls, rates, or +dues charged. In the event of differences of opinion +arising between the two sections of the committee of +management, the final decision was to be given by +the railway representatives in such year or years as +the railway company was called upon to make good +a deficiency in the dividends, and by the canal representatives +when no such demand had been made +upon the railway company. In other words the +canal company retained the deciding vote so long +as they could pay their way, and in any case they +could spend up to £500 on any single work without +asking the consent of the railway company.</p> + +<p>In course of time the Stour Valley Line, as well +as the London and Birmingham Company, became +part of the system of the London and North-Western +Railway Company, which thus took over the responsibilities +and obligations, in regard to the waterways, +already assumed; while the mortgages issued by the +Birmingham Canal Company, when they undertook +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>to raise one-fourth of the capital for the Stour +Valley Railway, were exchanged for £126,725 of +ordinary stock in the London and North-Western +Railway.</p> + +<p>The Birmingham Canal Company was able down +to 1873 (except only in one year, 1868, when it required +£835 from the London and North-Western Company) +to pay its dividend of £4 per annum on each share, +without calling on the railway company to make good +a deficiency. In 1874, however, there was a substantial +shortage of revenue, and since that time +the London and North-Western Railway Company, +under the agreement already mentioned, have had +to pay considerable sums to the canal company, as +the following table shows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Birmingham Canal Company"> +<tr><td class="tdl">Year</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr">1874 </td> + <td class="tdr">£10,528</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1875</td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="3">nil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1876</td> + <td class="tdr">4,796</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1877</td> + <td class="tdr">361</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1878</td> + <td class="tdr">11,370</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1879</td> + <td class="tdr">20,225</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1880</td> + <td class="tdr">13,534</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1881</td> + <td class="tdr">15,028</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1882</td> + <td class="tdr">6,826</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1883</td> + <td class="tdr">8,879</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1884</td> + <td class="tdr">14,196</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1885</td> + <td class="tdr">25,460</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1886</td> + <td class="tdr">35,169</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1887</td> + <td class="tdr">31,491</td> + <td class="tdr">14</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1888</td> + <td class="tdr">15,350</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td> + <td class="tdr">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1889</td> + <td class="tdr">5,341</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1890</td> + <td class="tdr">22,069</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1891</td> + <td class="tdr">17,626</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1892</td> + <td class="tdr">29,508</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1893</td> + <td class="tdr">31,618</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1894</td> + <td class="tdr">27,935</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + <td class="tdr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1895</td> + <td class="tdr">39,065</td> + <td class="tdr">15</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1896</td> + <td class="tdr">22,994</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td> + <td class="tdr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1897</td> + <td class="tdr">10,186</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1898</td> + <td class="tdr">10,286</td> + <td class="tdr">13</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1899</td> + <td class="tdr">18,470</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + <td class="tdr">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1900</td> + <td class="tdr">34,075</td> + <td class="tdr">19</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1901</td> + <td class="tdr">62,644</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1902</td> + <td class="tdr">27,645</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td> + <td class="tdr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1903</td> + <td class="tdr">34,047</td> + <td class="tdr">4</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1904</td> + <td class="tdr">37,832</td> + <td class="tdr">5</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">1905</td> + <td class="tdr">39,860</td> + <td class="tdr">13</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The sum total of these figures is £685,265, 2s. 11d.</p> + +<p>It will have been seen, from the facts already +narrated, that for a period of over twenty years from +the date of the agreement the canal company continued +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>to earn their own dividend without requiring +any assistance from the railway company. Meantime, +however, various local, in addition to general, causes +had been in operation tending to affect the prosperity +of the canals. The decline of the pig-iron industry +in the Black Country had set in, while though the +conversion of manufactured iron into plates, implements, +etc., largely took its place, the raw materials +came more and more from districts not served by the +canals, and the finished goods were carried mainly +by the railways then rapidly spreading through the +district, affording facilities in the way of sidings to +a considerable number of manufacturers whose works +were not on the canal route. Then the local iron +ore deposits were either worked out or ceased +to be remunerative, in view of the competition of +other districts, again facilitated by the railways; +and the extension of the Bessemer process of +steel-making also affected the Staffordshire iron +industry.</p> + +<p>These changes were quite sufficient in themselves +to account for the increasing unprofitableness of the +canals, without any need for suggestions of hostility +towards them on the part of the railways. In point +of fact, the extension of the railways and the provision +of "railway basins" brought the canals a certain +amount of traffic they might not otherwise have got. +It was, indeed, due less to an actual decrease in the +tonnage than to a decrease in the distance carried +that the amount received in tolls fell off, that the traffic +ceased to be remunerative, and that the deficiencies +arose which, under their statutory obligations, the +London and North-Western Railway Company had +to meet. The more that the traffic actually left +the canals, the greater was the deficiency which, as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>shown by the figures I have given, the railway +company had to make good.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>The condition of the canals in 1874, when the +responsibilities assumed by the London and North-Western +Railway Company began to fall more heavily +upon them, left a good deal to be desired, and the +railway company found themselves faced with the +necessity of finding money for improvements which +eventually represented a very heavy expenditure, +apart altogether from the making up of a guaranteed +dividend. They proceeded, all the same, to acquit +themselves of these responsibilities, and it is no +exaggeration to say that, during the thirty years +which have since elapsed, they have spent enormous +sums in improving the canals, and in maintaining +them in what—adverse critics notwithstanding—is +their present high state of efficiency, considering the +peculiarities of their position.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest difficulties in the situation was +in regard to water supply. At Birmingham, portions +of the canal are 453 feet above ordnance datum; +Wolverhampton, Wednesfield, Tipton, Dudley, and +Oldbury are higher still, for their elevation is 473 +feet, while Walsall, Darlaston, and Wednesbury are +at a height of 408 feet. On high-lands like these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>there are naturally no powerful streams, and such is +the lack of local water supplies that, as every one +knows, the city of Birmingham has recently had to +go as far as Wales in order to obtain sufficient water +to meet the needs of its citizens.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances special efforts had to be +made to obtain water for the canals in the district, +and to ensure a due regard for economy in its use. +The canals have, in fact, had to depend to a certain +extent on water pumped from the bottom of coal pits +in the Black Country, and stored in reservoirs on the +top levels; the water, also, temporarily lost each time +a canal boat passed through one of the many locks +in the district being pumped back to the top to be +used over again.</p> + +<p>To this end pumping machinery had already been +provided by the old canal companies, but the London +and North-Western Railway Company, on taking +over the virtual direction of the canals for which they +were financially responsible, substituted new and +improved plant, and added various new pumping +stations. Thanks to the changes thus effected—at, +I need hardly say, very considerable cost—the average +amount of water now pumped from lower to higher +levels, during an average year, is 25,000,000 gallons +per day, equal to 1,000 locks of water. On occasions +the actual quantity dealt with is 50,000,000 gallons +per day, while the total capacity of the present pumping +machinery is equal to about 102,000,000 gallons, +or 4,080 locks, per day. There is absolutely no +doubt that, but for the special provisions made for +an additional water supply, the Birmingham Canal +would have had to cease operations altogether in +the summer of 1905—probably for two months—because +of the shortage of water. The reservoirs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>on the top level were practically empty, and it was +solely owing to the company acquiring new sources +of supply, involving a very substantial expenditure +indeed, that the canal system was kept going at all. +A canal company with no large financial resources +would inevitably have broken down under the strain.</p> + +<p>Then the London and North-Western Company +are actively engaged in substituting new pumping +machinery—representing "all the latest improvements"—for +old, the special aim, here, being the +securing of a reduction of more than 50 per cent. +over the former cost of pumping. An expenditure +of from £15,000 to £16,000 was, for example, +incurred by them so recently as 1905 at the Ocker +Hill pumping station. In this way the railway +company are seeking both to maintain the efficiency +of the canal and to reduce the heavy annual demands +made upon them in respect to the general cost of +operation and shareholders' dividend.</p> + +<p>For reasons which will be indicated later on, it is +impossible to improve the Black Country canals on +any large scale; but, in addition to what I have +already related, the London and North-Western +Railway Company are constantly spending money +on small improvements, such as dredging, widening +waterway under-bridges, taking off corners, and putting +in side walls in place of slopes, so as to give +more space for the boats. In the latter respect many +miles have been so treated, to the distinct betterment +of the canal.</p> + +<p>All this heavy outlay by the railway company, +carried on for a series of years, is now beginning to +tell, to the advantage alike of the traders and of the +canal as a property, and if any scheme of State or +municipal purchase were decided on by the country +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>the various substantial items mentioned would +naturally have to be taken into account in making +terms.</p> + +<p>Another feature of the Birmingham Canal system +is that it passes to a considerable extent through the +mining districts of the Black Country. This means, +in the first place, that wherever important works +have been constructed, as in the case of tunnels, +(and the system passes through a number of tunnels, +three of these being 3,172 yards, 3,027 yards, and +3,785 yards respectively in length) the mineral rights +underneath have to be bought up in order to avoid +subsidences. In one instance the railway company +paid no less than £28,500 for the mining rights +underneath a short length (754 yards) of a canal +tunnel. In other words, this £28,500 was practically +buried in the ground, not in order to work the +minerals, but with a view to maintain a secure +foundation for the canal. Altogether the expenditure +of the company in this one direction, and for this +one special purpose alone, in the Black Country +district, must amount by this time to some hundreds +of thousands of pounds.</p> + +<p>Actual subsidences represent a great source of +trouble. There are some parts of the Birmingham +Canal where the waterway was originally constructed +on a level with the adjoining ground, but, as more +and more coal has been taken from the mines underneath, +and especially as more and more of the ribs +of coal originally left to support the roof have been +removed, the land has subsided from time to time, +rendering necessary the raising of the canal. So far +has this gone that to-day the canal, at certain of these +points, instead of being on a level with the adjoining +ground, is on an embankment 30 feet above. Drops +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>of from 10 to 20 feet are of frequent occurrence, even +with narrow canals, and the cost involved in repairs +and restoration is enormous, as the reader may well +suppose, considering that the total length of the +Birmingham Canal subject to subsidences from +mining is about 90 miles.</p> + +<p>I come next to the point as to the comparative +narrowness of the Birmingham Canal system and +the small capacity of the locks—conditions, as we +are rightly told, which tell against the possibility of +through, or even local, traffic in a larger type of boat. +Such conditions as these are generally presented as +one of the main reasons why the control should be +transferred to the State, to municipalities, or to public +trusts, who, it is assumed, would soon get rid of them.</p> + +<p>The reader must have fully realised by this time +that the original size of the waterways and locks +on the Birmingham Canal was determined by the +question of water supply. But any extensive scheme +of widening would involve much beyond the securing +of more water.</p> + +<p>During the decades the Birmingham Canal has +been in existence important works of all kinds have +been built alongside its banks, not only in and +around Birmingham itself, but all through the Black +Country. There are parts of the canal where almost +continuous lines of such works on each side of the +canal, flush up to the banks or towing path, are to +be seen for miles together. Any general widening, +therefore, even of the main waterways, would involve +such a buying up, reconstruction of, or interference +with extremely valuable properties that the expenditure +involved—in the interests of a problematical +saving in canal tolls—would be alike prodigious and +prohibitive.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> +<p>There is the less reason for incurring such expenditure +when we consider the special purposes which the +canals of the district already serve, and, I may even +say, efficiently serve. The total traffic passing over +the Birmingham Canal system amounts to about +8,000,000 tons per annum,<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and of this a considerable +proportion is collected for eventual transport by rail. +Every few miles along the canal in the Black Country +there is a "railway-basin" put in either by the London +and North-Western Railway Company, who have had +the privilege of finding the money to keep the canal +going since 1874, or by the Great Western or the +Midland Railway Companies. Here, again, very +considerable expenditure has been incurred by the +railway companies in the provision alike of wharves, +cranes, sheds, etc., and of branch railways connecting +with the main lines of the company concerned. From +these railway-basins narrow boats are sent out to +works all over the district to collect iron, hardware, +tinplates, bricks, tiles, manufactured articles, and +general merchandise, and bring them in for loading +into the railway trucks alongside. So complete is +the network of canals, with their hundreds of small +"special" branches, that for many of the local works +their only means of communication with the railway +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>is by water, and the consignments are simply conveyed +to the railway by canal boat, instead of, as +elsewhere, by collecting van or road lorry.</p> + +<p>The number of these railway-basins—the cost of +which is distinctly substantial—is constantly being +increased, for the traffic through them grows almost +from day to day.</p> + +<p>The Great Western Railway Company, for example, +have already several large transhipping basins on +the canals of the Black Country. They have one +at Wolverhampton, and another at Tipton, only +5 miles away; yet they have now decided to construct +still another, about half-way between the two. The +matter is thus referred to in the <cite>Great Western +Railway Magazine</cite> for March, 1906:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The Directors have approved a scheme for an +extensive depôt adjoining the Birmingham Canal at +Bilston, the site being advantageously central in the +town. It will comprise a canal basin and transfer shed, +sidings for over one hundred and twenty waggons, +and a loop for made-up trains. A large share of the +traffic of the district, mainly raw material and manufactured +articles of the iron trade, will doubtless be +secured as a result of this important step—the +railway and canal mutually serving each other as +feeders."</p></div> + +<p>The reader will see from this how the tendency, +even on canals that survive, is for the length of +haul to become shorter and shorter, so that the +receipts of the canal company from tolls may decline +even where there is no actual decrease in the weight +of the traffic handled.</p> + +<p>In the event of State or municipal purchase being +resorted to, the expenditure on all these costly basins +and the works connected therewith would have to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>taken into consideration, equally with the pumping +machinery and general improvements, and, also, +the purchase of mining rights, already spoken of; +but I fail to see what more either Government or +County Council control could, in the circumstances, +do for the Birmingham system than is being done +already. Far more for the purposes of maintenance +has been spent on the canal by the London and +North-Western Railway Company than had been so +spent by the canal company itself; and, although +a considerable amount of traffic arising in the district +does find its way down to the Mersey, the purpose +served by the canal is, and must necessarily be, +mainly a local one.</p> + +<p>That Birmingham should become a sort of half-way +stage on a continuous line of widened canals +across country from the Thames to the Mersey is +one of the most impracticable of dreams. Even if +there were not the question of the prodigious cost +that widenings of the Birmingham Canal would +involve, there would remain the equally fatal drawback +of the elevation of Birmingham and Wolverhampton +above sea level. In constructing a broad +cross-country canal, linking up the two rivers in +question, it would be absolutely necessary to avoid +alike Birmingham and the whole of the Black +Country. That city and district, therefore, would +gain no direct advantage from such a through route. +They would have to be content to send down their +commodities in the existing small boats to a lower +level, and there, in order to reach the Mersey, +connect with either the Shropshire Union Canal or +the Trent and Mersey. One of these two waterways +would certainly have to be selected for a widened +through route to the Mersey.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> +<p>Assume that the former were decided upon, and +that, to meet the present-day agitation, the State, +or some Trust backed by State or local funds, bought +up the Shropshire Union, and resolved upon a +substantial widening of this particular waterway, +so as to admit of a larger type of boat and the +various other improvements now projected. In this +case the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crux</i> of the situation (apart from Birmingham +and Black Country conditions), would be the city of +Chester.</p> + +<p>For a distance of 1½ miles the Shropshire Union +Canal passes through the very heart of Chester. +Right alongside the canal one sees successively +very large flour mills or lead works, big warehouses, +a school, streets which border it for some +distance, masses of houses, and, also, the old city +walls. At one point the existing canal makes +a bend that is equal almost to a right angle. +Here there would have to be a substantial clearance +if boats much larger than those now in use were to +get round so ugly a corner in safety. This bend, +too, is just where the canal goes underneath the +main lines of the London and North-Western and +the Great Western Railways, the gradients of which +would certainly have to be altered if it were desired +to employ larger boats.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_070fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_070fp.jpg" width="600" height="334" alt="WHAT CANAL WIDENING WOULD MEAN." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">WHAT CANAL WIDENING WOULD MEAN.</p> + + <p class="center">(The Shropshire Union Canal at the Northgate, Chester, looking East.)</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 70.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p>The widening of the Shropshire Union Canal at +Chester would, in effect, necessitate a wholesale +destruction of, or interference with, valuable property +(even if the city walls were spared), and an expenditure +of hundreds of thousands of pounds. Such a thing +is clearly not to be thought of. The city of Chester +would have to be avoided by the through route from +the Midlands to the Mersey, just as the canals of +Birmingham and the Black Country would have to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>be avoided in a through route from the Thames. +If the Shropshire Union were still kept to, a new +branch canal would have to be constructed from +Waverton to connect again with the Shropshire +Union at a point half-way between Chester and +Ellesmere Port, leaving Chester in a neglected bend +on the south.</p> + +<p>On this point as to the possibility of enlarging +the Shropshire Union Canal, I should like to +quote the following from some remarks made by +Mr G. R. Jebb, engineer to the Shropshire Union +Railways and Canal Company, in the discussion +on Mr Saner's paper at the Institution of Civil +Engineers:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"As to the suggestion that the railway companies did +not consider it possible to make successful commercial +use of their canals in conjunction with their lines, and +that the London and North-Western Railway +Company might have improved the main line of +the Shropshire Union Canal between Ellesmere +Port and Wolverhampton, and thus have relieved +their already overburdened line, as a matter of fact +about twenty years ago he went carefully into the +question of enlarging that particular length of canal, +which formed the main line between the Midlands +and the sea. He drew up estimates and plans for +wide canals, of different cross sections, one of which +was almost identical with the cross section proposed +by Mr Saner. After very careful consideration with +a disposition to improve the canal if possible, it was +found that the cost of the necessary works would be +too heavy. Bridges of wide span and larger headway—entailing +approaches which could not be constructed +without destroying valuable property on either side—new +locks and hydraulic lifts would be required, and +a transhipping depôt would have been necessary +where each of the narrow canals joined. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>company were satisfied, and he himself was satisfied, +that no reasonable return for that expenditure could +be expected, and therefore the work was not proceeded +with.... He was satisfied that whoever +found the money for canal improvements would get +no fair return for it."</p></div> + +<p>The adoption of the alternative route, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viâ</i> the Trent +and Mersey, would involve (1) locking-up to and +down a considerable summit, and (2) a continuous +series of widenings (except along the Weaver Canal), +the cost of which, especially in the towns of Stoke, +Etruria, Middlewich, and Northwich, would attain to +proportions altogether prohibitive.</p> + +<p>The conclusion at which I arrive in regard to the +Birmingham Canal system is that it cannot be +directly included in any scheme of cross-country +waterways from river to river; that by reason alike +of elevation, water supply, and the existence of a +vast amount of valuable property immediately alongside, +any general widening of the present system +of canals in the district is altogether impracticable; +that, within the scope of their unavoidable limitations, +those particular canals already afford every reasonable +facility to the real requirements of the local +traders; that, instead of their having been "strangled" +by the railways, they have been kept alive and in +operation solely and entirely because of the heavy +expenditure upon them by the London and North-Western +Railway Company, following on conditions +which must inevitably have led to collapse (with +serious disadvantages to the traders dependent on +them for transport) if the control had remained with +an independent but impoverished canal company; +and that very little, if anything, more—with due +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>regard both for what is practical, and for the avoidance +of any waste of public money—could be done +than is already being done, even if State or municipal +authorities made the costly experiment of trying +what they could do for them with their own 'prentice +hands.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="VI. THE TRANSITION IN TRADE">CHAPTER VI<br /> + +<small>THE TRANSITION IN TRADE</small></h2> + + +<p>Of the various causes which have operated to bring +about the comparative decay of the British canal system +(for, as already shown, there are sections that still +retain a certain amount of vitality), the most +important are to be found in the great changes +that have taken place in the general conditions of +trade, manufacture and commerce.</p> + +<p>The tendency in almost every branch of business +to-day is for the trader to have small, or comparatively +small, stocks of any particular commodity, which he +can replenish speedily at frequent intervals as occasion +requires. The advantages are obvious. A smaller +amount of capital is locked up in any one article; a +larger variety of goods can be dealt in; less accommodation +is required for storage; and men with limited +means can enter on businesses which otherwise could +be undertaken only by individuals or companies +possessed of considerable resources. If a draper +or a grocer at Plymouth finds one afternoon that +he has run short of a particular article, he need +only telegraph to the wholesale house with which +he deals in London, and a fresh supply will be +delivered to him the following morning. A trader +in London who wanted something from Dublin, and +telegraphed for it one day, would expect as a matter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>of course to have it the next. What, again, would +a London shopkeeper be likely to say if, wanting +to replenish his limited stock with some Birmingham +goods, he was informed by the manufacturer:—"We +are in receipt of your esteemed order, and are sending +the goods on by canal. You may hope to get +them in about a week"?</p> + +<p>With a little wider margin in the matter of +delivery, the same principle applies to those trading +in, or requiring, raw materials—coal, steel, ironstone, +bricks, and so on. Merchants, manufacturers, and +builders are no more anxious than the average shopkeeper +to keep on hand stocks unnecessarily large, +and to have so much money lying idle. They +calculate the length of time that will be required +to get in more supplies when likely to be wanted, +and they work their business accordingly.</p> + +<p>From this point of view the railway is far superior +to the canal in two respects, at least.</p> + +<p>First, there is the question of speed. The value +of this factor was well recognised so far back as +1825, when, as I have told on page <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, Mr Sandars +related how speed and certainty of delivery were +regarded as "of the first importance," and constituted +one of the leading reasons for the desired introduction +of railways. But speed and certainty of delivery +become absolutely essential when the margin in +regard to supplies on hand is habitually kept to a +working minimum. The saving in freight effected +as between, on the one hand, waiting at least several +days, if not a full week, for goods by canal boat, +and, on the other, receiving them the following day +by train, may be more than swallowed up by the +loss of profit or the loss of business in consequence +of the delay. If the railway transport be a little +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>more costly than the canal transport, the difference +should be fully counterbalanced by the possibility +of a more rapid turnover, as well as the other +advantages of which I have spoken.</p> + +<p>In cases, again, where it is not a matter of quickly +replenishing stocks but of effecting prompt delivery +even of bulky goods, time may be all-important. +This fact is well illustrated in a contribution, from +Birmingham, published in the "Engineering Supplement" +of <cite>The Times</cite> of February 14, 1906, in which +it was said:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"Makers of wheels, tires, axles, springs, and +similar parts are busy. Of late the South African +colonies have been larger buyers, while India and +the Far Eastern markets, including China and Japan, +South America, and some other shipping markets are +providing very good and valuable indents. In all +cases, it is especially remarked, very early execution +of contracts and urgent delivery is impressed by +buyers. The leading firms have learned a good deal +of late from German, American, Belgian, and other +foreign competitors in the matter of rapid output. +By the improvement of plant, the laying down of +new and costly machine tools, and by other advances +in methods of production, delivery is now made of +contracts of heavy tonnage within periods which not +so long ago would have been deemed by these same +producers quite impossible. In no branch of the +engineering trades is this expedition more apparent +than in the constructional engineering department, +such as bridges, roofs, etc., also in steam boiler +work."</p></div> + +<p>Now where, in cases such as these, "urgent +delivery is impressed by buyers," and the utmost +energy is probably being enforced on the workers, +is it likely that even the heavy goods so made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>would be sent down to the port by the tediously +slow process of canal boat, taking, perhaps, as +many days as even a goods train would take hours? +Alternatively, would the manufacturers run the risk +of delaying urgent work by having the raw materials +delivered by canal boat in order to effect a small +saving on cost of transport?</p> + +<p>Certainty of delivery might again be seriously +affected in the case of canal transport by delays +arising either from scarcity of water during dry +seasons, or from frost in winter. The entire stoppage +of a canal system, from one or other of these causes, +for weeks together, especially on high levels, is no +unusual occurrence, and the inconvenience which +would then result to traders who depended on the +canals is self-evident. In Holland, where most of +the goods traffic goes by the canals that spread as +a perfect network throughout the whole country, and +link up each town with every other town, the advent +of a severe frost means that the whole body of traffic +is suddenly thrown on the railways, which then have +more to get through than they can manage. Here +the problem arises: If waterways take traffic from +the railways during the greater part of the year, +should the railways still be expected to keep on +hand sufficient rolling stock, etc., not only for their +normal conditions, but to meet all the demands +made upon them during such periods as their +competitors cannot operate?</p> + +<p>There is an idea in some quarters that stoppage +from frost need not be feared in this country because, +under an improved system of waterways, measures +would be taken to keep the ice on the canals +constantly broken up. But even with this arrangement +there comes a time, during a prolonged frost, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>when the quantity of broken ice in the canal is so +great that navigation is stopped unless the ice itself +is removed from the water. Frost must, therefore, +still be reckoned with as a serious factor among the +possibilities of delay in canal transport.</p> + +<p>Secondly, there is the question of quantities. For +the average trader the railway truck is a much more +convenient unit than the canal boat. It takes just +such amount as he may want to send or receive. +For some commodities the minimum load for which +the lowest railway rate is quoted is as little as 2 tons; +but many a railway truck has been run through to +destination with a solitary consignment of not more +than half-a-ton. On the other hand, a vast proportion +of the consignments by rail are essentially +of the "small" type. From the goods depôt at +Curzon Street, Birmingham, a total of 1,615 tons +dealt with, over a certain period, represented 6,110 +consignments and 51,114 packages, the average +weight per consignment being 5 <abbr title="hundredweight">cwts</abbr>. 1 <abbr title="quarter">qr.</abbr> 4 <abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr>, +and the average weight per package, 2 <abbr title="quarters">qrs.</abbr> 14 <abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr> +At the Liverpool goods depôts of the London and +North-Western Railway, a total weight of 3,895 tons +handled consisted of 5,049 consignments and 79,513 +packages, the average weight per consignment being +15 <abbr title="hundredweight">cwts</abbr>. 1 <abbr title="quarter">qr.</abbr> 20 <abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr>, and the average weight per +package 3 <abbr title="quarters">qrs.</abbr> 26 <abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr> From the depôt at Broad +Street, London, 906 tons represented 6,201 consignments +and 23,067 packages, with an average +weight per consignment of 2 <abbr title="hundredweight">cwts</abbr>. 3 <abbr title="quarters">qrs.</abbr> 19 <abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr>, +and per package, 3 <abbr title="quarters">qrs.</abbr> 4 <abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr>; and so on with +other important centres of traffic.</p> + +<p>There is little room for doubt that a substantial +proportion of these consignments and packages consisted +partly of goods required by traders either +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>to replenish their stocks, or, as in the case of +tailors and dressmakers, to enable them to execute +particular orders; and partly of commodities +purchased from traders, and on their way to the +customers. In regard to the latter class of goods, +it is a matter of common knowledge that there +has been an increasing tendency of late years to +eliminate the middleman, and establish direct trading +between producer and consumer. Just as the +small shopkeeper will purchase from the manufacturer, +and avoid the wholesale dealer, so, also, +there are individual householders and others who +eliminate even the shopkeeper, and deal direct +with advertising manufacturers willing to supply to +them the same quantities as could be obtained +from a retail trader.</p> + +<p>For trades and businesses conducted on these lines, +the railway—taking and delivering promptly consignments +great or small, penetrating to every part +of the country, and supplemented by its own commodious +warehouses, in which goods can be stored +as desired by the trader pending delivery or shipment—is +a far more convenient mode of transport +than the canal boat; and to the railway the perfect +revolution that has been brought about in the +general trade of this country is mainly due. +Business has been simplified, subdivided, and +brought within the reach of "small" men to an +extent that, but for the railway, would have been +impossible; and it is difficult to imagine that +traders in general will forego all these advantages +now, and revert once more to the canal boat, +merely for the sake of a saving in freight which, +in the long run, might be no saving at all.</p> + +<p>Here it may be replied by my critics that there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>is no idea of reviving canals in the interests of the +general trader, and that all that is sought is to +provide a cheaper form of transport for those heavier +or bulkier minerals or commodities which, it is +said, can be carried better and more economically +by water than by rail.</p> + +<p>Now this argument implies the admission that +canal resuscitation, on a national basis, or at the +risk more or less of the community, is to be effected, +not for the general trader, but for certain special +classes of traders. As a matter of fact, however, +such canal traffic as exists to-day is by no means +limited to heavy or bulky articles. In their earlier +days canal companies simply provided a water-road, +as it were, along which goods could be taken +by other persons on payment of certain tolls. To +enable them to meet better the competition of the +railways, Parliament granted to the canal companies, +in 1846, the right to become common carriers +as well, and, though only a very small proportion +of them took advantage of this concession, those +that did are indebted in part to the transport of +general merchandise for such degree of prosperity +as they have retained. The separate firms of canal +carriers ("by-traders") have adopted a like policy, +and, notwithstanding the changes in trade of which +I have spoken, a good deal of general merchandise +does go by canal to or from places that happen to +be situated in the immediate vicinity of the waterways. +It is extremely probable that if some of the +canals which have survived had depended entirely +on the transport of heavy or bulky commodities, +their financial condition to-day would have been +even worse than it really is.</p> + +<p>But let us look somewhat more closely into this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>theory that canals are better adapted than railways +for the transport of minerals or heavy merchandise, +calling for the payment of a low freight. At the +first glance such a commodity as coal would claim +special attention from this point of view; yet here +one soon learns that not only have the railways +secured the great bulk of this traffic in fair and +open competition with the canals, but there is no +probability of the latter taking it away from them +again to any appreciable extent.</p> + +<p>Some interesting facts in this connection were +mentioned by the late Sir James Allport in the +evidence he gave before the Select Committee on +Canals in 1883. Not a yard, he said, of the series +of waterways between London and Derbyshire, +Nottinghamshire, part of Staffordshire, Warwickshire +and Leicestershire—counties which included +some of the best coal districts in England for +supplying the metropolis—was owned by railway +companies, yet the amount of coal carried by +canal to London had steadily declined, while that +by rail had enormously increased. To prove this +assertion, he took the year 1852 as one when there +was practically no competition on the part of the +railways with the canals for the transport of coal, +and he compared therewith the year 1882, giving +for each the total amount of coal received by canal +and railway respectively, as follows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="coal received"> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">1852</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">1882</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Received by</td> + <td class="tdl">canal</td> + <td class="tdr">33,000</td> + <td class="tdc">tons</td> + <td class="tdr">7,900</td> + <td class="tdc">tons</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr">" " </td> + <td class="tdl">railway</td> + <td class="tdr"> 317,000</td> + <td class="tdc">"</td> + <td class="tdr"> 6,546,000</td> + <td class="tdc">"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The figures quoted by Sir James Allport were +taken from the official returns in respect to the +dues formerly levied by the City of London and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>late Metropolitan Board of Works on all coal +coming within the Metropolitan Police Area, representing +a total of 700 square miles; though at an +earlier period the district in which the dues were +enforced was that included in a 20-mile radius. The +dues were abolished in 1889, and since then the +statistics in question have no longer been compiled. +But the returns for 1889 show that the imports of +coal, by railway and by canal respectively, into the +Metropolitan Police Area for that year were as +follows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="London coal imports"> +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="big">BY RAILWAY</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc">Tons.</td> + <td class="tdc"><abbr title="hundredweight">Cwts</abbr>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Midland</td> + <td class="tdr">2,647,554</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">London and North-Western</td> + <td class="tdr">1,735,067</td> + <td class="tdr">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Great Northern</td> + <td class="tdr">1,360,205</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Great Eastern</td> + <td class="tdr">1,077,504</td> + <td class="tdr">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Great Western</td> + <td class="tdr">940,829</td> + <td class="tdr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">London and South-Western</td> + <td class="tdr">81,311</td> + <td class="tdr">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">South-Eastern</td> + <td class="tdr">27,776</td> + <td class="tdr">18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="2">————————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc">Total by Railway</td> + <td class="tdr">7,870,248</td> + <td class="tdr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="2">————————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="big">BY CANAL</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Junction</td> + <td class="tdr">12,601</td> + <td class="tdr">15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="2">————————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc">Difference</td> + <td class="tdr">7,857,646</td> + <td class="tdr">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr" colspan="2">————————</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>If, therefore, the independent canal companies, +having a waterway from the colliery district of the +Midlands and the North through to London (without, +as already stated, any section thereof being controlled +by railway companies), had improved their canals, +and doubled, trebled, or even quadrupled the quantity +of coal they carried in 1889, their total would still +have been insignificant as compared with the quantity +conveyed by rail.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_082fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_082fp.jpg" width="600" height="418" alt="FROM PIT TO PORT." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">"FROM PIT TO PORT."</p> + + <p>(Prospect Pit, Wigan Coal and Iron Company. Raised to the surface, the coal is emptied on to a +mechanical shaker, which grades it into various sizes—lumps, cobbles, nuts, and slack. These sizes +then each pass along a picking belt—so that impurities can be removed—and fall into the railway +trucks placed at the end ready to receive them. The coal can thus be taken direct from the mouth of +the pit to any port or town in Great Britain.)</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 82.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> +<p>The reasons for this transition in the London coal +trade (and the same general principle applies elsewhere) +can be readily stated. They are to be found +in the facilities conferred by the railway companies, +and the great changes that, as the direct result +thereof, have taken place in the coal trade itself. +Not only are most of the collieries in communication +with the railways, but the coal waggons are generally +so arranged alongside the mouth of each pit that +the coal, as raised, can be tipped into them direct +from the screens. Coal trains, thus made up, are +next brought to certain sidings in the neighbourhood +of London, where the waggons await the orders +of the coal merchants to whom they have been consigned. +At Willesden, for example, there is special +accommodation for 2,000 coal waggons, and the +sidings are generally full. Liberal provision of a +like character has also been made in London by +the Midland, the Great Northern, and other railway +companies in touch with the colliery districts. An +intimation as to the arrival of the consignments is +sent by the railway company to the coal merchant, +who, in London, is allowed three "free" days at +these coal sidings in which to give instructions +where the coal is to be sent. After three days he +is charged the very modest sum of 6d. per day +per truck. Assuming that the coal merchant gives +directions, either within the three days or later, for +a dozen trucks, containing particular qualities of coal, +to be sent to different parts of London, north, south, +east and west, those dozen trucks will have to be +picked out from the one or two thousand on the +sidings, shunted, and coupled on to trains going +through to the stated destination. This represents +in itself a considerable amount of work, and special +staffs have to be kept on duty for the purpose.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> +<p>Then, at no fewer than one hundred and thirty-five +railway stations in London and the suburbs thereof, +the railway companies have provided coal depôts on +such vacant land as may be available close to the local +sidings, and here a certain amount of space is allotted +to the use of coal merchants. For this accommodation +no charge whatever is made in London, though +a small rent has to be paid in the provinces. The +London coal merchant gets so many feet, or yards, +allotted to him on the railway property; he puts +up a board with his name, or that of his firm; he +stores on the said space the coal for which he has +no immediate sale; and he sends his men there to +fetch from day to day just such quantities as he +wants in order to execute the orders received. With +free accommodation such as this at half a dozen, or +even a score, of suburban railway stations, all that +the coal merchant of to-day requires in addition is +a diminutive little office immediately adjoining each +railway station, where orders can be received, and +whence instructions can be sent. Not only, also, do +the railway companies provide him with a local coal +depôt which serves his every purpose, but, after +allowing him three "free" days on the great coal +sidings, to which the waggons first come, they +give him, on the local sidings, another seven +"free" days in which to arrange his business. He +thus gets ten clear days altogether, before any charge +is made for demurrage, and, if then he is still awaiting +orders, he has only to have the coal removed from +the trucks on to the depôt, or "wharf" as it is +technically called, so escaping any payment beyond +the ordinary railway rate, in which all these privileges +and advantages are included.</p> + +<p>If canal transport were substituted for rail transport, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>the coal would first have to be taken from the mouth +of the pit to the canal, and, inasmuch as comparatively +few collieries (except in certain districts) have canals +immediately adjoining, the coal would have to go +by rail to the canal, unless the expense were incurred +of cutting a branch of the canal to the colliery—a +much more costly business, especially where locks are +necessary, than laying a railway siding. At the +canal the coal would be tipped from the railway truck +into the canal boat,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> which would take it to the canal +terminus, or to some wharf or basin on the canal +banks. There the coal would be thrown up from the +boat into the wharf (in itself a more laborious and more +expensive operation than that of shovelling it down, +or into sacks on the same level, from a railway +waggon), and from the wharf it would have to be +carted, perhaps several miles, to final destination.</p> + +<p>Under this arrangement the coal would receive +much more handling—and each handling means so +much additional slack and depreciation in value; a +week would have to be allowed for a journey now +possible in a day; the coal dealers would have to +provide their own depôts and pay more for cartage, and +they would have to order particular kinds of coal by +the boat load instead of by the waggon load.</p> + +<p>This last necessity would alone suffice to render the +scheme abortive. Some years ago when there was +so much discussion as to the use of a larger size of +railway waggon, efforts were made to induce the coal +interests to adopt this policy. But the 8-ton truck was +so convenient a unit, and suited so well the essentially +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>retail nature of the coal trade to-day, that as a rule the +coal merchants would have nothing to do with trucks +even of 15 or 20 tons. Much less, therefore, would +they be inclined to favour barge loads of 200 or 250 +tons.</p> + +<p>Exceptions might be made in the case of gas works, +or of factories already situated alongside the banks of +canals which have direct communication with collieries. +In the Black Country considerable quantities of coal +thus go by canal from the collieries to the many local +ironworks, etc., which, as I have shown, are still +actively served by the Birmingham Canal system. +But these exceptions can hardly be offered as an +adequate reason for the nationalisation of British +canals. The general conditions, and especially the +nature of the coal trade transition, will be better +realised from some figures mentioned by the chairman +of the London and North-Western Railway Company, +Lord Stalbridge, at the half-yearly meeting in February +1903. Notwithstanding the heavy coal traffic—in +the aggregate—the average consignment of coal, he +showed, on the London and North-Western Railway +is only 17½ tons, and over 80 per cent. of the total +quantity carried represents consignments of less than +20 tons, the actual weights ranging from lots of 2 tons +14 <abbr title="hundredweight">cwts</abbr>. to close upon 1,000 tons for shipment.</p> + +<p>"But," the reader may say, "if coal is taken in +1,000-ton lots to a port for shipment, surely canal +transport could be resorted to here!" This course is +adopted on the Aire and Calder Navigation, which is +very favourably situated, and goes over almost +perfectly level ground. The average conditions of +coal shipment in the United Kingdom are, however, +much better met by the special facilities which rail +transport offers.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> +<p>Of the way in which coal is loaded into railway +trucks direct from the colliery screens I have already +spoken; but, in respect to steam coal, it should be +added that anthracite is sold in about twelve different +sizes, and that one colliery will make three or four +of these sizes, each dropped into separate trucks +under the aforesaid screens. The output of an +anthracite colliery would be from 200 to 300 tons a +day, in the three or four sizes, as stated, this total +being equal to from 20 to 30 truck-loads. An order +received by a coal factor for 2,000 or 3,000 tons of a +particular size would, therefore, have to be made up +with coal from a number of different collieries.</p> + +<p>The coal, however, is not actually sold at the +collieries. It is sent down to the port, and there it +stands about for weeks, and sometimes for months, +awaiting sale or the arrival of vessels. It must +necessarily be on the spot, so that orders can be +executed with the utmost expedition, and delays to +shipping avoided. Consequently it is necessary that +ample accommodation should be provided at the +port for what may be described as the coal-in-waiting. +At Newport, for example, where about 4,000,000 tons +of coal are shipped in the course of the year (independently +of "bunkers,") there are 50 miles of coal +sidings, capable of accommodating from 40,000 to +50,000 tons of coal sent there for shipment. A record +number of loaded coal trucks actually on these sidings +at any one time is 3,716. The daily average is 2,800.</p> + +<p>Now assume that the coal for shipment from +Newport had been brought there by canal boat. +To begin with, it would have been first loaded, by +means of the colliery screens, into railway trucks, +taken in these to the canal, and then tipped into +the boats. This would mean further breakage, and, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>in the case of steam coal especially, a depreciation +in value. But suppose that the coal had duly +arrived at the port in the canal boats, where +would it be stored for those weeks and months to +await sale or vessels? Space for miles of sidings +on land can easily be found; but the water area in +a canal or dock in which barges can wait is limited, +and, in the case of Newport at least, it would hardly +be equal to the equivalent of 3,000 truck-loads of +coal.</p> + +<p>There comes next the important matter of detail +as to the way in which coal brought to a port is to +be shipped. Nothing could be simpler and more +expeditious than the practice generally adopted in +the case of rail-borne coal. When a given quantity +of coal is to be despatched, the vessel is brought +alongside a hydraulic coal-tip, such as that shown +in the illustration facing this page, and the loaded +coal trucks are placed in succession underneath the +tip. Raised one by one to the level of the shoot, +the trucks are there inclined to such an angle that +the entire contents fall on to the shoot, and thence +into the hold of the ship. Brought to the horizontal +again, the empty truck passes on to a viaduct, down +which it goes, by gravitation, back to the sidings, +the place it has vacated on the tip being at once +taken by another loaded truck.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 507px;"><a id="i_088fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_088fp.jpg" width="507" height="600" alt="THE SHIPPING OF COAL: HYDRAULIC TIP ON G.W.R., SWANSEA." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">THE SHIPPING OF COAL: HYDRAULIC TIP ON G.W.R., SWANSEA.</p> + + <p>(The loaded truck is hoisted to level of shoot, and is there inclined to necessary angle +to "tip" the coal, which falls from shoot into hold of vessel. Empty truck +passes by gravitation along viaduct, on left, to sidings.)</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 88.</i></p> +</div></div> + + +<p>Substitute coal barges for coal trucks, and how +will the loading then be accomplished? Under any +possible circumstances it would take longer to put +a series of canal barges alongside a vessel in the +dock than to place a series of coal trucks under the +tip on shore. Nor could the canal barge itself be +raised to the level of a shoot, and have its contents +tipped bodily into the collier. What was done in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>the South Wales district by one colliery some years +ago was to load up a barge with iron tubs, or +boxes, filled with coal, and placed in pairs from +end to end. In dock one of these would be lifted +out of the barge by a crane, and lowered into the +hold, where the bottom would be knocked out, the +emptied tub being then replaced in the barge by +the crane, and the next one to it raised in turn. +But, apart from the other considerations already +presented, this system of shipment was found more +costly than the direct tipping of railway trucks, and +was consequently abandoned.</p> + +<p>Although, therefore, in theory coal would appear +to be an ideal commodity for transport by canal, in +actual practice it is found that rail transport is both +more convenient and more economical, and certainly +much better adapted to the exigences of present day +trade in general, in the case alike of domestic coal +and of coal for shipment. Whether or not the country +would be warranted in going to a heavy expense +for canal resuscitation for the special benefit of a +limited number of traders having works or factories +alongside canal banks is a wholly different question.</p> + +<p>I take next the case of raw cotton as another bulky +commodity carried in substantial quantities. At one +time it was the custom in the Lancashire spinning +trade for considerable supplies to be bought in +Liverpool, taken to destination by canal, and stored +in the mills for use as required. A certain proportion +is still handled in this way; but the Lancashire +spinners who now store their cotton are extremely +few in number, and represent the exception rather +than the rule. It is found much more convenient to +receive from Liverpool from day to day by rail the +exact number of bales required to meet immediate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>wants. The order can be sent, if necessary, by +post, telegraph, or telephone, and the cotton may be +expected at the mill next day, or as desired. If +barge-loads of cotton were received at one time, +capital would at least have to be sunk in providing +warehousing accommodation, and the spinner thinks +he can make better use of his money.</p> + +<p>The day-by-day arrangement is thus both a +convenience and a saving to the trader; though it +has one disadvantage from a railway standpoint, for +cotton consignments by rail are, as a rule, so small +that there is difficulty in making up a "paying +load" for particular destinations. As the further +result of the agitation a few years ago for the use +of a larger type of railway waggons, experiments +have been made at Liverpool with large trucks for +the conveyance especially of raw cotton. But, owing +to the day-by-day policy of the spinners, it is no +easy matter to make up a 20-ton truck of cotton +for many of the places to which consignments are +sent, and the shortage in the load represents so +much dead weight. Consignments ordered forward +by rail must, however, be despatched wholly, or at +any rate in part, on day of receipt. Any keeping +of them back, with the idea of thus making up a +better load for the railway truck, would involve the +risk of a complaint, if not of a claim, against the +railway company, on the ground that the mill had +had to stop work owing to delay in the arrival of +the cotton.</p> + +<p>If the spinners would only adopt a two- or three-days-together +policy, it would be a great advantage +to the railways; but even this might involve the +provision of storage accommodation at the mills, and +they accordingly prefer the existing arrangement. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>What hope could there be, therefore, except under +very special circumstances, that they would be willing +to change their procedure, and receive their raw +cotton in bulk by canal boat?</p> + +<p>Passing on to other heavy commodities carried in +large quantities, such as bricks, stone, drain-pipes, +manure, or road-making materials, it is found, in +practice, that unless both the place whence these +things are despatched and the place where they are +actually wanted are close to a waterway, it is +generally more convenient and more economical to +send by rail. The railway truck is not only (once +more) a better unit in regard to quantity, but, as in +the case of domestic coal, it can go to any railway +station, and can often be brought miles nearer to the +actual destination than if the articles or materials in +question are forwarded by water; while the addition +to the canal toll of the cost of cartage at either end, +or both, may swell the total to the full amount of the +railway rate, or leave so small a margin that conveyance +by rail, in view of the other advantages +offered, is naturally preferred. Here we have further +reasons why commodities that seem to be specially +adapted for transport by canal so often go by rail +instead.</p> + +<p>There are manufacturers, again, who, if executing +a large shipping order, would rather consign the +goods, as they are ready, to a railway warehouse at +the port, there to await shipment, than occupy +valuable space with them on their own premises. +Assuming that it might be possible and of advantage +to forward to destination by canal boat, they would +still prefer to send off 25 or 30 tons at a time, in +a narrow boat (and 25 to 30 tons would represent +a big lot in most industries), rather than keep +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>everything back (with the incidental result of blocking +up the factory) until, in order to save a little +on the freight, they could fill up a barge of 200 or +300 tons.</p> + +<p>So the moral of this part of my story is that, even +if the canals of the country were thoroughly revived, +and made available for large craft, there could not be +any really great resort to them unless there were, +also, brought about a change in the whole basis of +our general trading conditions.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="VII. CONTINENTAL CONDITIONS">CHAPTER VII<br /> + +<small>CONTINENTAL CONDITIONS</small></h2> + + +<p>The larger proportion of the arguments advanced in +the Press or in public in favour of a restoration of +our own canal system is derived from the statements +which are unceasingly being made as to what our +neighbours on the Continent of Europe are doing.</p> + +<p>Almost every writer or speaker on the subject +brings forward the same stock of facts and figures as +to the large sums of money that are being expended +on waterways in Continental countries; the contention +advanced being, in effect, that because such +and such things are done on the Continent of +Europe, therefore they ought to be done here. In +the "Engineering Supplement" of <cite>The Times</cite>, for +instance—to give only one example out of many—there +appeared early in 1906 two articles on "Belgian +Canals and Waterways" by an engineering contributor +who wrote, among other things, that, in +view of "the well-directed efforts now being made +with the object of effecting the regeneration of the +British canal system, the study of Belgian canals +and other navigable waterways possesses distinct +interest"; and declared, in concluding his account +thereof, that "if the necessary powers, money, and +concentrated effort were available, there is little doubt +that equally satisfactory results could be obtained in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>Great Britain." Is this really the case? Could we +possibly hope to do all that can be done either in +Belgium or in Continental countries generally, even +if we had the said powers and money, and showed +the same concentrated effort? For my part I do not +think we could, and these are my reasons for thinking +so:—</p> + +<p>Taking geographical considerations first, a glance +at the map of Europe will show that, apart from +their national requirements, enterprises, and facilities, +Germany, Belgium, and Holland are the gateways +to vast expanses producing, or receiving, very large +quantities of merchandise and raw materials, much +of which is eminently suitable for water transport +on long journeys that have absolutely no parallel +in this country. In the case of Belgium, a good +idea of the general position may be gained from +some remarks made by the British Consul-General +at Antwerp, Sir E. Cecil Hertslet, in a report +("Miscellaneous Series," 604) on "Canals and other +Navigable Waterways of Belgium," issued by the +Foreign Office in 1904. Referring to the position +of Antwerp he wrote:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"In order to form a clear idea of the great utility +of the canal system of Belgium, it is from its heart, +from the great port of Antwerp, as a centre, that +the survey must be taken.... Antwerp holds a +leading position among the great ports of the world, +and this is due, not only to her splendid geographical +situation at the centre of the ocean highways of +commerce, but, also, and perhaps more particularly, +to her practically unique position as a distributing +centre for a large portion of North-Eastern Europe."</p></div> + +<p>Thus the canals and waterways of Belgium do +not serve merely local, domestic, or national purposes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>but represent the first or final links in a network of +water communications by means of which merchandise +can be taken to, or brought from, in bulk, "a +large portion of North-Eastern Europe." Much of +this traffic, again, can just as well pass through +one Continental country, on its way to or from the +coast, as through another. In fact, some of the +most productive of German industrial centres are +much nearer to Antwerp or Rotterdam than they +are to Hamburg or Bremen. Hence the extremely +keen rivalry between Continental countries having +ports on the North Sea for the capture of these +great volumes of trans-Continental traffic, and hence, +also, their low transport rates, and, to a certain extent, +their large expenditure on waterways.</p> + +<p>Comparing these with British conditions, we must +bear in mind the fact that we dwell in a group +of islands, and not in a country which forms part +of a Continent. We have, therefore, no such transit +traffic available for "through" barges as that which +is handled on the Continent. Traffic originating in +Liverpool, and destined say, for Austria, would not +be put in a canal boat which would first go to Goole, +or Hull, then cross the North Sea in the same boat +to Holland or Belgium, and so on to its destination. +Nor would traffic in bulk from the United States +for the Continent—or even for any of our East Coast +ports—be taken by boat across England. It would +go round by sea. Traffic, again, originating in +Birmingham, might be taken to a port by boat. +But it would there require transhipment into an +ocean-going vessel, just as the commodities received +from abroad would have to be transferred to a canal +boat—unless Birmingham could be converted into a +sea-port.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> +<p>If Belgium and Holland, especially, had had no +chance of getting more than local, as distinct from +through or transit traffic—if, in other words, they +had been islands like our own, with the same geographical +limitations as ourselves, and with no trans-Continental +traffic to handle, is there the slightest +probability that they would have spent anything +like the same amount of money on the development +of their waterways as they have actually done? In +the particular circumstances of their position they +have acted wisely; but it does not necessarily follow +that we, in wholly different circumstances, have acted +foolishly in not following their example.</p> + +<p>It might further be noted, in this connection, that +while in the case of Belgium all the waterways in, +or leading into, the country converge to the one +great port of Antwerp, in England we have great +ports, competing more or less the one with the other, +all round our coasts, and the conferring of special +advantages on one by the State would probably +be followed by like demands on the part of all the +others. As for communication between our different +ports, this is maintained so effectively by coasting +vessels (the competition of which already powerfully +influences railway rates) that heavy expenditure on +canal improvement could hardly be justified on this +account. However effectively the Thames might be +joined to the Mersey, or the Humber to the Severn, +by canal, the vast bulk of port-to-port traffic would +probably still go by sea.</p> + +<p>Then there are great differences between the physical +conditions of Great Britain and those parts of the +Continent of Europe where the improvement of +waterways has undergone the greatest expansion. +Portions of Holland—as everybody knows—are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>below the level of the sea, and the remainder are +not much above it. A large part of Belgium is +flat; so is most of Northern Germany. In fact +there is practically a level plain right away from +the shores of the North Sea to the steppes of Russia. +Canal construction in these conditions is a comparatively +simple and a comparatively inexpensive +matter; though where such conditions do not exist +to the same extent—as in the south of Germany, +for example—the building of canals becomes a very +different problem. This fact is well recognised by +Herr Franz Ulrich in his book on "Staffeltarife und +Wasserstrassen," where he argues that the building +of canals is practicable only in districts favoured by +Nature, and that hilly and backward country is thus +unavoidably handicapped.</p> + +<p>Much, again, of the work done on the Continent +has been a matter either of linking up great rivers +or of canalising these for navigation purposes. We +have in England no such rivers as the Rhine, the +Weser, the Elbe, and the Oder, but the very essence +of the German scheme of waterways is to connect +these and other rivers by canals, a through route by +water being thus provided from the North Sea to +the borders of Russia. Further south there is already +a small canal, the Ludwigs Canal, connecting the +Rhine and the Danube, and this canal—as distinct +from those in the northern plains—certainly does rise +to an elevation of 600 feet from the River Main to +its summit level. A scheme has now been projected +for establishing a better connection between the +Rhine and the Danube by a ship canal following +the route either of the Main or of the Neckar. In +describing these two powerful streams Professor +Meiklejohn says, in his "New Geography":—</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The two greatest rivers of Europe—greatest from +almost every point of view—are the Danube and the +Rhine. The Danube is the largest river in Europe +in respect of its volume of water; it is the only large +European river that flows due east; and it is therefore +the great highway to the East for South Germany, +for Austria, for Hungary, and for the younger nations +in its valley. It flows through more lands, races, and +languages than any other European river. The Rhine +is the great water-highway for Western Europe; and +it carries the traffic and the travellers of many countries +and peoples. Both streams give life to the whole +Continent; they join many countries and the most +varied interests; while the streams of France exist +only for France itself. The Danube runs parallel +with the mighty ranges of the Alps; the Rhine +saws its way through the secondary highlands which +lie between the Alps and the Netherlands."</p></div> + +<p>The construction of this proposed link would give +direct water communication between the North Sea +and the Black Sea, a distance, as the crow flies, and +not counting river windings, of about 1,300 miles. +Such an achievement as this would put entirely in +the shade even the present possible voyage, by canal +and river, of 300 miles from Antwerp to Strasburg.</p> + +<p>What are our conditions in Great Britain, as against +all these?</p> + +<p>In place of the "great lowland plain" in which +most of the Continental canal work we hear so much +about has been done, we possess an undulating +country whose physical conditions are well indicated +by the canal sections given opposite this page. Such +differences of level as those that are there shown +must be overcome by locks, lifts, or inclined planes, +together with occasional tunnels or viaducts. In the +result the construction of canals is necessarily much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>more costly in Great Britain than on the aforesaid +"great lowland plain" of Continental Europe, and +dimensions readily obtainable there become practically +impossible here on account alike of the prohibitive +cost of construction and the difficulties that +would arise in respect to water supply. A canal +connecting the Rhine, the Weser, and the Elbe, in +Germany, is hardly likely to run short of water, +and the same may be said of the canals in Holland, +and of those in the lowlands of Belgium. This is +a very different matter from having to pump water +from low levels to high levels, to fill reservoirs for +canal purposes, as must be done on the Birmingham +and other canals, or from taking a fortnight to accomplish +the journey from Hull to Nottingham as once +happened owing to insufficiency of water.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;"><a id="i_098fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_098fp.jpg" width="410" height="600" alt="SOME TYPICAL BRITISH CANALS." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">SOME TYPICAL BRITISH CANALS.</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 98.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p>There is, also, that very important consideration, +from a transport standpoint, of the "length of haul." +Assuming, for the sake of argument (1) that the +commercial conditions were the same in Great +Britain as they are on the Continent; (2) that +our country, also, consisted of a "great lowland +plain"; and (3) that we, as well, had great natural +waterways, like the Rhine, yielding an abundant +water supply;—assuming all this, it would still be +impossible, in the circumscribed dimensions of our +isles, to get a "length of haul" in any way approaching +the barge-journeys that are regularly made +between, say, North Sea ports and various centres +in Germany.</p> + +<p>The geographical differences in general between +Great Britain and Continental countries were thus +summed up by Mr W. H. Wheeler in the discussion +on Mr Saner's paper at the Institution of Civil +Engineers:—</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"There really did not seem to be any justification +for Government interference with the canals. +England was in an entirely different situation from +Continental countries. She was a sea-girt nation, +with no less than eight first-class ports on a coast-line +of 1,820 miles. Communication between these +by coasting steamers was, therefore, easy, and could +be accomplished in much less time and at less cost +than by canal. There was no large manufacturing +town in England that was more than about 80 miles +in a direct line from a first-class seaport; and taking +the country south of the Firth of Forth, there were +only 42½ square miles to each mile of coast. France, +on the other hand, had only two first-class ports, one +in the north and the other in the extreme south, over +a coast-line of 1,360 miles. Its capital was 100 miles +from the nearest seaport, and the towns in the centre +of the country were 250 to 300 miles from either +Havre or Marseilles. For every mile of coast-line +there were 162 square miles of country. Belgium +had one large seaport and only 50 miles of coast-line, +with 227 square miles of country to every square +mile. Germany had only two first-class ports, both +situated on its northern coast; Frankfort and Berlin +were distant from those ports about 250 miles, and +for every mile of coast-line there were 231 square +miles of country. The necessity of an extended +system of inland waterways for the distribution of +produce and materials was, therefore, far more important +in those countries than it was in England."</p></div> + +<p>Passing from commercial and geographical to +political conditions, we find that in Germany the +State owns or controls alike railways and waterways. +Prussia bought up most of the former, partly with +the idea of safeguarding the protective policy of the +country (endangered by the low rates charged on +imports by independent railway companies), and +partly in order that the Government could secure, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>in the profits on railway operation, a source of +income independent of Parliamentary votes. So +well has the latter aim been achieved that a contribution +to the Exchequer of from £10,000,000 to +£15,000,000 a year has been obtained, and, rather +than allow this source of income to be checked by +heavy expenditure, the Prussian Government have +refrained from carrying out such widenings and +improvements of their State system of railways as +a British or an American railway company would +certainly have adopted in like circumstances, and +have left the traders to find relief in the waterways +instead. The increased traffic the waterways of +Germany are actually getting is mainly traffic which +has either been diverted from the railways, or would +have been handled by the railways in other countries +in the natural course of their expansion. Whatever +may be the case with the waterways, the railways +of Prussia, especially, are comparatively unprogressive, +and, instead of developing through traffic at +competitive rates, they are reverting more and more +to the original position of railways as feeders to the +waterways. They get a short haul from place of +origin to the waterway, and another short haul, +perhaps, from waterway again to final destination; +but the greater part of the journey is done by water.</p> + +<p>These conditions represent one very material +factor in the substantial expansion of water-borne +traffic in Germany—and most of that traffic, be it +remembered, has been on great rivers rather than +on artificial canals. The latter are certainly being +increased in number, especially, as I have said, +where they connect the rivers; and the Government +are the more inclined that the waterways should be +developed because then there will be less need for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>spending money on the railways, and for any +interference with the "revenue-producing machine" +which those railways represent.</p> + +<p>In France the railways owned and operated by the +State are only a comparatively small section of the +whole; but successive Governments have advanced +immense sums for railway construction, and the +State guarantees the dividends of the companies; +while in France as in Germany railway rates are +controlled absolutely by the State. In neither +country is there free competition between rail and +water transport. If there were, the railways would +probably secure a much greater proportion of the +traffic than they do. Still another consideration to +be borne in mind is that although each country +has spent great sums of money—at the cost of the +general taxpayer—on the provision of canals or the +improvement of waterways, no tolls are, with few +exceptions, imposed on the traders. The canal +charges include nothing but actual cost of carriage, +whereas British railway rates may cover various +other services, in addition, and have to be fixed on +a scale that will allow of a great variety of charges +and obligations being met. Not only, both in +Germany and France, may the waterway be constructed +and improved by the State, but the State +also meets the annual expenditure on dredging, +lighting, superintendence and the maintenance of +inland harbours. Here we have further reasons +for the growth of the water-borne traffic on the +Continent.</p> + +<p>Where the State, as railway owner or railway +subsidiser, spends money also on canals, it competes +only, to a certain extent, with itself; but this would +be a very different position from State-owned or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>State-supported canals in this country competing +with privately-owned railways.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<p>If then, as I maintain is the case, there is +absolutely no basis for fair comparison between +Continental and British conditions—whether commercial, +geographical, or political—we are left to +conclude that the question of reviving British canals +must be judged and decided strictly from a British +standpoint, and subject to the limitations of British +policy, circumstances, and possibilities.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + +<h2 title="VIII. WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES">CHAPTER VIII<br /> + +<small>WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES</small></h2> + + +<p>In some respects conditions in the United States +compare with those of Continental Europe, for they +suggest alike powerful streams, artificial canals +constructed on (as a rule) flat or comparatively flat +surfaces, and the possibilities of traffic in large +quantities for transport over long distances before +they can reach a seaport. In other respects the +comparison is less with Continental than with +British conditions, inasmuch as, for the last half +century at least, the American railways have been +free to compete with the waterways, and fair play +has been given to the exercise of economic forces, +with the result that, in the United States as in the +United Kingdom, the railways have fully established +their position as the factors in inland transport +best suited to the varied requirements of trade +and commerce of to-day, while the rivers and +canals (I do not here deal with the Great Lakes, +which represent an entirely different proposition) +have played a rôle of steadily diminishing +importance.</p> + +<p>The earliest canal built in the United States was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>that known as the Erie Canal. It was first projected +in 1768, with the idea of establishing a +through route by water between Lake Erie and the +River Hudson at Albany, whence the boats or +barges employed would be able to reach the port +of New York. The Act for its construction was +not passed, however, by the Provincial Legislature +of the State of New York until 1817. The canal +itself was opened for traffic in 1825. It had a total +length from Cleveland to Albany of 364 miles, +included therein being some notable engineering +work in the way of aqueducts, etc.</p> + +<p>At the date in question there were four North +Atlantic seaports, namely, Boston, New York, +Philadelphia, and Baltimore, all of about equal +importance. Boston, however, had appeared likely +to take the lead, by reason both of her comparatively +dense population and of her substantial +development of manufactures. Philadelphia was +also then somewhat in advance of New York in +trade and population. The effect of the Erie +Canal, however, was to concentrate all the advantages, +for the time being, on New York. Thanks +to the canal, New York secured the domestic trade +of a widespread territory in the middle west, while +her rivals could not possess themselves of like +facilities, because of the impracticability of constructing +canals to cross the ranges of mountains +separating them from the valley of the Mississippi +and the basin of the Great Lakes—ranges broken +only by the Hudson and the Mohawk valleys, of +which the constructors of the Erie Canal had +already taken advantage. So New York, with its +splendid harbour, made great progress alike in +trade, wealth, and population, completely outdistancing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>her rivals, and becoming, as a +State, "the Empire State," and, as a city, "the +financial and commercial centre of the Western +Hemisphere."</p> + +<p>While, again, the Erie Canal was "one of the +most efficient factors" in bringing about these +results, it was also developing the north-west by +giving an outlet to the commerce of the Great +Lakes, and during the second quarter of the +nineteenth century it represented what has been +well described as "the most potent influence of +American progress and civilisation." Not only did +the traffic it carried increase from 1,250,000 tons, +in 1837, to 3,000,000 tons in 1847, but it +further inspired the building of canals in other +sections of the United States. In course of time +the artificial waterways of that country represented +a total length of 5,000 miles.</p> + +<p>With the advent of the railways there came +revolutionary changes which were by no means +generally appreciated at first. The cost of the +various canals had been defrayed mostly by the +different States, and, though financial considerations +had thus been more readily met, the policy +pursued had committed the States concerned to the +support of the canals against possible competition. +When, therefore, "private enterprise" introduced +railways, in which the doom of the canals was foreseen, +there was a wild outburst of indignant protest. +The money of the taxpayers, it was said, had been +sunk in building the canals, and, if the welfare of +these should be prejudiced by the railways, every +taxpayer in the State would suffer. When it was +seen that the railways had come to stay, the demand +arose that, while passengers might travel by rail, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>the canals should have the exclusive right to +convey merchandise.</p> + +<p>The question was even discussed by the Legislature +of the State of New York, in 1857, whether the railways +should not be prevented from carrying goods +at all, or, alternatively, whether heavy taxes should +not be imposed on goods traffic carried by rail in +order to check the considerable tendency then being +shown for merchandise to go by rail instead of by +canal, irrespective of any difference in rates. The +railway companies were further accused of conspiring +to "break down those great public works upon which +the State has spent forty years of labour," and so +active was the campaign against them—while it +lasted—that one New York paper wrote:—"The +whole community is aroused as it never was +before."</p> + +<p>Some of the laws which had been actually passed +to protect the State-constructed canals against the +railways were, however, repealed in 1851, and the +agitation itself was not continued beyond 1857, from +which year the railways had free scope and opportunity +to show what they could do. The contest was +vigorous and prolonged, but the railways steadily +won.</p> + +<p>In the first instance the Erie Canal had a depth +of 4 feet, and could be navigated only by 30-ton boats. +In 1862 it was deepened to 7 feet, in order that boats +of 240 tons, with a capacity of 8,000 tons of wheat, +could pass, the cost of construction being thus +increased from $7,000,000 to $50,000,000. Then, in +1882, all tolls were abolished, and the canal has +since been maintained out of the State treasury. +But how the traffic on the New York canals as +a whole (including the Erie, the Oswego, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>Champlain, etc.) has declined, in competition with +the railroads, is well shown by the following +table:—<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="bordered" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1" summary="New York freight"> +<tr><td class="tdc">Year.</td> + <td class="tdc">Total Traffic on New York Canals and Railroads.<br />Tons.</td> + <td class="tdc">Percentage on Canals only.<br />Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bb0">1860</td> + <td class="tdc bb0"> 7,155,803</td> + <td class="tdc bb0">65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">1870</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">17,488,469</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">1880</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">29,943,633</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">1890</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">56,327,661</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">9.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">1900</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">84,942,988</td> + <td class="tdc bt0 bb0">4.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl bt0 bb0">1903</td> + <td class="tdc bt0">93,248,299</td> + <td class="tdc bt0">3.9</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The falling off in the canal traffic has been greatest +in just those heavy or bulky commodities that are +generally assumed to be specially adapted for conveyance +by water. Of the flour and grain, for instance, +received at New York, less than 10 per cent. in 1899, +and less than 8 per cent. in 1900, came by the Erie +Canal.</p> + +<p>The experiences of the New York canals have been +fully shared by other canals in other States. Of the +sum total of 5,000 miles of canals constructed, 2,000 +had been abandoned by 1890 on the ground that the +traffic was insufficient to cover working expenses. +Since then most of the remainder have shared the +same fate, one of the last of the survivors, the +Delaware and Hudson, being converted into a +railway a year or two ago. In fact the only canals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>in the United States to-day, besides those in the +State of New York, whose business is sufficiently +regular to warrant the inclusion of their traffic in the +monthly reports of the Government are the Chesapeake +and Delaware (connecting Chesapeake and +Delaware Bays, and having an annual traffic of +about 700,000 tons, largely lumber); and the +Chesapeake and Ohio (from Cumberland to Georgetown, +owned by the State of Maryland, and transporting +coal almost exclusively, the amount depending +on the state of congestion of traffic on the +railroads).</p> + +<p>It is New York that has been most affected by +this decline in American canals. When the railways +began to compete severely with the Erie +Canal, New York's previous supremacy over rival +ports in the Eastern States was seriously threatened. +Philadelphia and Baltimore, and various smaller ports +also, started to make tremendous advance. Then the +Gulf ports—notably New Orleans and Galveston—were +able to capture a good deal of ocean traffic +that might otherwise have passed through New +York. Not only do the railway lines to those ports +have the advantage of easy grades, so that exceptionally +heavy train-loads can be handled with ease, +and not only is there no fear of snow or ice blocks +in winter, but the improvements effected in the ports +themselves—as I had the opportunity of seeing and +judging, in the winter of 1902-3, during a visit to +the United States—have made these southern ports +still more formidable competitors of New York. +While, therefore, the trade of the United States has +undergone great expansion of late years, that proportion +of it which passes through the port of New +York has seriously declined. "In less than ten +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>years," says a pamphlet on "The Canal System of +New York State," issued by the Canal Improvement +State Committee, City of New York, +"Pennsylvania or some other State may be the +Empire State, which title New York has held +since the time of the Erie Canal."</p> + +<p>So a movement has been actively promoted in New +York State for the resuscitation of the Erie and other +canals there, with a view to assuring the continuance +of New York's commercial supremacy, and giving +her a better chance—if possible—of competing with +rivals now flourishing at her expense. At first a +ship canal between New York and Lake Erie was +proposed; but this idea has been rejected as impracticable. +Finally, the Legislature of the State of New +York decided on spending $101,000,000 on enlarging +the Erie and other canals in the State, so as to +give them a depth of 12 feet, and allow of the +passage of 1,000-ton barges, arrangements being +also made for propulsion by electric or steam +traction.</p> + +<p>In addition to this particular scheme, "there +are," says Mr F. H. Dixon, Professor of Economics, +Dartmouth College, in an address on "Competition +between Water and Railway Transportation Lines in +the United States," read by him before the St Louis +Railway Club, and reported in the <cite>Engineering News</cite> +(New York) of March 22, 1906, "many other proposals +for canals in different sections of the country, +extending all the way from projects that have some +economic justification to the crazy and impracticable +schemes of visionaries." But the general position in +regard to canal resuscitation in the United States +does not seem to be very hopeful, judging from a +statement made by Mr Carnegie—once an advocate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>of the proposed Pittsburg-Lake Erie Canal—before +the Pittsburg Chamber of Commerce in 1898.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"Such has been the progress of railway development," +he said, "that if we had a canal to-day from +Lake Erie through the Ohio Valley to Beaver, free +of toll, we could not afford to put boats on it. It is +cheaper to-day to transfer the ore to 50-ton cars, and +bring it to our works at Pittsburg over our railway, +than it would be to bring it by canal."</p></div> + +<p>Turning from artificial to natural waterways in the +United States, I find the story of the Mississippi no +less instructive.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_110fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_110fp.jpg" width="600" height="345" alt="A CARGO BOAT ON THE MISSISSIPPI" /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">A CARGO BOAT ON THE MISSISSIPPI.</p> + <p class="right">[<i>To face page</i> 110.</p> +</div></div> + +<p>This magnificent stream has, in itself, a length of +2,485 miles. But the Missouri is really only an +upper prolongation of the same river under another +name, and the total length of the two, from mouth +to source, is 4,190 miles, of which the greater distance +is navigable. The Mississippi and its various tributaries +drain, altogether, an area of 1,240,000 square +miles, or nearly one-third of the territory of the +United States. If any great river in the world had +a chance at all of holding its own against the railroads +as a highway of traffic it should, surely, be the +Mississippi, to which British theorists ought to be +able to point as a powerful argument in support of +their general proposition concerning the advantages +of water over rail-transport. But the actual facts all +point in the other direction.</p> + +<p>The earliest conditions of navigation on the +Mississippi are well shown in the following extract +from an article published in the <cite>Quarterly Review</cite> of +March 1830, under the heading, "Railroads and +Locomotive Steam-carriages":—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"As an example of the difficulties of internal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>navigation, it may be mentioned that on the great river +Mississippi, which flows at the rate of 5 or 6 miles +an hour, it was the practice of a certain class of boatmen, +who brought down the produce of the interior +to New Orleans, to break up their boats, sell the +timber, and afterwards return home slowly by land; +and a voyage up the river from New Orleans to +Pittsburg, a distance of about 2,000 miles, could +hardly be accomplished, with the most laborious +efforts, within a period of four months. But the +uncertain and limited influence, both of the wind +and the tide, is now superseded by a new agent, +which in power far surpassing the raging torrent, +is yet perfectly manageable, and acts with equal +efficacy in any direction.... Steamboats of every +description, and on the most approved models, ply +on all the great rivers of the United States; the +voyage from New Orleans to Pittsburg, which +formerly occupied four months, is accomplished with +ease in fifteen or twenty days, and at the rate of not +less than 5 miles an hour."</p></div> + +<p>Since this article in the <cite>Quarterly Review</cite> was +published, enormous sums of money have been +spent on the Mississippi—partly with a view to the +prevention of floods, but partly, also, to improve the +river for the purposes of navigation. Placed in +charge of a Mississippi Commission and of the Chief +of Engineers in the United States Army, the river +has been systematically surveyed; special studies +and reports have been drawn up on every possible +aspect of its normal or abnormal conditions and +circumstances; the largest river dredges in the world +have been employed to ensure an adequate depth of +the river bed; engineering works in general on the +most complete scale have been carried out—in fact, +nothing that science, skill, or money could accomplish +has been left undone.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> +<p>The difficulties were certainly considerable. There +has always been a tendency for the river bed to get +choked up by the sediment the stream failed to carry +on; the banks are weak; while the variation in water +level is sometimes as much as 10 feet in a single +month. None the less, the Mississippi played for a +time as important a rôle in the west and the south as +the Erie Canal played in the north. Steamboats on +the western rivers increased in number from 20, in +1818, to 1,200, in 1848, and there was a like development +in flat boat tonnage. With the expansion of +the river traffic came a growth of large cities and +towns alongside. Louisville increased in population +from 4,000, in 1820, to 43,000, in 1850, and St Louis +from 4,900 to 77,000 in the same period.</p> + +<p>With the arrival of the railroads began the decline +of the river, though some years were to elapse before +the decline was seriously felt. It was the absolute +perfection of the railway system that eventually made +its competition irresistible. The lines paralleled the +river; they had, as I have said, easy grades; they +responded to that consideration in regard to speedy +delivery of consignments which is as pronounced in +the United States as it is in Great Britain; they were +as free from stoppages due to variations in water level +as they were from stoppages on account of ice or +snow; and they could be provided with branch lines +as "feeders," going far inland, so that the trader did +not have either to build his factory on the river bank +or to pay cost of cartage between factory and river. +The railway companies, again, were able to provide +much more efficient terminal facilities, especially in +the erection of large wharves, piers, and depôts which +allow of the railway waggons coming right alongside +the steamers. At Galveston I saw cargo being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>discharged from the ocean-going steamers by being +placed on trucks which were raised from the vessel by +endless moving-platforms to the level of the goods +station, where stood, along parallel series of lines, +the railway waggons which would take them direct +to Chicago, San Francisco, or elsewhere. With +facilities such as these no inland waterway can +possibly compete. The railways, again, were able, +in competition with the river, to reduce their charges +to "what the traffic would bear," depending on a +higher proportion of profit elsewhere. The steamboats +could adopt no such policy as this, and the traders +found that, by the time they had paid, not only the +charges for actual river transport, but insurance and +extra cartage, as well, they had paid as much as +transport by rail would have cost, while getting a +much slower and more inconvenient service.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_114fpa"></a> +<img src="images/i_114fpa.jpg" width="600" height="304" alt="SUCCESSFUL RIVALS OF MISSISSIPPI CARGO BOATS 1." /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_114fpb"></a> +<img src="images/i_114fpb.jpg" width="600" height="320" alt="SUCCESSFUL RIVALS OF MISSISSIPPI CARGO BOATS 2." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">SUCCESSFUL RIVALS OF MISSISSIPPI CARGO BOATS.</p> + + <p>(1) Illinois Central Freight Train; 43 cars; 2,100 tons.</p> + + <p>(2) " " Banana Express, New Orleans to Chicago; 34 cars; 433 tons of bananas.</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 114.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p>The final outcome of all these conditions is indicated +by some remarks made by Mr Stuyvesant Fish, +President of the Illinois Central Railroad Company +(the chief railway competitors of the Mississippi +steamboats), in the address he delivered as President +of the Seventh Session of the International Railway +Congress at Washington, in May 1905:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"It is within my knowledge that twenty years ago +there were annually carried by steamboats from +Memphis to New Orleans over 100,000 bales of cotton, +and that in almost every year since the railroads +between Memphis and New Orleans passed under +one management, not a single bale has been carried +down the Mississippi River from Memphis by boat, +and in no one year have 500 bales been thus carried; +the reason being that, including the charges for +marine and fire insurance, the rates by water are +higher than by rail."</p></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p> +<p>To this statement Mr Fish added some figures +which may be tabulated as follows:—</p> + +<p class="center">TONNAGE OF FREIGHT RECEIVED AT OR +DESPATCHED FROM NEW ORLEANS.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="bordered" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="1" summary="New Orleans freight"> +<tr><td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">1890</td> + <td class="tdc">1900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc bb0">By the Mississippi River (all sources)</td> + <td class="tdr bb0">2,306,290 </td> + <td class="tdr bb0">450,498 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc bt0">By rail</td> + <td class="tdr bt0">3,557,742 </td> + <td class="tdr bt0">6,852,064 </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p> +Decline of river traffic in ten years 1,855,792 tons<br /> +Increase of rail " " " 3,294,322 "<br /> +</p> + +<p>These figures bear striking testimony to the results +that may be brought about in a country where railways +are allowed a fair chance of competing with even the +greatest of natural waterways—a chance, as I have +said, denied them in Germany and France. Looking, +too, at these figures, I understand better the significance +of what I saw at Memphis, where a solitary +Mississippi steamboat—one of the survivals of those +huge floating warehouses now mostly rusting out +their existence at New Orleans—was having her cargo +discharged on the river banks by a few negroes, while +the powerful locomotives of the Illinois Central were +rushing along on the adjoining railway with the +biggest train-loads it was possible for them to haul.</p> + +<p>On the general position in the United States I +might quote the following from a communication +with which I have been favoured by Mr Luis +Jackson, an Englishman by birth, who, after an +early training on British railways, went to the +United States, created there the rôle of "industrial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>commissioner" in connection with American railways, +and now fills that position on the Erie Railroad:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"When I was in the West the question of water +transportation down the Mississippi was frequently +remarked upon. The Mississippi is navigable from +St Paul to New Orleans. In the early days the towns +along the Mississippi, especially those from St Paul +to St Louis, depended upon, and had their growth +through, the river traffic. It was a common remark +among our railroad people that 'we could lick the +river.' The traffic down the Mississippi, especially +from St Paul to St Louis (I can only speak of the +territory with which I am well acquainted) perceptibly +declined in competition with the railroads, and the +river towns have been revived by, and now depend +more for their growth on, the railroads than on the +river.... Figures do not prove anything. If the Erie +Canal and the Mississippi River traffic had increased, +doubled, trebled, or quadrupled in the past years, +instead of actually dwindling by tonnage figures, it +would prove nothing as against the tremendous +tonnage hauled by the trunk line railroads. The +Erie Railroad Company, New York to Chicago, +last year carried 32,000,000 tons of revenue freights. +It would take a pretty good canal to handle that +amount of traffic; and the Erie is only one of +many lines between New York and Chicago.</p> + +<p>"A canal, paralleling great railroads, to some extent +injures them on through traffic. The tendency of all +railroads is in the line of progress. As the tonnage +increases the equipment becomes larger, and the +general tendency of railroad rates is downwards; in +other words, the public in the end gets from the +railroad all that can be expected from a canal, and +much more. The railroad can expand right and left, +and reach industries by side tracks; with canals every +manufacturer must locate on the banks of the canal. +Canals for internal commerce, in my mind, are out +of date; they belong to the 'slow.' Nor do I believe +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>that the traffic management of canals by the State has +the same conception of traffic measures which is +adopted by the modern managers of railroads.</p> + +<p>"Canals affect rates on heavy commodities, and +play a part mostly injurious, to my mind, to the +proper development of railroads, especially on the +Continent of Europe. They may do local business, +but the railroad is the real handmaid of commerce."</p></div> + +<p>By way of concluding this brief sketch of American +conditions, I cannot do better than adopt the final +sentences in Professor Dixon's paper at the St Louis +Railway Club to which I have already referred:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"Two considerations should, above all others, be +kept in mind in determination of the feasibility of +any project: first, the very positive limitations to +the efficiency of rivers and canals as transportation +agencies because of their lack of flexibility and the +natural disabilities under which they suffer; and +secondly, that water transportation is not necessarily +cheap simply because the Government constructs and +maintains the channels. Nothing could be more +delusive than the assertion so frequently made, which +is found in the opening pages of the report of the +New York Committee on Canals of 1899, that water +transportation is inherently cheaper than rail transportation. +Such an assertion is true only of ocean +transportation, and possibly also of large bodies of +water like the lakes, although this last is doubtful.</p> + +<p>"By all means let us have our waterways developed +when such development is economically justifiable. +What is justifiable must be a matter of judgment, and +possibly to some extent of experimentation, but the +burden of proof rests on its advocates. Such projects +should be carried out by the localities interested and +the burden should be borne by those who are to +derive the benefit. Only in large undertakings of +national concern should the General Government be +called upon for aid.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> +<p>"But I protest most vigorously against the deluge +of schemes poured in upon Congress at every session +by reckless advocates who, disregarding altogether +the cost of their crazy measures in the increased +burden of general taxation, argue for the inherent +cheapness of water transportation, and urge the construction +at public expense of works whose traffic +will never cover the cost of maintenance."</p></div> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="IX. ENGLISH CONDITIONS">CHAPTER IX<br /> + +<small>ENGLISH CONDITIONS</small></h2> + + +<p>I have already spoken in Chapter VII. of some of +the chief differences between Continental and English +conditions, but I revert to the latter because it is +essential that, before approving of any scheme of +canal restoration here, the British public should +thoroughly understand the nature of the task that +would thus be undertaken.</p> + +<p>The sections of actual canal routes, given opposite +page <a href="#i_098fp">98</a>, will convey some idea of the difficulties +which faced the original builders of our artificial +waterways. The wonder is that, since water has not +yet been induced to flow up-hill, canals were ever +constructed over such surfaces at all. Most probably +the majority of them would not have been attempted +if railways had come into vogue half a century earlier +than they did. Looking at these diagrams, one can +imagine how the locomotive—which does not disdain +hill-climbing, and can easily be provided with +cuttings, bridges, viaducts, and tunnels—could +follow the canal; but one can hardly imagine that +in England, at least, the canal would have followed +the railway.</p> + +<p>The whole proposition in regard to canal revival +would be changed if only the surfaces in Great +Britain were the same as they are, say, between +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>Hamburg and Berlin, where in 230 miles of waterway +there are only three locks. In this country there is +an average of one lock for every 1¼ mile of navigation. +The sum total of the locks on British canals is +2,377, each representing, on an average, a capitalised +cost of £1,360. Instead of a "great central plain," +as on the Continent of Europe, we have a "great +central ridge," extending the greater length of +England. In the 16 miles between Worcester and +Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham +Canal, there are fifty-eight locks to be passed +through by a canal boat going from the Severn +to Birmingham. At Tardebigge there is a difference +in level of about 250 feet in 3 miles or so. This +is overcome by a "flight" of thirty locks, which a +25-ton boat may hope to get through in four hours. +Between Huddersfield and Ashton, on the Huddersfield +Narrow Canal, there are seventy-four locks +in 20 miles; between Manchester and Sowerby +Bridge, on the Rochdale Canal, there are ninety-two +locks in 32 miles, to enable the boats to pass over +an elevation 600 feet above sea level; and at Bingley, +on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, five "staircase" +locks give a total lift of 59 feet 2 inches.</p> + +<p>Between London and Liverpool there are three +canal routes, each passing through either ten or +eleven separate navigations, and covering distances +of from 244 to 267 miles. By one of these routes +a boat has to pass through such series of locks as +ninety in 100 miles on the Grand Junction Canal, +between Paddington and Braunston; forty-three in +17 miles on the Birmingham Canal, between +Birmingham and Aldersley; and forty-six in 66 +miles on the Shropshire Union Canal, between +Autherley and Ellesmere Port. Proceeding by an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>alternative route, the boat would pass through fifty-nine +locks in 67 miles on the Trent and Mersey; +while a third route would give two hundred and +eighty-two locks in a total of 267 miles. The number +of separate navigations is ten by Routes I. and II., +and eleven by Route III.</p> + +<p>Between London and Hull there are two routes, +one 282 miles with one hundred and sixty-four locks, +and the other 305 miles with one hundred and forty-eight +locks. On the journey from London to the +Severn, a boat would pass through one hundred and +thirty locks in 177 miles in going to the Avonmouth +Docks (this total including one hundred and six +locks in 86 miles between Reading and Hanham, +on the Kennet and Avon Canal); and either one +hundred and two locks in 191 miles, or two hundred +and thirty in 219 miles, if the destination were +Sharpness Docks. Between Liverpool and Hull +there are one hundred and four locks in 187 miles +by one route; one hundred and forty-nine in 159 +miles by a second route; and one hundred and fifty-two +in 149 miles by a third. In the case of a canal +boat despatched from Birmingham, the position +would be—to London, one hundred and fifty-five +locks in 147 miles; to Liverpool (1) ninety-nine locks +in 114 miles, (2) sixty-nine locks in 94 miles; to +Hull, sixty-six locks in 164 miles; to the Severn, +Sharpness Docks (1) sixty-one locks in 75 miles, +(2) forty-nine locks in 89 miles.</p> + +<p>Early in 1906 a correspondent of <cite>The Standard</cite> +made an experimental canal journey from the Thames, +at Brentford, to Birmingham, to test the qualities of +a certain "suction-producer gas motor barge." The +barge itself stood the test so well that the correspondent +was able to declare:—"In the new power +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>may be found a solution of the problem of canal +traction." He arrived at this conclusion notwithstanding +the fact that the motor barge was stopped +at one of the locks by a drowned cat being caught +between the barge and the incoming "butty" boat. +The journey from London to Birmingham occupied, +"roughly," six and a half days—a journey, that is, +which London and North-Western express trains +accomplish regularly in two hours. The 22½ miles +of the Warwick and Birmingham Canal, which has +thirty-four locks, alone took ten hours and a half. +From Birmingham the correspondent made other +journeys in the same barge, covering, altogether, +370 miles. In that distance he passed through three +hundred and twenty-seven locks, various summits +"several hundred feet" in height being crossed by +this means.</p> + +<p>At Anderton, on the Trent and Mersey Canal, +there is a vertical hydraulic lift which raises or lowers +two narrow boats 50 feet to enable them to pass +between the canal and the River Mersey, the operation +being done by means of troughs 75 feet by 14½ feet. +Inclined planes have also been made use of to avoid +a multiplicity of locks. It is assumed that in the +event of any general scheme of resuscitation being +undertaken, the present flights of locks would, in +many instances, be done away with, hydraulic lifts +being substituted for them. Where this could be +done it would certainly effect a saving in time, though +the provision of a lift between series of locks would +not save water, as this would still be required for the +lock below. Hydraulic lifts, however, could not be +used in mining districts, such as the Black Country, +on account of possible subsidences. Where that +drawback did not occur there would still be the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>question of expense. The cost of construction of +the Anderton lift was £50,000, and the cost of +maintenance is £500 a year. Would the traffic on +a particular route be always equal to the outlay? +In regard to inclined planes, it was proposed some +eight or ten years ago to construct one on the +Birmingham Canal in order to do away with a series +of locks at a certain point and save one hour on the +through journey. Plans were prepared, and a Bill +was deposited in Parliament; but just at that time +a Board of Trade enquiry into canal tolls and charges +led to such reductions being enforced that there no +longer appeared to be any security for a return on the +proposed expenditure, and the Bill was withdrawn.</p> + +<p>In many instances the difference in level has +been overcome by the construction of tunnels. There +are in England and Wales no fewer than forty-five +canal tunnels each upwards of 100 yards in length, +and of these twelve are over 2,000 yards in length, +namely, Standidge Tunnel, on the Huddersfield +Narrow Canal, 5,456 yards; Sapperton, Thames and +Severn, 3,808; Lappal, Birmingham Canal navigations, +3,785; Dudley, Birmingham Canal, 3,672; +Norwood, Chesterfield Canal, 3,102; Butterley, +Cromford, 3,063; Blisworth, Grand Junction, 3,056; +Netherton, Birmingham Canal, 3,027; Harecastle +(new), Trent and Mersey, 2,926; Harecastle (old), +Trent and Mersey, 2,897; West Hill, Worcester +and Birmingham, 2,750; and Braunston, Grand +Junction, 2,042.</p> + +<p>The earliest of these tunnels were made so narrow +(in the interests of economy) that no space was left +for a towing path alongside, and the boats were +passed through by the boatmen either pushing a pole +or shaft against the roof or sides, and then walking +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>from forward to aft of the boat, or else by the +"legging" process in which they lay flat on their +backs in the boat, and pushed with their feet against +the sides of the tunnel. At one time even women +engaged in work of this kind. Later tunnels were +provided with towing paths, while in some of them +steam tugs have been substituted for shafting and +legging.</p> + +<p>Resort has also been had to aqueducts, and these +represent some of the best work that British canal +engineers have done. The first in England was +the one built at Barton by James Brindley to carry +the Bridgewater Canal over the Irwell. It was +superseded by a swing aqueduct in 1893, to meet +the requirements of the Manchester Ship Canal. +But the finest examples are those presented by the +aqueducts of Chirk and Pontcysyllte on the Ellesmere +Canal in North Wales, now forming part of +the Shropshire Union Canal. Each was the work of +Telford, and the two have been aptly described as +"among the boldest efforts of human invention +of modern times." The Chirk aqueduct (710 feet +long) carries the canal over the River Ceriog. It +was completed in 1801 and cost £20,898. The +Pontcysyllte aqueduct, of which a photograph is +given as a frontispiece, carries the canal in a cast-iron +trough a distance of 1,007 feet across the valley +of the River Dee. It was opened for traffic in 1803, +and involved an outlay of £47,000. Another canal +aqueduct worthy of mention is that which was constructed +by Rennie in 1796, at a cost of £48,000, +to carry the Lancaster Canal over the River Lune.</p> + +<p>These facts must surely convince everyone who +is in any way open to conviction of the enormous +difference between canal construction as carried on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>in bygone days in Great Britain—involving as it +did all these costly, elaborate, and even formidable +engineering works—and the building of canals, or the +canalisation of rivers, on the flat surfaces of Holland, +Belgium, and Northern Germany. Reviewing—even +thus inadequately—the work that had been already +done, one ceases to wonder that, when the railways +began to establish themselves in this country, the +canal companies of that day regarded with despair +the idea of practically doing the greater part of +their work over again, in order to carry on an +apparently hopeless struggle with a powerful competitor +who had evidently come not only to stay +but to win. It is not surprising, after all, that many +of them thought it better to exploit the enemy by +inducing or forcing him to buy them out!</p> + +<p>The average reader who may not hitherto have +studied the question so completely as I am here +seeking to do, will also begin by this time to +understand what the resuscitation of the British +canal system might involve in the way of expense. +The initial purchase—presumably on fair and equitable +terms—would in itself cost much more +than is supposed even by the average expert.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"Assuming," says one authority, Mr Thwaite, +"that 3,500 miles of the canal system were purchasable +at two-thirds of their original cost of construction, +say £2,350 per mile of length, then the +capital required would be £8,225,000."</p></div> + +<p>This looks very simple. But is the original cost +of construction of canals passing through tunnels, +over viaducts, and up and down elevations of from +400 to 600 feet, calculated here on the same basis +as canals on the flat-lands? Is allowance made for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>costly pumping apparatus—such as that provided +for the Birmingham Canal—for the docks and +warehouses recently constructed at Ellesmere Port, +and for other capital expenditure for improvements, +or are these omitted from the calculation of so +much "per mile of length"? Items of this kind +might swell even "cost of construction" to larger +proportions than those assumed by Mr Thwaite. +That gentleman, also, evidently leaves out of account +the very substantial sums paid by the present owners +or controllers of canals for the mining rights underneath +the waterways in districts such as Staffordshire +or Lancashire.</p> + +<p>This last-mentioned point is one of considerable +importance, though very few people seem to know +that it enters into the canal question at all. When +canals were originally constructed it was assumed +that the companies were entitled to the land they had +bought from the surface to the centre of the earth. +But the law decided they could claim little more than +a right of way, and that the original landowners might +still work the minerals underneath. This was done, +with the result that there were serious subsidences +of the canals, involving both much loss of water +and heavy expenditure in repairs. The stability of +railways was also affected, but the position of the +canals was much worse on account of the water.</p> + +<p>To maintain the efficiency of the canals (and of +railways in addition) those responsible for them—whether +independent companies or railway companies—have +had to spend enormous sums of money in the +said mining districts on buying up the right to work +the minerals underneath. In some instances the +landowner has given notice of his intention to work +the minerals himself, and, although he may in reality +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>have had no such intention, the canal company or +the railway company have been compelled to come +to terms with him, to prevent the possibility of the +damage that might otherwise be done to the waterway. +The very heavy expenditure thus incurred +would hardly count as "cost of construction," and +it would represent money sunk with no prospect of +return. Yet, if the State takes over the canals, it will +be absolutely bound to reckon with these mineral +rights as well—if it wants to keep the canals intact +after improving them—and, in so doing, it must +allow for a considerably larger sum for initial outlay +than is generally assumed.</p> + +<p>But the actual purchase of canals <em>and</em> mineral rights +would be only the beginning of the trouble. There +would come next the question of increasing the +capacity of the canals by widening, and what this +might involve I have already shown. Then there are +the innumerable locks by which the great differences +in level are overcome. A large proportion of these +would have to be reconstructed (unless lifts or inclined +planes were provided instead) to admit either the +larger type of boat of which one hears so much, or, +alternatively, two or four of the existing narrow +boats. Assuming this to be done, then, when a single +narrow boat came up to each lock in the course of +the journey it was making, either it would have to +wait until one or three others arrived, or, alternatively, +the water in a large capacity lock would be +used for the passage of one small boat. The adoption +of the former course would involve delay; and either +would necessitate the provision of a much larger +water supply, together with, for the highest levels, +still more costly pumping machinery.</p> + +<p>The water problem would, indeed, speedily become +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>one of the most serious in the whole situation—and +that, too, not alone in regard to the extremely scanty +supplies in the high levels. The whole question has +been complicated, since canals were first built, by +the growing needs of the community, towns large +and small having tapped sources of water supply +which otherwise might have been available for the +canals.</p> + +<p>Even as these lines are being written, I see from +<cite>The Times</cite> of March 17, 1906, that, because the +London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Company +are sinking a well on land of their own adjoining +the railway near the Carshalton springs of the River +Wandle, with a view to getting water for use in their +Victoria Station in London, all the public authorities +in that part of Surrey, together with the mill-owners +and others interested in the River Wandle, are +petitioning Parliament in support of a Bill to restrain +them, although it is admitted that "the railway +company do not appear to be exceeding their legal +rights." This does not look as if there were too +much water to spare for canal purposes in Great +Britain; and yet so level-headed a journal as <cite>The +Economist</cite>, in its issue of March 3, 1906, gravely +tells us, in an article on "The New Canal Commission," +that "the experience of Canada is worth +studying." What possible comparison can there be, +in regard to canals, between a land of lakes and +great rivers and a country where a railway company +may not even sink a well on their own property +without causing all the local authorities in the +neighbourhood to take alarm, and petition Parliament +to stop them!<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a id="i_128fp"></a> +<img src="images/i_128fp.jpg" width="600" height="333" alt="WATER SUPPLY FOR CANALS." /> +<div class="caption"> + <p class="center">WATER SUPPLY FOR CANALS.</p> + + <p class="center">(Belvide Reservoir, Staffordshire, Shropshire Union Canal.)</p> + + <p class="right">[<i>To face page 128.</i></p> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> +<p>On this question of water supply, I may add, +Mr John Glass, manager of the Regents Canal, +said at the meeting of the Institution of Civil +Engineers in November 1905:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"In his opinion Mr Saner had treated the water +question, upon which the whole matter depended, +in too airy a manner. Considering, for instance, +the route to Birmingham, it would be seen that to +reach Birmingham the waterway was carried over +one summit of 400 feet, and another of 380 feet, +descended 200 feet, and eventually arrived at +Birmingham, which was about 350 feet above sea +level. The proposed standard lock, with a small +allowance for the usual leakage in filling, would consume +about 50,000 cubic feet of water, and the two +large crafts which Mr Saner proposed to accommodate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>in the lock<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> would carry together, he calculated, +about 500 tons. Supposing it were possible to +regulate the supply and demand so as to spread +that traffic economically over the year, and to permit +of twenty-five pairs of boats passing from Birmingham +to the Thames, or in the opposite direction, on 300 +days in the year, the empty boats going into the +same locks as the laden boats, it would be necessary +to provide 1,250,000 cubic feet of water daily, at +altitudes of 300 to 400 feet; and in addition it would +be necessary to have water-storage for at least 120 +days in the year, which would amount to about +150,000,000 cubic feet. When it was remembered +that the districts in which the summit-levels referred to +were situated were ill-supplied with water, he thought +it was quite impossible that anything like that quantity +of water could be obtained for the purpose. Canal-managers +found that the insufficiency of water in all +districts supplied by canals increased every year, +and the difficulty of acquiring proper water-storage +became enhanced."</p></div> + +<p>Not only the ordinary waterway and the locks, +but the tunnels and viaducts, also, might require +widening. Then the adoption of some system of +mechanical haulage is spoken of as indispensable. +But a resort to tugs, however propelled, is in no way +encouraged by the experiments made on the Shropshire +Union, as told on p. 50. An overhead electrical +installation, with power houses and electric lighting, +so that navigation could go on at night, would be +an especially costly undertaking. But the increased +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>speed which it is hoped to gain from mechanical +haulage on the level would also necessitate a general +strengthening of the canal banks to avoid damage +by the wash, and even then the possible speed would +be limited by the breadth of the waterway. On this +particular point I cannot do better than quote the +following from an article on "Canals and Waterways" +published in <cite>The Field</cite> of March 10, 1906:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"Among the arguments in favour of revival has +been that of anticipated rapid steam traffic on such +re-opened waterways. Any one who understands +the elementary principles of building and propulsion +of boats will realise that volume of water of itself +fixes limits for speed of vessels in it. Any vessel of +certain given proportions has its limit of speed (no +matter what horse-power may be employed to move +it) according to the relative limit (if any) of the +volume of water in which it floats. Our canals are +built to allow easy passage of the normal canal +barge at an average of 3 to 3½ miles an hour. A +barge velocity of even 5 miles, still more of 6 or 7, +would tend to wash banks, and so to wreck (to public +danger) embankments where canals are carried higher +than surrounding land. A canal does not lie in a +valley from end to end like a river. It would require +greater horse-power to tow one loaded barge 6 miles +an hour on normal canal water than to tow a string +of three or even four such craft hawsered 50 or more +feet apart at the pace of 3½ miles. The reason would +be that the channel is not large enough to allow the +wave of displacement forward to find its way aft past +the advancing vessel, so as to maintain an approximate +level of water astern to that ahead, unless either +the channel is more than doubled or else the speed +limited to something less than 4 miles. It therefore +comes to this, that increased speed on our canals, to +any tangible extent, does not seem to be attainable, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>even if all barges shall be screw steamers, unless +the entire channel can be reconstructed to far greater +depth and also width."</p></div> + +<p>What the actual cost of reconstruction would be—as +distinct from cost of purchase—I will not +myself undertake to estimate; and merely general +statements, based on the most favourable sections +of the canals, may be altogether misleading. Thus, +a writer in the <cite>Daily Chronicle</cite> of March 21, 1906, +who has contributed to that journal a series of +articles on the canal question, "from an expert +point of view," says:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"If the Aire and Calder navigation, which is much +improved in recent years, be taken as a model, it has +been calculated that £1,000,000 per 100 miles would +fit the trunk system for traffic such as is dealt with +on the Yorkshire navigation."</p></div> + +<p>How can the Aire and Calder possibly be taken +as a model—from the point of view of calculating +cost of improvements or reconstruction? Let the +reader turn once more to the diagrams given +opposite p. 98. He will see that the Aire and +Calder is constructed on land that is almost flat, +whereas the Rochdale section on the same trunk +route between the Mersey and the Humber reaches +an elevation of 600 feet. How can any just comparison +be made between these two waterways? If +the cost of "improving" a canal of the "model" +type of the Aire and Calder be put at the rate of +£1,000,000 per 100 miles, what would it come to +in the case of the Rochdale Canal, the Tardebigge +section of the Worcester and Birmingham Canal, or +the series of independent canals between Birmingham +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>and London? That is a practical question which I +will leave—to the experts!</p> + +<p>Supposing, however, that the canals have been +purchased, taken possession of, and duly improved +(whatever the precise cost) by State, municipalities, +or public trust, as the case may be. There will +then be the almost exact equivalent of a house +without furniture, or a factory without machinery. +Before even the restored canals could be adapted +to the requirements of trade and commerce there +would have to be a very considerable expenditure, +also, on warehouses, docks, appliances, and other +indispensable adjuncts to mere haulage.</p> + +<p>After all the money that has been spent on the +Manchester Ship Canal it is still found necessary +to lay out a great deal more on warehouses which +are absolutely essential to the full and complete +development of the enterprise. The same principle +would apply to any scheme of revived inland navigation. +The goods depôts constructed by railway +companies in all large towns and industrial centres +have alone sufficed to bring about a complete +revolution in trade and commerce since the days +when canals were prosperous. There are many +thousands of traders to-day who not only order +comparatively small quantities of supplies at a +time from the manufacturer, but leave even these +quantities to be stored locally by the railway +company, having delivered to them from day to +day, or week by week, just as much as they can +do with. A certain "free" period is allowed for +warehousing, and, if they remove the goods during +that period, they pay nothing to the railway +company beyond the railway rate. After the free +period a small "rent" is charged—a rent which, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>while representing no adequate return to the railway +company for the heavy capital outlay in +providing the depôts, is much less than it would +cost the trader if he had to build store-rooms for +himself, or pay for accommodation elsewhere. Other +traders, as mentioned in the chapter on "The +Transition in Trade," send goods to the railway +warehouses as soon as they are ready, to wait there +until an order is completed, and the whole consignment +can be despatched; while others again, agents +and commission men, carry on a considerable business +from a small office, leaving all the handling of the +commodities in which they deal to be done by the +railway companies. In fact, the situation might be +summed up by saying that, under the trading conditions +of to-day, railway companies are not only +common carriers, but general warehousemen in +addition.</p> + +<p>If inland canals are to take over any part of the +transport at present conducted by the railways, +they will have to provide the traders with like +facilities. So, in addition to buying up and reconstructing +the canals; in addition to widenings, and +alterations of the gradients of roads and railways +passed under; and in addition to the maintenance +of towing paths, locks, bridges, tunnels, aqueducts, +culverts, weirs, sluices, cranes, wharves, docks, +and quay walls, reservoirs, pumping machinery, +and so on, there would still be all the subsidiary +considerations in regard to warehousing, etc., which +would arise when it became a question with the +trader whether or not he should avail himself of +the improved water transport thus placed at his +disposal.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of reasonable argument I will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>assume that no really sensible person, knowing anything +at all of actual facts and conditions, would +attempt to revive the entire canal system of the +country.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> I have shown on p. 19, that even in the +year 1825 it was recognised that some of the canals +had been built by speculators simply as a means of +abstracting money from the pockets of foolish +investors, victims of the "canal mania," and that +no useful purpose could be served by them even at +a time when there were no competing railways. Yet +to-day sentimental individuals who, in wandering +about the country, come across some of these +absolutely useless, though still, perhaps, picturesque +survivals, write off to the newspapers to lament +over "our neglected waterways," to cast the +customary reflections on the railway companies, +and to join their voice to the demand for immediate +nationalisation or municipalisation, according to +their individual leanings, and regardless of all considerations +of cost or practicability.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> + +<p>Derelicts of the type here referred to are not +worth considering at all. It is a pity they were not +drained and filled in long ago, and given, as it +were, a decent burial, if only out of consideration +for the feelings of sentimentalists. Much more +deserving of study are those particular systems +which either still carry a certain amount of traffic, +or are situated on routes along which traffic might +be reasonably expected to flow. But, taking even +canals of this type, the reader must see from the +considerations I have already presented that resuscitation +would be a very costly business indeed. +Estimates of which I have read in print range from +£20,000,000 to £50,000,000; but even these omit +various important items (mining rights, etc.), +which would certainly have to be added, while +the probability is that, however high the original +estimate in regard to work of this kind, a good +deal more would have to be expended before it was +finished.</p> + +<p>The remarks I have here made are based on the +supposition that all that is aimed at is such an +improvement as would allow of the use of a larger +type of canal boat than that now in vogue. But, +obviously, the expenditure would be still heavier +if there were any idea of adapting the canals to the +use of barges similar in size to those employed on +the waterways of Germany, or craft which, starting +from an inland manufacturing town in the Midlands, +could go on a coasting trip, or make a journey +across to the Continent. Here the capital expenditure +would be so great that the cost would +be absolutely prohibitive.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> +<p>Whatever the precise number of millions the +resuscitation scheme might cost, the inevitable +question would present itself—How is the money +to be raised?</p> + +<p>The answer thereto would be very simple if the +entire expense were borne by the country—that is to +say, thrown upon the taxpayers or ratepayers. The +problem would then be solved at once. The great +drawback to this solution is that most of the said +taxpayers or ratepayers would probably object. +Besides, there is the matter of detail I mentioned +in the first Chapter: if the State or the municipalities +buy up the canals on fair terms, including the canals +owned or controlled by the railways, and, in operating +them in competition with the railways, make heavy +losses which must eventually fall on the taxpayers or +ratepayers, then it would be only fair that the railway +companies should be excused from such direct increase +in taxation as might result from the said losses. In +that case the burden would fall still more heavily on +the general body of the tax or ratepayers, independently +of the railway companies.</p> + +<p>It would fall, too, with especial severity on those +traders who were themselves unable to make use of +the canals, but might have to pay increased local +rates in order that possible competitors located within +convenient reach of the improved waterways could +have cheaper transport. It might also happen that +when the former class of traders, bound to keep to +the railways, applied to the railway companies for +some concession to themselves, the reply given would +be—"What you suggest is fair and reasonable, and +under ordinary circumstances we should be prepared +to meet your wishes; but the falling off in our +receipts, owing to the competition of State-aided +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>canals, makes it impossible for us to grant any +further reductions." An additional disadvantage +would thus have to be met by the trader who kept +to the railway, while his rival, using the canals, +would practically enjoy the benefit of a State subsidy.</p> + +<p>The alternative to letting the country bear the +burden would be to leave the resuscitated canal +system to pay for itself. But is there any reasonable +probability that it could? The essence of the +present day movement is that the traders who would +be enabled to use the canals under the improved +conditions should have cheaper transport; but if the +twenty, fifty, or any other number of millions sterling +spent on the purchase and improvement of the canals, +and on the provision of indispensable accessories +thereto, are to be covered out of the tolls and +charges imposed on those using the canals, there +is every probability that (if the canals are to pay for +themselves) the tolls and charges would have to be +raised to such a figure that any existing difference +between them and the present railway rates would +disappear altogether. That difference is already very +often slight enough, and it may be even less than +appears to be the case, because the railway rate might +include various services, apart from mere haulage—collection, +delivery, warehousing, use of coal depôt, +etc.—which are not covered by the canal tolls and +charges, and the cost of which would have to be +added thereto. A very small addition, therefore, to +the canal tolls, in order to meet interest on heavy +capital expenditure on purchase and reconstruction, +would bring waterways and railways so far on a level +in regard to rates that the railways, with the superior +advantages they offer in many ways, would, inevitably, +still get the preference.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> +<p>The revival movement, however, is based on the +supposition that no increase in the canal tolls now +charged would be necessary.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Canal transport, it is +said, is already much higher in this country than it +is on the Continent—and that may well be so, considering +(1) that canals such as ours, with their +numerous locks, etc., cost more to construct, operate +and maintain than canals on the flat lands of Continental +Europe; (2) that British canals are still +supposed to maintain themselves; and (3) that canal +traffic as well as railway traffic is assessed in the +most merciless way for the purposes of local taxation. +In the circumstances it is assumed that the canal +traffic in England could not pay higher tolls and +charges than those already imposed, and that the +interest on the aforesaid millions, spent on purchase +and improvements, would all be met out of the +expanded traffic which the restored canals would +attract.</p> + +<p>Again I may ask—Is there any reasonable probability +of this? Bearing in mind the complete transition +in trade of which I have already spoken—a +transition which, on the one hand, has enormously +increased the number of individual traders, and, on +the other, has brought about a steady and continuous +decrease in the weight of individual consignments—is +there the slightest probability that the conditions +of trade are going to be changed, and that merchants, +manufacturers, and other traders will forego the express +delivery of convenient quantities by rail, in order to +effect a problematical saving (and especially problematical +where extra cartage has to be done) on the +tedious delivery of wholesale quantities by canal?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> + +<p>Nothing short of a very large increase indeed in +the water-borne traffic would enable the canals to +meet the heavy expenditure foreshadowed, and, even +if such increase were secured, the greater part of it +would not be new traffic, but simply traffic diverted +from the railways. More probably, however, the +very large increase would not be secured, and no +great diversion from the railways would take place. +The paramount and ever-increasing importance +attached by the vast majority of British traders to +quick delivery (an importance so great that on +some lines there are express goods trains capable +of running from 40 to 60 miles an hour) will keep +them to the greater efficiency of the railway as a +carrier of goods; while, if a serious diversion of +traffic were really threatened, the British railways +would not be handicapped as those of France and +Germany are in any resort to rates and charges +which would allow of a fair competition with the +waterways.</p> + +<p>In practice, therefore, the theory that the canals +would become self-supporting, as soon as the aforesaid +millions had been spent, must inevitably break down, +with the result that the burden of the whole enterprise +would then necessarily fall upon the community; and +why the trader who consigns his goods by rail, or the +professional man who has no goods to consign at all, +should be taxed to allow of cheaper transport being +conferred on the minority of persons or firms likely to +use the canals even when resuscitated, is more than +I can imagine, or than they, probably, will be able to +realise.</p> + +<p>The whole position was very well described in some +remarks made by Mr Harold Cox, M.P., in the course +of a discussion at the Society of Arts in February +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>1906, on a paper read by Mr R. B. Buckley, on +"The Navigable Waterways of India."</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"There was," he said, "a sort of feeling current +at the present time in favour of spending large +amounts of the taxpayer's money in order to provide +waterways which the public did not want, or at any +rate which the public did not want sufficiently to +pay for them, which after all was the test. He +noticed that everybody who advocated the construction +of canals always wanted them constructed with +the taxpayer's money, and always wanted them to +be worked without a toll. Why should not the same +principle be applied to railways also? A railway was +even more useful to the public than a canal; therefore, +construct it with the taxpayer's money, and allow +everybody to use it free. It was always possible to +get plenty of money subscribed with which to build +a railway, but nobody would subscribe a penny +towards the building of canals. An appeal was +always made to the government. People had pointed +to France and Germany, which spent large sums +of money on their canals. In France that was done +because the French Parliamentary system was such +that it was to the interest of the electorate and the +elected to spend the public money on local improvements +or non-improvements.... He had been asked, +Why make any roads? The difference between roads +and canals was that on a canal a toll could be levied +on the people who used it, but on a road that was +absolutely impossible. Tolls on roads were found +so inconvenient that they had to be given up. There +was no practical inconvenience in collecting tolls on +canals; and, therefore, the principle that was applied +to everything else should apply to canals—namely, +that those who wanted them should pay for them."</p></div> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2 title="X. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS">CHAPTER X<br /> + +<small>CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS</small></h2> + + +<p>Taking into consideration all the facts and arguments +here presented, I may summarise as follows the conclusions +at which I have arrived:—</p> + +<p>(1) That, alike from a geographical, physical, and +economic point of view, there is no basis for fair +comparison between British and Continental conditions; +consequently our own position must be +judged on its own merits or demerits.</p> + +<p>(2) That, owing to the great changes in British +trade, manufacture, and commerce, giving rise to +widespread and still increasing demands for speedy +delivery of comparatively small consignments for a +great number of traders of every possible type, canal +transport in Great Britain is no longer suited to the +general circumstances of the day.</p> + +<p>(3) That although a comparatively small number +of traders, located in the immediate neighbourhood +of the canals, might benefit from a canal-resuscitation +scheme, the carrying out of such scheme at the risk, +if not at the cost, of the taxpayers, would virtually +amount to subsidising one section of the community +to the pecuniary disadvantage of other sections.</p> + +<p>(4) That the nationalisation or the municipalisation +of British canals would introduce a new principle +inconsistent with the "private enterprise" hitherto +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>recognised in the case of railways, in which such +large sums have been sunk by investors, but with +which State-aided canals would compete.</p> + +<p>(5) That, in view both of the physical conditions +of our land (necessitating an extensive resort to +locks, etc., to overcome great differences in level) +and of the fact that many of the most important of +the canals are now hemmed in by works, houses, +or buildings, any general scheme of purchase and +improvement, in regard even to main routes (apart +from hopeless derelicts), would be extremely costly, +and, in most instances, entirely outside the scope of +practicability.</p> + +<p>(6) That such a scheme, involving an expenditure +of many millions, could not fail to affect our national +finances.</p> + +<p>(7) That there is no ground for expecting so large +an outlay could be recouped by increased receipts +from the canals, and that the cost would thus inevitably +fall upon the community.</p> + +<p>(8) That the allegation as to the chief canals of the +country, or sections thereof, having been "captured" +and "strangled" by the railway companies, in the +interests of their own traffic, is entirely unsupported +by evidence, the facts being, rather, that in most +cases the canals were more or less forced upon the +railway companies, who have spent money liberally +on such of them as offered reasonable prospect of +traffic, and, in that way, have kept alive and in +active working condition canals that would inevitably +have been added to the number of derelicts had they +remained in the hands of canal companies possessed +of inadequate capital for the purposes of their +efficient maintenance.</p> + +<p>(9) That certain of these canals (as, for example, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>the Birmingham and the Shropshire Union Canals) +are still offering to traders all reasonable facilities +within the limitations of their surroundings and +physical possibilities; and that if such canals were +required to bear the expense of extremely costly +widenings, of lock reconstruction, of increased water +supply, and of general improvements, the tolls and +charges would have to be raised to such a point +that the use of the canals would become prohibitive +even to those local traders who now fully appreciate +the convenience they still afford.</p> + +<p>(10) That, in effect, whatever may be done in the +case of navigable rivers, any scheme which aimed +at a general resuscitation of canals in this country, +at the risk, if not at the expense, of the community, +is altogether impracticable; and that, inasmuch as +the only desire of the traders, in this connection, is +to secure cheaper transport, it is desirable to see +whether the same results could not be more effectively, +more generally, and more economically obtained in +other directions.</p> + +<p>Following up this last conclusion, I beg to +recommend:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The desirability of increasing the usefulness of +the railway system, which can go anywhere, serve +everybody, and carry and deliver consignments, +great and small, with that promptness and despatch +which are all-important to the welfare of the vast +majority of industries and enterprises, as conducted +under the trading conditions of to-day. This usefulness, +some of the traders allege, is marred by rates +and charges which they consider unduly heavy, +especially in the case of certain commodities calling +for exceptionally low freight, and canal transport is +now asked for by them, as against rail transport, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>just as the traders of 1825 wanted the railways as +a relief from the waterways. The rates and charges, +say the railway companies, are not unreasonable in +themselves, considering all the circumstances of the +case and the nature of the various services represented, +while the actual amount thereof is due, to a +certain extent, not so much to any seeking on the +part of the companies to pay dividends of abnormal +proportions, akin to those of the canal companies of +old (the average railway dividend to-day, on over +one thousand millions of actual capital, being only +about 3½ per cent.), but to a combination of causes +which have increased unduly capital outlay and +working expenses, only to be met out of the rates, +fares, and charges that are imposed on traders and +travellers. Among these causes may be mentioned +the heavy price the companies have had to pay +for their land; the cost of Parliamentary proceedings; +various requirements imposed by Parliament +or by Government departments; and the heavy +burden of the contribution that railway companies +make to local rates. (See p. 10.) These various +conditions must necessarily influence the rates and +charges to be paid by traders. Some of them—such +as cost of land—belong to the past; others—like the +payments for local taxation—still continue, and tend +to increase rather than decrease. In any case, the +power of the railway companies to concede to the +traders cheaper transport is obviously handicapped. +But if, to obtain such cheaper transport, the country +is prepared to risk (at least) from £20,000,000 to +£50,000,000 on a scheme of canal reconstruction +which, as I have shown, is of doubtful utility and +practicability, would it not be much more sensible, +and much more economical, if the weight of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>obligations now cast upon railways were reduced, +thus enabling the companies to make concessions in +the interests of traders in general, and especially in +the interests of those consigning goods to ports +for shipment abroad, for whose benefit the canal +revival is more particularly sought?</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) My second recommendation is addressed to +the general trader. His policy of ordering frequent +small consignments to meet immediate requirements, +and of having, in very many instances, practically +no warehouse or store-rooms except the railway +goods depôts, is one that suits him admirably. It +enables him either to spend less capital or else to +distribute his capital over a larger area. He is also +spared expense in regard to the provision of warehouse +accommodation of his own. But to the railway +companies the general adoption of this policy has +meant greater difficulty in the making up of "paying +loads." To suit the exigencies of present-day trade, +they have reduced their <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minima</i> to as low, for some +commodities, as 2-ton lots, and it is assumed by +many of the traders that all they need do is to work +up to such <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minima</i>. But a 2-ton lot for even an +8-ton waggon is hardly a paying load. Still less is +a 10-<abbr title="hundredweight">cwt</abbr>. consignment a paying load for a similarly +sized waggon. Where, however, no other consignments +for the same point are available, the waggon +goes through all the same. In Continental countries +consignments would be kept back, if necessary, for +a certain number of days, in order that the "paying +load" might be made up. But in Great Britain the +average trader relies absolutely on prompt delivery, +however small the consignment, or whatever the +amount of "working expenses" incurred by the +railway in handling it. If, however, the trader +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>would show a little more consideration for the +railway companies—whom he expects to display +so much consideration for him—he might often +arrange to send or to receive his consignments in +such quantities (at less frequent intervals, perhaps) +as would offer better loading for the railway +waggons, with a consequent decrease of working +expenses, and a corresponding increase in the ability +of the railway company to make better terms with +him in other directions. Much has been done of +late years by the railway companies to effect various +economies in operation, and excellent results have +been secured, especially through the organisation of +transhipping centres for goods traffic, and through +reductions in train mileage; but still more could be +done, in the way of keeping down working expenses +and improving the position of the companies in +regard to concessions to traders, if the traders themselves +would co-operate more with the railways to +avoid the disadvantages of unremunerative "light-loading."</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) My third and last recommendation is to the +agriculturists. I have seen repeated assertions to +the effect that improved canals would be of great +advantage to the British farmer; and in this connection +it may interest the reader if I reproduce the +following extract from the pamphlet, issued in 1824, +by Mr T. G. Cumming, under the title of "Illustrations +of the Origin and Progress of Rail and Tram +Roads and Steam Carriages," as already mentioned +on p. 21:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"To the farming interests the advantages of a +rail-way will soon become strikingly manifest; for, +even where the facilities of a canal can be embraced, +it presents but a slow yet expensive mode of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>conveyance; a whole day will be consumed in accomplishing +a distance of 20 miles, whilst by the rail-way +conveyance, goods will be carried the same distance +in three or four hours, and perhaps to no class of +the community is this increased speed of more consideration +and value than to the farmer, who has +occasion to bring his fruit, garden stuff, and poultry +to market, and still more so to such as are in the +habit of supplying those great and populous towns +with milk and butter, whilst with all these additional +advantages afforded by a rail-way, the expense of +conveyance will be found considerably cheaper than +by canal.</p> + +<p>"Notwithstanding the vast importance to the farmer +of having the produce of his farm conveyed in a +cheap and expeditious manner to market, it is +almost equally essential to him to have a cheap +conveyance for manure from a large town to a +distant farm; and here the advantages to be derived +from a rail-way are abundantly apparent, for by a +single loco-motive engine, 50 tons of manure may +be conveyed, at a comparatively trifling expense, to +any farm within the line of the road. In the article +of lime, also, which is one of the first importance +to the farmer, there can be no question but the +facilities afforded by a rail-way will be the means +of diminishing the expense in a very material +degree."</p></div> + +<p>If railways were desirable in 1824 in the interests +of agriculture, they must be still more so in 1906, +and the reversion now to the canal transport of +former days would be a curious commentary on +the views entertained at the earlier date. As regards +perishables, consigned for sale on markets, growers +obviously now want the quickest transport they can +secure, and special fruit and vegetable trains are run +daily in the summer season for their accommodation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>The trader in the North who ordered some strawberries +from Kent, and got word that they were +being sent on by canal, would probably use language +not fit for even a fruit and vegetable market to hear. +As for non-perishable commodities, consigned to +or by agriculturists, the railway is a much better +distributer than the canal, and, unless a particular +farm were alongside a canal, the extra cost of cartage +therefrom might more than outweigh any saving in +freight. If greater facilities than the ordinary railway +are needed by agriculturists, they will be met +far better by light railways, or by railway road-motors +of the kind adopted first by the North-Eastern +Railway Company at Brandsby, than by +any possible extension of canals. These road-motors, +operated between lines of railway and recognised +depôts at centres some distance therefrom, are +calculated to confer on agriculturists a degree of +practical advantage, in the matter of cheaper transport, +limited only by the present unfortunate inability +of many country roads to bear so heavy a traffic, +and the equally unfortunate inability of the local +residents to bear the expense of adapting the roads +thereto. If, instead of spending a large sum of +money on reconstructing canals, the Government +devoted some of it to grants to County Councils for +the reconstruction of rural highways, they would do +far more good for agriculture, at least. As for +cheaper rail transport for agricultural commodities +in general, I have said so much elsewhere as to +how these results can be obtained by means of +combination that I need not enlarge on that branch +of the subject now, further than to commend it to +the attention of the British farmer, to whom combination +in its various phases will afford a much more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>substantial advantage than any possible resort to +inland navigation.</p> + +<p>These are the alternatives I offer to proposals +which I feel bound to regard as more or less +quixotic, and I leave the reader to decide whether, +in view of the actualities of the situation, as set +forth in the present volume, they are not much +more practical than the schemes of canal reconstruction +for which public favour is now being sought.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> + + +<h2>APPENDIX<br /> + +<small>THE DECLINE IN FREIGHT TRAFFIC ON THE +MISSISSIPPI</small></h2> + + +<p>Whilst this book is passing through the Press, I +have received from Mr Stuyvesant Fish, President +of the Illinois Central Railroad Company—whom I +asked to favour me with some additional details +respecting the decline in freight traffic on the +Mississippi River—the following interesting notes, +drawn up by Mr T. J. Hudson, General Traffic +Manager of the Illinois Central:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The traffic on the Mississippi River was established +and built up under totally different conditions from +those now obtaining, and when the only other means +of travel and transportation was on horseback and +by waggon, methods not suitable in view of the great +distances and the general impassibility of the country. +In those days the principal source of supply was +St Louis—and points reached through St Louis—for +grain, grain products, etc., excepting that vehicles, +machinery, and iron were brought down the Ohio +River from Pittsburg and Cincinnati by boat to +Cairo, and trans-shipped there, or to Memphis, and +trans-shipped or re-distributed from that place. The +distributing points on the Lower Mississippi River +were Memphis, Vicksburg, Natchez, Bayou Sara, +Baton Rouge and New Orleans. Goods were +shipped to these points and re-shipped from there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>over small railroads to short distances, and also +hauled by waggon and re-shipped on boats plying +in local trade on the Mississippi River and tributary +streams. For example, there were Boat Lines making +small landing points above and below Memphis, and +above and below Vicksburg; also Boat Lines plying +the Yazoo and Tallahatchie Rivers on the east, and +the White, Arkansas and Red Rivers on the west, etc.</p> + +<p>All the goods shipped by steamboat were hauled +by waggon or dray to the steamboat landing, and, +when discharged by the boats at destination, were +again hauled by waggon from the landing to the +stores and warehouses, even in those cases in which +re-shipment was made from points like Memphis, +Vicksburg, etc. When re-shipped by river, the +goods were again hauled to the steamboat landing, +and, when reaching the local landing or point of +final consumption, after being discharged on the +bank, were again hauled by waggon or dray, perhaps +for considerable distances into the interior.</p> + +<p>While the cost of water transportation is primarily +low, the frequent handling and re-handling made this +mode of transportation more or less expensive, and +in some instances quite costly. River transportation +again is slow, taking longer time in transit. The +frequent handlings, further, were damaging and +destructive to the packages in the case of many +kinds of goods. Transportation on the rivers was +also at times interrupted or delayed from one cause +or another, such as high water or low water, and +the service was, in consequence, more or less +irregular, thus requiring dealers to carry large +stocks on which the insurance and interest was a +considerable item of expense.</p> + +<p>With the development of the railroads through the +country, not only was competition brought into play +to the distributing points along the river, such as +Memphis, Vicksburg, etc., from St Louis, Cincinnati, +and Pittsburg, but also from other initial sources of +supply which were not located on rivers, but were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>enabled by reason of the establishment of rail transportation +to consign direct; whereas under the old +conditions it was necessary for them to consign to +some river point and trans-ship. What was still +more important and effective in accomplishing the +results since brought about was the material benefit +conferred by the railroads on most of the communities +situated back from the river. These communities +had previously been obliged to send their consignments +perhaps many miles by road to some point on +the river, whence the commodities were carried to +some other point, there to be taken by waggon or +dray to the place of consumption—another journey +of many miles, perhaps, by road. Progress was +slow, and in some instances almost impossible, while +only small boats could be hauled.</p> + +<p>Then the construction of railroads led to the +development of important distributing points in the +interior, such as Jackson, (Tennessee), and Jackson, +(Mississippi), not to mention many others. Goods +loaded into railroad cars on tracks alongside the mills, +factories and warehouses could be unloaded at destination +into warehouses and stores which also had their +tracks alongside. By this means drayage was eliminated, +and the packages could be delivered in clean +condition. Neither of these conditions was possible +where steamboat transportation was employed. +Interior points are now enabled to buy direct, either +in large or small quantities, from initial sources of +supply, and without the delay and expense incident +to shipment to river-distributing points, and trans-shipment +by rail or steamboat or hauling by waggon. +Rail transportation is also more frequent, regular, +rapid and reliable; not to mention again the convenience +which is referred to above.</p> + +<p>The transportation by river of package-freight, +such as flour, meal, meat, canned goods, dry goods, +and other commodities, has been almost entirely +superseded by rail transportation, except in regard +to short-haul local landings, where the river is more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>convenient, and the railroad may not be available. +There is some south-bound shipment of wire, nails, +and other iron goods from the Pittsburg district to +distributing points like Memphis and New Orleans, +but in these cases the consignments are exclusively +in barge-load lots. The only other commodity to +which these conditions apply is coal. This is taken +direct from the mines in the Pittsburg district, and +dropped into barges on the Monongahela River; and +these are floated down the river, during periods of +high water, in fleets of from fifty to several hundred +barges at a time.</p> + +<p>There is no movement of grain in barges from +St Louis to New Orleans, as was the case a great +many years ago. The grain for export <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viâ</i> New +Orleans is now largely moved direct in cars from +the country elevators to the elevators at New Orleans, +from which latter the grain is loaded direct into ships. +There is, also, some movement north-bound in barges +of lumber and logs from mills and forests not +accessible to railroads, but very little movement of +these or other commodities from points that are +served by railroad rails. Lumber to be shipped on +the river must be moved in barge-load quantities, and +taken to places like St Louis, where it has to be +hauled from the barge to lumber yards, and then +loaded on railroad cars, if it is going to the interior, +where a considerable proportion of the quantity +handled will be wanted. Mills reached by railroad +tracks can, and do, load in car-load quantities, and +ship to the final point of use, without the delay +incident to river transportation, and the expense +involved by transfer or re-shipment.</p> + +<p>It is not to be inferred from the foregoing that all +the distributing points along the river have dried up +since the development of rail transportation. In fact, +the contrary is the case, because the railroads have +opened up larger territories to these distributing +points, and in regard to many kinds of goods these +river points have become, in a way, initial sources +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>of supply as well as of manufacture. Memphis, for +example, has grain brought to its elevators direct +from the farms, the same as St Louis, and can and +does ship on short notice to the many towns and +communities in the territory surrounding. There +are, also, flour and meal mills, iron foundries, waggon +and furniture factories, etc., at Memphis, and at +other places. Many of the points, however, which +were once simply landings for interior towns +and communities have now become comparatively +insignificant.</p> + +<p>To sum up in a few words, I should say that the +railroads have overcome the steamboat competition +on the Mississippi River, not only by affording fair +and reasonable rates, but also because rail transportation +is more frequent, rapid, reliable, and +convenient, and is, on the whole, much cheaper.</p></div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> That canals also played their part in the transport of passengers +a hundred years ago is shown by the following items of news, which +I take from <cite>The Times</cite> of 1806:— +</p> +<p><br /> +<span class="smcap">Friday</span>, <i>December</i> 19, 1806.</p> + +<p>"The first division of the troops that are to proceed by the +Paddington Canal for Liverpool, and thence by transports for +Dublin, will leave Paddington to-day, and will be followed by +others to-morrow and Sunday. By this mode of conveyance the +men will be only seven days in reaching Liverpool, and with +comparatively little fatigue, as it would take them above fourteen +days to march that distance. Relays of fresh horses for the +canal boats have been ordered to be in readiness at all the +stages." +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monday</span>, <i>December</i> 22, 1806.<br /></p> + +<p>"Saturday the 8th Regiment embarked at the Paddington Canal +for Liverpool, in a number of barges, each containing 60 men. +This regiment consists of 950 men. The 7th Regiment embarked +at the same time in eighteen barges: they are all to proceed to +Liverpool. The Dukes of York and Sussex witnessed the embarkation. +The remainder of the brigade was to follow yesterday, +and Friday next another and very considerable embarkation will +follow."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Illustrations of the Origin and Progress of Rail and Tram +Roads, and Steam Carriages, or Locomotive Engines. By T. G. +Cumming, Surveyor, Denbigh, 1824.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> A Letter on the subject of the projected Rail-road between +Liverpool and Manchester, pointing out the necessity for its +adoption, and the manifest advantages it offers to the public; +with an exposure of the exorbitant and unjust charges of the +Water-Carriers. By Joseph Sandars, Esq., Liverpool, 1825.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Mersey and Irwell Navigation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Another of the speakers, Mr Gordon C. Thomas, engineer to +the Grand Junction Canal Company, said that "notwithstanding +the generous expenditure on maintenance, and the large sums +recently spent upon improvements, the through traffic on the +Grand Junction was only one-half of what it was fifty years ago, +and now the through traffic was in many cases unable to pay as +high a rate as the local traffic."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> In the evidence he gave before the Royal Commission on +Canals and Waterways on 21st March 1906, Sir Herbert Jekyll, +Assistant Secretary to the Board of Trade, said (as reported in <cite>The +Times</cite> of 22nd March):—"One remarkable feature was noticeable—that, +although the tonnage carried rather increased than +diminished between 1838 and 1848, the receipts fell off enormously, +pointing to the conclusion that the railway competition had brought +about a large reduction in canal companies charges. It was also +noteworthy that on many canals the decrease in receipts had +continued out of all proportion to the decrease, if any, in the +tonnage carried."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> In Mr Saner's paper the Birmingham Canal navigations are +classed among the "Independently-Owned Canals," and Mr Saner +says:—"There are 1,138 miles owned by railway companies, which +convey only 6,009,820 tons per annum, and produce a net profit +of only £40 per mile of navigation. This," he adds, "appears +to afford clear proof that the railways do not attempt to make +the most of the canals under their control." But when the +Birmingham Canal, with its 8,000,000 tons of traffic a year, is +transferred (as it ought to be) from the independently-owned +to the railway-controlled canals, entirely different figures are +shown.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The fact that coal tipped into a canal boat would have a +longer drop than coal falling from the colliery screen into railway +waggons is important because of the greater damage done to the +coal, and the consequent decrease in value.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Fuller information respecting traffic conditions in Continental +countries will be found in my book on "Railways and Their Rates."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The figures for the years 1860 to 1890 are taken from the +"Report of the Committee on Canals of New York State," 1900, +General Francis V. Greene, chairman; and those for 1900 and +1903 from the "Annual Report of Superintendent of Public Works, +New York State," 1903.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> "The St Lawrence River and the Great Lakes whose waters +flow through it into the Atlantic form a continuous waterway +extending from the Fond du Lac, at the head of Lake Superior, to +the Straits of Belle Isle, a distance of 2,384 miles.... Emptying +into the St Lawrence ... are the Ottawa and Richlieu Rivers, the +former bringing it into communication with the immense timber +forests of Ontario, and the latter connecting it with Lake Champion +in the United States. These rivers were the thoroughfares in +peace and the base lines in war for the Indian tribes long before +the white man appeared in the Western Hemisphere.... The +early colonists found them the convenient and almost the only +channels of intercourse among themselves and with the home +country.... The St Lawrence was navigable for sea-going +vessels as far as Montreal, but between Montreal and the foot +of Lake Ontario there was a succession of rapids separated by +navigable reaches.... The head of navigation on the Ottawa +River is the city of Ottawa.... Between this city and the mouth +of the river there are several impassable rapids. The Richlieu +was also so much obstructed at various points as to be unavailable +for navigation.... The canal system of Canada ... has been +established to overcome these obstructions by artificial channels at +various points to render freely navigable the national routes of +transportation."—<cite>"Highways of Commerce," issued by the Bureau +of Statistics, Department of State, Washington.</cite></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The use of a larger type of canal boat is generally regarded as +an essential part of the resuscitation scheme. But of the narrow +boats now in active service in the canals of the United Kingdom +there are from 10,000 to 11,000. What is to be done with these? +If they are scrap-heaped, and fresh boats substituted, we increase +still further the sum total of the outlay the scheme will involve.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> At the Society of Arts' Conference on Canals, in 1888, Mr L. F. +Vernon-Harcourt said:—"The statistics show that great caution +must be exercised in the selection of canal routes for improvement, +if they are to prove a commercial success, and that the +scope for such schemes is strictly limited. Any attempt at a +general revival and improvement of the canal system throughout +England cannot prove financially successful, as local canals, +through thinly populated agricultural districts, could not compete +with railways. These routes alone should be selected for enlargement +of waterway which lead direct from the sea to large and +increasing towns like the proposed canal from the Bristol Channel +to Birmingham, or which, like the Aire and Calder Navigation +and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, are suitably set for the conveyance +of coal and general bulky goods to populous districts. +One or two through routes to London from manufacturing +centres, or from coal-mining districts, might have a prospect of +success, provided the existing canals along the route could be +acquired at a small cost, and the necessary improvement works +were not heavy."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> There are even those who argue that the resuscitated canals +should be toll free.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> + +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<ul class="index"> + +<li class="ifrst"> +Agriculture and canals, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aire and Calder Navigation, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Allport, Sir James, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aqueducts, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Association of Chambers of Commerce, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Barnsley Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Belgium, waterways in, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Birmingham Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Boats, size of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brecon Canal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bridgewater Canal, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bridgewater, Duke of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bridgwater and Taunton Canal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brindley, James, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brunner, Sir John T., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Buckley, Mr R. B., <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Caledonian Railway Company, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Canada, waterways in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Canals, earliest, in England, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">canal mania, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">passenger traffic, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">shares and dividends, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">tolls and charges, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">handicapped, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">attitude towards railways, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Kennet and Avon, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Shropshire Union, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Forth and Clyde, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">"strangulation" theory, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Birmingham Canal, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">coal traffic, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">canals and waterways on the Continent, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">in the United States, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">in England, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">in Canada, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">conclusions and recommendations, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Capitalists, attitude of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Carnegie, Mr, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chesterfield Canal, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Child, Messrs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Coal, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Consignments, sizes of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Continental conditions, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cost of reconstruction, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cotton, raw, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Coventry Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cox, M.P., Mr Harold, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cromford Canal, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cumming, Mr T. G., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Dixon, Professor F. H., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dredging, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Electrical installations, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ellesmere Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Engineers and canal question, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Erie Canal, the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Fish, Mr Stuyvesant, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Forth and Clyde Navigation, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li class="indx">France, waterways in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Frost on canals, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst"><cite>Gentleman's Magazine</cite>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Geographical conditions, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Germany, waterways in, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Glass, Mr John, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Government guarantee, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></li> +<li class="indx">Grand Junction Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grand Western Canal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Great Northern Railway, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Great Western Railway Company, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grinling, Mr C. H., <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Hertslet, Sir E. Cecil, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Holland, waterways in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Huddersfield Narrow Canal, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hudson, George, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Inglis, Mr J. C., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Jackson, Mr Luis, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jebb, Mr G. R., <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jekyll, Sir Herbert, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Kennet and Avon Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lancaster Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Languedoc Canal, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Leeds and Liverpool Canal, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Leicester and Swinnington Railway, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lift at Anderton, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Liverpool and Manchester Railway, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Liverpool merchants, petition from, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Local taxation, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Locks, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + +<li class="indx">London and North-Western Railway Company, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li class="indx">London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Company, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li class="indx">London County Council, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Loughborough Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Macclesfield Canal, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Manchester and Bury Canal, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Manchester Ship Canal, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li class="indx">McAdam, J. L., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mechanical haulage, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Meiklejohn, Professor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mersey and Irwell Navigation, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mersey Harbour Board, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Midland Railway, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mining operations and canals, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mississippi, the, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Monmouthshire Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Morrison, Mr, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln Railway Company (Great Central), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Municipalisation schemes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Nationalisation of canals, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Neath Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">North British Railway, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + +<li class="indx">North-Eastern Railway, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Old Union Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Oxford Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Packhorse period, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Paddington Canal, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Physical conditions, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Political conditions, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Principle, questions of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Private enterprise, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Profits on canals, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Public trusts, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pumping machinery, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst"><cite>Quarterly Review</cite>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Railways, position of companies as ratepayers, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">cost of railway construction and operation, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">effect on railway rates, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">advent of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Liverpool and Manchester Railway, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Leicester and Swinnington Railway, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Midland Railway, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Great Northern Railway, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">attitude of canal companies towards, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">control of canals, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">railways in Germany, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li class="isub2">in France, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">recommendations, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></li> +<li class="indx">Ratepayers, liability of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rates, regulation of, on railways and canals, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Regents Canal, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rennie, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Road-motors, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rochdale Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ross, Mr A., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Royal Commission on Canals and Waterways, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Sandars, Mr Joseph, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Saner, Mr J. A., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sankey Brook and St Helen's Canal, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Saunders, Mr H. J., <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Select Committee on Canals (1883), <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Shropshire Union Canal, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Somerset Coal Canal, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Speed, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stalbridge, Lord, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stephenson, George, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stephenson, Robert, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stourbridge Extension Canal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">"Strangulation" theory, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stratford-upon-Avon Canal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Swansea Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Taxpayers, how affected, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Telford, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thames and Severn Canal, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thames steamboat service, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thomas, Mr G. C., <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thwaite, Mr, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Trade, changes in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Traders, advice to, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Trent and Mersey Navigation, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Troops, transport of, by canal, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tunnels, canal, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Ulrich, Herr Franz, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx">United States, waterways in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Vernon-Harcourt, Mr L. F., <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Walker, Colonel, F. N. T., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Water-supply for canals, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wheeler, Mr W. H., <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Widenings, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wilts and Berks Canal, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Worcester and Birmingham Canal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +</ul> +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a><br /><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="center bigger">WORKS BY EDWIN A. PRATT</p> + + +<p class="center big">THE TRANSITION IN AGRICULTURE</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Crown 8vo. 350 pp. Illustrations and Plans. 5s. net.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"A book of great value to all interested in farming. Discusses, as +correctly as possible, the hopeful development of subsidiary branches of +agriculture, the prospects of co-operation, and the principles on which +small holdings may be increased."—<cite>The Outlook.</cite></p></div> + + +<p class="center big">THE ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURE</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Cheaper and Enlarged Edition. Paper covers. 1s. net.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The first impression produced on the mind of the thoughtful reader +by a perusal of Mr Pratt's book is that, in one form or another, agricultural +co-operation is inevitable.... To attempt to stand against the pressure +of cosmopolitan conditions is as futile as Mrs Partington's attempt to keep +back the Atlantic with a mop."—<cite>Guardian.</cite></p></div> + + +<p class="center big">RAILWAYS AND THEIR RATES</p> + +<p class="center">WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE BRITISH CANAL PROBLEM</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Cheap Edition. Paper Covers. 1s. net.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"A valuable book for railwaymen, traders, and others who are +interested, either theoretically or practically, in the larger aspect of +the economic problem of how goods are best brought to market."—<cite>Scotsman.</cite></p></div> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="big">OUR WATERWAYS</span><br /> +<br /> +A HISTORY OF INLAND NAVIGATION CONSIDERED AS A BRANCH OF WATER CONSERVANCY<br /> +<br /> +By URQUHART A. FORBES<br /> +<small>Of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law;</small><br /> +AND<br /> +W. H. R. ASHFORD<br /> +<br /> +<i>With a Map especially prepared to illustrate the book. Demy 8vo. 12s. net.</i><br /> +</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"The history of these canals and waterways, and of the law relating to +them, is clearly set forth in the excellent work. Should become <em>the</em> +standard work of reference upon the subject."—<cite>The Standard.</cite></p></div> + + +<p class="center mt2"><span class="big">MUNICIPAL TRADE</span><br /> +<br /> +THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES RESULTING FROM THE SUBSTITUTION +OF REPRESENTATIVE BODIES FOR PRIVATE PROPRIETORS +IN THE MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL UNDERTAKINGS<br /> +<br /> +By Major LEONARD DARWIN<br /> + +<small>Author of "Bimetallism."</small><br /> +<br /> +<i>Demy 8vo. 12s. net.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"This work should be carefully studied, for there cannot be a better +guide to the understanding and solution of a difficult problem."—<cite>Local +Government Chronicle.</cite></p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p> + + + +<p class="center mt2"><span class="big">MODERN TARIFF HISTORY</span><br /> +SHOWING THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF TARIFFS IN GERMANY +FRANCE, AND THE UNITED STATES<br /> +<br /> +By PERCY ASHLEY, M.A.<br /> + +<small>Lecturer at the London School of Economics in the University of London</small><br /> +<br /> +With an Introduction by the<br /> +Rt. Hon. R. B. HALDANE, LL.D., K.C., M.P.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Demy 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.</i></p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"... A careful, fair, and accurate review of the modern fiscal history +of three countries."—<cite>Times.</cite></p></div> + + + +<p class="center mt2"><span class="big">LOCAL AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT</span><br /> +A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ENGLAND, FRANCE, PRUSSIA, AND THE +UNITED STATES<br /> +<br /> +By PERCY ASHLEY, M.A.</p> + + + + +<p class="center mt2"><span class="big">THE BRITISH TRADE YEAR-BOOK</span><br /> +COVERING THE 25 YEARS 1880-1904, AND SHOWING THE COURSE OF +TRADE<br /> +<br /> +By JOHN HOLT SCHOOLING<br /> +<br /> + +<i>With 191 tables, each containing several sections of British or of International +Trade. 46 Diagrams and various abstract Tables. 10s. 6d. net.</i><br /> +<br /> +This is the ONLY BOOK that shows the COURSE OF TRADE.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>"We believe, after careful examination, that Mr Schooling has dealt +in a strictly honest and impartial fashion with the material at his disposal. +Readers of the book cannot fail to get much insight into the course of +trade from Mr Schooling's clear-sighted methods."—<cite>Times.</cite></p></div> + + + + +<p class="center mt2"><span class="big">THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TAXATION</span><br /> +<br /> +By G. ARMITAGE SMITH<br /> + +<small>Principal of Birkbeck College.</small><br /> +<br /> +<i>Crown 8vo. 5s.</i></p> + + +<p>CHAPTER I.—<span class="smcap">The Grounds and Nature of Public Expenditure.</span> +II.—<span class="smcap">Sources of Imperial Revenue, and Theories of +Taxation.</span> III.—<span class="smcap">Principles of Taxation.</span> IV.—<span class="smcap">Direct Taxation—Taxes +on Property and Income.</span> V.—<span class="smcap">Indirect Taxation—Taxes +on Commodities and Acts.</span> VI.—<span class="smcap">Incidence of Taxation.</span> +VII.—<span class="smcap">National Debts.</span> VIII.—<span class="smcap">Some other Revenue Systems.</span> +IX.—<span class="smcap">Local Taxation.</span></p> + + + + +<p class="center mt2"><span class="big">THE RAILWAYS AND THE TRADERS</span><br /> +<br /> +A SKETCH OF THE RAILWAY RATES QUESTION IN THEORY AND +PRACTICE<br /> +<br /> +By W. M. ACWORTH, M.A. (Oxon.),<br /> +<small>And of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law.</small><br /> +<br /> +<i>New Impression. Crown 8vo. In Paper Covers. 1s. net.</i></p> + + +<p class="center mt2"> +<span class="smcap">London: JOHN MURRAY, Albemarle Street, W.</span><br /> +</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> + + + +<p class="center big mt2"> +PRINTED AT THE EDINBURGH PRESS,<br /> +9 AND 11 YOUNG STREET<br /> +</p> + +<div class="transnote"> +<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2> +<p>Minor punctuation and printer errors repaired.</p> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 47435 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/47435-h/images/cover.jpg b/47435-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d4af51f --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_032fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_032fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ce6bf75 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_032fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_042fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_042fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..be6348f --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_042fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_048fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_048fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..086f34c --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_048fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_054fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_054fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b15d4fd --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_054fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_056fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_056fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8019d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_056fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_070fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_070fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0a0701e --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_070fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_082fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_082fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f311fcd --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_082fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_088fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_088fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c5df041 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_088fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_098fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_098fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ec9008 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_098fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_110fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_110fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b6f4322 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_110fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_114fpa.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_114fpa.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e0c47f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_114fpa.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_114fpb.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_114fpb.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5c06967 --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_114fpb.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_128fp.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_128fp.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..76cea5b --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_128fp.jpg diff --git a/47435-h/images/i_frontis.jpg b/47435-h/images/i_frontis.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8f3b9c --- /dev/null +++ b/47435-h/images/i_frontis.jpg |
