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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Popular Science Monthly, February, 1900, by William Jay Youmans.
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<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 47181 ***</div>
<div class="transnote">
<p class="center">Transcriber’s note: Table of Contents added by Transcriber.</p>
</div>
<h2 class="p2 nobreak">CONTENTS</h2>
<table class="vspace" summary="Contents">
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#south">South Sea Bubbles in Science</a></td>
<td class="tdr">401</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#what">What Makes the Trolley Car Go</a></td>
<td class="tdr">408</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#christian">Is the Christian Religion Declining?</a></td>
<td class="tdr">423</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#century">A Century of Geology</a></td>
<td class="tdr">431</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#applications">The Applications of Explosives</a></td>
<td class="tdr">444</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#progress">A Year’s Progress in the Klondike</a></td>
<td class="tdr">456</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#decline">The Decline of Criminal Jurisprudence in America</a></td>
<td class="tdr">466</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#blind">The Blind Fishes of North America</a></td>
<td class="tdr">473</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#man">The Man of Science in Practical Affairs</a></td>
<td class="tdr">487</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#forenoon">Forenoon and Afternoon</a></td>
<td class="tdr">492</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#president">President Jordan’s “Neminism.”</a></td>
<td class="tdr">494</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#correspondence">Correspondence</a></td>
<td class="tdr">497</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#editor">Editor’s Table</a></td>
<td class="tdr">501</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#fragments">Fragments of Science</a></td>
<td class="tdr">505</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#minor">Minor Paragraphs</a></td>
<td class="tdr">510</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl"><a href="#publications">Publications Received</a></td>
<td class="tdr">512</td></tr>
</table>
<hr />
<p class="newpage p4 center bold">Established by Edward L. Youmans</p>
<h1 class="p2 nobreak vspace gesperrt"><span class="smaller">APPLETONS’</span><br />
POPULAR SCIENCE<br />
MONTHLY</h1>
<p class="p2 center vspace">EDITED BY<br />
<span class="larger">WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS</span></p>
<p class="p2 center vspace"><span class="larger">VOL. LVI</span><br />
NOVEMBER, 1899, TO APRIL, 1900</p>
<p class="p2 center vspace"><span class="gesperrt">NEW YORK<br />
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY</span><br />
1900</p>
<p class="p2 center">
<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1900,<br />
<span class="larger">By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.</span></span>
</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">401</a></span></p>
<hr />
<h2 class="larger vspace gesperrt">
<span class="larger">APPLETONS’<br />
POPULAR SCIENCE<br />
MONTHLY.</span></h2>
<p class="p2 center bold">FEBRUARY, 1900.</p>
<hr />
<h2 title="SOUTH SEA BUBBLES IN SCIENCE" id="south">SOUTH SEA BUBBLES IN SCIENCE.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By Prof. JOHN TROWBRIDGE</span>,<br />
<span class="small">DIRECTOR OF JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.</span></span></h2>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">The</span> advances in science lead to hopes of the sudden accumulation
of gold, just as the discovery of new worlds led our
ancestors to invest in many inflated enterprises of commerce and
conquest. This older temptation has passed away, for there are
no new worlds to discover, and this small globe has been practically
staked out; but the mysterious domains of science are still illimitable,
and afford vast opportunities for inflated schemes which have
their prototype in the South Sea Bubble.</p>
<p>Let us refresh our memory of this surprising delusion. It arose
in the reign of Queen Anne, nearly one hundred and eighty years
ago, and when we consider the extent of the speculation and gambling
which it caused and the number of those who lost everything
and who consigned their families to bitter poverty, we are tempted
to class it with those other calamities which preceded it and which
afflicted England so heavily—the great fire of London and the
plague. The South Sea Company claimed to have enormous
sources of profit in certain exclusive privileges, obtained from the
Spanish Government, for trading in their possessions in South
America and Mexico; and it may be well for us in these times of
the flotation of schemes for obtaining gold from salt water and
from sands, of power from air and something more ethereal than
air, to be reminded of the many bubbles that came into existence
and burst at the time of the collapse of the South Sea Bubble.</p>
<p>The stock of the South Sea Company rose from one hundred
to a thousand, and an army of future victims crowded the offices of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">402</a></span>
the company, anxious to invest in what they believed would suddenly
enrich them. Indeed, all England seemed to go mad, and
the craze of the time is reflected in the writings of Pope and Swift.
Pope says:</p>
<div class="poem-container">
<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="iq">“At length corruption like a general flood<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Did deluge all; and avarice creeping on,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Spread like a low-born mist, and hid the sun.<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Peeress and butler shared alike the box;<br /></span>
<span class="i0">And judges jobbed, and bishops bit the town,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">And mighty dukes packed cards for half a crown;<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Britain was sunk in lucre’s sordid charms.”<br /></span>
</div></div>
</div>
<p>The rise of the great bubble was accompanied by the formation
of hundreds of minor ones. Among these we will mention a few
which are pertinent to the subject of this paper:</p>
<p>A wheel for perpetual motion. Capital, one million pounds.</p>
<p>For extracting silver from lead.</p>
<p>For the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal.</p>
<p>Puckles Machine Company, for discharging round and square
cannon balls and bullets, and making a total revolution in “the
art of war.”</p>
<p>For carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, “but
nobody to know what it is.”</p>
<p>It is estimated that the proposed capital for floating these and
similar schemes was three hundred million pounds. We find, in
the annals of the time, that the Duchess of Marlborough persuaded
her husband, John Churchill, the great general, not to
increase his holdings, and to sell his shares; he, like a sensible man,
took a sensible woman’s advice and made one hundred thousand
pounds. When we come to speak of the connection of women with
modern delusions, we must remember this act of one of their sex.</p>
<p>At this time, nearly two hundred years after the singular outbreak
of chimerical projects of Queen Anne’s reign, we can match
some of these bubbles almost exactly; for have we not had the
Keeley motor, the extraction of gold from salt water, and is there
not great activity in making the wonder of the public over some
advance in science a source of money-making? The unscientific
person is certainly open to a new danger in the increasing tendency
to promote enterprises based upon some new scientific discovery,
and it behooves the followers of science to suggest a remedy for
this growing evil. I shall endeavor to do my part in this paper
in pointing out the necessity of some oracular medium—a scientific
oracle of Delphos—to which the common man can repair and get
trustworthy information, for it is a melancholy fact that such information<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">403</a></span>
can not be obtained from the daily press or from the literary
magazines of the time.</p>
<p>Many of our newspapers draw such an income from their advertising
columns that the editors are unwilling to print any criticism
which would lead to the restriction of this source of gain; thus if
a company promoting a scientific bubble should advertise liberally
in a leading newspaper, the editors are usually loath to insert an
article upon the scheme, for the printing of the criticism might
lead to the withdrawal of the advertisement. It is possible that
the editors of such daily papers have not overmuch confidence in
the judgment of scientific men, for have not the latter often been
mistaken? There was Lardner, who prophesied that steamships
could not cross the Atlantic, but we must remember that Lardner
was not a scientific man; he was a popularizer of science, and never
made a scientific investigation. It is said that there have been college
professors who have denied the possibility of sending messages
under the ocean. This I also doubt, for I am a witness in the flesh
of the way such stories can arise. Not long since I was invited
to speak before a commercial club, and the presiding officer, in introducing
me, remarked: “The professor will now address you on
the advances in electricity. When I was in college I well remember
his describing an electric motor and his remark that it would
never become a practical invention.” There was, of course, laughter,
and the president sat down with a comfortable air of having
made a point. The professor pointed out that the presiding officer
graduated before he became professor in the university, and before
the Gramme machine and the electric motor were invented. Nevertheless,
the world loves to believe in the inaccuracy of the accurate,
and even a sophomore takes infinite delight in discovering
arithmetical mistakes in an edition of Newton’s <i>Principia</i>.</p>
<p>I mention this proneness to believe that scientific men are apt
to be mistaken, for it is a blame laid at their doors often by the
promoters of scientific bubbles, and for a very easily understood
reason, and the editors of newspapers and literary magazines can
ease their consciences after publishing sensational scientific articles
by reflecting on the fallibility of the followers of science. Lawyers
and judges, too, make their mistakes; nevertheless, we continue to
resort to them for advice; and few editors, I imagine, would dare
to publish a legal opinion without consulting an authority in law.
Yet we read every day so-called scientific articles in newspapers
and magazines which have evidently never been submitted to competent
critics. Have we not read statements of the possibility of
exploding powder magazines on board ships by electric waves; of
the manufacture of liquid air without the expenditure of energy;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">404</a></span>
of electricity direct from coal; papers on the nebular theory, more
nebulous than any nebula yet discovered? When we read a broad
sheet in the morning paper setting forth a glowing scheme to manufacture
power out of nothing, to what oracle can we repair to ascertain
the truth? It is true that common sense might lead the
reader to reflect that when he is told that the shares can now be
obtained for five dollars, but in a short time they will be advanced
to ten dollars, and now is the time to invest, that such good things
are quickly taken up without the necessity of advertising. When
the morning mail brings a prospectus of a company formed to make
diamonds by electricity, a company with ten million dollars capital
(why not one hundred millions?), to whom should one go to allay
the fever of sudden gain? While men and women will carefully
consider which line of steamships to Europe is the best equipped
with engines, the efficiency of which depends upon the laws that
prove the impossibility of perpetual motion, they enter at the
same time upon schemes to obtain power without the consumption
of work.</p>
<p>We are indeed confronted with the curious fact that even so-called
intelligent people can be led to believe that what we have
learned in regard to the working of Nature may be thrown aside,
and that some new and unrelated laws may rule supreme. Thus
we have what is called Christian Science, one of the intuitional
sciences which may be said to add a new peril to matrimony. We
find cultivated men believing that a government can make money
by pronouncing silver equal to gold. Thus there are those who
fondle their delusions and those who bank upon credulity. Education
seems to be ineffectual with some temperaments; on the
whole, however, it has a saving grace, and there are undoubtedly
a number in the community who would welcome a source of scientific
authority which might answer for them just as the Times does
in political and economic questions to an Englishman. The American
has especial reason to fear scientific bubbles, for our patent
laws make it comparatively easy for promoters to make a great
show of vested rights. One method is to build an imposing plant,
with powerful dynamos and with a multiplicity of electrical devices,
and to capitalize for an enormous sum an expensive plant in sight
with millions in patents of very little value. The proposed investor
is taken to see the great plant; its magnitude appeals to his
reverence for size, and his pocketbook is soon at the service of the
promoter. Another method is to select some scheme which is on
the borderland between physics and chemistry, such as the electrolytic
method of obtaining gold from salt water. There is a
minute quantity of gold in salt water, and the chemist, thinking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span>
that electricity might afford an economical method of treating large
quantities of water, is reticent in regard to such a scheme, while
the electrician, ignorant of chemistry, is ready to concede that the
chemists may have found a cheap extractor, so the promoter can
play the chemist against the electrician, and there is no arbitrator in
sight. The American is peculiarly in peril from the absence of a
large body of men trained in technical science, such as exist in Germany.
He also has been unduly excited, and his desire for love of
sudden wealth stimulated by phenomenal successes. The commercial
triumph of the telephone has led to a multitude of scientific
bubbles, and has resulted, like the discovery of gold in the Klondike,
in a rush into electrical schemes which have been held up to
a hungry crowd of victims as second only to the Bell telephone.</p>
<p>While the telegraph and the telephone can prevent speculations
like the South Sea Bubble in a great measure, for such schemes
were much aided by a lack of a general dissemination of intelligence,
and this lack is supplied by a quick interchange of knowledge,
they bring their own peculiar peril, for they are examples
of what profit may be reaped from discovery in the world of science.
The commercial enterprises of the world have been brought within
reach of the many by the telegraph and telephone. They no longer
belong to the few, while the successful working of the field of science
is still confined to a minority and the general public; even
the cultivated people are very ignorant of the approaches to the
New El Dorado. No bogus land scheme or salted mining enterprise
can be kept in existence to-day for a long period; but the
Keeley motor, with its ethereal vibrations and its pseudo-molecular
motions, was limited in activity only by the life of the promoter.
Instead of the alchemists we have the seekers after power, which
costs nothing, and in the train of the honest inventor there are
unscrupulous promoters ready to capitalize any remarkable new
fact or discovery which attracts public attention.</p>
<p>I have mentioned the influence of the first Duchess of Marlborough
in inducing her husband, the great duke, to sell out his
shares in the South Sea Bubble when they had risen to a high value
because this example of discrimination and prudence in a woman
supports one in the belief that all women are not prone to invest
in women’s bank schemes, in Keeley motors, or in enterprises for
“carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to
know what it is.” One of my friends recently visited the office
of a company which proposed to produce power without the expenditure
of a due amount of energy, and found among those anxious
to invest a woman who said that she had just received a dividend
from the company for extracting gold from salt water, and she was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span>
anxious to invest it in the new power company. The dividend was
the result of a liquidation of the Gold from Sea Water Company,
and represented half of her original sum. She had come out of
one delusion with a loss of half of her property, and was now
ready to enter another one with the remaining half. It was an
old-fashioned notion that women should be kept in ignorance of
business, for business knowledge, it was thought, was the concern
of the husbands. This notion prevails still in some quarters, and
there may be some connection between the number of women in
Christian Science temples and their lack of education in practical
matters, or in what may be called the legal business habit—a habit
which weighs the probabilities of this and that, and leads to ways
of exact thinking.</p>
<p>One of the remedies for this proneness of women to invest in
scientific bubbles, to invest money on faith, is the lack of exact
training, which is not acquired by them either in private schools
or colleges. The classes of philosophy and psychology in women’s
colleges are crowded, while those in the exact sciences have only
handfuls. This remark also applies to the students in men’s colleges,
and we realize in this respect how closely college women imitate
college men. They follow the latter also in the habit of taking
lecture courses, a custom which increases vagueness, inaccuracy of
thought, and looseness of statement. This choice of studies by the
young women in their colleges is a serious question for mankind,
in view of the speculative spirit which the feminine sex show toward
scientific bubbles and schemes which promise an inordinate rate
of interest; for the graduates of these colleges will become teachers
of youth, and if not teachers they have an influence upon the coming
citizen during his formative period. As teachers they will far
outnumber men teachers, and they are fast coming into competition
with men also in the routine of business offices and in certain
positions in commercial houses. In these activities they will need
a balance of judgment, exactness of thought, and business habits.
They should be given a sufficient knowledge of the elements of
physical science to know that power can not be created from nothing,
and that the great mass of our knowledge of mechanics and of
the relation of electricity to mechanics can not be overturned by
any new discovery. Whatever is discovered must be related to
what has preceded it. This is a characteristic of a science, and this
is what distinguishes it from a delusion—namely, the great body
of related facts put upon a mechanical basis, so that any fact can
be substantiated and any phenomenon repeated. When this latter
test is applied to many of the isms of the day they fade into thin
air, and young women need especially to be taught to apply such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">407</a></span>
a test. It would seem as if the present choice of study by women
students tended to intensify vagueness of thought rather than to
correct it, to keep them in ignorance of business habits rather than
to educate them in the balance of judgment on economic questions.</p>
<p>Women are born speculators, and are peculiarly prone to invest
money and heart in bubbles. Being the power behind the throne,
they can carry men into action, and it seems to me that especial
attention should be paid in women’s colleges to the studies that
cultivate accurate thought and business methods. A certain amount
of the study of scientific methods and a study of common law might
take the place of the study of philosophy, psychology, and biology,
certainly in the first years of a woman’s college course, for psychology
and biology are studies which demand long scientific training
and maturity of thought. Recently I heard the following conversation
at a bank in Cambridge. The cashier was speaking with a
young lady: “Miss ——, your friend has overdrawn her account
three hundred dollars, and you say she has left Cambridge.” “Yes,
the trouble with Jane is she is too much educated.” A long residence
in a university town makes one wary of educational theories,
but the proneness of women to invest in women’s banks and bogus
trust companies certainly seems to need a corrective in a new college
curriculum. Men can indulge in delusions and can recover
mental balance, and perhaps their fortunes; but women are apt to
become bankrupt permanently. Their experience in business delusions
is similar to that in affairs of the heart. Washington Irving
says of this feminine attribute:</p>
<p>“She sends forth her sympathies on adventure; she embarks
her whole soul in the traffic of affection, and if shipwrecked her case
is hopeless, for it is a bankruptcy of the heart.”</p>
<p>More mathematics and science, and less philosophy and psychology,
might correct that vagueness of thought which leads both men
and women into delusion.</p>
<p>Now for our other remedies. Shall we have an academy which
shall issue storm warnings of scientific bubbles? I fear that the
influence of academies is waning, and that the conviction that there
are as many good men outside of the academy as inside would
militate against their dicta. We could have courts of scientific
appeal, with judges appointed by the State to sit on scientific questions
of perplexity, and to sift expert opinions. Such a constitution
of scientific courts might be a good thing in several ways—a
saving health to the public. The college professor would certainly
be greatly relieved of endeavors of promoters to use the name and
reputation of the professor’s university, and incidentally the little
his own name might add. This remedial solution is not in sight,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">408</a></span>
and we must direct our vision in another direction. We know
that the newspaper can not serve us, for we seek to kill sensations,
and it seeks to live on them. We are bound to turn to some journal
or periodical which will publish only what it considers sound
science and will eschew sensational science; a journal which, just
as the London Times is regarded as the authority on political and
economical questions, will be looked up to as an authority on matters
of science.</p>
<p>In order, therefore, to protect the public against scientific bubbles
we must impress upon both men and women the fact that an
education in science is desirable, and is becoming more important
as the world grows older; but until a scientific education becomes
more general, it is important that there should be some scientific
oracle of Delphos, and I can not think of any better than a well-managed
scientific journal, the editors of which will seek for the
best information on scientific questions which interest the financial
world. When it is known that such a journal admits to its pages
nothing that is sensational, when it is realized that the best specialists
contribute to it, surely it will become a saving help in times
of trouble.</p>
<hr />
<h2 title="WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO" id="what">WHAT MAKES THE TROLLEY CAR GO.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By WILLIAM BAXTER, Jr., C. E.</span></span></h2>
<div class="foot1">
<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The illustrations of railway generator and switchboard were made from photographs
kindly furnished by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company.</p>
<p>For the photographs of the electric truck and car controller we are indebted to the
courtesy of the General Electric Company.</p></div>
<h3>II.</h3>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">If</span> the successful operation of a street-railway car by mechanical
power depended wholly upon the ability to produce a motor of
sufficient capacity to do the work, the problem would be an easy
one to solve, and would have been solved long before the advent
of the electric motor. Mere ability to furnish the necessary power,
however, is not enough to meet the requirements. As already
shown, the mechanism must be light, strong, compact, simple, and
so well protected that it can not be injured except under abnormal
conditions. In addition, speed-controlling devices must be provided
whereby the velocity may be changed at will and in the shortest
possible time, and with as nearly absolute precision as possible.
This controlling mechanism must also be so arranged that the direction
of motion may be varied with the greatest certainty and as
rapidly as may at any time be required. The way in which these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span>
results are accomplished in an electrically operated car can be
understood from <a href="#ip_410">Figs. 18 and 19</a>, which are line drawings, in a
simplified form, of an ordinary trolley car. <a href="#ip_410">Fig. 18</a> is an elevation
showing the outline of the car body and the wheels in broken
lines, while the motors and the wires through which the current is
conveyed thereto are drawn in solid lines. <a href="#ip_410">Fig. 19</a> is a plan in
which the outline of the car floor and the platforms is represented
in broken lines, the solid lines being the motors and connecting
wires.</p>
<p>In almost every instance railway cars are provided with two
motors, as shown at <i>M M</i> in these two figures. This arrangement
is adopted not because one motor can not furnish all the power
required, but simply for the purpose of making the equipment more
reliable. Everything of human make is liable to fail; hence if
only one motor were used there would be more or less liability of
its giving out at a critical moment, and then the car would be helpless.
If two motors are provided, should one give out the car
would not be disabled, for the remaining machine would be able
to run it to its destination. In order that this result may be successfully
accomplished, each motor is made of sufficient capacity
to run the car without being overtaxed, unless the load is abnormally
large; but even under the latter conditions the machine will
in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred withstand the strain. Some
roads, in small towns, where the traffic is light and the expense
must be kept down to the lowest point, use single-motor cars, so
as to effect a saving in first cost. This course, however, is very
seldom followed, except in places where there are no heavy grades
or where there is very little probability of the loads becoming excessive,
except at rare intervals. If the cars are provided with a
single motor, when one becomes disabled from any cause it has to
wait until overtaken by the car behind it, so that it may be pushed
by the latter to the end of the road.</p>
<p>The electric current for operating the motors is generated in
a power house that is located at some convenient point along the
route. The current is conveyed to the moving cars by means of
a trolley wire, which is marked <i>T</i> in the drawings. Unless the
road is very small and operates but a few cars, this wire will not
be sufficient to carry all the current, hence in most cases there are
a number of supplementary wires, which are called feeders. These
wires are carried along on poles, and at proper intervals are connected
with the trolley wire <i>T</i>. The electric current passes from
the trolley wire through the motors on the car, and thence to the
rails <i>R</i>, and through these, and also through the ground, back to
the power house. The exact path of the current is as follows:</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span></p>
<div id="ip_410" class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"><img src="images/illo_012.jpg" width="463" height="600" alt="" /><div class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Figs. 18, 19.—Outline Elevation and Plan of Electric Railway Car, showing Location
of Motors, Controlling Switches, and Connecting Wires.</span></div></div>
<p>From the trolley wire, through the trolley pole <i>t</i>, to the fixture
on top of the car which holds the latter. From this fixture, as
shown by the heavy full line, the current passes to <i>a</i>, which is a
switch located under the car hood overhanging the platform.
From this switch the current passes to a similar one, marked <i>b</i>,
located in a like position at the other end of the car. These two
switches are called emergency switches; they are provided simply
as a safety device, and are used only when the main switches get
out of order and the motorman can not turn the current off in the
regular way. From the last hood switch <i>b</i> the current passes to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">411</a></span>
the bottom of the car, where it enters the wire <i>d d</i> at the point <i>c</i>.
This wire <i>d d</i>, as will be seen, runs in both directions, and ends in
the stands <i>C C</i>. These latter are the controlling switches, and are
provided with a handle <i>h</i>, by means of which the current is turned
on or off from the motors, and is directed through them in such a
way as to make the car run in whichever direction may be desired.
From the controllers <i>C C</i> several wires are run under the car, as
shown at <i>e e e</i>. These wires are generally bunched into one or
two cables, but they are kept separate from each other by means
of strong insulating coverings. Four wires lead into each motor,
and three or four into each of the boxes marked <i>G G</i>. If the
motors were required to run in one direction only, then two wires
would be sufficient to convey the current to them; but as they have
to run in either direction, at least three wires are necessary, but in
almost every case four are used, as the results obtained thereby are
more satisfactory. The boxes <i>G G</i> are called rheostats, and are
simply devices through which the current is run so as to reduce
the speed of the car, and also for the purpose of graduating the
strength of the current that passes through the motors in the act
of starting. These rheostats are very seldom in use when the car
is in motion, because it is a waste of power to pass the current
through them. After the current has passed through the motors
it enters the ironwork, and thus gets into the car wheels and
finally to the track.</p>
<p>The lines drawn in <a href="#ip_410">Fig. 18</a> to indicate the position of the wires
in the car do not show their actual position, but only the general
direction they follow. From the trolley base to the first hood
switch the wire, as a rule, is run along the car roof on one side of
the ventilator, and the wire leading from the first to the second
hood switch occupies a corresponding position on the opposite side
of the roof. From the last hood switch, <i>b</i>, the wire is run down
one corner of the car body, being either within the car body, or, if
not, so covered by moldings as to not be reached by the hands of
passengers. The wires <i>d</i> and <i>e</i> are generally run under the car,
and are firmly secured to it by means of suitable fastenings.</p>
<p>The controlling switches <i>C C</i> are provided with one and sometimes
two handles, one of which is used to regulate the speed of
the car and stop and start it, while the other is for the purpose of
reversing the direction in which it runs. The handle <i>h</i> is for the
purpose of regulating the speed, and by means of <i>k</i> the direction
of motion is changed. Before <i>h</i> is moved from the inactive position
<i>k</i> is turned so that the car may run either forward or backward,
as may be desired; then, when <i>h</i> is moved, the car will start, and by
varying the position of <i>h</i> the speed can be changed. If it is desired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span>
to reverse the car, <i>h</i> is brought back to the stop position, <i>k</i> is
shifted to the reverse motion, and then <i>h</i> is again turned to the
running position. When the controlling switch is provided with
only one handle this is turned in one direction to run the car ahead,
and in the opposite direction to run it backward, the graduations
in velocity being obtained by placing the handle in positions intermediate
between the stop position and the highest speed position.</p>
<p>As will be noticed, the wire <i>d d</i> branches at <i>c</i> and runs in both
directions. Now, when the controller handles are both turned to
the stop position the current from the trolley can get no farther
than the ends of <i>d</i> in either switch, but if one of them is turned
to the running position, the current at once passes to the wires in
the cable <i>e e e</i>, and thus to the two motors. If the switches <i>C C</i>
are in proper working order and there is no disarrangement of the
wires leading to the motors or those within the latter, the current
will obey the movements of the handle <i>h</i>, but under other conditions
it may not. If such an emergency arises, the motorman
reaches up to the hood and turns the safety switch <i>a</i> or <i>b</i>, and thus
cuts the current off.</p>
<p>The force with which the motors turn the car wheels around
depends upon the strength of the current; this is owing to the fact
that the magnetic force is increased or decreased by variations in
the current strength. If the current is doubled the magnetic force
of the armature is nearly doubled, and so is that of the field magnet,
therefore the pull between the poles is nearly four times as
great. From this it will be seen that the force with which the car
is pushed ahead can be increased enormously by a comparatively
small increase in the strength of the current. If the current
strength is doubled, the propelling force is practically quadrupled;
and if the current is increased four times, the propelling force is
made nearly sixteen times as great.</p>
<p>The speed at which the car runs depends upon the force that
impels the current through the wire, and which is called electro-motive
force. The greater the electro-motive force, the higher
the velocity. If the current passes from the wires in the cable
<i>e e e</i> through each motor separately, and thence to the rails <i>R</i>, each
machine will receive the effect of the whole electro-motive force
of the current; but if after the current has passed through one
motor it is directed through the other, then each machine will be
acted upon by only one half the electro-motive force, and, as can
be seen at once, the velocity in the first instance will be twice as
great as in the last. This fact is taken advantage of in regulating
the speed of the car, and controlling switches arranged so as to
direct the current through the motors in this way are designated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">413</a></span>
as belonging to the series parallel type, the name being given from
the fact that when the car is running slow, the current passes
through the two motors in series—that is, through one after the
other; but when the motors are running fast, a separate current
passes through each machine.</p>
<div id="ip_413" class="figcenter" style="width: 575px;"><img src="images/illo_015.jpg" width="575" height="431" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.—View of Electric Railway Truck with One Motor on each Axle and provided
with Magnetic Brakes.</span></div></div>
<p>If, when a car is running, the controlling switch is turned to
cut the current off, the effect will be that the speed will gradually
reduce; but if it is desired to effect a sudden stop, it becomes necessary
to check the headway by means of a brake. For this purpose
the hand brake ordinarily used on all types of cars is employed,
but magnetic brakes are also used in some cases. <a href="#ip_413">Fig. 20</a> shows
a car truck equipped with two motors and magnetic brakes, one
on each axle. Looking at the front end of the truck, the brake
is seen on the left side of the axle, between the motor bearing and
the car wheel. The larger drum, on the right side, is the casing
within which the gear wheel and pinion are inclosed. These magnetic
brakes are operated by a current generated by the motors, and
not by that of the main line. As was explained in the first article,
an electric motor can be made to act as a generator of electric current
by simply reversing the direction in which the armature revolves.
If we do not desire to reverse the direction of rotation,
the result can still be attained by reversing the direction in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span>
the current passes through the armature coils. It is evident that
the direction of a car motor can not be reversed at the instant that
it is desired to have it act as a generator—that is, when it is desired
to put the brakes on; hence the direction of the current
through the armature is reversed.</p>
<p>When a car is provided with magnetic brakes, the controlling
switches are so made that when the handle <i>h</i> is moved back to the
stop position it disconnects the motors from the trolley wire and at
the same time connects them with the magnetic brakes in such
a manner that they will act as generators and thus send current
through the coils of the latter. In order that the force with
which the brakes are applied may be graduated, the controlling
switches are arranged so as to be moved several steps back of the
point which in the ordinary type of switch would be the final stop
position. When the handle <i>h</i> is placed on the first brake position
the current generated by the motors is not very strong, and as a
consequence the force of the brake is light, but sufficient to bring
the car to a stop in a reasonable distance. If a quicker stop is
desired the handle is moved to the second, third, or fourth brake
position, thus increasing the retarding force as much as may be
desired. Magnetic brakes are very desirable, as they save the car
wheels, and furthermore afford an additional safety in cases where
it is necessary to arrest the speed instantly.</p>
<p>The position of the motors with reference to the truck and car
wheels is very well shown in <a href="#ip_413">Fig. 20</a>, and also the manner in which
they are held in place. The covers of the openings through which
access to the commutator brushes is obtained are removed from
both motors, and in the forward one the top of the commutator
and one of the brushes can be readily seen. The manner in which
the motors are suspended from the truck is not the same in this
figure as in those previously shown, but this is simply because the
machines are not made by the same concern, and each manufacturer
has his own design.</p>
<p><a href="#ip_415">Fig. 21</a> shows the appearance of the interior of the controlling
switches <i>C C</i>, <a href="#ip_410">Figs. 18 and 19</a>. It will be noticed that there are
two upright shafts, the ends of which project above the top of the
box. The handle <i>h</i> is placed upon the shaft to the left, and <i>k</i> on
that to the right. The first is the main controller, and the other
is the reversing switch. It will be noticed that the main controller
shaft carries a number of circular segments of different
lengths; these are so disposed that they come in contact with suitable
stationary pieces as the handle <i>h</i> is turned around, and thus
vary the path of the current through the motors and the rheostats
in the manner required to effect the desired changes in the velocity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">415</a></span>
of the car. The reversing shaft is also provided with a number
of segments, but these are not so easily seen, although they can be
discerned on close examination. The wires from the cable <i>e e e</i>
and also wire <i>d d</i> are attached to the stationary pieces with which
the segments carried by the two shafts make contact when the
latter are moved around by the motorman. These wires can be
seen back of the main switch shaft, and also above the board located
at the lower left-hand corner. All these wires enter the controller
through an opening in the bottom.</p>
<div id="ip_415" class="figcenter" style="width: 476px;"><img src="images/illo_017.jpg" width="476" height="434" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.—View of Interior of Car Controller.</span></div></div>
<p>In addition to the apparatus shown in Figs. <a href="#ip_410">18</a> to <a href="#ip_415">21</a>, electric
cars are provided with a safety fuse and a lightning arrester, the
object of the latter being to protect the motors from the destructive
effects of lightning strokes. The object of the safety fuse is
to protect the motor from injury when the current becomes too
strong. An electric current in passing through a wire generates
heat, and the stronger the current the greater the heat. If the wire
is large and the current weak, the heat developed may be insufficient
to raise the temperature to a noticeable degree; but, on the other
hand, if the wire is small or the current very strong, the heat generated
may be capable of raising the temperature of the metal to
the fusing point. In fact, the incandescent lamp operates upon this
principle; the carbon filament is traversed by a current of a
strength sufficient to heat it to a point where it becomes intensely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">416</a></span>
luminous, and sometimes, through accident or otherwise, the current
becomes strong enough to melt the filament, and then the light
goes out. In an electric motor it is not necessary to raise the temperature
of the wire to the melting point to do serious injury; in
fact, if the heat is sufficient to char paper or cloth, the machine will
be rendered useless until suitable repairs are made. The insulation
of the wire coils is made principally of cotton, which is a very
good electrical insulator in its natural state, but when carbonized
by excessive heat it becomes a conductor. As soon as it becomes
a conductor the current is no longer confined to the proper channel,
but cuts through the insulation to find the shortest path through
the machine. If safety fuses were not provided the danger of destroying
the insulation of the motors and thus disabling the car
would be decidedly great, for, as already said, the motors can not
be stalled with an overload, the only effect produced being a reduction
in the speed and an increase in current strength. Now,
if there were no way of limiting the increase in current strength
the motors, if greatly overloaded, would continue to operate until
the insulation gave out. The safety fuse is simply a piece of wire
of such size that it will be melted by a current that the motors
can carry without being injured; hence when the current strength
reaches a point where the safety of the apparatus is endangered
the fuse melts and thus breaks the circuit and stops the further
flow of current. Fuses are generally made of an alloy that melts
at a low temperature, so that the molten metal may not set fire
to anything upon which it may fall. These easily fused alloys are
inferior to copper as electrical conductors, and on this account
the fuse wire is as a rule much larger than that wound upon the
motors, which fact makes its action somewhat mysterious to the
uninitiated; but whatever its size may be, it is so proportioned that
it will melt before the current rises to a strength that would injure
the motor coils.</p>
<p>The manner in which the electric current generated in the
power house reaches the motors is illustrated in <a href="#ip_417">Fig. 22</a>. In this
figure four tracks are shown, which may be taken to represent
roads running in as many different directions. The three squares
at the left side represent generators located in the power house.
The circles <i>a a a</i> represent switches, by means of which the generators
are connected or disconnected from the trolley lines. <i>A</i>
and <i>B</i> represent heavy metallic rods, generally made of copper,
with which the generators are connected by means of the switches
<i>a a a</i>. These rods are called bus bars. The circles <i>b b b b</i> represent
switches by means of which the current is turned on or off
from the several tracks.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span></p>
<div id="ip_417" class="figcenter" style="width: 566px;"><img src="images/illo_019.jpg" width="566" height="518" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.—Diagram illustrating the Manner in which the Electric Current flows
from the Generators to the Cars upon the Tracks.</span></div></div>
<p>Electric currents must always circulate in closed paths—that
is, the current that starts out from a generator must return to it,
and the amount coming back is the same as that which leaves.
The action of an electric generator can be understood by comparing
it with that of a water pump pumping into a pipe which runs
around from the delivery end to the suction. With such an arrangement
it can be seen that the action of the pump would be to
keep the water in circulation, but the same water would be pumped
through the pump and the pipe all the time. With an electric
generator the action is the same, and in <a href="#ip_417">Fig. 22</a> the current flowing
along any one of the tracks follows the course indicated by the
arrows. The currents pass out to the several tracks through the
trolley wires <i>T T T T</i>, and return through the tracks <i>R R R R</i>.
The bus bar <i>A</i> is connected with a plate <i>D</i>, which is imbedded in
the ground, and is also connected with the ends of the rails
<i>R R R R</i>. Suppose for a moment that the two lower generators
are out of service, their switches <i>a a</i> being turned so as to disconnect
them from the bus <i>A</i>, and, further, suppose that the three
lower <i>b</i> switches are open, so that the current can only pass to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">418</a></span>
upper track; then the top generator will feed into the top road
only. Tracing the path of the current under these conditions,
we find that it will start from the upper side of the generator
through the <i>a</i> switch to the <i>B</i> bus, and thence to the trolley wire
at the top of the figure. On reaching the first car a portion of the
current passes to the track <i>R</i>, the amount being dependent upon
the speed of the car and the load. Why the whole current does
not follow this path generally puzzles the layman, but the explanation
is that the motors hold the current back, and only allow as
much to pass through them as is necessary to perform the required
work—that is to say, the current flowing through each car is not
controlled by the generator or by the force of the current, but by
the requirements of the motors. The amount of current delivered
by the generator is governed by the demands of the motors.
The current that does not pass through the first car goes on to
the second one, and if there were more cars there would be current
left in the trolley wire to supply them. After passing through
the motors of the two cars the current returns through the rails <i>R</i>
to the plate <i>D</i>, and thus to bus <i>A</i>, from which it enters the lower
side of the top generator. It will from this explanation be seen
that the action of the generator is simply to keep the current circulating.
If two of the generators are connected with the bus
bars <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, the current required by the motors will be delivered
by the two machines, and if the three generators are placed in
service the current will be divided among them.</p>
<p>When two or more generators are used, it is necessary to provide
means to prevent the current from dividing unequally between
them; if this were not done, one machine might do nearly all the
work, while the other one would be practically idle. The means
employed to accomplish the result is simply an additional bus bar,
which is called an equalizing bus. We will not undertake to explain
the principle upon which this arrangement acts; it is sufficient
to say that by such means the work can be distributed in
amounts directly proportional to the capacity of the generators,
so that if one machine is very much larger than the others it will
take a portion of the load corresponding to its size. In order that
these results may be attained it is necessary to properly adjust the
several generators, and as no machine can be made to work with
the accuracy of perfection, the work will not be distributed in true
proportion for all conditions of load; thus if the generators are
adjusted so as to each take its proper share when all the cars are in
operation, one machine may do too much or not enough when only
one half the number are running, but the excess or deficiency will not
be more than a few per cent unless the adjustment is very defective.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span>
Electric generators for railway work are made in all sizes, from
those only large enough to operate four or five cars to others
capable of furnishing sufficient current for thirty or forty or even
more. Small generators are made so as to be driven by a belt running
over a pulley mounted on the end of the armature shaft, or
they may be arranged to be connected to the end of a steam-engine
shaft, and thus become what is called direct connected machines.
Large generators are almost invariably of the latter type. A machine
of this class is illustrated in <a href="#ip_419">Fig. 23</a>. The driving engine is
shown at <i>E</i>, the cylinder being in the background and the crank
toward the front, the shaft being clearly seen at <i>S</i>, while <i>F</i> is the
fly wheel. The generator is mounted directly upon the engine
shaft, between the bearing at the crank end and the fly wheel.
The large ring marked <i>G</i> is the field magnet ring, and at <i>D D D</i> the
field coils are shown. These coils are equally spaced all the way
around the circle. The commutator is marked <i>C</i>, and the commutator
brushes are located at <i>B B</i>. The armature can not be
seen very well, as it is covered by the brush holders and their supporting
frames, but it is located within the ring <i>G</i> in the position
designated by <i>A</i>. This machine is one of a number used to operate
the roads of Troy, N. Y., and is of about one-thousand-horsepower
capacity, which is enough to furnish all the current required
to run sixty or seventy cars.</p>
<div id="ip_419" class="figcenter" style="width: 565px;"><img src="images/illo_021.jpg" width="565" height="407" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.—Large-Size Direct connected Electric Railway Generator.</span></div></div>
<p>The switches <i>a a</i> and <i>b b</i>, shown in <a href="#ip_417">Fig. 22</a>, and the bus bars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span>
<i>A B</i>, are mounted upon a large panel, made of marble or slate,
called a switch board. These switches are sufficient for the purpose
of turning the current on or off any track or for connecting
and disconnecting the generators, but for the successful operation
of the plant it is necessary to have other devices by means of
which the strength of the current may be ascertained, and also the
electro-motive force. It is necessary to provide each generator
with means for varying the electro-motive force of the current it
generates, otherwise the load could not be properly equalized between
the several machines. All these different devices are located
upon the switch board, so as to have them in an accessible position.
A railway switch board, arranged for four generators and a large
number of distributing circuits, is shown in <a href="#ip_421">Fig. 24</a>. The four
generator switches are shown at <i>a a a a</i>, and the circles marked <i>R</i>,
directly under them, are the devices by means of which the electro-motive
force of the current is regulated. These devices are called
field regulators, from the fact that their office is to regulate the
strength of the field magnets of the generators, making them
stronger to increase the electro-motive force and weaker to reduce
it. The part seen upon the front of the switch board is not the
regulator proper, but only the handle and the contact points over
which this swings. The instruments marked <i>A A A A</i> are for measuring
the strength of the current of each individual generator, and
are called ammeters. The instruments marked <i>V V V V</i> are for
the purpose of indicating the electro-motive force of the currents
of the several generators, and are called voltmeters. <i>Ag</i> is an
ammeter used to measure the strength of the total current, and
<i>Vg</i> is a voltmeter that indicates the electro-motive force of the
current passing out to the cars on the various lines. The ammeter
<i>Ag</i> is not an actual necessity, for the strength of the total current
can be ascertained by adding the readings of the four instruments
connected with the generators, but it is a convenience, as it saves
the trouble of performing the addition. The voltmeter <i>Vg</i>, however,
can not be regarded in this light; in fact, its presence is
decidedly serviceable, for it indicates the average electro-motive
force of all the generators; therefore if any one of the instruments
<i>V V V V</i> is higher or lower it shows at once that the generator
to which it is attached is out of adjustment and not doing its proper
share of the work. The switches <i>b b b</i>, by means of which the current
is turned on to the several external circuits, are shown at the
extreme end of the switch board.</p>
<p>The instrument marked <i>W</i>, located between the <i>a</i> switches, is
called a wattmeter, and its office is to indicate the amount of power
furnished by the generators. This instrument is not always used,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">421</a></span>
as it is a convenience but not a necessity. It can be seen at once
that whether it is used or not, the amount of power required to
operate the roads will be the same, but it is thought by most railroad
managers that it is desirable, for then the relation between
the coal consumed and the power developed can be seen; and if
the showing is not as good as it should be, the engineer can remind
the firemen that they are not exercising as much care in feeding
the boilers as they should. Considered in this light, the watt-meter
acts as a check to wastefulness on the part of the employees.</p>
<div id="ip_421" class="figcenter" style="width: 572px;"><img src="images/illo_023.jpg" width="572" height="366" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.—Electric Railway Switchboard.</span></div></div>
<p>The instruments marked <i>C C C C</i> serve the same purpose in
connection with the generators as the safety fuses do with respect
to the car motors; they are electro-magnetic devices used to open
the generator circuits whenever the current reaches a strength that
is sufficient to injure the machine. These devices are called circuit
breakers. As will be noticed, there are four located directly above
the four <i>a</i> switches, and, at the farther end of the board, a large
number located directly above the <i>b</i> switches. The latter act to open
the individual circuits when the currents flowing in them become
too strong, and the former are controlled entirely by the current of
the generator circuits. A circuit breaker is more reliable than a
safety fuse, because it acts quicker. With the fuse the current
must act for some time before it can melt the metal, as a sufficient
amount of heat can not be generated instantly. With the circuit
breaker, however, the action is instantaneous, for as soon as the
current reaches the predetermined strength the magnetism of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span>
operative parts of the device becomes sufficiently strong to cause
it to act. A circuit breaker is simply a switch that is arranged to
be opened automatically by the action of a magnet, instead of by
the hand of the operator. The switch part of the apparatus is
held in place by a catch that is set much after the fashion of the
catch in a mouse trap—that is, so that the least pressure will disengage
it. A strong spring acts to throw the switch open, and as
soon as the catch is tripped by the actuating magnet the force of
the spring comes into action and the circuit is opened.</p>
<p>The circuit breaker is a very valuable apparatus, for it frequently
happens that, through delays of one kind or another, a
large number of cars concentrate at one point on the road, and, as
all the motormen are anxious to make headway, they all start up
at once at the first opportunity. If there were no circuit breakers
at the power house the result would be that some of the generators
would be greatly overloaded and perhaps disabled; but, owing to
the presence of the circuit breakers, the actual result is that the circuit
is broken, and then the motormen have to wait until the current
is turned on again. If too many of them try to start their
cars at the second trial the current will again stop. After two
or three ineffectual efforts have been made to start all the cars
together the motormen will conclude to go easy, and set a few in
motion at a time. In this way the cars will become more evenly
distributed along the line, and the demand for current at the point
of blockade will reduce to the normal amount, or nearly so, and
the running of the cars will continue without further interruption,
for the current drawn by the motors having been reduced to the
average amount, the circuit breaker will cease to act.</p>
<p>The bus bars and all the connections between them and the
generators and external circuits, as well as with all the instruments,
are located behind the switch board. All these connections are so
secured that they can not come in contact with each other except
where contacts are required; care is also taken to prevent any connection
being made with the iron framing that supports the marble
slabs. The front of a switch board is generally very attractive,
the surface being of highly polished marble, while all the switches
and instruments are finely finished and, as a rule, of decidedly
ornamental design.</p>
<p>The switch board might be looked upon as the fountain head
from which the entire operation of an electric railway system is
controlled. By the movement of one set of switches upon it the
generators are thrown in or out of service, and by the movement
of another set of switches the several branches of the road are
rendered active or inactive.</p>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span></p>
<h2 id="christian">IS THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION DECLINING?<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By the Rev. CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D. D.</span>,<br />
<span class="small">PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY.</span></span></h2>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">The</span> question whether the Christian religion is declining is agitating
the public mind in some measure at the present time.
This is due to the many changes that are taking place in the forms
of religion, the types of doctrine, and the methods of action in the
numerous religious organizations which bear the name of Jesus
Christ. Are these changes symptoms of disease and decay in the
Christian religion, or are they evidences of renewed vitality and
enlargement by growth? It is quite evident that many things
which have been regarded as important and even essential in the
past have declined in importance, and some of them seem to be
on the eve of disappearing altogether. It is not surprising that
those who have been trained to regard these as essential to Christianity
should think that the Christian religion is declining with
them. If, however, these things are not so important as has been
supposed, but have gained for a time an exaggerated importance,
then their decline to their normal position and the advance of
other things to their rightful place, as more important things than
has hitherto been supposed—all this is evidence of a healthful advance
in Christianity. This question, therefore, will be answered
in accordance with the point of view of the one who considers it.
If it is to be answered correctly we must put aside all prejudice,
and examine the whole situation candidly and with a critical scientific
spirit. It is impracticable within the bounds of this article
to examine this question on all sides. We can only make a few
suggestions relating to it.</p>
<p>It is necessary at the outset to approach the question aright.
We must distinguish between what is essential to the Christian
religion and what is non-essential. This is not so easy a task as
one might imagine. We can only make this distinction generally,
and not with scientific precision. In the study of religions we
have to distinguish (1) the more fundamental things in the historical
institutions and experience in life; (2) the doctrines which
express the popular belief or scientific knowledge of the adherents
of the religion; and (3) the expression of the religion in ethical
principles and moral conduct. The order of development is always
life, doctrine, morals. The earlier stages of the Christian religion
and of Christian experience at any time and in any community is
the vital experience and the institutional organization. Doctrines
of faith and knowledge presuppose the vital relation, and morals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">424</a></span>
presuppose both, and conduct is the final aim and crown of the
whole development. And yet there are some scholars who exaggerate
the relative importance of each one of the three in its relation
to the other two and to the whole.</p>
<p>In our age greater attention is given to Christian ethics and
sociology than ever before. A man who has the ethical enthusiasm
of our times is inclined to criticise historical Christianity with great
severity, because of its failure to realize the highest ethical ideals,
and especially those presented by Jesus in his teaching and his example.
Historical Christianity is so far below these ideals, even
in its best types, that one is inclined to say if the Church has failed
so badly in nineteen centuries, what prospect has it in the present
or the future? Some good men in our times are disgruntled with
historical Christianity for its ethical failures, and keep aloof from
the Church on that account; but these are after all proportionately
few, and they are unreasonable, for they exaggerate the ethical
phase of Christianity over against the doctrinal and the vital;
they fail to see what is necessarily involved in the development
of the Christian religion, that the ethical age should come last of
all; and they also are not just in their estimate of Christian history,
for, notwithstanding the failure of the Church, there has been
a wonderful and steady ethical advance through the centuries. Indeed,
it is Christianity itself which is chiefly responsible for the
ethical enthusiasm of the present time, and this is an evidence that
Christianity is about to enter upon the last and highest stage of its
development. Holy love in principle and practice in the liberty
of self-sacrifice is better understood in the Church to-day than
ever before, and it is becoming more influential in the Church and
in the world. The Church is about to put forth the supreme ethical
influence of holy love to transform society and the lives of men.</p>
<p>In large sections of the Church the greatest stress is still laid
upon Christian doctrine, especially as expressed in dogmatic forms.
If a man thinks that orthodox doctrine is the test of a healthful
and vigorous church, he will make that the determining element
in his judgment whether Christianity is advancing or declining.
In this sphere we have to distinguish three things: (1) The popular
orthodoxy, which is determined by the consensus of teaching from
the pulpit; (2) the scholarly orthodoxy, which is determined by
the teaching of the theologian from the chairs of the theological
schools and in text-books of dogmatic theology; (3) the official
orthodoxy, which is determined by creeds, liturgies, confessions of
faith, and canons of the Church.</p>
<p>There can be no doubt that there has been a great overturning
of dogma in our times, and it is altogether probable that this will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">425</a></span>
assume much greater dimensions. Many think that dogma has
had an exaggerated importance in the past, and, from their point
of view, the Christian religion has made an advance by pushing
dogma back to a less dominant position. Those who maintain that
dogma is of supreme importance naturally think that the Christian
religion declines when dogma is discredited in the Christian
community. There can be little doubt that a large number of
men absent themselves from church attendance because they dislike
the popular orthodoxy, which seems to them antiquated, unscientific,
and untrue. Many refuse to unite with religious organizations
which are dominated by an orthodoxy representing the
theories of scholastic theology. Many remain apart from the
churches because they are unwilling to be responsible in any way
for their official orthodoxy. Many, born and trained in Presbyterian
families, refuse to remain in an organization which is
responsible for the hard doctrines set forth in the Westminster
Confession. Many Methodists refuse to be compromised by Wesley’s
doctrines and Wesley’s rules of life. Many refuse to remain
Baptists because of what is involved in close communion. Many
refuse to be Episcopalians because they resent the doctrines and
practices of sacerdotalism. And so we could find, more or less
in all religious communions, a dissatisfaction with dogmas—sometimes
superficial, giving a plausible excuse for absence, sometimes
profound, inciting active hostility to the Church. If all of these
dissatisfied ones are to be regarded as hostile or indifferent to Christianity,
then it is evident that an army of Christians have practically
separated themselves from the Church in our time, and we
must say that Christianity has in this respect declined. If, on the
other hand, we think that these dissatisfied and disgruntled ones
are yet Christians, and that they are maintaining their faith in
Christ in opposition to an unreasonable church, that they are exerting
an important influence in the transformation of the dogmas of
the Church, then we may say that this is an evidence that Christianity
is in a state of transition, that it is on the move away from
an untenable position of exaggerated dogma to a truer and stronger
position, in which dogma will be transformed and given its normal
place and importance.</p>
<p>The effort to throw off the bondage of the popular and the scholastic
dogma is an advance, and not a decline; it is an advance into
the realm of freedom. It first gives the possibility of a critical
re-examination of the dogmatic faith of the Church. Only by the
application of the scientific methods of our age to dogma is it possible
for our age to verify dogma and accept it as valid and reliable.
We can not rely on anything that is merely traditional or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">426</a></span>
the product of the logical analysis of premises which remain themselves
unverified. The revolt against the confessional orthodoxy,
especially in the Presbyterian, Reformed, and Lutheran Churches,
is not a sign of decline, as some think, but a wholesome movement
which indicates a determination to know the truth and to hold
nothing but the truth.</p>
<p>The Chicago-Lambeth articles, adopted by the whole Anglican
communion throughout the world, reduces the essential doctrines
of Christ’s Church to the Nicene Creed and the Apostles’ Creed;
those creeds in which all the great historical churches, the Greek
and the Oriental, the Roman and the Protestant, agree. This
marks a dogmatic advance, not a dogmatic decline, because it makes
the distinction between the essential and unessential doctrines, it
defines essential doctrines by holding up ancient fundamental historical
creeds; it thereby represents all other matters as within
the realm of the unessential doctrines, the province of Christian
liberty.</p>
<p>The churches are therefore readjusting themselves in their relation
to Christian doctrine, and the Christian community is readjusting
itself likewise. The offensive features of Christian dogma,
while still retained and advocated by some theologians and some
communions, have been in great measure removed by other theologians
and communions, and the process is going on with great
rapidity. The war against science, criticism, literature, and art—all
that is characteristic of our age—is gradually being limited to
a smaller number of theologians and denominations, and there is
ever an increasing number of theologians and churches which fully
recognize all the achievements of modern times and who are at
work in harmonizing them with the verified Christian dogmas in a
larger, grander system—in a new theology representing all that is
noblest and best in Christianity as applied to the modern world.
While this process is going on, the dissatisfied ones will take some
little time to find their new church homes and to adjust themselves
to new conditions and circumstances.</p>
<p>So far as the great mass of mankind is concerned, the chief
factor in the Christian religion is the fundamental one of the Christian
life and the Christian institution, and the advance or decline
of Christianity will be judged from this point of view. Here, however,
we must recognize that there are several types of religious
life which sometimes combine in one community, but which ordinarily
exist apart as characteristic of different temperaments, different
nations, different races. The lines of cleavage in historical
Christianity are for the most part racial, national, or temperamental.
We have to take this into account when we consider the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">427</a></span>
religious life and institutions of different countries. What a difference
there is in religion from this point of view in the great
centers, such as Rome, St. Petersburg, Berlin, London, Edinburgh,
New York! That man would go far astray who should undertake
to use any one of these as a test of any or of all the others.</p>
<p>Let us consider, for example, the question of participation in
the services of the Church. Rome has apparently, from a Protestant
point of view, an abnormal number of churches, and in these
churches an extraordinary number of chapels and altars. The
reason for this is that there is an immense number of clergy in
Rome, and all these altars are needed that they may perform the
most important of their duties—the sacrifice of the mass. The
churches, chapels, and altars are not erected for the people merely—if
so, vastly fewer would be necessary—but for the priests who
sacrifice for the people even when they are absent. Berlin has
apparently very few churches, and these are not always well attended
by the people, and are used infrequently except on Sundays.
Judging from this, it would be a very irreligious city;
but any one who really knows Berlin would not say that it is less
religious than Rome. The religion of the German people finds
its expression in a mystic type of personal piety and of family
and social life; it maintains and propagates itself without frequent
attendance upon public worship.</p>
<p>In London regular attendance upon public worship is commonly
regarded as indispensable for the maintenance of the Christian
religion. Therefore Christian people frequent the churches
to an extent that is unknown on the continent of Europe. But
to make the British habit of frequenting the Church for public
worship a test of the vitality of the Christian religion in the
great cities of the Continent would be altogether unjust and
untrue. The historical development of religion in Great Britain
has brought about an entirely different state of affairs there
from that which we find everywhere else in the world. The situation
in Great Britain is therefore special, peculiar, and, one might
say, abnormal as compared with the situation in other parts of the
world. In the United States the original population was chiefly
British, and therefore followed British methods in religion. But
in the present century our land, and especially our cities, have filled
up with a population from the continent of Europe, bringing with
them Continental methods of worship which would not yield to or
readily adopt British methods. Intermarriage with the British
stock and familiar converse in society have tended to assimilation,
and therefore the situation has gradually and inevitably emerged
that the Christianity of New York and Chicago and our other great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">428</a></span>
cities has assumed an intermediate position between that of the
Continent and that of Great Britain. The religious customs characteristic
of British Christianity have undoubtedly declined—they
have yielded to the influence of Continental Christianity. If British
Christianity is the norm by which we are to judge, then Christianity
has declined in the United States. If, however, it is not
the norm, then it might appear that an intermediate position, such
as we have attained by the assimilation of the British and the Continental
types, may be a real advance and gain, because of the appropriation
of some of the best features of both methods and the
rubbing off of some of the eccentricities and excrescences of both.
A decline in the relative attendance upon the public worship, and
especially upon the second service on Sunday, is exactly what we
would anticipate under the circumstances. It is altogether probable
that the decline is much less than we had the right to expect
in view of the vast influence exerted upon us by Continental types
of Christianity during the past half century. And it is altogether
probable that the decline has not reached its normal goal. Especially
is this the case when we take into consideration other influences
which tend to diminish the attendance upon public worship.</p>
<p>1. In Great Britain, where the churches were established by law,
the state and Church were so entwined that it was a badge of good
citizenship to attend upon public worship. In antithesis with this,
attendance of the nonconformists upon public worship was regarded
as a standing by their principles and a test of fidelity and
courage. These influences worked also in the United States during
the colonial period; but during the present century this motive
has lost its influence, and it is to be feared that politicians as
such feel under no special obligation to attend church, especially
in view of the attitude of many of the ministry as to political life
and political questions.</p>
<p>2. In Great Britain it has been a badge of social propriety to
attend public worship. Social influences still prevail greatly in the
United States, in villages and small cities, and even to some extent
in the churches in the great cities, where they are organized and
conducted in social lines as social religious clubs. But this influence
is much weaker than it used to be, and it is gradually passing
away.</p>
<p>3. The pulpit was once the chief means of instruction and of
intellectual and moral stimulation for the people. The preacher
was the people’s orator. The pulpit has in great measure lost its
attractive power in this regard. The daily and weekly press have
a greater influence in public instruction. The multiplication of
cheap books also takes from the preacher a large share of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">429</a></span>
influence in this regard. Oratory in legislative bodies has to a
great extent lost its influence. Its place has been taken by simple,
compact, time-saving statements, often printed but not delivered.
Committees do the work which used to be done after discussion before
the public. So the people will not listen now to the pulpit
orator of former generations. They demand short, crisp sermons
that bristle with points, and are practical and helpful. In other
words, the oratorical and highly intellectual character of the pulpit
which used to attract worshipers no longer attracts them.
They feel that they can get more benefit in this regard by reading
in the comfort of the home. Multitudes of people can no longer
be induced to attend church to be instructed by the minister or to
get his judgment on topics of the time, or to be stirred by his eloquence;
they can get all these things cheaper and easier by reading
at home. When, now, this is re-enforced by the fact that multitudes
dislike the doctrines of the Church, and resent them when
they are preached, we can easily understand that church attendance
should decline very greatly from this reason.</p>
<p>But this is no evidence that the Christian religion has declined.
If men absent themselves from public worship because it is no
longer necessary for them, as good citizens and as respectable members
of society, to attend, or because they may get their instruction
and stimulation elsewhere easier and with less expenditure of time
and money, that is simply an evidence that attendance upon church
in the past has been due in great measure to other than religious
reasons, and that, these no longer holding, attendance has disappeared
with them. The attendance upon public worship, though
reduced so far as number is concerned, is now more simply and
purely for religious reasons, and therefore minister and people may
with greater freedom make the services more distinctly religious.</p>
<p>This is indeed the real situation that has emerged. The sermon
has declined relatively in importance, and rightly so. It had
an exaggerated importance in the Protestant Church, especially in
the non-liturgical churches. There is a world-wide tendency now,
which is increasing in power, to improve and enlarge the worship
of the Church. Liturgies and ceremonies of worship are more
discussed now in the Protestant world than are sermons and lectures,
because it is becoming every day more evident that the
Church is organized for common prayer and for public worship,
and not merely to furnish a pulpit for a minister. The pulpit is
more and more being merged in the worship, and is losing its domination
over the worship. With this tendency goes increased attention
to the Holy Sacraments, especially the Holy Communion, more
frequent celebrations and more frequent participation, increased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">430</a></span>
opportunity of worship during Sunday and during the week, and
also therewith the greatly increased attention to the organization
of the Church for aggressive Christian work. Those who think
that the pulpit is everything in the public service naturally suppose
that with the decline of the pulpit Christianity declines, but those
who think that public worship is the essential thing in the Church
rejoice at the changes that are taking place, and hold that Christianity
is advancing. They maintain that it is not so important for
the Church to gather large crowds to listen to the sermon as it
is for the church doors to be ever open, with frequent services for
the convenience and help of worshipers at any time, without regard
to whether they are few or many, assured that thereby a much
greater number of people are reached and benefited than by the
former limited methods.</p>
<p>It is sometimes said that biblical criticism has undermined
faith in Holy Scripture, and that, therefore, many absent themselves
from public worship. But there is no real evidence for it.
I doubt not that the opponents of biblical criticism drive many
people from their congregations, just as they do when they attack
the sure results of modern science, or expose their ignorance in the
discussion of political and economical questions in which they have
not been trained; but these people simply remove to other congregations
where they will not be offended by obscurantism and intolerance.
Biblical criticism really makes the Bible more attractive
to the people, and its reading and exposition more interesting and
influential in the Church.</p>
<p>A careful study of the situation makes it evident that the Christian
religion is not declining in our land; but it is passing through
a transition state, putting off antiquated dogmas, customs, and
methods, and adapting itself to the modern world, and transferring
itself so as to better accomplish its work. In no age has Christianity
made more advance than in the century now drawing to a close.</p>
<hr class="note" />
<p>The Indians of Bolivia are described by Sir Martin Conway as “an
exceedingly bigoted folk, retaining under a mask of Christianity their
ancient superstitions, little altered,” and are kept in order by priestly
management rather than by force. Mr. Conway was seriously interfered
with by them in the prosecution of his researches because the nature of
his undertaking involved some outrage to their superstitions. They regard
the mountains above the level of habitation as part of the other
world, and holding, among other fancies, that a golden bull and a golden
cross planted by supernatural agency stood on the summit of one of
the peaks round the base of Mount Serata, thought that the object of
the explorer’s expedition could be nothing else than to obtain possession
of these priceless treasures. Hence they offered formidable opposition
to him.</p>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">431</a></span></p>
<h2 id="century">A CENTURY OF <span class="locked">GEOLOGY.<a name="FNanchor_A" id="FNanchor_A" href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor smaller">A</a></span><br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By Prof. JOSEPH LE CONTE.</span></span></h2>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_A" id="Footnote_A" href="#FNanchor_A" class="fnanchor">A</a> In this article I have attempted to give only the development of geological thought.</p></div>
<p class="drop-cap4"><span class="smcap1">Geology</span> is one of the youngest of the sciences. It may
almost be said to have been born of the present century. It
is true that knowledge concerning the structure of the earth had
been accumulating ever since the time of the Greeks and Romans;
it is true that these materials became more abundant and were
better organized in the eighteenth century; but this knowledge had
not yet taken form as a distinct branch of science until about the
end of that century. There are two distinctive marks of scientific
as compared with popular knowledge: First, that its fundamental
idea is clearly conceived; and, second, that its method is
distinctly inductive.</p>
<p>1. <span class="smcap">Fundamental Idea.</span>—The fundamental idea underlying
geological thought is the history of the earth. Now, until the beginning
of the present century the earth was not supposed to have
any history. It was supposed to have been made at once, out of
hand, about six thousand years ago, and to have remained substantially
unchanged ever since as the necessary theater of human history.
Changes were known to have taken place and in less degree
to be still taking place, but these were not supposed to follow any
law such as is necessary to constitute a history, and thus to constitute
a science distinct from geography. Buffon, about the middle
of the last century, did indeed bring out dimly the idea of an
abyss of time, preceding the advent of man, in which the earth
was inhabited by animals and plants wholly different from those
of the present day, but he was compelled by the priests of the Sorbonne
to retract these supposed irreligious views. So tardily was
the fundamental idea of geology clearly conceived that Comte,
the great originator of scientific philosophy, in his classification of
the sciences in 1820, denied a place to geology because, according
to him, it was not a distinct science at all, but only a field for the
application of all the sciences. It is evident that he did not perceive
the fundamental idea underlying geology and distinguishing
it from geography—viz., a life history of the earth through all
time. The claim of geology to a place in a scheme of classification
is exactly the same as that of astronomy. As astronomy is a field
for the application of mathematics, mechanics, physics, and, recently,
chemistry, but is distinguished from them all by its characteristic
fundamental idea of illimitable space, so geology is a field
for the application of all other lower sciences, but is distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">432</a></span>
from them all by her characteristic fundamental idea of illimitable
time. As all other sciences are terrestrial, but astronomy
alone celestial, so all other sciences belong to the present—the
“<i>now</i>”—but geology alone belongs to the illimitable past. The
fundamental idea of the one is infinite <i>space</i>, of the other infinite,
in sense of inconceivable, <i>time</i>. All other sciences, including astronomy,
are but a flash-light view of Nature. Geology alone is
a view of Nature in continuous movement, a life history—an evolution
of Nature. This mode of thought began to dawn only in
the closing years of the last and the opening years of the present
century. It seems to have been first clearly conceived by the mind
of Hutton in the last part of the eighteenth century.</p>
<p>2. <span class="smcap">Inductive Method Applied.</span>—When the true idea underlying
geology was clearly conceived and geology thus distinctly
separated from other departments of science, geology may be said
to have been born. But it was still in helpless infancy, its growth
irregular, and even its continuous life uncertain, because a solid
basis of inductive method was not yet laid. That basis was laid
mainly by Hutton in <span class="locked">1795,<a name="FNanchor_B" id="FNanchor_B" href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">B</a></span> and still more clearly by Charles
Lyell in 1830, in the principle that the study of <i>causes now in
operation</i> is the only true foundation of geology.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_B" id="Footnote_B" href="#FNanchor_B" class="fnanchor">B</a> Hutton’s Theory of the Earth.</p></div>
<p>Geological changes, of course, belong to the irrevocable past,
and are therefore hopelessly removed from <i>direct</i> observation.
Their causes and process must be reconstructed by the skillful use
of the scientific imagination. Until Lyell, more or less probable
hypotheses seemed all that was possible. What a field was here
for the conflict of opposite extreme views! But Lyell showed that
“causes now in operation” are producing similar effects under our
eyes, if we will only observe. From that moment geology became
a truly inductive science and its indefinite progress assured.</p>
<p>These two events, then—viz., the conception of geology as a distinct
science, and the introduction of a true scientific method—are
the greatest epochs in the history of geological science. Some dim
adumbrations of these appear before this century, especially the
former in the mind of Buffon, and the latter somewhat fully in the
mind of Hutton, but they were not generally accepted and had not
become working principles until the beginning and even some time
after the beginning of the nineteenth century. These must be
borne in mind in all we have further to say of the progress of geology
through the century.</p>
<p>When the century opened, the war between the Neptunists and
the Plutonists, between the Wernerites and the Huttonites, was
still going on, but was approaching the usual result in such cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">433</a></span>
of dispute—viz., the recognition of the fact that there was truth
on both sides, and they must be combined into a more comprehensive
view. The chief difference of opinion still remaining was as to
the relative importance of the two agencies, aqueous and igneous.
Two great advances took place about the beginning of this century:
William Smith, by patient, painstaking field observation and mapping,
laid the foundation of stratigraphy; and Cuvier, by his profound
and brilliant studies of the wonderful discoveries of extinct
mammals in the Eocene basin of Paris, laid the foundations of paleontology.
These researches placed in clearer light than ever
before the existence of other time-worlds before the present one.
William Smith published his tabular view of the British Strata in
1790, but his map was not completed and published until 1815.
Cuvier’s great work on the Organic Remains of the Paris Basin
was published in 1808.</p>
<p>Thus, early in the century the two bases of our science were
laid by Smith and Cuvier. We now proceed to touch lightly only
the main steps of subsequent growth through the century.</p>
<p>As, in the previous century and the early part of this, the discussion
was between the opposite schools of Neptunists and Plutonists,
with the final result of reconciliation in a more scientific view
which combined these two surface views into a stereoscopic reality,
so now the discussions began between catastrophism and uniformitarianism,
and ended with a similar final result. Geologists, in
the early part of the century, before the study of causes and processes
now in operation was generally acknowledged as the only
rational basis of a true scientific geology, seeing the frequent unconformities
in the geological series and the apparently sudden
changes of life forms associated with these unconformities, were
naturally led to the conclusion that the whole history of the earth
consisted of a series of sudden and violent catastrophes by which
the bed of the ocean was suddenly raised and its waters precipitated
on the land as a great wave of translation, carrying universal
ruin and extermination of all life in its course. Such catastrophes
were supposed to be followed by periods of quiet, during which the
new earth was repeopled, by direct act of creation, with new forms
of life adapted to the new conditions.</p>
<p>This view was in perfect accord with the then accepted doctrine
of the supernatural origin and the permanence of species. Species
were supposed to have been created at once, out of hand, without
natural process, in some place (center of specific origin), spread in
all directions as far as physical conditions would allow, but remained
unchanged and unchangeable as long as they continued to
live or until another universal exterminating catastrophe. Species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">434</a></span>
are “medals of creation.” They are successive individuals struck
from the same die, until the die is worn out or broken. Then a
new die is made, and the process of coinage of identical individuals
is renewed.</p>
<p>Thus the whole history of the earth was supposed to consist of
a succession of alternate supernatural and natural events. The
catastrophes were supernatural; the times of quiet were natural.
The creation of new dies or creation of first individuals was supernatural;
the coinage of individuals of successive generations was
natural. But on the whole the successive conditions of physical
geography and the successive faunas and floras were higher and
more complex according to a preordained plan. The great apostles
of catastrophism were Cuvier in France and Buckland in England.
According to Buckland, the last of these great catastrophes was
the Quaternary or drift period, and this period was, by him and by
many others since, associated with the Noachian Deluge.</p>
<p>Lyell opposed this view with all his power. According to him
we can not judge of geological causes and processes except by study
of causes and processes now in operation and producing effects
under our eyes. The slow operation of similar causes and processes
is sufficient—given time enough—to account for all the phenomena
in geological history. Thus arose the extreme opposite doctrine of
<i>uniformitarianism</i>. Things have gone on from the beginning and
throughout all time much as they are going on now. This view,
of course, required illimitable time, and was of great service in
enforcing this idea. But, in revulsion from the previous idea of
catastrophism, it undoubtedly was pushed much too far.</p>
<p>Meanwhile the theory of evolution was incubating in the mind
of Darwin. Even Lyell, while he established the doctrine of slow
uniform changes so far as inorganic Nature was concerned, was still
compelled to admit supernatural catastrophic changes in organic
Nature. Species, even for Lyell, were still immutable—still there
were supernatural creation of first individuals, and continuance of
similar individuals by natural process of generation. On the publication
of Darwin’s Origin of Species by Descent with Modification,
Lyell at once embraced the new view as a completion of his
principle of causes now in operation and his doctrine of uniformitarianism.
In a certain superficial sense evolution is certainly confirmatory
of the doctrine of uniformity of causes and processes in
the past and the present, but in a deeper sense it is quite contrary
in its spirit. Uniformitarians of the Lyell school look upon geology
as a chronicle of events—evolutionists as a life history of the
earth. The one regards the slow changes as irregular, uncertain,
without progress or purpose or goal; the other as an evolution to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">435</a></span>
higher and higher conditions, as a gradual movement onward toward
the present condition and toward man as its goal. The recognition
of this is only now approaching clearness. If geology
is the history of the evolution of the earth from primal chaos until
now, then the conditions have changed at every step, and absolute
uniformity is impossible. Extreme uniformitarianism is therefore
untenable. Catastrophism and uniformitarianism are opposite extremes
which must be combined and reconciled. This reconciliation
is only now being completed, and we therefore put off its discussion
for the present. Suffice it to say now that geologic thought
in this regard has passed through three stages—catastrophism, uniformitarianism,
and evolutionism. And this latter is the final
stage, because (1) it is a complete reconciliation between the other
two, and (2) because it is plastic and indefinitely modifiable and
progressive, while the other two are equally rigid and unchangeable
by their mutual antagonism.</p>
<p>With these fundamental principles in mind, we proceed to
touch briefly the most important advances during the century.</p>
<h3>EVOLUTION OF EARTH FORMS.</h3>
<p>The idea of the progressive development of the earth in its
greater features throughout all geologic time by the action of
forces resident in the earth itself preceded the acceptance of the
evolution of organic forms. We have said that the fundamental
idea of geology is that of the evolution of the earth through all
time. Now, it was Dana who first studied geology wholly from
this point of view. For him geology was the development of
the earth as a unit. Before him, doubtless, geology was a kind
of history—i. e., a chronicle of thrilling events—but Dana first
made it a philosophic history. Before Dana, geology was an
account of the succession of formations and their fossil contents.
Dana made it an account of the evolution of earth forms and
the concomitant and resulting evolution of organic forms. It is
true that first and for a long time his evolutional conception was
incomplete. It is true that while he attributed the evolution of
earth forms to natural causes and processes, he still shrank from
applying similar causes to the changes in life forms, but this was
the almost necessary result of the then universal belief in the
supernatural origin and the unchangeableness of organic forms.
He lived to make his conception of evolution as a natural process,
both of the earth and of organic forms, complete.</p>
<p><i>Ocean Basins and Continents.</i>—If we divide geological causes
and processes into two general kinds as to their origin—viz., internal,
or earth-derived, and external, or sun-derived—evidently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">436</a></span>
the former is the original and fundamental kind. These determine
earth forms, while the other only modify them; these determine
the great features, the other only the lesser features;
the former rough-hews the earth features, the latter shapes
them. It is the effects of these interior earth forces which are the
most important to study. And among these effects the most fundamentally
important of all is the formation of those greatest features—the
ocean basins and continental arches. The most probable
view is that they are formed by unequal radial contraction
in the secular cooling of the earth. The earth was certainly at
one time an incandescently hot mass, which gradually cooled and
contracted to its present temperature and size. Now, if it were
perfectly homogeneous both in density and in conductivity in all
parts, then, cooling and contracting equally in every part, it
would retain its symmetric oblate-spheroid form, though diminishing
in size. But if there were any, the least, heterogeneity either
in density or especially in conductivity over large areas, then the
more conductive areas, contracting more rapidly toward the center
radially, would form hollows or basins, and the less conductive areas
would stand out as higher arches. Thus were formed the oceanic
basin and the continental arches of the lithosphere. The same
causes which produced would continue to increase them, and thus the
ocean basins would increase in depth and the continents in height.</p>
<p>The hydrosphere is still to be added. In the beginning of this
process doubtless the lithosphere was hot enough to maintain all
the water in the form of vapor in the atmosphere. But when the
surface was cool enough the water would precipitate and partly or
wholly cover the earth—whether partly or wholly would depend
on the amount of precipitated water and the amount of inequality
which had already taken place. The amount of water, as we know,
is sufficient, if the inequalities were removed, to cover the whole
surface two and a half miles deep. Inasmuch as the forming of
the inequalities is progressive and still going on, it seems improbable
that the inequalities had become sufficiently great, at the time
of precipitation, to hold the waters. If this be so, then the primeval
ocean was universal and the future continents existed only as
continental banks in the universal ocean.</p>
<p>However this may have been, there seems little doubt that the
same cause which produced the inequalities continued to operate
to increase them. The ocean basins, so far as these causes are concerned,
must have become deeper and deeper, and the continents
larger and larger. In spite of many oscillations producing changes
mostly on the margins, but sometimes extending over wide areas
in the interior of the continent, this, on the whole, seems to be in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">437</a></span>
accordance with the known geological history of the earth. If so,
then <i>the oceanic basins have always been oceanic basins, and the
places of the continents have always been substantially the same</i>.
This introduces a subject on which there has been much discussion
recently—viz.:</p>
<p><i>The Permanency of Ocean Basins.</i>—Closely associated with the
Lyellian uniformitarianism was the doctrine of extreme instability
of earth features, especially the forms and places of sea and land.
Crust movements were irregularly oscillating to such a degree that
in the course of geologic history sea and land frequently and completely
changed places. Abundant evidence of this was supposed
to be found in the unconformities so frequent in the stratified
series. The tendency of that time was toward a belief in up-and-down
movements, back-and-forth changes, without discoverable
law, rather than progressive onward movement. On first thought
it might seem that such lawless movement was rather in keeping
with catastrophism than uniformitarianism. But not so, for the
movements are supposed to be very slow. Again, it might seem
on first thought that gradual progressive change—in a word, evolution—would
be peculiarly in accord with uniformitarian ideas.
But again not so, because this doctrine was, above all, a revulsion
from the idea of supernatural purpose or design or goal contained
in catastrophism. Uniformitarianism strongly inclined toward
purposelessness, because of its supposed identity with naturalism.
Thus for a long time, and still with many geologists, the tendency
is toward a belief in irregular movements without discoverable
law, toward instability of even the greatest features of the earth—viz.,
sea basins and continental arches. Geology for them is a
chronicle, not a life history.</p>
<p>The contrary movement of thought may be said to have commenced
with Dana. Dana studied the earth as a unit, as in some
sense an organism developing by forces within itself. The history
of the earth is a life history moving progressively toward its completion.
The forces originating oceanic basins and continental
arches still continue to deepen the former and enlarge the latter.
From this point of view, oceanic basins and continental arches must
have always been substantially in the same places. Oscillations
there have been at all times and in all places, but they affect mainly
the outlines of these great features, though sometimes affecting
also the interior of continents and mid-sea bottoms, but not sufficiently
to change greatly their general form, much less to interchange
their places.</p>
<p>Such is the doctrine of permanency of oceanic basins. It is
undoubtedly a true doctrine, but must not be held in the rigid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span>
form characteristic of early thought. The forces originating
oceanic basins still continue to deepen them and to increase the size
and height of continents, but other forces are at work, some antagonizing
(i. e., cutting down the continents and filling up the ocean
beds), and still others determined by causes we little understand,
by oscillations over wide areas, greatly modifying and often obscuring
the effects of the basin-making movements. Here, then,
we have two kinds of crust movements: the one fundamental and
original, determining the greatest features of the earth and moving
steadily onward in the same direction, ever increasing the features
which it originates; the other apparently lawless, uncertain, oscillating
over very wide areas, modifying and often obscuring the
effects of the former. The old uniformitarians saw only the effects
of the latter, because these are most conspicuous; the new evolutionists
add also the former and show its more fundamental character,
and thus introduce law and order into the previous chaos.
The former is the one movement which runs ever <i>in the same
direction through all geologic time</i>. The latter are the most common
and conspicuous now and in all previous geologic time. The
former underlies and conditions and unifies the history; the latter
has practically determined all the details of the drama enacted
here on the surface of the earth. Of the causes of the former we
know something, though yet imperfectly. Of the causes of the
latter we yet know absolutely nothing. We have not even begun
to speculate profitably on the subject, and hence the apparent lawlessness
of the phenomena. A fruitful theory of these must be
left to the coming century.</p>
<p><i>Mountain Ranges.</i>—If oceanic basins and continental domes
constitute the greatest features of the earth’s face, and are determined
by the most fundamental movements of the crust, surely
next in importance come great mountain ranges. These are the
glory of our earth, the culminating points of scenic beauty and
grandeur. But they are so only because they are also the culminating
points, the theaters of greatest activity, of all geological
forces, both igneous and aqueous—igneous in their formation, and
aqueous both in the preparatory sedimentation and in the final erosive
sculpturing into forms of beauty. A theory of mountain
ranges therefore lies at the bases of all theoretical geology. To
the pre-geologic mind mountains are the type of permanence and
stability. We still speak metaphorically of the <i>everlasting</i> hills.
But the first lesson taught by geology is that nothing is permanent;
everything is subject to continuous change by a process
of evolution. Mountains are no exception. We know them in
embryo in the womb of the ocean. We know the date of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">439</a></span>
birth; we trace their growth, their maturity, their decay, their
death; we even find in the folded structure of the rock, as it were,
the fossil bones of extinct mountains. In a word, we are able now
to trace the whole life history of mountains.</p>
<p>Mountains, therefore, have always been a subject of deepest
interest both to the popular and the scientific mind—an interest
intensified by the splendors of mountain scenery and the perils of
mountain exploration. The study of mountains is therefore coeval
with the study of geology. As early as the beginning of the present
century Constant Prevost observed that most characteristic
structure of mountains—viz., their folded strata—and inferred
their formation by lateral pressure. All subsequent writers have
assumed lateral pressure as somehow concerned in the formation
of mountains. But that the whole height of mountains is due
wholly to this cause was not generally admitted or even imagined
until recently. It was universally supposed that mountains were
lifted by volcanic forces from beneath, that the lifted strata broke
along the top of the arch, and melted matter was forced through between
the parted strata, pushing them back and folding them on
each side. And hence the typical form of mountain ranges is that of
a granite axis along the crest and folded strata on each flank. But
attention has lately been drawn to the fact that some mountains,
as, for example, the Appalachian, the Uintah, etc., consist of folded
strata alone, without any granite axis. In such ranges it is plain
that the whole height is due not to any force acting from below,
but to a lateral pressure crushing and folding the strata, and a
corresponding thickening and bulging of the same along the line
of crushing. Then the idea was applied to <i>all</i> mountain ranges.
So soon as the prodigious amount of erosion suffered by mountains,
greater often than all that is left of them, was fully appreciated,
it became evident that the granite axis so characteristic of mountains
was not necessarily pushed up from beneath and protruded
through the parted strata, but was in many cases only a sub-mountain
core of igneous matter slowly cooled into granite and exposed
by subsequent erosion greatest along the crest.</p>
<p>Next, attention was drawn to the enormous thickness of the
strata involved in the folded structure of mountains. From this
it became evident that the places of mountains before they were
formed were marginal sea bottoms off the coasts of continents, and
receiving the whole washings of the continents. Thus the steps
of the process of mountain formation were (1) accumulation of
sediments on offshore sea bottoms until by <i>pari passu</i> subsidence
an enormous thickness was attained. This is the <i>preparation</i>.
(2) A yielding along these lines to the increasing lateral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">440</a></span>
pressure with folding and bulging of the strata along the line of
yielding, until the mountain emerges above the ocean and is added
to the land as a coast range. This is mountain <i>birth</i>. (3) As
soon as it appears above the water it is attacked by erosive agents.
At first the rising by continuance of the crushing and bulging is
in excess of the erosion, and the mountain grows. This is mountain
<i>youth</i>. (4) Then supply and waste balance one another, and we
have mountain <i>maturity</i>. (5) Then the erosive waste exceeds the
growth by up-bulging, and mountain <i>decay</i> begins. (6) Finally,
the erosive forces triumph and the mountain is clean swept away,
leaving only the complexly folded rocks of enormous thickness to
mark the place of a former mountain. This is mountain <i>death</i>.
Such briefly is the life history of a mountain range.</p>
<p>In all this we have said nothing about causes. In this connection
there are two points of especial importance: (1) Why does
the yielding to lateral pressure take place along lines of thick sediments?
(2) What is the cause of the lateral pressure?</p>
<p>1. <i>Cause of Yielding to Lateral Pressure along Lines of Thick
Sediments.</i>—The earth was once very hot. It is still very hot
within, and still very slowly cooling. If sediments accumulate
upon a sea bottom the interior heat will tend to rise so as to keep
at the same distance from the surface. If the sediments are very
thick, say five to ten miles, their lower parts will be invaded by a
temperature of not less than 500° to 1,000° F. This temperature,
in the presence of water (the included water of the sediments),
would be sufficient to produce softening or even fusion of the sediments
and of the sea floor on which they rest. This would establish
a line of weakness, and therefore a line of yielding, crushing,
folding, bulging, and thus a mountain range. In the first formation
of a range, therefore, there would necessarily be a sub-mountain
mass of fused or semifused matter which by the lateral
crushing might be squeezed into cracks or fissures, forming dikes.
But in any case the sub-mountain mass would cool into a granite
core which by erosion may be exposed along the crest. The explanation
seems to be satisfactory.</p>
<p>2. <i>Cause of the Lateral Pressure.</i>—No question in geology has
been more discussed than this, and yet none is more difficult and
the solution of which is more uncertain. But the most obvious
and as yet the most probable view is that it is the result of the
secular contraction of the earth which has gone on throughout its
whole history, and is still going on.</p>
<p>It is admitted by all that in an earth cooling from primal incandescence
there must come a time when the surface, having become
substantially cool and receiving heat also from the sun, would no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">441</a></span>
longer cool or contract, but, the interior being still incandescently
hot, would continue to cool and contract. The interior, therefore,
cooling and contracting faster than the exterior crust, the latter
following down the ever-shrinking nucleus, would be thrust upon
itself by a lateral or tangential pressure which would be simply irresistible.
If the earth crust were a hundred times more rigid than
it is, it still must yield to the enormous pressure. It does yield
along its weakest lines with crushing, folding, bulging, and the
formation of mountain ranges.</p>
<p>This is the barest outline of the so-called “contractional theory
of mountain formation.” Very many objections have been brought
against it, some of them answerable and completely answered, but
the complete answer to others must be left to the next century.
Perhaps the greatest objection of all is the apparent insufficiency
of the cause to produce the enormous amount of folding found not
only in existing mountains but in the folded structure of rocks
where mountains no longer exist. But it will be observed that I
have thus far spoken only of contraction by loss of heat. Now,
not only has this cause been greatly underestimated by objectors,
but, as shown by Davison and especially by Van Hise, there are
many other and even greater causes of contraction. It would be
out of place to follow the discussion here. The subject is very
complex, and not yet completely settled.</p>
<p>We have given the barest outline of the history of mountain
ranges and of the theory of their formation as worked out in the
last third of the present century, and, I might add, chiefly by
American geologists. So true is this, that by some it has been
called the “American theory.”</p>
<p><i>Oscillatory Movements of the Earth’s Crust over Wide Areas.</i>—We
have already spoken of these as modifying the effect of the
ocean-basin-making movements, and therefore now touch them
very lightly. These differ from the movements producing oceanic
basins on the one hand and mountain ranges on the other, by the
fact that they are not continuously progressive in one direction, but
<i>oscillatory</i>—now up, now down, in the same place. Again, they
do not involve contraction of the whole earth, but probably are
always more or less local and compensatory—i. e., rising in one
place is compensated by down-sinking in some other place. Nevertheless,
they often affect very wide areas—sometimes, indeed, of
more than continental extent—as, for example, in the crust movements
of the Quaternary period or ice age.</p>
<p>These are by far the most frequent and most conspicuous of all
crust movements—not only now, but also in all geological times.
If ocean-basin-forming movements are the underlying cause and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">442</a></span>
condition of the evolution of the earth, these wide oscillations, by
increasing and decreasing the size and height of continents and
changing greatly their contours, have determined all the details of
the drama enacted on the surface, and were the determining cause
of the varying rates and directions of the evolution of the organic
kingdom. These were the cause of the unconformities and the corresponding
apparent wholesale changes in species so common in the
rocky strata, and which gave rise to the doctrine of catastrophism
of the early geologists. These also have so greatly modified the
contours of the continents and their size by temporary increase or
decrease that they have obscured the general law of the steady development
of these, and therefore their substantial permanency.</p>
<p>Although the most important of all crust movements in determining
the whole history of the earth, and especially of the organic
kingdom, we shall dwell no further on them, because no progress
has yet been made in their explanation. This, too, must be left
to the workers of the twentieth century.</p>
<p><i>The Principle of Isostasy.</i>—The principle of static equilibrium
as applied to earth forms was first brought forward (as so many
other valuable suggestions and anticipations in many departments
of science) by the wonderfully fertile mind of Sir John Herschel,
and used by him in the explanation of the sinking of river deltas
under the increasing weight of accumulating <span class="locked">sediments.<a name="FNanchor_C" id="FNanchor_C" href="#Footnote_C" class="fnanchor">C</a></span> It was
afterward applied to continental masses by Archbishop <span class="locked">Pratt<a name="FNanchor_D" id="FNanchor_D" href="#Footnote_D" class="fnanchor">D</a></span> and
by the Royal Astronomer Professor <span class="locked">Airy.<a name="FNanchor_E" id="FNanchor_E" href="#Footnote_E" class="fnanchor">E</a></span> But for its wide application
as a principle in geology, its clear definition, and its embodiment
in an appropriate name, we are indebted to Major Dutton,
United States <span class="locked">Army.<a name="FNanchor_F" id="FNanchor_F" href="#Footnote_F" class="fnanchor">F</a></span></p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_C" id="Footnote_C" href="#FNanchor_C" class="fnanchor">C</a> Philosophical Magazine, vol. ii, p. 212, 1837; Quarterly Journal of Geological Society,
vol. ii, p. 548, 1837.</p>
<p><a name="Footnote_D" id="Footnote_D" href="#FNanchor_D" class="fnanchor">D</a> Philosophical Magazine, vol. ix, p. 231, and vol. x, p. 240, 1855.</p>
<p><a name="Footnote_E" id="Footnote_E" href="#FNanchor_E" class="fnanchor">E</a> Philosophical Trans., 1855, p. 101.</p>
<p><a name="Footnote_F" id="Footnote_F" href="#FNanchor_F" class="fnanchor">F</a> Philosophical Society of Washington, 1892.</p></div>
<p>The principle may be briefly stated as follows: A globe so large
as the earth, under the influence of its own gravity, must behave
like a very stiffly viscous body—that is, the general form of the
earth and its greatest inequalities must be in substantial static
equilibrium. For example, the general form of the earth is oblate
spheroid, because that is the only form of equilibrium of a rotating
body. Rotation determines a distribution of gravity with latitude
which brings about this form. With any other form the earth
would be in a state of strain to which it must slowly yield, and
finally relieve itself by becoming oblate. If the rotation stopped,
the earth would accommodate itself to the new distribution of
gravity and become spherical.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span>
The same is true of the large inequalities of surface. Oceanic
basins and continental arches must be in static equilibrium or they
could not sustain themselves. In order to be in equilibrium the
sub-oceanic material must be as much more dense than the continental
and sub-continental material as the ocean bottoms are lower
than the continental surfaces. Such static equilibrium, by difference
of density, is completely explained by the mode of formation
of oceanic basins already given.</p>
<p>So also plateaus and great mountain ranges are at least partly
sustained by gravitative equilibrium, but partly also by earth rigidity.
It is only the smaller inequalities, such as ridges, peaks, valleys,
etc., that are sustained by earth rigidity alone.</p>
<p>These conclusions are not reached by physical reasonings alone,
but are also confirmed by experimental investigations. For example,
a plumb line on the plains of India is deflected indeed
toward the Himalayas, as it ought to be, but much less than it
would be if the mountain and sub-mountain mass were not less
dense and the sub-oceanic material more dense than the <span class="locked">average.<a name="FNanchor_G" id="FNanchor_G" href="#Footnote_G" class="fnanchor">G</a></span>
Again, gravitative determinations by pendulum oscillations, undertaken
by the United States along a line from the Atlantic shore
to Salt Lake City, show that the largest inequalities, such as the
Appalachian bulge, the Mississippi-basin hollow, and the Rocky
Mountain bulge, are in gravitative equilibrium—i. e., the mountain
and sub-mountain material is as much lighter as the mountain
region is higher than the Mississippi-basin region.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_G" id="Footnote_G" href="#FNanchor_G" class="fnanchor">G</a> Pratt, Philosophical Magazine, vol. ix, p. 231, 1855; vol. x, p. 340, 1855; vol. xvi,
p. 401, 1858.</p></div>
<p>Now, so sensitive is the earth to changes of gravity that, given
time enough, it responds to increase or decrease of pressure over
large areas by corresponding subsidence or elevation. Hence, all
places where great accumulations of sediment are going on are sinking
under the increased weight, and, contrarily, all places where
excessive erosion is going on, as, for example, on high plateaus and
great mountain ranges, are rising by relief of pressure.</p>
<p>This principle of isostasy is undoubtedly a valuable one, which
must be borne in mind in all our reasonings on crust movements,
although its importance has been exaggerated by some enthusiastic
supporters. Its greatest importance is not as a cause <i>initiating</i>
crust movements or determining the features of the earth, but
rather as conditioning and modifying the results produced by other
causes. The idea belongs wholly to the latter half of the present
century. Commencing about 1840, it has grown in clearness and
importance to the present time.</p>
<p class="p2 center">[<i>To be concluded.</i>]</p>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">444</a></span></p>
<h2 title="THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES" id="applications">THE APPLICATIONS OF EXPLOSIVES.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By CHARLES E. MUNROE</span>,<br />
<span class="small">PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY.</span><br />
<span class="smaller">[<i>Concluded.</i>]</span></span></h2>
<div id="ip_444" class="figcenter" style="width: 382px;"><img src="images/illo_046.jpg" width="382" height="197" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Gun Cotton Shell after Impact.</span></div></div>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">It</span> is apparent that the range of even the most highly perfected
torpedo is comparatively short, while their accuracy of travel is
low. Besides, their propelling, controlling, and discharging mechanisms
are complicated, delicate, and easily deranged, they are
very expensive, and not only the explosive chamber but the entire
system is destroyed in use. The superiority of gunpowder guns
as a means of throwing projectiles to great distances with accuracy
is well known, and their capacity for safely and efficiently
projecting shells filled with gunpowder has long been demonstrated.
It was obvious that as the superior destructive power of dynamite,
gun cotton, and other high explosives became known and their
commercial manufacture was assured, attempts would be made
to employ them as
bursting charges for
shells. Experiments
to demonstrate how
this might be done
and what effects could
be expected were begun
more than forty
years ago, and have
been continued in
many different places from time to time ever since; but while it
has proved that small charges might be fired with low velocities
and pressures in ordinary shell, and large charges in specially constructed
shell or in specially prepared forms of charge, with comparative
safety so far as the premature explosion of the explosive
charge itself is concerned, yet these bodies are so sensitive to the
shock resulting from the discharge of the propellant, the heat generated
by its combustion, and that arising from friction in the
“set-back” of the shell charge and the rotation imparted by the
rifling, that they can not be safely fired from modern high-power
guns under service conditions, particularly as these explosives all
require that the shell shall be fitted with a detonator in order that
the charge may be fully exploded. The most promising results
with explosives of this class have been obtained with compressed
wet gun cotton, which has been packed directly in the shell in
rigid blocks completely filling the shell cavity, or cut in cubes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">445</a></span>
cemented in the cavity with carnauba wax, for shell filled in the
former manner, but unfused, were repeatedly fired, in 1887 and
1888, at Newport, R. I., from 24-pounder Dahlgren howitzers and
20-pounder muzzle-loading rifles with service charges of powder,
and though they were fired point blank into the masonry escarpment
of the old fort on Rose Island, but fifty yards distant from
the muzzle, so that the shells were broken up or distorted and the
gun cotton in them subjected to a powerful compression, yet not
only was there no premature explosion, but none of the shell
exploded by impact. About the same time fused shell containing
cemented gun cotton were fired in Germany, with an initial
velocity of fourteen hundred feet per second, and they passed completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">446</a></span>
through four inches and three quarters of compound armor,
backed with twenty-four inches of oak, and burst inside the bombproof,
while in 1897 fused armor-piercing shells containing wet
gun cotton were fired from the six-inch quick-firing gun, with a muzzle
velocity of nearly nineteen
hundred feet per second, which
completely perforated three
inches of steel and burst behind
the plate. Encouraged by these
results, this system was adopted
by our army officials, but, on trial
in larger calibers at Sandy Hook,
it gave rise to premature explosions, and the tale of disaster reached
its climax on April 29, 1899, when Captain Stuart, of the Ordnance
Corps, was superintending the loading of a twelve-inch torpedo
shell with wet gun cotton by compressing it into the shell, for an
explosion resulted which killed four men instantly and fatally
wounded two others, Captain Stuart being one of them.</p>
<div id="ip_446" class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><img src="images/illo_047a.jpg" width="550" height="206" alt="" /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Sims-Dudley Pneumatic Gun, limbered up.</span><br />
<span class="notbold">(Courtesy of the Scientific American.)</span></p></div></div>
<div id="ip_446b" class="figcenter" style="width: 563px;"><img src="images/illo_047b.jpg" width="563" height="355" alt="" /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Sims-Dudley Pneumatic Gun, in Battery.</span><br />
<span class="notbold">(Courtesy of the Scientific American.)</span></p></div></div>
<div id="ip_446c" class="figleft" style="width: 285px;"><img src="images/illo_048a.jpg" width="285" height="134" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tyndall’s Bronze Bell-mouthed Gun.</span></div></div>
<p>The history of the attempts made to use nitroglycerin, dynamite,
explosive gelatin, and explosives of this class as bursting
charges for shell fired from service guns is even less satisfactory
than that given for gun cotton. It is not surprising, therefore,
that inventors should have proposed catapults, slings, rotary wheels,
and other means for projecting these powerful agents into the
enemy’s midst, but the Mefford air gun, as mounted on the United
States steamship Vesuvius, and the Sims-Dudley gun, in which a
reduced charge of powder is fired
in a chamber exterior to the gun
proper, were deemed to possess
sufficient merit to warrant their
trial in the field. These devices
were employed in the recent war
with Spain, the pneumatic guns
on the Vesuvius being used to
throw shells containing three hundred
pounds of gun cotton, while
the Sims-Dudley guns were used
on land to throw small charges
of dynamite or explosive gelatin;
but, beyond frightening the enemy by the startling character of
their reports, these superficial charges produced no serious effect.</p>
<div id="ip_446d" class="figright" style="width: 271px;"><img src="images/illo_048b.jpg" width="271" height="240" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mirror or Reflector in which to
fire Gun Cotton.</span></div></div>
<p>There is a widespread misapprehension in regard to the devastating
effect of these high explosives, for when unconfined the effect
even of large charges of them upon structures is comparatively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">447</a></span>
slight. At the Naval Ordnance Proving Ground, so long ago as
1884, repeated charges of dynamite, varying from five pounds to one
hundred pounds in weight,
were detonated on the face
of a vertical target consisting
of eleven one-inch
wrought-iron plates bolted
to a twenty-inch oak backing,
until 440 pounds of
dynamite had been so detonated
in contact with it,
and yet the target remained practically uninjured; while at Braamfontein
the accidental explosion of fifty-five tons of blasting gelatin,
which was stored in railway vans, excavated but 30,000 tons of
soft earth. This last may seem a terrible effect, but the amount
of explosive involved was enormous and the material one of the
most energetic that we possess, while if we compare it with the
action of explosives when confined its effect becomes quite moderate.
Thus at Fort Lee, on the Hudson, but two tons of dynamite
placed in a chamber in the rock and tamped brought down
100,000 tons of the rock; at Lamberis, Wales, two tons and a half
of gelatin dynamite similarly placed threw out 180,000 tons of
rock; and at the Talcen Mawr, in Wales, seven tons of gunpowder,
placed in two chambers in the rock, dislodged from 125,000 to
200,000 tons of rock. We might cite many such examples, but on
comparing these we find that the gunpowder confined in the interior
at the Talcen Mawr was over forty-two times as efficient as
the explosive gelatin on the
surface at Braamfontein,
while the dynamite at Fort
Lee was over ninety times
as destructive.</p>
<div id="ip_447" class="figright" style="width: 342px;"><img src="images/illo_049a.jpg" width="342" height="160" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Railroad Torpedoes fastened on Rail.</span></div></div>
<div id="ip_447b" class="figleft" style="width: 313px;"><img src="images/illo_049b.jpg" width="313" height="160" alt="" /><div class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Steel Disks upon which Gun Cotton has been
detonated to test their Resistance to
Shock.</span> <span class="notbold">Midvale steel disks after second fire.</span></div></div>
<p>Considerations similar to
these led me, in <span class="locked">1885,<a name="FNanchor_H" id="FNanchor_H" href="#Footnote_H" class="fnanchor">H</a></span> to
point out that high explosives
for use in shells must
be strongly confined, and in
the attack on armored ships
they should be fired in projectiles that can “either penetrate the
armor partially and explode in place or pierce it completely and
burst inside the ship” to secure the greatest efficiency. This requires
that the projectiles shall be fired at higher velocities than
can be imparted to them by guns of the kind just described, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">448</a></span>
which can only be realized at present in modern breech-loading
rifles. Although experience has shown the futility of all our efforts
to use gun cotton and nitroglycerin explosives in this manner, it
has been proved that the nitro-substitution explosives can be employed
with safety and effect.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_H" id="Footnote_H" href="#FNanchor_H" class="fnanchor">H</a> Van Nostrand’s Engineering Magazine, vol. xxxii, pp. 1–9, 1885.</p></div>
<p>The nitro-substitution explosives are made from nitrobenzenes,
nitrotoluenes, nitronaphthalenes, nitrophenols, and bodies of a
similar character, and one of them, called joveite, has given excellent
results in this country. After having demonstrated that the
destructive effect of joveite was greater than that of gunpowder,
smokeless powder, or gun cotton,
and, by repeated trials under severe
conditions, that service shell
loaded with it could be fired from
service guns under service conditions
with safety, on November
3, 1897, the naval officials at Indian
Head fired a fused ten-inch
Carpenter armor-piercing projectile
containing 8.25 pounds of
joveite, with a velocity of 1,960
foot-seconds, at a Harveyized
nickel-steel plate taken from the
armor for the United States
steamship Kentucky. The shell
passed completely through the
armor plate, where it was 14.5
inches in thickness, and burst
immediately behind the plate.
In a second round an unfused
ten-inch Midvale semi-armor-piercing
shell containing twenty-eight
pounds of joveite was fired
with a velocity of 1,925 foot-seconds at the same plate where it
was sixteen inches thick. The shell penetrated to a depth of twelve
inches, and the heat produced by the upsetting of the shell was
so great as to explode the joveite, which broke the plate and burst
the shell with tremendous violence. In fact, the explosion was so
very severe that the heavy base plug of the shell was sheared
longitudinally, an effect never observed before with any explosive
fired at the proving ground.</p>
<div id="ip_448" class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo_050.jpg" width="271" height="449" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Shooting an Oil Well with
Nitroglycerin.</span></div></div>
<p>Notwithstanding that no accident occurred in any of the many
firings, that the stability and safety of the explosive are assured,
and that the explosion has been effected with a well-known and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">449</a></span>
long-used form of fuse, no provision
has yet been made to supply
the service with charges for its
costly armor-piercing projectiles.</p>
<p>Happily, the force resident
in explosives may be applied to
the saving as well as to the destruction
of human life, advantage
having long since been
taken of the penetrating power
of the report from the discharge
of a gun to employ them as signals
of distress at sea or as warnings
in foggy weather. The English
Lighthouse Board, under
Professor Tyndall’s guidance,
some years ago sought to find the
form of gun best suited to this
purpose, and their experiments
led them at first to a bronze gun
with a bell-shaped mouth. Subsequently,
their attention being
called to the sharpness and carrying
power of the report from detonating gun cotton, an apparatus
was devised in which the gun cotton was detonated in the focus of
a parabolic mirror. The
best results, however,
were attained with rockets
carrying gun cotton
charges arranged to be
exploded in mid air.</p>
<div id="ip_449" class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo_051a.jpg" width="276" height="461" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Safe to be opened by Detonation of
Nitroglycerin.</span> <span class="notbold">Before the charge was
fired.</span></div></div>
<div id="ip_449b" class="figright" style="width: 411px;"><img src="images/illo_051b.jpg" width="411" height="410" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">After firing Charge.</span></div></div>
<p>Guns have also been
arranged for projecting
life-lines between stranded
ships and the adjacent
shore, and are now employed
on a smaller scale
for conveying lines to
the upper stories of
our monumental buildings
when they are on
fire. By means of guns
or rockets, projectiles
filled with oil may be cast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">450</a></span>
to considerable distances from a vessel in a raging sea, so that the
oil, as it diffuses, may still the waters in her course; while sounding-lines
may be thrown far in advance of a vessel while she is still
under way, and the soundings taken without her laying-to.</p>
<p>Inclosed in shallow tin boxes, which are fixed by lead strips to
the top of the rail, explosives are used as torpedoes in the railroad
service to give warning, by the report of their explosion as an
engine runs over them, that another train is on the same track
and but a short distance ahead, and by this means collisions in
fogs or on curves are frequently prevented.</p>
<p>Explosives find applications in many industries. The farmer
uses them in breaking bowlders, grubbing stumps and felling trees,
in shaking the soil to fit it for deep-soil cultivation, and, in the
wine-growing districts, to
free it from phylloxera,
while the farmer’s friend
has tried by this means, in
times of drought, to shake
the nerves of Jove and to
divert the hailstorm from
its course.</p>
<div id="ip_450" class="figleft" style="width: 347px;"><img src="images/illo_052.jpg" width="347" height="292" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Safe perforated by Hollow Dynamite
Cartridge.</span></div></div>
<p>The iron founder uses
them in breaking up large
castings. The iron smelter
employs them to clear
out obstructions in blast
furnaces while the latter
are still in operation, the
dynamite, protected by a clay envelope, being inserted in the red-hot
mass which clogs the furnace. The author has proposed to
use the detonating explosives for testing the integrity of large
masses of metals and their resistance to shock.</p>
<p>Dynamite has been employed in fishing, since submarine explosions
of it will kill or stun fish for a long distance about the charge.
This method of fishing, which threatened to deplete the waters,
has very properly been prohibited by law, but guns are employed
for projecting harpoons in the whale fishery, and have reduced
very much the danger attending this extra-hazardous occupation.</p>
<p>Nitroglycerin, inclosed in tin cans three to five inches in diameter
and five to twenty-five feet in length, is used for shooting oil
wells to free them from the solid paraffins with which they become
choked, or to shake the oil-bearing sandstone so as to produce a
greater yield. In this work the loaded can, having a detonating cap
attached to its top, is lowered by a wire to the bottom of the well,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">451</a></span>
which is often fifteen hundred feet or more in depth. A perforated
weight is then strung on the wire, and when the torpedo
is in place the weight is allowed
to fall, strike the cap, and explode the
charge.</p>
<p>Dynamite has been used to knock out
the blocking from the ways when launching
ships. Fired on an iron plate placed
on the top of a pile and covered with a
tamping of earth or clay, it has successfully
and economically replaced the pile
driver. It has been found efficient in excavating
holes in which to plant telegraph
and telephone poles; in driving water out
of quicksands in which foundations are to
be laid or shafts to be driven; in slaughtering
cattle; in breaking down ice dams
to prevent inundations; in blowing up
buildings to prevent the spread of conflagrations;
in razing unsafe walls of burned
buildings; in destroying wrecks which endanger
navigation, and even in freeing vessels which are hard
aground on shoals.</p>
<div id="ip_451" class="figleft" style="width: 204px;"><img src="images/illo_053a.jpg" width="204" height="371" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hollow Dynamite Cartridge;
Elevation.</span></div></div>
<p>An especially notable instance was in the blasting out of the
<i>débris</i> in the river at Johnstown after the frightful flood that occurred
there, which formed an enormous dam above the bridge
and threatened its existence, and which was successfully and expeditiously
removed by blasting
after all other means had
been tried in vain.</p>
<div id="ip_451b" class="figright" style="width: 318px;"><img src="images/illo_053b.jpg" width="318" height="265" alt="" /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Hollow Dynamite Cartridge.</span><br />
<span class="notbold">View from below.</span></p></div></div>
<p>In fact, the amount of explosives
consumed in the industries
is so great that the
quantity employed for military
purposes sinks into insignificance.
Yet we have failed
to refer to those industries—quarrying
and mining, and
the engineering operations—in
which they are most extensively
and commonly used,
being employed so largely in mining alone that it is an almost daily
occurrence for blasts containing twenty, thirty, and even fifty
thousand pounds of explosives to be used in a single charge; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">452</a></span>
the system of large blasts has even become common in hard-rock
excavations, such as quarries and railroad cuttings, while in the
blast at the blowing up of Flood Rock, in New York Harbor, October
10, 1885, over one hundred and forty-one
tons of rack-a-rock, dynamite, and mercury
fulminate were used in a single shot.</p>
<p>Nor have I alluded to the use of explosives
by the anarchists in their dastardly
outrages, through which the safety of the
old and young, feeble and strong, the innocent
and the offending, are alike endangered;
but I will touch briefly upon the
applications of these powerful agents in the
too-much cultivated industry of safe-robbing,
since I was called upon some years
ago to demonstrate, before a Government
commission, how safes might be successfully
attacked either in a burglarious way or by
a mob with explosives, meaning by the burglarious
operation that the safe should be
made accessible within twenty-four hours with means such as a
party of men could smuggle into a bank and which might be used
without attracting attention or doing material damage to the
building, and by “mob violence,” meaning that the vaults are
supposed to be in the hands of a mob which has ample time and
quantities of explosives at command, and does not care how much
noise is made or destruction is wrought, provided the treasure is
secured.</p>
<div id="ip_452" class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"><img src="images/illo_054a.jpg" width="180" height="280" alt="" /><div class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Firing on Iron Disk, resting
on Lead Disk, in
testing the Efficiency
of Gun Cotton.</span></div></div>
<div id="ip_452b" class="figright" style="width: 270px;"><img src="images/illo_054b.jpg" width="270" height="142" alt="" /><div class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Gun Cotton Disk.</span> <span class="notbold">With indented inscription,
and iron plate upon which the indented
inscription has been reproduced.</span></div></div>
<p>In the experiments made in a burglarious way, among others,
a three-thousand-dollar square safe of the most approved construction
was attacked by inserting in the crevice about the locked door
four and eight tenths ounces of nitroglycerin,
and in eight minutes
after the operation of loading was
begun the charge was fired, with
the result that the whole of the
jamb below the door was blown
out and a hole made in the door
of sufficient size to admit the hand
and arm, while the doors and divisions
of the interior compartments
were completely shattered. On repeating the operation with four
ounces and a quarter of forcite dynamite the door was completely
torn off.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">453</a></span>
Among experiments made to demonstrate the resistance of
structures to attack by a mob was one upon a safe twenty-nine
inches cube, with walls four inches and three quarters thick, made
up of plates of iron and steel, which were re-enforced on each edge
so as to make it highly resisting, yet when a hollow charge of dynamite
nine pounds and a half in weight and untamped was detonated
on it a hole three inches in diameter was blown clear through the
wall, though a solid cartridge of the same weight and of the same
material produced no material effect. The hollow cartridge was
made by tying the sticks of dynamite around a tin can, the open
mouth of the latter being placed downward, and I was led to construct
such hollow cartridge for use where a penetrating effect is
desired by the following observations:</p>
<div id="ip_453" class="figright" style="width: 293px;"><img src="images/illo_055.jpg" width="293" height="286" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Holes produced in Iron Plates by bored
Gun Cotton.</span></div></div>
<p>In molding the gun cotton at the torpedo station, as stated
above, a vertical hole was formed in each cylinder or block in which
to insert the detonator, and in
the final press a steel die was
laid upon the cake so that an
inscription in letters and figures
was forced upon it. This inscription
was indented in the
cylinders and was raised upon
the surfaces of the blocks.
When the gun cotton was fired
untamped, in testing it, the cylinder
or block was usually
placed with the inscribed face
resting on a polished iron plate
or iron disk, and after firing, if
the gun cotton had detonated it
was invariably found that not only was a vortex-like cavity produced
below the detonator, but that the inscription on the gun cotton
was reproduced on the iron plate, and, what was most singular,
when the inscription was indented in the gun cotton it was indented
in the iron plate, and when the inscription was raised on the surface
of the gun cotton it was reproduced raised on the surface of
the iron plate. In experimentally investigating this phenomenon
I eventually soaked several cylinders in water, so that I could bore
them without danger, and then bored holes of various diameters
and depths in them, until in the last instance I bored a vertical
hole an inch and three quarters in diameter completely through
the cylinder. These wet cylinders were each placed on a similar
iron plate, a similar dry disk was placed on each as a primer, and
they were successively fired, when it was found that the deeper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">454</a></span>
and wider the hole in the gun cotton the deeper and wider were
the holes produced in the iron plate, until when the completely
perforated gun cotton cylinder, from which at least half of the
weight of explosive had been removed by the boring, was fired,
the iron plate was found to be completely perforated.</p>
<p>Advantage was taken of this action of the rapidly moving molecules
to produce some beautiful effects by interposing laces, coins,
leaves from the trees, and stencils with various devices cut in them
between the base of the gun cotton and the iron plate, for after
the detonation of the gun cotton the objects were found to be
reproduced upon the iron with the utmost fidelity and in their most
delicate parts, and the impressions were raised upon the iron as the
objects had been before the explosion.</p>
<p>In one instance a disk of gun cotton was placed in a tin which
had been used in canning peas. The disk was covered with water
so as to be completely immersed
in it, and a second dry disk, with
which to fire it, was placed upon
the wet one. The face of the
can resting in contact with the
iron plate was originally the top
of the can, through which the
vegetable had been introduced,
and it was consequently grooved
where the cover was soldered
on, and it also had an irregular
drop of solder over the vent
hole, the solder being raised,
therefore, above the general
level of the face. On firing, the can was completely volatilized
or comminuted as usual, but the face of the can was reproduced in
every feature and with the original values of the surface, the groove
being indented in the iron, and the solder being raised above the
rest of the impression.</p>
<div id="ip_454" class="figleft" style="width: 294px;"><img src="images/illo_056.jpg" width="294" height="271" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Maple Leaf reproduced on Iron Plate.</span></div></div>
<p>In another instance a disk of gun cotton three inches in diameter
was placed in a tin can five inches in diameter, and the can,
which had a smooth bottom, placed on the face of an iron I-beam.
The can was filled with water so as to just cover the gun cotton, a
second dry gun cotton disk was placed on the wet disk of a primer,
both being in constant contact with one side of the can, and the
system detonated. As a result the can and water disappeared and
the face of the beam was torn off, but on recovering the pieces and
matching them it was found that not only was the smooth base of
the gun cotton and the face of the can reproduced in the iron, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">455</a></span>
in the space between the gun cotton and the side of the can, occupied
by the water, three distinct sets of waves were produced, having
an increasing amplitude from the center proceeding outward.
It is evident that many curious effects can be produced with explosive
substances, and I do not doubt that useful applications will be
found through a close study of the phenomena attending them.</p>
<hr />
<h2 title="A YEAR’S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE" id="progress">A YEAR’S PROGRESS IN THE KLONDIKE.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By Prof. ANGELO HEILPRIN.</span></span></h2>
<blockquote>
<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Acknowledgment is here made to Mr. E. A. Hegg for the use of most of the
photographs accompanying this article.</p></blockquote>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">Two</span> years ago the difficulties of reaching the Klondike were
thought to be of such a nature as to preclude the probability
or even possibility of Dawson ever becoming a place of permanent
habitation. The trials of the Chilkoot and White Passes were
exploited in magazine and journal from one end of the continent
almost to the other, and the wrecks of humanity, and particularly
of the thousands of beasts that lay scattered along the trail—the
tribute to the Sahara turned to shame—were appealed to as grim
testimony of the almost insuperable barrier which separated man
from the object of his search. To-day, and since July 6th of the
past year (1899), a steam railway traverses the full forty-two miles
of the White Pass trail, and the traveler enjoys the beauties of
the subarctic landscape in much the way that he enjoys the trip
through the Alleghany Mountains in the East, or of the prairies
in the West. Deposited at Bennett, on Lake Bennett, at virtually
the head of navigation of the mighty Yukon River (otherwise
known as the Lewes), he engages passage on one of several commodious
steamers heading down stream or northward, and with one
change—at the Miles Cañon and White Horse Rapids, where
there is a five-mile portage—reaches Dawson after a voyage, delightful
in its change of scene and novelty of experience, of from
four to six days. It is a fact, therefore, that with a strict timing
of departures the traveler from New York may make the journey
to Dawson in summer time in twelve days, and exceptionally even
in less; and the journey has indeed been made in eleven days and
a half. Such is the change which the effort of less than two years
has accomplished.</p>
<div id="ip_455" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><img src="images/illo_058.jpg" width="600" height="406" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bartlett Brothers’ Pack Train, Dawson.</span></div></div>
<p>The Dawson of 1899 is no longer the Dawson of 1898, and
much less that of the year previous. The thousands of bateaux
that were formerly lined up against the river front, in rows six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">456</a></span>
deep and more, and comprising all manner of craft from the small
canoe to sliced sections of scows, have mostly disappeared, and in
their place we now find the graceful and ungraceful forms of
varying types of steamboat. It is no uncommon thing to find
five or more of these larger craft tied up at one time to the
river front, and the amplitude and majesty of the Mississippi boats
gain but little in a comparison with some of the larger craft of
the Yukon River. Overhung signs call attention to the flying
queens of the river, the Bonanza King, Canadian, and Sibyl, and
thousands are offered upon the result of the race to the White<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">457</a></span>
Horse Rapids. So here, as in the olden days of the Mississippi, the
struggle for supremacy has led to the opening of the throttle and
to the scraping of the fire box. Upward of a hundred arrivals from
down the river were registered at Dawson during the season of
open water of 1899.</p>
<p>Dawson has been further put into comparatively close touch
with the outer world by the entry of the telegraph, and since the
early days of October messages have been freely going to the seaboard
at Skaguay. It is true that a cableless stretch of hundreds of
miles still separates this town from the nearest port of importance
on the continent, but doubtless before very long even this blank
in the line of communication will have been supplied. It may be
first by means of wireless telegraphy, as it is mooted that the Canadian
Government looks with favor upon experimentation with the
Marconi system; or, what is more likely, the desired end will be
brought about by the laying of a continuous wire. The extraordinary
rapidity with which the five hundred to six hundred miles of
land wire were laid—five and seven miles per day—speaks well
for the <i>morale</i> of the Canadian sapper and engineering service.</p>
<p>In its commercial and residential aspects the city has made
vast progress. The days of ingulfing mires are virtually over, and
from one end of the town almost to the other, one may safely tread
the streets on secure board sidewalks. Not alone the main street
is furnished in this way, but also several of the streets running
parallel with it, and parts of streets that run across at right angles.
A wise enactment, not perhaps absolutely just in its details, has
swept off the shacks and booths from the river side of the front
street, and one now enjoys an almost uninterrupted view of the
opposing bank of the stream, already marred by giant advertising
letters announcing bargain sales in merchandise, and directing to
particular shops in the metropolis of the North.</p>
<div id="ip_457" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><img src="images/illo_060.jpg" width="600" height="384" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dawson’s Great Fire, April 26, 1899.</span></div></div>
<p>The shops of Dawson have risen to the dignity of establishments
having corrugated-iron covers, plate-glass fronts, and redwood
shelves and counters. Following closely upon the pioneer
constructions—department stores, they might be classed—of the
Alaska Commercial Company are the depots of the North American
Trading and Transportation Company, the Alaska Exploration
Company, Ames Mercantile Company, and the Yukoner Company,
several with retaining warehouses placed beyond the reach of a
city fire and with dimensions that would lend dignity to locations
of much larger size than the emporium of the North. Many of
the smaller shops also carry a varied line of goods, but others are
restricted to a specialty, and their wares are now offered at rates
which are in the main only reasonably in advance of the “high”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">458</a></span>
rates of the Western coast towns. There are exceptions to this rule,
however, especially where skilled local labor is called into requisition
in a manufacture. Thus fourteen dollars for a pair of trousers
made to order strikes the imagination rather forcibly, when a
first-grade quality of boot or shoe can be obtained for five dollars
and six dollars. Really good meals may be procured almost everywhere
for from a dollar to a dollar and a half, and the best hotels
supply twenty-one meals for twenty-five dollars, and these do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">459</a></span>
absolutely reject delicacies of one kind or another. Cow’s milk
can now be had as a regular adjunct to coffee, since the milcher is
no longer a stranger to the country. The price of rooms in the
hotels still remains high—from four to six dollars per night, without
meals—but the character of these rooms has materially improved,
even though they would be considered with us decidedly
third rate. In a few establishments of a more private character,
lodging for a certain amount of permanency may be had for fifteen
dollars the week, or, where the condition of the surroundings is
not closely scanned, for even less. A new and capacious hotel, the
Hotel Metropole, reared from the wealth of the “King of the
Klondike”—Alexander MacDonald—has recently been added to
those of less pretentious design which served the community last
year. A heavy cut in rates is promised.</p>
<p>The conflagration of April 26th, through which perhaps one
quarter of the business portion of Dawson was burned to the
ground, has given opportunity for the introduction of improvements,
and the most important of these is that which has resulted
in the removal of houses and resorts of evil repute from the heart
of the city and consigned them and their inmates to a localized
area or “tenderloin” district. Women of refinement may now
parade the streets without having their finer sensibilities offended
through the public intrusion of the immorals of the lower world.
The tone of the public places of amusement, the theaters and
dance houses, has also been in a measure elevated, even if far from
sufficiently so, and some real talent occasionally sparkles behind
the footlights. A new “opera house,” with a seating capacity of
perhaps seven hundred or eight hundred, but advertised for two
thousand, was thrown open to the public last August, after a construction,
it is claimed, of only two weeks. Its season’s <i>répertoire</i>
included, among other plays, Michael Strogoff and Camille, both
of which, even in their crudest type of presentation, felt well of
the public pulse.</p>
<p>School education plays as yet little part in the morals of the
Dawsonites. The greed of fortune has left scant time for the consideration
of educational matters, and what little of school training
is imparted to the youth of tender years comes largely in the
shape of a beneficence from private hands. If the issuance of
newspapers be properly classed as belonging to education, then
Dawson has made material advances during the past year, for, in
addition to the three weeklies which more than supplied all the
information that was needed to the inhabitants of 1898, it has now
a daily (the Dawson Daily News) and a Sunday paper (The
Gleaner), while the pioneer Nugget has been converted into a semi-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">460</a></span>weekly.
Some of these journals, which in typographical detail
stand fully equal to many of the foremost journals of the United
States, are devoted largely to a vilification of the Yukon government,
and secondarily to the nonpartisan interests of the community.
But little space is given over to murders and daring deeds
of robbery, since occurrences of this kind, thanks to the continued
vigilance and efficiency of the Northwest Mounted Police, are all
but unknown, and the safety of possessions is as well established
as that of the person. The shooting of an actress by her lover,
followed by the suicide of the murderer, furnished the sensation
for the year; but previous suicides, also in the ranks of the theatrical
profession, had already paved a way to this form of excitement.</p>
<p>Two or more lines of telephone unite Dawson with the nearer
mining region, and a partial city service has also been established.
The city remains as yet without an electric-light plant, but it is
by no means unlikely that before the present season has passed the
darkness of the winter night will be lifted by the arc light, and
much of the oppressiveness of the closed season thereby removed.
After two winters of experience, the Dawsonites continue to think
lightly of the “terrors” of the cold, and to but few apparently is
the extreme of temperature a deterrent to exercise. Sleighing
continues to be a pastime, with the temperature marking 40° to
50° below zero, but only with this season does it enter into the
category of a fashionable recreation. Hitherto dog-sled teams performed
the full service of winter travel, and divided with skating
and “ski”-ing the winter exercise; but this year the snow causeways
will be lively with the jingling of cutter bells and the rapid
pacing of the horse.</p>
<p>One can not help remarking the vast improvement in the general
tone of Dawson society, if by that term we may include all
that constitutes the population of the city. More particularly is
this marked in the case of women, among whom it is no longer a
rarity to meet with strict refinement and culture. Musical <i>soirées</i>
register among the events of the week, and literary recitals are not
exceptional. The male portion of the population has also undergone
a refining process through the departure of hundreds or even
thousands of “bums,” who only too late for their comfort discovered
that their presence was neither a necessity to Dawson nor a
mainspring to the extraction of gold from the soil. By their departure
the city has probably suffered a decrease in its population
of some three thousand to four thousand, but has more than received
compensation in that stability of purpose which such elimination
always insures. As a city of about thirteen thousand inhabitants,
it enters upon its history in the year 1900 with principles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">461</a></span>
cast largely upon a pure business basis, and with a future that is
bound in with the product of the soil.</p>
<div id="ip_461" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><img src="images/illo_063.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Midnight View of Dawson, June 21, 1899.</span></div></div>
<p>The gold resource of the Klondike region seems fully to sustain
the anticipations which had been put forth touching the product
of 1899. The better-known creeks, such as the Bonanza, Eldorado,
and Hunker, have kept well up with their record of the
previous year, and give indications of continuing as important factors
in the calculation of output for some time to come in the
future. The introduction of a certain amount of mining machinery,
such as steam drills, thawers, and powerful pumps—applied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span>
more particularly to the deposits of the benches and hillsides—coupled
with a more definite method of conducting extensive operations
on a comparatively economic basis, has given fresh impetus to
the work of mine holders, and made largely remunerative that
which had promised to be little profitable. A more just administration
of the mining laws has helped to a considerate feeling
among the miners, and reduced very materially the grievances
which formerly fell with thick force upon the offices of the Recorder
and Gold Commissioner. Access is now easily had to the
records of claims, and individual “cases” receive an early and
proper hearing. Electric plants have been introduced on some
of the claims, so that there need be no interruption in work for the
full twenty-four hours of the day.</p>
<p>Apart from the discovery of rich pay-dirt on creeks and gulches,
such as Last Chance (tributary to Hunker), Gold Bottom (tributary
to Sulphur), and American, Magnet, and Adams (tributary
to the Bonanza), concerning which much skepticism was expressed
last year, the filling in of assumed barren gaps in the general line
of creeks has done much to inspire the feeling that more of the
broad area is gold-bearing than the first surveys and explorations
“indicated”—a feeling to which particular confidence has been
given by the surprising wealth which has been washed out from
the hillsides. For a nearly continuous four miles of the “left
limit” of the Bonanza, extending northward from Gold Hill at
the confluence of the Eldorado to the “forties below discovery,”
the crests of the hills at an elevation of some one hundred and
eighty to two hundred feet above the creek are laid bare with the
work of the shovel, pick, and drill, and the same or a corresponding
stratigraphical height is pierced elsewhere along the stream.
Gold Hill (and French Hill, on the Eldorado side), Skookum,
Adams, Magnet, and American Hills, and Monte Cristo, all have
their summits capped by what is now familiarly known as the
“white layer”—a feature in the landscape as interesting to the
casual tourist as the construction is important to the more fortunate
claim holders who are located here.</p>
<p>Up to this time no quartz locations determined to be of positive
value have been located, although a goodly number of “quartz
reefs,” “lodes,” and kidney masses have been staked, restaked, and
recorded. Some of these have shown gold in small quantity, but
in by far the greater number of cases they have proved absolutely
barren, and are without promise of yielding anything. The anticipation
of many, naturally fostered by individual wish and hope,
that an originating or “mother” lode must be present and found
somewhere rests without any geological support so far as evidence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">463</a></span>
has been accumulated up to the present time, and there is nothing
that looks like a promise to the geological eye. At the same time,
it would be premature to assert that such a reef or series of reefs
may not be discovered in the future. The hill crests that have
furnished so much of the white material of the high benches of the
Bonanza and the Eldorado may perhaps be searched with best
advantage in this direction, and thence extended to the water
parting which surrounds or incloses the upper waters of Gay Gulch.</p>
<div id="ip_463" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><img src="images/illo_065.jpg" width="600" height="390" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Columbian and the Eldorado starting from Dawson, July 4, 1899, on a Race to White Horse Rapids.</span></div></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">464</a></span>
No estimate, naturally, can yet be put to the total gold supply
of the Klondike region, but to inquiry that is frequently put regarding
the future existence of Dawson as an energetic mining
camp one can unhesitatingly answer that this existence is assured
for many years to come, and there are indications that point to a
permanence independent of the simple supply of gold.</p>
<div id="ip_464" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><img src="images/illo_066.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Street Scene, Dawson, July, 1899.</span></div></div>
<p>The earlier conceptions of the extreme severity of the climate
of the Yukon Valley forbade the hope of agricultural possibilities,
but a more intimate knowledge of the conditions prevailing in the
summer time—a season of four to five months’ duration, with daylight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">465</a></span>
and day heat protracted far into the normal hours of night—and
a comparison of these conditions with somewhat similar conditions
prevailing elsewhere, have given hope not alone of a possibility,
but of a probability, and there are few to-day who doubt that agriculture
may not be practiced with at least a legitimate amount of
success in many parts of the Yukon basin. This probability has, indeed,
been already emphasized by Prof. George Dawson, and the
more recent examinations of Alaskan territory, made by Colonels
Ray and Abercrombie, confirm with a conviction the reference to
American soil. The feeble but more than promising efforts in
agriculture and gardening that were made in the region about
Dawson in 1898 have borne surprising fruit in 1899, and while the
results may not, for various reasons, have proved in all cases remunerative
to the “prospector,” they at least clearly demonstrate
the possibilities to which the future may lay claim. Cabbages,
turnips, peas, radishes, lettuce, and beans are now raised to perfection
in favored spots along the Yukon and Klondike, and on
scattered hillsides of the Bonanza and Eldorado, and a good
promise is also held out for the potato. In the charming spot
known as the Acklin Garden, situated on the Klondike about two
miles from Dawson, oats and barley, sown on April 26th and May
22d respectively (1899), were grown to beautiful heads, and harvested
in the middle of August. No wheat had ripened up to
that time, and I suspect that, owing to a light frost which took
place on the 19th of the same month, none of this grain came to
maturity. Radishes sown on April 24th were collected on May
20th, and string beans, whose seed was scattered on May 26th, were
collected on August 1st. Other successful crops were those of
beets, onions, and spinach.</p>
<p>The exquisite beauty of the flower garden in this spot rivets
the attention of all passers-by, and few there are who do not for
a moment lay aside their packs to enjoy the feast of color that is
presented to them. Poppies of the size and brilliance of those
which adorn the fields about Naples, chrysanthemums, gorgeous
dahlias, pansies, the cornflower, mignonette, and centaurea are
part of the outside bloom, to which Nature “beyond the fence”
has fittingly added the wild rose, anemone, fireweed, and forget-me-not.
Such is the aspect of the region which to-day illumines the
far North, and carries with itself a hopeful promise to many and
the certainty of disappointment to many more.</p>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">466</a></span></p>
<h2 title="THE DECLINE OF CRIMINAL JURISPRUDENCE IN AMERICA" id="decline">THE DECLINE OF CRIMINAL JURISPRUDENCE IN AMERICA.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By</span> GINO C. SPERANZA.</span></h2>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">The</span> rights of personal security, personal liberty, and private
property have been called the “rights of the people of England,”
and may be said to constitute the richest heirloom in the
Anglo-Saxon family. While, in a certain sense, they belong to
all civilized people, yet, in their practical application, they are
peculiarly the creation of Anglo-Saxon common sense and love of
order. The underlying principle of these rights, clothed by the
Latins in the seductive garb of <i>Liberté</i>, <i>Egalité</i>, <i>Fraternité</i>, gave
us a Reign of Terror, a Commune, and finally a doubtful republicanism;
but the same principle, embodied in the less dazzling formula,
“That no man shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without
due process of law,” produced in the hands of the Anglo-Saxons
more enduring democracies “of the people, by the people,
and for the people.”</p>
<p>With the instinct of a race born for self-government, the Anglo-Saxons
have ever sought and almost always found the highest
safeguard for their ancient rights in the courts of law. Between a
partisan Legislature and a tyrannical Executive an honest judiciary
has generally been found ready to annul the excesses of the one
and to prevent any infringement by the other; so that it has
become a belief, having the force of faith, that in our courts will
be found the bulwark of those liberties which we consider essential
to the full enjoyment of life.</p>
<p>Laws and courts, however, are after all the creation of men,
and, like all such creations, they are necessarily imperfect and
fallible; or, more correctly, they are organisms which develop and
improve. In other words, justice and law are only relatively immutable
and perfect. They do, indeed, represent, in a sense, abstract
perfection, and at any given time they must be considered
the highest criterion of human conduct. But justice and law are
not such divinities that they can withdraw themselves from the
operation of those forces which we call progress. Seriousness, dignity,
and venerability are not sufficient to sustain the majesty of the
law; it needs also adaptation to those higher conditions and broader
views which mark the growth of human thought. The more we
come to look upon law as the standard and gauge of upright human
action, the more do we grow to expect it in consonance with the
highest dictates of human knowledge and reason, for what is above
us must represent what is best in us, else it will be neither respected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span>
nor obeyed. Whenever this consonance is not found, human belief
in the dignity of the law and in the efficacy of justice ceases.
For, theoretically at least, law is so near ideal perfection that the
least defect destroys it entirely; and by this “ideal perfection”
is meant that <i>laws must reflect the highest and soundest thought of
every age</i>. Laws that fail in this cease to be a power for good;
they are then looked upon either as ridiculous or as oppressive. If
the former, they defeat their ends by becoming dead laws; if the
latter, they become a source of disorder and discontent. Hence we
see that jurisprudence is essentially evolutionary and progressive,
and that the majesty of the law does not lie in its age but in its
perennial youth, or, more correctly, in its successive rejuvenescence.
It is true that in China the antiquity of a law is its highest prestige,
but, as a consequence, Chinese justice is proverbially inefficient
and barbarous. It therefore follows that the constant study
and improvement of what we have called the safeguards of our
fundamental rights should be our highest duty, and the object of
the care and solicitude of the State. It is not enough to rest contentedly
in the thought that a Magna Charta, a Petition of Rights,
and sundry written constitutions protect us. Their very existence
is but an argument for our eternal vigilance. Now, the
question to be here examined is whether we have exercised that
care and vigilance which are essential to the free enjoyment of
our rights.</p>
<p>Let me premise the statement that the protection of the rights
of life, liberty, and property is peculiarly within the province of
the criminal law. What constitutes the right of life, liberty, and
property can not be defined or described, except negatively by a
definition of what will be deemed its infringements. These we
call crimes. To declare what acts come within the definition of
such crimes is the function of the criminal courts.</p>
<p>It is upon the criminal law, therefore, that we must rely for
the enunciation of what acts shall constitute a breach of the right
of life, liberty, and property, and it is to the criminal bench and
bar that we must turn for the correct interpretation and application
of such enunciations. Hence the more time and attention
we devote to the study of criminal legislation and to the enlightenment
of the criminal bench and bar, the more will the safety of
our rights be increased and strengthened. Likewise, the more we
allow criminal legislation to be the product of hasty consideration
and the criminal bar to drift into disrepute, the more the safety
of our rights will be proportionally weakened.</p>
<p>The first question that presents itself is, “<i>What is done by
our law schools for the study of criminal law?</i>” The answer is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">468</a></span>
not very encouraging. Let us take those law schools which are of
most importance, either by reason of their curriculum or of their
attendance. Harvard, with a three years’ course, devotes two
hours a week for one year to criminal law (including criminal procedure).
Allowing nine months of four weeks each to the scholastic
year, and a weekly average of eighteen hours, it will be
found that the time devoted to the study of criminal law (including
procedure) is a little over <i>three per cent</i> of the entire course.
By a similar computation we find that Columbia devotes to criminal
law (and procedure) a little over <i>four per cent</i> of the entire
course, which is about the percentage given by Yale and a little
lower than that of the Universities of Michigan, Cornell, and New
York respectively.</p>
<p>These computations are based upon figures given in the catalogues
of those universities, or kindly furnished by the deans.
Nothing more eloquent of the decline of the study of criminal
jurisprudence in our country could be cited. But the catalogues
of these law schools add further proof. At none of them is there
a professor whose instruction is confined solely to criminal law.
Nearly all the instructors in criminal law devote but a small part
of their time (and probably of their study) to the teaching of this
subject. In Columbia the instructor in criminal law is professor
of international law and <span class="locked">diplomacy;<a name="FNanchor_I" id="FNanchor_I" href="#Footnote_I" class="fnanchor">I</a></span> at Harvard the incumbent of
the chair of criminal law teaches the law of carriers; that of Michigan
teaches the law of bills and notes and of public corporations;
that of the New York University the law of sales and wills. It
is, moreover, a significant fact that the faculties of the above-named
institutions, while recommending to law students the optional
study of political economy, constitutional history, taxation,
physical science, English literature, and modern languages as conducive
to a higher standard of legal culture, utterly fail to advise
them to pursue courses in criminal anthropology, criminology, or
penology. In other words, it is deemed advisable that the future
lawyer should bring to the aid of his civil practice the complementary
knowledge of French and history, for instance, but it is of
no importance that he should be acquainted with the results of
modern criminologic and penologic research. Thus the conclusion
is forced upon us that the study of criminal law, whose
importance I have endeavored to set forth, has become a subject
at sufferance in our universities, a practically optional course<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">469</a></span>
of little consequence to the student, and of no interest to the
teacher.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_I" id="Footnote_I" href="#FNanchor_I" class="fnanchor">I</a> This has since been changed; but the change makes the case worse, as the new instructor
in criminal law teaches not only two branches of the law (as under last year’s
course), but five—viz., Criminal Law, Wills and Administration, Common-Law Practice and
Pleading Bankruptcy, and Bailments and Carriers.</p></div>
<p>From the very beginning of his legal career the future lawyer
is made to feel that the field of criminal law is not the one in
which to exercise his best talents. Both the school curriculum
and popular sentiment strengthen this prejudice. To the community
at large our criminal courts have come to mean places
where criminals are sentenced or rogues saved on technicalities;
they have ceased to be centers of justice, where innocent men are
saved and guilty men tried according to the law of the land.
Hence has arisen the popular belief (despite the rule that the accused
shall be considered innocent until his guilt is proved), shared
in a measure by the bench and bar, that every man accused of
crime is criminal and depraved, and that, therefore, contact with
him should be avoided. Thus the criminal lawyer, who necessarily
must come in touch with such alleged crime and depravity, is practically
ostracized not only from the community but also from the
civil forum.</p>
<p>The existence of such prejudice against the criminal bar is most
deplorable. Men of ability and position will shun criminal practice,
leaving the field clear to unscrupulous shysters. Let it be
remembered that to a man charged with the commission of a crime
and deprived of his liberty the lawyer appears a savior; that the
accused is practically at his lawyer’s mercy, being under most trying
duress and very easily influenced. The temptation for unprofessional
dealing is here at its highest, because of the manifest advantage
of the lawyer who is able, or whom the client believes
to be able, to unlock the prison doors. It takes men of more than
ordinary fiber to persistently resist such temptation in all its forms.
Hence the necessity of upright and learned men at the criminal
bar. But how few are our great criminal practitioners! How
often have I heard lawyers, too young and clientless to allow themselves
preferences, declare most decidedly that they were willing
to do anything “except criminal law”! They had been trained to
look upon it not merely as inferior but as degrading practice.
Yet it is common knowledge that in European countries, where
less boast is made of inalienable rights, it is the ambition of all
lawyers to get a reputation at the criminal bar. It is there, in
fact, that reputations are made.</p>
<p>It is likewise in those countries where many would make us
believe that life, liberty, and property are not as sacredly guarded
as in our own country, that the criminal laws are a constant object
of scholarly study and investigation. The great progress made
in the study of crime, the building up of a criminal science and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">470</a></span>
a criminal sociology, is almost exclusively the work of Continental
criminologists. Penology has indeed engaged our attention, but
criminology has been almost practically ignored by us.</p>
<p>Of criminal law it was long ago said that, “by reason of the
numberless unforeseen events which the compass of a day may
bring forth,” the knowledge of its provisions “is a matter of universal
concern.” Yet, despite this “universal concern,” our criminal
law has been and still is inferior to our civil law. I have
pointed out at the beginning of this article how the majesty of the
law depended essentially upon its ever-recurring rejuvenescence;
that law was a living organism, subject to change and the forces
of evolution.</p>
<p>The theories on criminal responsibility and on crime in general,
in the light of modern medical, anthropologic, and sociologic sciences,
have completely supplanted the old doctrines, yet criminal
legislation has apparently taken no notice of them. Modern science
tells us that our antiquated tests of criminal responsibility
result in sending hundreds of men to prison who ought to be sent
to asylums, but we do nothing to avoid this scandal. Under our
system the courts are obliged to let the conclusions of the learned
judges who occupied the bench three hundred years ago have more
weight than the positive investigations of the men of science of
our day, and so, consciously or unconsciously, numberless crimes
are committed in the name of <i>stare decisis</i>. True it is that in
some jurisdictions, and notably in New York, the courts have recognized
to some extent the progress of science and its influence
upon juridic theories. But even in these cases the concession
has been made only in <i>civil</i> cases. Thus Mr. Bishop, in his Criminal
Law, is obliged to point out that our courts recognize <i>two kinds
of insanity</i>—to wit, <i>civil and criminal irresponsibility</i>. Why the
test to be applied in the case of the validity of a will should be
different from that applied in the case of murder does not seem
very clear. The scientific test as to insanity has been oftentimes
recognized and applied by our civil tribunals, but the criminal
judges still cling with unabashed attachment to the unscientific
and unprogressive rule in McNaughten’s case. The Guiteau trial,
which followed that celebrated decision, added fresh authority to
the English view, and practically made the rule to be applied in
criminal trials a legal dogma.</p>
<p>In an able and exhaustive paper by Mr. J. H. Dougherty on
this very subject, before the Society of Medical Jurisprudence,
the evils of such dogmatism in criminal law are strikingly set forth.
“Life,” he said, “should be as sacred as property. While society
needs protection from the criminal, it does not require that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">471</a></span>
protection should be insured through the application of a fallacious
and discredited legal dogma.”</p>
<p>This is but one example of the unprogressiveness of our criminal
jurisprudence. Yet, if we really have the ancient principle
of the right of life and liberty at heart we ought to recognize that
this legal dogma is a greater menace to the practical abrogation
of the right than the despotism of an unscrupulous executive.
For while the latter is an infringement of a right which the law
forbids, the former is a breach of a right which the law sanctions.
Again, the theories regarding the object of penal provisions have
entirely changed. Punishment has been scientifically shown to be
practically useless either as a deterrent or as a correctional remedy.
Yet our penal codes are confessedly based on the idea of punishment
and retribution. We have indeed made some little headway,
such as indeterminate sentences and suspension of judgment, but
only in a scattered and tentative way.</p>
<p>The additions to or changes in our criminal codes have been
unimportant and unprogressive. What additions are made are
slipshod in their make-up, at times partisan in intent, seldom in
harmony with the teachings of modern science, and oftentimes in
disregard of fundamental principles. Our legislators grant “hearings”
before passing a law affecting the business of a few privileged
men and give it due weight; but criminal bills, which may
affect the public, are generally “rushed through,” probably because
of an absolute lack of interest. This is but a repetition of
Blackstone’s complaint against criminal legislation in his day. “It
is never usual in the House of Commons,” he wrote, “even to read
a bill which may affect the property of an individual without first
referring it to some of the learned judges and hearing their report
thereon. And surely equal precaution is necessary when laws are
to be established which may affect the property, liberty, and perhaps
the lives of thousands.” And he thus concludes his observations:
“The enacting of penalties to which a whole nation should
be subject ought not to be left as a matter of indifference to the
passions or interests of a few, who upon temporary motives may
prefer or support such a bill.”</p>
<p>The lack of public interest and of intelligent consideration by
the people and the bar in criminal problems and criminal legislation
are clearly shown by the paucity of criminal statistical data furnished
by various States.</p>
<p>Penological research is based on an intelligent study of statistics,
and civilized nations, recognizing this fact, have provided
elaborate systems of records based on the suggestions of statistical
science. But with us statistical facilities in the field of crime are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">472</a></span>
not merely primitive or old-fashioned, but in many cases shamefully
absent. In reply to requests addressed to the Secretaries of
State of various States for official statistics of crimes committed
in their respective jurisdictions, the answers I received were in a
number of cases negative. The officials mentioned replied that
no statistics were published by the State in Illinois, Georgia, New
Jersey, Tennessee, Kentucky, Maryland, Vermont, California,
Idaho, Missouri, South Carolina, Connecticut, Texas, Wisconsin,
Nebraska, Mississippi, Virginia, Colorado, and Kansas. It is true
that in some of these States this lacuna is filled in by special prison
reports or reports of commissioners or of the attorneys-general.
But even in these cases, as well as in those published officially by the
State (Ohio, Indiana, New York, Massachusetts, and Louisiana),
the information furnished is a monument of antiquated methods
and of very little value to the student of criminology. How, then,
can we study the grave questions of crime and criminals without
a basis of computation?</p>
<p>It may be true, as some claim, that Continental jurists have
refined the criminal law to an unpractical degree and too much
on classic and theoretic lines, but it will not be claimed that by
adhering to an old-fashioned and obsolete criminal jurisprudence
the Anglo-Saxons are safeguarding their fundamental liberties.
That there is something essentially wrong, or at least antiquated,
with our criminal law is evidenced by the popular discontent against
it, which is too widespread and insistent to be the result of ignorance
or sentiment. If there is inertia as to changes in the law
it is probably because, while feeling that there is something wrong,
the people either can not define it or the conservatism of centuries
in this field is unconsciously affecting their better intentions. Who
will deny (and I address this question to lawyers and judges) that,
under our system, guilty men escape and innocent men suffer in
larger numbers than it should be, even allowing for the defects
inherent in all human systems?—that technicalities and not facts
often save scoundrels; that unscrupulous lawyers do not avoid
them, and the best of judges are obliged by legal dogmas to respect
them? Who will deny (and I address this question to sociologists
and penologists) that the penal provisions of our present laws are
inappropriate, inelastic, and unscientific; that they neither prevent
nor reform; and that the basic principle of our penal codes
is still retribution and punishment? Can it be that the right of
life, liberty, and property is becoming a pious fraud? Of course,
it is not claimed that we have less liberty now than our fathers
had three centuries ago; progress never stops, and each day is
something gained; but it seems clear that the juridic basis and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">473</a></span>
form of our liberties have not kept up with the progress of those
very liberties. Yet, what we call rights must have a counterpart
or reflection in our laws. We may, while enjoying those rights,
forget that the juridic basis on which they stand is crumbling with
age. Unless that basis is rejuvenated the entire edifice must eventually
fall. While we are in full possession of our rights we need
no laws to guarantee them; but it is when those laws are encroached
upon that there arises the necessity of juridic sanction for them.</p>
<p>The right of life, liberty, and property constitutes the essence
of the “law of the land.” But the conception of rights, as we
have seen, changes and progresses. The law of the land must likewise
change and progress.</p>
<p>Laws may be the highest and best creation of man’s intellect,
but they are not “hedged in by any divinity.” That is why they
are neither infallible nor unchangeable. Yet, as the highest and
best creation of man’s intellect, and as the final criterion of human
public conduct, they should conform to the best thought and to
the highest scientific progress. If they do not approach this standard
they are worse than useless, for they become legalized means
of oppression. It is then that Justice needs a bandage over her
eyes, not to avoid partiality, but to hide her shame.</p>
<hr />
<h2 title="THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA" id="blind" class="b0">THE BLIND FISHES OF NORTH AMERICA.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold b0"><span class="smcap">By</span> CARL H. EIGENMANN,<br />
<span class="small">PROFESSOR OF ZOÖLOGY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY.</span></span></h2>
<blockquote class="b1">
<p class="p0">“An investigation into the history of degenerate forms often teaches us more of the
causes of change in organic Nature than can be learned by the study of the progressive
ones.”—<span class="smcap">Weismann.</span></p></blockquote>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">The</span> caves of the United States are inhabited by three cave
salamanders, two of them with degenerate eyes; by six cave
fishes, all with impaired vision—five of them with rudimentary
eyes, one with eyes the most degenerate among vertebrates; and
by several mammals. It is thus seen that among the interesting
features of the North American fauna the blind vertebrates
are not the least. Yet during the past twenty-five years the only
additions to our knowledge, aside from diagnoses of new species,
have been a few random notes on the habits and a short account
of the eye of Troglichthys by Kohl.</p>
<p>Various classes of vertebrates have blind members, but no large
vertebrate has become blind or permanently taken up its home in
caves. Blatchley reports that a number of cats have established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">474</a></span>
themselves in Wyandotte Cave, where they bring forth and rear
their young. They have exterminated the cave rats, and now station
themselves in a narrow passage of the cave and capture bats
as they fly through.</p>
<p>Among the permanent residents in dark places we have, among
mammals, the moles, which habitually live in burrows of their own
make. In Mammoth Cave lives a rat—Neotoma
pennsylvanica. In Marengo
Cave, Indiana, white-footed mice have established
themselves. Although with unimpaired
eyes, they have acquired ears and
whiskers longer than the rest of their kind
living outside.</p>
<p>In Florida occurs a blind lizard—Rhineura
floridana. It burrows in the ground,
and is colorless and blind.</p>
<div id="ip_474" class="figleft" style="width: 194px;"><img src="images/illo_076.jpg" width="194" height="371" alt="" /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—The cave salamander
of the Mississippi Valley<br />
(<i>Spelerpes maculicauda</i>).</p></div></div>
<p>Of salamanders, one blind species lives
in European caves. In the large caves of
the eastern United States no blind salamanders
have been found, although other
species, especially Spelerpes maculicauda,
abound. In the caves of Missouri a veiled-eyed
salamander, Typhlotriton, has been
described within recent years by Stejneger.
Still another salamander, Typhlomolge,
having rudimentary eyes, has been
cast up from an artesian well at San Marcos, Texas, and occurs in
the cave streams about that place.</p>
<p>The most abundant of the blind vertebrates, both in individuals
and in species, are the blind fishes. These, from their geographical
distribution, may be separated into three groups: (1) Those inhabiting
the depths of the ocean; (2) those inhabiting dark places
along the shores of the ocean; (3) those inhabiting the underground
fresh waters.</p>
<p>The fishes, blind or partially blind, living in the depths of
the ocean bordering the American continents, are as follows: 1.
Ipnops Murrayi Günther lives at depths varying from 955 fathoms
to 2,158 and has the very wide distribution suggested by the localities
from which specimens have been secured—viz., off the coast
of Brazil, near Tristan da Cumba, near Celebes, latitude 24° 36′
north, longitude 84° 51′ west, and off Bequia. This is the only vertebrate
in which no vestige of an eye has been found. Ipnops stands
alone in a family. 2. The Brotulidæ have several members blind
or with very much reduced eyes in various parts of the globe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">475</a></span>
Aphyonus mollis G. and B., 955 fathoms, and Alexeterion parfaiti
Vaillant, 5,005 metres, are the only ones found in the neighborhood
of America. 3. The Lophiidæ are represented by Mancalias
Schufeldtii Gill, from a depth of 372 fathoms. Other blind species
are found in foreign waters, while others with small eyes are
found in American waters. The majority of deep-sea fishes have
well-developed eyes.</p>
<p>The shore fishes have their blind representative in Typhlogobius
californiensis St., which lives under rocks between tide water on
the coast of southern and Lower California. I have elsewhere
described the habits of this form. In the fresh-water caves of
Cuba two blind fishes—Stygicola denta Poey and Lucifuga subterraneus
Poey—have been found. Their relatives live in the ocean,
Brotula barbata in Cuban waters; some of the others are blind and
inhabitants of deep water.</p>
<p>The inland fresh-water fishes are represented by Gronias nigrilabris
Cope, a catfish from cave streams of eastern Pennsylvania,
and by members of the Amblyopsidæ, concerning which a more
detailed account is given below.</p>
<p><span class="smcap">The Amblyopsidæ.</span>—The Amblyopsidæ are a small family of
fishes allied to the Cyprinodontidæ. They are found in the Mississippi
drainage basin and in certain southeastern streams. Three
of the members of the family,
the Chologasters, are
provided with well-developed
eyes, while four other
species are cave fishes in
the strictest sense, being
blind and colorless. The
distribution of the different
members of the Amblyopsidæ
is as follows:</p>
<div id="ip_475" class="figright" style="width: 328px;"><img src="images/illo_077.jpg" width="328" height="317" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—The larva and adult of the Missouri cave
salamander (<i>Typhlotriton</i>).</div></div>
<p>Chologaster cornutus is
found in lowland swamps
of the Southern States
from the Dismal Swamp
to the Okefinokee Swamp.
Chologaster Agassizii is
found in subterranean
streams in Tennessee and Kentucky. Chologaster papilliferus has
so far been found only in southwestern Illinois.</p>
<p>Amblyopsis is abundant in the cave streams of the Ohio Valley
south of the east fork of White River.</p>
<p>Typhlichthys subterraneus inhabits the region south of the Ohio<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">476</a></span>
and east of the Mississippi. A single specimen of another Typhlichthys
has been found north of the Ohio River in a well at
Corydon, Indiana. Troglichthys rosæ inhabits the caves west of
the Mississippi in Arkansas and Missouri.</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Chologaster.</span>—Mr. E. B. Forbes secured a school of Chologaster
papilliferus for me, and he wrote: “The little fishes were
found under stones at the edges of the spring very close to the
bluff, and when disturbed they swam back under the cliff....
None were found at any considerable distance from the face of the
cliff.” I found the Chologaster Agassizii to act similarly in the
river Styx, in Mammoth Cave. As soon as my net touched the
water they darted in under the ledge of rock at the side of the
little pool in which I found them.</p>
<div id="ip_476" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><img src="images/illo_078.jpg" width="573" height="249" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Blind salamander from an artesian well at San Marcos, Texas (<i>Typhlomolge</i>).</div></div>
<p>Chologaster papilliferus detects its food entirely by the sense
of touch. Two which were kept in an aquarium for over a year
were starved for a few days. They became very nervous, continually
swimming along the sides of the aquarium. Asellus was
introduced. These, even if quite near, produced no effect if moving
in front of the Chologaster. The moment one came in close
proximity to the fish from any direction, by a flashlike motion it
was seized. None of them were swallowed. The fish became very
alert after the introduction of the sowbugs, and when swimming
forward would strike at a part of a leaf if it came in contact with
the head of the fish. It seemed evident that the eye gave no information
of the character of the object. As Asellus was not altogether
to their taste, Gammarus was introduced. One of these
swimming rapidly toward the chin of the Chologaster from behind
and below was instantly seized when it came in contact with the
fish. The eye could not have located the Gammarus at all. The
action is in very strong contrast to the action of a sunfish, which
detects its food by the sight. It is undoubtedly this peculiar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">477</a></span>
method of locating and securing food which has enabled the Amblyopsidæ
to establish themselves in caves.</p>
<p>The Chologaster in general make-up is like Amblyopsis, but is
somewhat longer-jointed. It sits with its pectorals extended.
When it moves horizontally for some distance the pectorals are
usually pressed to the sides, the propelling being done largely by
the tail very much after the manner of a salamander, which it
resembles. In swimming toward the surface it uses its pectoral
fins chiefly, and the fish usually sinks to the bottom as soon as its
efforts to raise itself are stopped.</p>
<p>Individuals kept in aquaria with one end darkened either collected
in the darkened area floating about, or under leaves or
sticks in any part of the aquarium. They are frequently found
under a floating board, where they float with the tops of their
heads in contact with the board, their bodies slanting downward.
They seek the dark, regardless of the direction of the rays of light.
These characteristics they have, in great part, in common with the
blind members of the family. The adult Amblyopsis frequently
floats with its head to the top of the water, the tail sloping downward,
and in swimming along ledges of rock the top of the head
is applied to the ledge. I have captured many specimens simply
by scraping my net along the surface of a ledge.</p>
<p>Typhlichthys, living in total darkness, has retained the habit
of staying under floating boards, sticks, and stones. Miss Hoppin
noticed that Troglichthys swims with its back to the sides of the
aquarium, and I have repeatedly noted the same in the young of
Amblyopsis up to fifty millimetres, and the still younger Amblyopsis
frequently hides under rocks.</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Amblyopsis.</span>—The general impression given by Amblyopsis is
that of a skinned catfish swimming on its back. The expressions,
“They are catfish”; “They look as though they were skinned”;
“They are swimming on their backs,” are heard from those who
see these fishes for the first time.</p>
<p>The largest individual secured by me measured 135 millimetres
in total length. Individuals as large as this are rare. The
usual length of an adult is about 90 millimetres. One individual
was mentioned to me at Mammoth Cave having a length of 200
millimetres!</p>
<p>Amblyopsis is found in pools in the cave streams it inhabits.
I have secured as many as twelve from a pool perhaps ten by fifty
feet in size. Very rarely they are to be found in the riffles connecting
the pools. I have seen them lying at the bottom, or swimming,
or rather gliding, through the water like “white aquatic ghosts.”
In the aquarium they lie at the bottom or at various depths in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">478</a></span>
water, their axes making various angles with the horizontal, their
pectorals folded to their sides. When swimming slowly it is chiefly
by the use of the pectorals. The strokes of the pectoral are lazily
given, and the fish glides on after a stroke till its impetus is exhausted,
when another stroke is delivered. The fishes frequently
roll slightly from side to side at the exhaustion of the result of
a stroke. When swimming rapidly the pectorals are folded
to the sides, and their locomotion is then similar to that of a
salamander—by the motion of the tail. They readily adjust themselves
to different depths, and are usually perfect philosophers,
quiet, dignified, unconcerned, and imperturbed, entirely different
from such eyed species as minnows and sunfishes which are sometimes
found in caves and which are much more readily disturbed
by any motion in the water, making it almost impossible to capture
them when found in the caves. The pectorals are also almost exclusively
used when quietly rising in the water. At such times
the pectorals are extended laterally and then pressed to the sides,
beginning with the upper rays. A downward stroke is delivered
in this way not quickly, but with apparent lazy deliberation. In
swimming the pectorals are brought forward upper edge foremost.
The center of gravity seems to be so placed in regard to
their various axes that the fish does not lose its balance whatever
its position. They float horizontally in the water without any
apparent effort to maintain their position, or with the main axis
inclined upward, with the snout sometimes touching the surface
of the water, apparently lifeless. Once one was seen resting on
its tail in a nearly vertical position, and one while quietly swimming
was once seen to leisurely turn a somersault and swim on
undisturbed. At another time the same individual rolled completely
over. When one of them is kept out of the water for a
short time it frequently goes in a corkscrew-shaped path through
the water, continually spinning around its long axis. In their
quiet, floating position it is difficult to determine whether they are
alive or not.</p>
<div id="ip_478" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><img src="images/illo_080.jpg" width="455" height="159" alt="" /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—<i>Ipnops Murrayi</i>, living at a depth of 1,500 to 2,100 fathoms.</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—<i>Chlorophthalmus gracilis</i>, from 1,100 fathoms, off New Zealand.</p></div></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">479</a></span>
I have not found the slightest difficulty in capturing Amblyopsis
with a small dip net, either from a boat or while wading through
the subterranean stream, and I have caught one in the hollow of
my hand. At such a time all the noise I could make did not affect
the fishes found swimming in the water. Frequently they were
taken in the dip net without apparently noting the vibrations produced
in the water until they were lifted out of it; very rarely
a fish became evidently scared. Such a one would dart off a few
feet or a few inches, and remain on the <i>qui vive</i>. If not pursued,
it soon swam off quietly; if pursued, it not infrequently escaped
by rapidly darting this way and that; when jumping out of the
water, often an abrupt turn in the opposite direction from which it
started would land it in the net, showing that their sense of direction
was not very acute. At other times, if disturbed by the waves
produced by wading, one or another individual would follow a ledge
of rock to the bottom of the stream, where it would hide in a
crevice. But very frequently, much more frequently than not,
no attention was paid either to the commotion produced by the
wading or by the boat and dip net. In general, it may be said
that the fishes in their natural habitat are oblivious to disturbances
of the water until frightened by some very unusual jar or motion,
probably a touch with the net, when they become intensely alert.
The fact that they are not easily frightened suggests the absence
of many enemies, while their frantic behavior if once scared gives
evidence either that occasional enemies are present and that they
are very dangerous, or that the transmission of the instinct of fear
is as tenacious as the transmission of physical characters.</p>
<div id="ip_479" class="figleft" style="width: 245px;"><img src="images/illo_081.jpg" width="245" height="67" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—<i>Brodula barbata</i> from Havana,
Cuba.</div></div>
<div id="ip_479b" class="figright" style="width: 228px;"><img src="images/illo_081b.jpg" width="228" height="67" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—<i>Stygicola dentatus</i> from the
caves of Cuba.</div></div>
<p>Contrary to Sloan’s observation, that they detect the presence
of a solid substance in their path, I have never noticed that those
in confinement became aware of the proximity of the walls of the
aquarium when swimming toward it. Instead, they constantly use
the padded, projecting lower jaw as bumpers. Even an extremely
rapid dart through the water seems to be stopped without serious
inconvenience by the projecting jaw.</p>
<p>The first observations on the feeding habit of Amblyopsis are
those of Cope. He remarks that “the projecting lower jaw and
upward direction of the mouth render it easy for the fish to feed
at the surface of the water, where it must obtain much of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">480</a></span>
food.... This structure also probably explains the facts of its
being the sole representative of the fishes in subterranean waters.
No doubt many other forms were carried into the caverns since
the waters first found their way there, but most of them were like
those of our present rivers—deep-water or bottom feeders. Such
fishes would starve in a cave river, where much of the food is carried
to them on the surface of the stream.”</p>
<div id="ip_480" class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;"><img src="images/illo_082.jpg" width="599" height="509" alt="" /><div><p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—<i>Aphyonus gelatinosus</i>, 1,400 fathoms, between Australia and New Guinea.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—<i>Aphyonus mollis</i>, 955 fathoms, 24° 36′ north, 84° 5′ west.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>Tauredophidium hextii</i>, 1,310 fathoms, Bay of Bengal.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—<i>Acanthonus armatus</i>, 1,050 fathoms, mid Pacific, off the Philippines.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—<i>Typhlonus nasus</i>, 2,150 to 2,440 fathoms, north of Australia and north of
Celebes.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—<i>Hephthacara simum</i>, 902 fathoms, Coromandel coast.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—<i>Alexeterion parfaiti</i>, 5,005 metres, North Atlantic.</p></div></div>
<p>The observations of Cope are entirely erroneous, as we shall
see, and the speculations based on them naturally fall to the ground.</p>
<p>Dr. Sloan recorded one Amblyopsis which he kept twenty
months without food. “Some of them would strike eagerly at
any small body thrown in the water near them, rarely missed it,
and in a very short time ejected it from their mouths with considerable
force. I tried to feed them often with bits of meat and fish-worms,
but they retained nothing. On one occasion I missed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">481</a></span>
small one, and found his tail projecting from the mouth of a larger
one.”</p>
<p>Wyman found a small-eyed fish in the stomach of an Amblyopsis.</p>
<p>Hoppin was struck by the fact that, if not capable of long fasts,
Troglichthys must live on very small organisms that the unaided
eye can not discern. Garman found, in the stomachs of Troglichthys
collected by Hoppin in Missouri, species of Asellus, Cambarus,
Ceuthophilus, and Crangonyx.</p>
<p>All the specimens of Amblyopsis so far taken by me contained
very large fatty bodies in their abdominal cavity, a condition suggesting
abundance of food. The stomachs always contained the
<i>débris</i> of crustaceans, a closer identification of which was not attempted.
One young Amblyopsis disappeared on the way home
from the caves, and had evidently been swallowed by one of the
larger ones. A few old ones, kept in an aquarium from May to
July, were seen voiding excrement toward the last of their captivity,
and their actions at various times suggested that they were
scraping the minute organisms from the side of the aquarium.
The young Amblyopsis reared in the aquarium seemed to feed on
the minute forms found in the mud at the bottom of its aquarium.
Some Cœcidotæa placed in the aquarium of the young soon disappeared,
and the capture of one of these was noted under a reading
glass. The fish was quietly swimming along the side of its aquarium;
when it came within about an inch of the crustacean it became
alert, and with the next move of the Cœcidotæa it was captured
with a very quick, well-aimed dart on the part of the young
fish. Others were captured while crawling along the floor of the
aquarium. From all things noted, it seems very probable that
Amblyopsis is a bottom feeder, and that it also picks food from the
walls of the caves. It is not at all improbable or impossible that
food should be captured at the surface or in open water, but there
seems no warrant for Cope’s supposition that Amblyopsis is a top
feeder. I have frequently seen larger specimens, which had been
in captivity for several weeks, nosing about the bottom of the aquarium,
with their bodies inclined upward in the water and quietly
taking in the organic fragments at the bottom. An Asellus stirring
about at such a time always produced an unusual alertness.</p>
<p>The number of respiratory movements of Amblyopsis averaged
nineteen a minute in five observations, reaching a maximum of
thirty in a small individual and a minimum of fourteen in a large
one. This is in strong contrast to Chologaster, the number of
whose respiratory motions reached an average of eighty per minute
in five observations, with a minimum of fifty-six and a maximum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">482</a></span>
of one hundred and eight in a small specimen. Dr. Loeb has called
my attention to the more rapid absorption of oxygen in the light
than in the dark; this extended would probably mean the more
rapid absorption of oxygen through the skin of light-colored animals,
a matter of doubtful value, however, to species living in
the dark.</p>
<p>The gill filaments are small as compared with the gill cavity.</p>
<p>Oxygenation probably takes place through the skin. <span class="locked">Ritter<a name="FNanchor_J" id="FNanchor_J" href="#Footnote_J" class="fnanchor">J</a></span>
has suggested the same for Typhlogobius.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_J" id="Footnote_J" href="#FNanchor_J" class="fnanchor">J</a> Ritter, Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, vol. xxiv, p. 92.</p></div>
<p>“Cutaneous respiration is not unique in Typhlogobius and the
Amblyopsidæ. In the viviparous fishes of California the general
surface, and especially the fins, which have become enormously
enlarged, serve as respiratory organs during the middle and later
periods of gestation; the fins are a mass of blood-vessels, with
merely sufficient cellular
substance to knit them together.
There is, however,
no pink coloration.”</p>
<div id="ip_482" class="figleft" style="width: 333px;"><img src="images/illo_084.jpg" width="333" height="147" alt="" /><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—<i>Mancalias Schufeldtii</i>, 372 fathoms.</div></div>
<p>Skin respiration would
account for the extreme resistance
to asphyxiation in
Amblyopsis and Typhlogobius.
About forty-five examples
of Amblyopsis were carried in a pail of water four hundred
miles by rail, with only a partial change of water three times
during twenty-four hours. A smaller number may be kept for
days or weeks—probably indefinitely—in a pail of water without
change. The characteristics of Typhlogobius along this line have
been set forth elsewhere.</p>
<p>Sticks, straws, etc., are never avoided by the fishes even when
perfectly imperturbed. By this I mean that they are never seen
to avoid such an object when it is in their path. They swim against
it and then turn. An object falling through the water does not
disturb them, even if it falls on them. A pencil gently moved
about in front of them does not disturb the fishes much, but if
the pencil is held firmly in the hand it is always perceived, and the
fish comes to a dead halt ten or fifteen millimetres before it reaches
such an object. On the other hand, they may be touched on the
back or tail before they start away. They glide by each other
leisurely and dignified, and if they collide, as they sometimes do,
they usually show no more emotion than when they run against
a stick. But this indifference is not always displayed, as we shall
see under the head of breeding habits.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">483</a></span>
A number kept in an aquarium with a median partition, in
which there was a small opening, were readily able to perceive the
opening, swimming directly for it when opposite it. This observation
is in direct contrast to their inability to perceive solid substances
in their path. A sharp tap on the sides of an aquarium in
which six blind fishes were swimming, where they had been for a
number of days undisturbed, in a dark room, caused nearly all of
them to dart rapidly forward. A second tap produced a less unanimous
reaction. This repeated on successive days always brought
responses from some of the inmates of the aquarium. Those responding
were not necessarily the nearest to the center of disturbance,
but sometimes at the opposite side of the aquarium or variously
distributed through it. After a few days the fishes took no
notice of the tapping by any action observable in the artificially
lighted room.</p>
<p>Such tapping on a well-lighted aquarium containing both Chologaster
and Amblyopsis was always perceived by the Amblyopsis,
but the only response from these imperturbable philosophers was a
slight motion of the pectorals, a motion that suggested that their
balance had been disturbed and that the motion was a rebalancing.
Chologaster, on the other hand, invariably darted about in a frantic
manner. One individual of Amblyopsis floating on the water
was repeatedly pushed down by the finger without being disturbed.
If, however, they are touched on the side they always rapidly dart
away.</p>
<p>From everything observed, it is quite evident that Amblyopsis
is not keener in perceiving objects or vibrations than other fishes,
and ordinarily pays much less attention to them. Whether it possesses
a greater power of discrimination of vibrations it would be
difficult to say. It certainly possesses very elaborate tactile organs
about the head. These tactile organs are probably more serviceable
in detecting and precisely locating prey in the immediate
neighborhood than for anything else. Some observations on young
Amblyopsis are of interest in this connection.</p>
<p>The young, with a large amount of yolk still attached, show a
well-developed sense of direction. A needle thrust into the water
near their heads and in front of them causes a quick reaction, the
young fishes turning and swimming in the opposite direction. They
will do this two or three times, then, becoming exhausted, will remain
at rest. Sometimes an individual will not move until it is
actually touched by the needle. The needle must come within
about three or four millimetres of the fish before it is noticed.
Then, if it produces any result, it causes the fish to quickly turn and
swim some distance, when it falls to the bottom again and remains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">484</a></span>
at rest. If the needle is placed behind the fish, it will swim directly
forward; if at the side or about the middle, it causes the fish to
swim directly forward or to turn and swim in a direction opposite
the origin of the disturbance. Younger specimens have, as yet,
no power over the direction of their progress; the wiggling of the
tail simply produces a gyration, with the yolk as pivot.</p>
<p>A young blind fish, six months old, swims about in a jerky manner,
chiefly by the use of its pectoral fins. It keeps close to the
side of the vessel, usually with its back to the glass. (The aquarium
was a cylindrical jar three hundred millimetres in diameter
and three hundred millimetres high.) It perceives a stick thrust
toward it as readily as a seeing fish can. It always perceives from
whatever direction it may be approached, and will invariably dart
away a short distance, sometimes making sharp turns to avoid the
stick, and always successfully. It can be approached from the top
nearer than from the sides or from in front. It does not avoid
the sides of the aquarium, which it frequently strikes. It is a
bottom feeder; its intestinal canal is always partially full.</p>
<p>A long series of experiments was made on Amblyopsis and
Chologaster to determine their reaction to white and monochromatic
light. Without going into the details of these experiments,
it may be stated that Amblyopsis avoids the light, regardless of
the direction or the color of the rays. The same is true of Chologaster,
except that they were positively attracted by the red rays
of the spectrum as against the blue.</p>
<p>We owe the first observations on the breeding habits of Amblyopsis
to Thompson, who states that a fish “was put in water
as soon as captured, where it gave birth to nearly twenty young,
which swam about for some time, but soon died; ... they were
each four lines in length.” Little or nothing has been added to
our knowledge of this subject since that time, but the highly interesting
supposition of Thompson that they were viviparous has
gained currency, and it is therefore unfortunate that in this respect
he was in error.</p>
<p>Putnam adds to the above that, judging from some data in his
possession, the young are born in September and October, and
further along remarks that they are “undoubtedly” viviparous.</p>
<p>The eggs are laid by the female in under her gill membrane.
Here they remain for perhaps two months, till the yolk is nearly
all absorbed. If a female with young in her gill pouches is handled,
some of the young are sure to escape. This was observed, and
gave rise to the idea that this fish is viviparous. Eggs have been
obtained as early as March 11th and as late as September, and the
indications are that the breeding season extends throughout the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">485</a></span>
year. The eggs are large—2.3 millimetres in diameter from membrane
to membrane—and about sixty to seventy are laid at one
time.</p>
<p>Certain structures gain an entirely new significance in the light
of the breeding habits. These are the enlarged gill cavities, with
the small gills, the closely applied branchiostegal membrane, and
the position of the anus and sexual orifices. The latter are placed
just behind the gill membrane in such close proximity to it that
they can be covered by it. It is probable, therefore, that the
membrane is drawn over the sexual orifice and the eggs deposited
directly into the gill cavity. In an individual thirty-five millimetres
long the anus is situated between the origin of the pectorals;
in one twenty-five millimetres long it lies between the pectorals
and ventrals. In the young it lies behind the ventrals, as in
other fishes.</p>
<div id="ip_485" class="figcenter" style="width: 601px;"><img src="images/illo_087.jpg" width="601" height="359" alt="" /><div><p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—The embryo of <i>Typhlogobius</i>, showing the well-developed eye.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—A young <i>Typhlogobius</i>, times 4-2/9.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Adult <i>Typhlogobius</i>.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Adult <i>Gillichthys-y-cauda</i> living in crab holes in San Diego Bay.</p>
<p class="captionh"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Young <i>Gillichthys mirabilis</i> under the same magnification as Fig. 17.</p></div></div>
<p>In an aquarium containing six Amblyopsis two took a great
antipathy to each other. Whenever they touched, a vigorous contest
began. Frequently they came to have a position with broadside
to broadside, their heads pointing in opposite directions. At
such a time the fight consists in quick lateral thrusts toward
the antagonist to seize him with the mouth. The motion is instantly
parried by a similar move by the antagonist. This blind
punching may be kept up for a few seconds, when, by their vigorous
motions, they lose each other and jerk themselves through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">486</a></span>
the water from side to side, apparently hunting for each other.
At this time they are very agile, and move with precision. When
the belligerents meet one above the other, the snapping and punching
is of a different order. While jerking through the water immediately
after a round, if one of the belligerents touches one of
the neutrals in the aquarium it frequently gives it a punch, but
does not follow it up, and the unoffending fellow makes haste to
get out of the road, the smaller ones doing so most quickly. If,
after an interval of a few seconds, a belligerent meets a neutral
they quietly pass each other without paying any further attention,
whereas if the two belligerents meet again there is an immediate
response. Whether they recognize each other by touch or by their
mutual excitability I do not know. At one time, in another aquarium,
I saw one belligerent capture the other by the pectorals.
After holding on for a short time it let go, and all differences were
forgotten. The thrust is delivered by a single vigorous flip of the
tail and caudal to one side. These fights were frequently noticed,
and always occurred between males.</p>
<p>The absence of secondary sexual differences in the cave fishes
is a forcible argument in favor of sexual selection as the factor
producing high coloration in the males. The absence of secondary
sexual differences in cave animals opposes the idea of Geddes and
Thompson that the differences are the external expression of maleness
and femaleness.</p>
<p>Attempts at acclimating Amblyopsis in outside waters have so
far <span class="locked">failed.<a name="FNanchor_K" id="FNanchor_K" href="#Footnote_K" class="fnanchor">K</a></span> A few were placed in Turkey Lake, Indiana. They
were surrounded by a fine wire net, to keep off other fishes. They
died in a few days, as the result of attacks of leeches, <i>saprolegnia</i>,
or fish mold, and from unknown causes. Others were kept in an
elongated box sunk into the ground, where fresh spring water
flowed through it constantly. <i>Saprolegnia</i> sooner or later destroyed
all of them. They live longest in quiet aquaria, where
the water is rarely changed. The young I have secured died, with
one exception, within a few weeks. The difficulty of rearing the
young is not at all insurmountable. They eat readily. Their
aquaria must be kept free from green plants, and have a layer
of fine mud, with a few decaying leaves, in the bottom. They will
feed on minute crustaceans and other micro-organisms. When
they have reached a sufficient size, examples of Asellus are greedily
devoured. Fish mold is the bane of the larvæ. Many of them
were found with tufts of the <i>hyphæ</i> growing out of their mouths
and gill openings.</p>
<div class="footnote">
<p><a name="Footnote_K" id="Footnote_K" href="#FNanchor_K" class="fnanchor">K</a> Since the above was written an apparently successful attempt has been made to colonize
them in a pool at Winona Lake. A record of this colony will be published later.</p>
</div>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">487</a></span></p>
<h2 title="THE MAN OF SCIENCE IN PRACTICAL AFFAIRS" id="man">THE MAN OF SCIENCE IN PRACTICAL AFFAIRS.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By</span> F. W. CLARKE.</span></h2>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">The</span> human mind is addicted to the creation of types, a process
which implies classification and generalization of a somewhat
low order. Some prominent feature of the thing classified is selected
for emphasis, and there is often a degree of exaggeration
which leads, in the end, to caricature. John Bull, Brother Jonathan,
the Jew of the comic papers, and the stage Irishman are examples
of this tendency. So, too, a profession or occupation is summed
up in one conventional character, with a little truth distorted as if
seen reflected from the surface of a curved mirror. The likeness
is there, but unlike the reality. The individual embodiment of the
type is rarely, if ever, encountered.</p>
<p>The man of science deals with questions which commonly lie
outside of the range of ordinary experience, which often have no
immediately discernible relation to the affairs of everyday life, and
which concentrate the mind upon apparent abstractions to an extraordinary
degree. Accordingly, the scholar, the scientific investigator,
is typified as an elderly dreamer in spectacles, who is so
uncouth, so self-forgetful, so absent-minded, and so ignorant of
practical matters as to be hardly more than a child. He is one to
be cared for and humored, like an imbecile—treated with some consideration,
perhaps, on account of his learning, but never to be
trusted in the transaction of business nor in the administration of
public affairs. With him, as an antithesis, is contrasted the practical
man, who knows whither his steps are tending, who has learned
to control others, and who never dreams of abstractions during office
hours, if indeed he troubles himself about them at all. The one
is thought to be vague, visionary, and unpractical; the other is
deemed efficient, precise, prompt, and clear. Has this distinction
any basis in reality? Do scientific pursuits disqualify a man for
administrative responsibility?</p>
<p>These questions, like all other legitimate questions, are to be
answered by evidence, and the popular impression is entitled to no
weight whatever. This evidence is to be found by a study of the
thing itself, the man of science as he actually is; by an examination
of the training which he receives, the character of the work
which he does, and the results which he accomplishes. By this
method it will be found that the supposed type is purely imaginary,
that the workers in science exhibit all the variations which are found
in any other group of occupations, that the human race as a whole
is their only symbol or representative. The man of science may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">488</a></span>
be grave or gay, moral or immoral, social or unsocial, keen or
visionary—in short, he may exemplify any trait of human nature,
except the traits of ignorance and stupidity. He must be intelligent
and educated, methodical and exact; apart from these qualifications
he may resemble any other man, chosen from any other
vocation. Indeed, his nearest analogue is the so-called man of business,
and the chief distinction between the two is that one deals
with unfamiliar, the other with familiar things.</p>
<p>The direct tendency of the scientific training is to develop as
fully as possible the positive traits which have been mentioned.
Each science is a body of systematic, well-organized knowledge, with
clear fundamental principles and distinct outlines. The study of
science is a continual discouragement of obscurity or vagueness; it
is a discipline in the statement and solution of definite problems,
and it trains one to see things as they are, apart from all irrelevancies.
The technicalities of science, so bewildering to the layman,
are merely aids to exactness, avoidances of circumlocution—in
short, they are practical devices whereby labor is saved. Economy
of effort is one of the features in which the scientific training excels.</p>
<p>The results of such a training vary, of course, with the individual,
and depend upon his personal peculiarities. A broad man
is broadened by it; a narrow man shuts himself up within the limits
of a specialty. To some extent specialization is necessary, but
there is a wide difference between the man who sees only his own
province and one who realizes its relations to other fields. The
same distinction is found in commercial life, and with the same results.
The specialist in money, in stocks, in iron, or in cotton may
be just as narrow as the specialist in stars, or reactions, or insects,
and know little or nothing of any subject outside his own. Neither
narrowness nor breadth of view is monopolized by any vocation.
The mere fact that men of science rarely devote their attention
to accumulating wealth does not prove them to be unpractical.
They are not, as a rule, careless or thriftless in money matters;
they are as likely to handle their financial affairs intelligently as
any one else, but their main business lies in other directions. If
seldom a millionaire, the man of science is still more seldom a bankrupt.
In wild speculation the so-called practical man takes the lead,
and anything which bears the trade mark of electricity, from the
electrical refining of sugar to the extraction of gold from sea water,
can secure from otherwise shrewd financiers the support which a
worker in science would contemptuously refuse to give. A few
years ago the would-be rain-makers obtained the money for their
experiments from men of business, and from Congress even, in spite
of advice based upon scientific knowledge, and failure was the inevitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">489</a></span>
end. In that borderland between business and research,
which is known as applied science, the scientific student is more
practical than the financier. When both work together, wealth is
produced, but the seedtime of abstract investigation always precedes
the harvest. The commercial value of exact knowledge is
often very great, but to the prospective investor this truth is not
always evident.</p>
<p>The practical value of the scientific training is perhaps most
fully recognized in Germany. There the importance of the investigator,
the apparently abstract scholar, is thoroughly understood,
and to his work the great industrial advance of Germany is largely
attributable. In chemical and electrical industries this is particularly
true, and their growth can be directly traced to the influence
of the universities. The German professor is a man trained to
research, and from among his students many of the best investigators
are chosen for service in the factories. German competition
in the commercial world is to-day the bugbear of other European
countries, and its success is due, first of all, to the utilization
of trained intelligences. In our own country the importance of
applied science is fully realized and its achievements are beyond
dispute, but the scholar as yet receives less consideration than the
commercial expert. The latter is practical, the former is regarded
as visionary. Accurate knowledge is a good thing, but rule-of-thumb
experience is often thought to be better. It is only when
knowledge and experience join hands that the highest practical
results are attainable, the one factor tending to advance, the other
to perpetuate, industry. The man of affairs is not a practical man
until he appreciates the force of these propositions.</p>
<p>At bottom the scientific training is a training in clear thought,
precise statement, accurate observation, the verification of evidence,
and the ascertainment of truth. Why should its recipient be unfitted
for practical things? Good administration, the effective transaction
of business, implies system, exactness, the judgment of evidence
upon its merits, and the prompt solution of problems as they
arise, and to each of these requisites the scientific education is
directly related. What other training is less likely to produce
dreamers, or more likely to develop efficient men? The main distinction
between the workers in science and men of other vocations
is one of aim, a difference in ambition, perhaps a difference in the
point of view. The scientific scholar seeks to discover and possibly
to apply new truth; and after that his ambition is to win the recognition
of his fellows, to gain reputation, rather than to acquire
wealth. He may not be indifferent to the latter purpose, but it is
not his chief end. It is difficult to do both things well.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">490</a></span>
For the administration of large interests, involving the control
of men and the building-up of great institutions, men of science
have over and over again demonstrated their fitness. In the scientific
societies of the world they have shown their capacity for organization,
and in the management of schools and colleges their ability
has often been proved. Among the presidents of universities and
technical schools who have been drawn from the ranks of science
I may mention Eliot, of Harvard; Gilman, of the Johns Hopkins;
Drown, of Lehigh; Jordan, of the Leland Stanford; Chamberlin,
of Wisconsin; Morton, of the Stevens Institute; and Mendenhall,
of the Worcester Polytechnic. The Institute of Technology in
Boston has been directed successively by Rogers, Runkle, Walker,
and Crafts; the Columbia School of Mines was built up by a group
of scientific workers, aided by President Barnard; and the list might
be lengthened almost indefinitely. Have these men fallen below
the average of their fellows? Have they not shown at least as
high administrative ability as has been found elsewhere? The mere
statement of their names is a sufficient answer, and renders argument
unnecessary. With them the scientific training has not been
a disqualification, nor even a handicap; it has rather been to their
advantage, for to it they owe much of the insight, the power to
grasp great problems intelligently, the ability to interpret evidence,
and the tendency to prompt and decisive action, without which successful
administration is impossible.</p>
<p>Again, consider the scientific institutions of the world, the museums
and observatories, and the various governmental organizations
in which science is recognized. In our own country, the
Smithsonian Institution and National Museum were built up by
Henry and Baird, in spite of great and varied difficulties; the Coast
Survey was created by Hassler and Bache; and the Geological Survey
was developed by a group of men among whom Hayden, King,
and Powell were pioneers. The last-named organization has been
controlled from the beginning by men of science, and the Coast
Survey has been weak only when under nonscientific management.
The Commission of Fish and Fisheries owes its existence and a great
part of its effectiveness to its creator, Baird; the Army Medical
Museum and Library represents the executive genius of Billings;
and in none of these institutions has partisan politics ever exerted
an appreciable influence. No bureaus of the Government have
been more wisely or more efficiently handled than those which men
of science have controlled; in none have there been fewer errors
or scandals; there is not one in which the essential purpose of its
existence has been better fulfilled.</p>
<p>Instead, then, of excluding the scholar, the investigator, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">491</a></span>
man who knows, the man of scientific training, from his fair share
of public responsibility, we should do well to call him into service
more and more. He may be, he often is, averse to administrative
work, for the reason that it interferes with his chosen occupation,
and hinders the prosecution of research. But his training and his
mental bias are both needed in public affairs, wherein the scientific
method is too often unapplied. In European countries men of high
scientific rank are frequently found in legislative bodies and ministries;
men like Playfair, Roscoe, and Lubbock in England, Virchow
in Germany, Quintino Sella in Italy, and Berthelot in France.
With us in America the maker of speeches outranks the thinker
in popular esteem, and is given duties to perform in which he may
become ridiculous. Both in legislation and in diplomacy many
questions arise which demand the most careful scientific treatment,
or which can be answered only by thorough scientific knowledge,
and many of these have been intrusted for settlement to men of
no specific training whatever. Of late years we have had the
fur-seal controversy, the question of forest reserves, the irrigation
of our arid lands, problems of sanitation and water supply, and in
each of these the man of science has played a part which was too
often subordinate to that of the politician. In an ideal government
the two should work together, each supplementing the peculiar
ability of the other. Many details of the tariff, and a notable part
of the coinage question, require scientific data for their proper
settlement, but the true expert has not always been consulted. The
result of this neglect is sometimes seen in courts of law, where questions
of interpretation arise which might have been averted, obscurity
in legislation being often due to the careless use of scientific
terminology or to ignorance of the relations in science between two
branches of industry. The voice of the trained investigator might
well be heard in Congress, but his testimony now is limited to the
committee room. Even there it is received with an attention which
is too often mingled with incredulity. The myth of the dreamer,
the visionary, is more than half believed.</p>
<p>The supposed type, then, is not a type, but an exception—a man
of straw, which is hardly worth overthrowing. But the belief in
it has been and still is mischievous, a hindrance to wise action, an
obstacle to progress. The misconception has worked injury to
science. These words of protest, therefore, are not wholly superfluous.</p>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">492</a></span></p>
<h2 title="FORENOON AND AFTERNOON" id="forenoon">FORENOON AND AFTERNOON.<br />
<span class="subhead small notbold"><span class="smcap">By CHARLES F. DOWD, Ph. D.</span></span></h2>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">It</span> is a fact of common observation, at different times of the year,
that the forenoon and afternoon, as to daylight, are of unequal
length. Along in later autumn the shortness of the afternoons is
very noticeable, and the shortness of forenoons along in later winter.
Whatever makes common facts more intelligible adds to the
general intelligence and to the general good. It is to this end that
the following brief statements are made.</p>
<p>Nothing is more evident than that the sun requires just as much
time to go from the eastern horizon to the midday meridian as to
go from that meridian to the western horizon. But, strange to say,
there are but four days during the whole year in which the sun
reaches the midday meridian at just twelve o’clock. The true
noon point varies from about fifteen minutes before to about sixteen
minutes after twelve o’clock. These extreme points in one
set of variations fall in the first week of November and in the second
week of February, not to designate exact days for years in
general.</p>
<p>The calendars show that in the latitude of Saratoga (essentially
Boston latitude) on November 3, 1898, the sun rose at 6.30
and set at five o’clock, thereby making the forenoon a half hour
longer than the afternoon. On that day the sun reached the midday
meridian at 11.45. On February 13, 1899, the sun rose at just
seven o’clock and set at 5.30, thereby making the afternoon a half
hour longer than the forenoon, and on this day the sun reached
the midday meridian at 12.15. These are facts plainly open to
general view, and therefore need no verifying.</p>
<p>The causes of the foregoing are not so apparent to common
observation. It must be borne in mind that the mean or average
solar day is the basis for all time measurements, therefore its exact
length is of the greatest importance. Yet the general solar day,
from which the average one is derived, is a very indefinite term
as to its length. Its length in general may be defined, under view
of the sun’s apparent motion, as the time extending from the instant
that the sun’s center crosses any given meridian of the earth
on one day to the instant that center crosses the same meridian
on the following day—i. e., the time intervening between these
two instants is the length of a solar day.</p>
<p>The motion of the sun, however, is only apparent; the actual
motion is in the earth’s revolution upon its axis. We should have
one day a year long if the earth did not revolve on its axis at all,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">493</a></span>
since the revolution of the earth around the sun once a year would
in the course of the year bring all sides facing the sun. Consequently
the earth makes one more revolution upon its axis each
year than the number of solar days in that year, and a little consideration
of this fact will show that in each solar day the earth
makes one full revolution on its axis and about 1/365 of another,
which fractional addition is occasioned by one day’s progress of the
earth along its orbit.</p>
<p>Another fact needs to be considered. Since the earth’s orbit
is in the form of an ellipse, with the sun at one of the foci, the
earth must pass nearer the sun in some parts of its orbit than in
others. By the laws of gravity, when nearer, the attraction between
the earth and sun is greater, and if this were not balanced
by increased velocity along its orbit the earth would fall into the
sun; and, on the other hand, when farther off this attraction is
less, and if this were not balanced by a diminution of velocity along
its orbit the earth would fly off into space. This varying velocity,
together with other complications too technical for a magazine
article, gives varying lengths of orbit to the several solar days of
the year. If the earth’s orbit were laid out upon paper and, by
astronomical calculations, an exact proportionate section were
marked off for each solar day of the year, the variable lengths of
orbit for the different days of the year would plainly appear to
the eye.</p>
<p>But, as before explained, the time of a solar day is the time of
one revolution of the earth upon its axis, together with the fractional
part of another revolution occasioned by one day’s progress
of the earth along its orbit. Then it must follow that as the daily
sections of the orbit vary in length, the time of the solar day must
vary in length. No clock could be made to keep the variable time
of true solar days, and if this were possible, the hour, minute, etc.,
would be variable of length, and hence no standard for time measurements.
But by working a simple arithmetical problem of addition
and division an average length of day for the year may easily
be found. This average day is the mean solar day adopted. Its
time is arbitrary and exact, forming a perfect standard for all time
measurements. From this the term <i>mean time</i> gains its significance.</p>
<p>By referring to the foregoing earth’s orbit laid out on paper,
with the true solar days marked off in sections of mathematical
exactness, it will be seen that by dividing each section into two
equal parts and marking the division point with red ink, the true
noon point of each solar day in the year will be conspicuous upon
the drawing, and in its proportionate relations in every way. If
now we set a pair of dividers or compasses so that the opening shall<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">494</a></span>
reach over the exact space on the orbit of one half of the mean
solar day, and beginning at the red noon point of one of the four
days in the year when the true noon falls at just twelve o’clock—say
December 24th—and step the dividers around on the orbit,
making a blue point mark at each second step, then as the blue
points vary from the red so will the mean time which our clocks
keep vary from the true noon of each day of the year.</p>
<p>Variation in length of forenoon and afternoon, therefore, may
be viewed by common intelligence not only as a fact but as a
necessity.</p>
<hr />
<h2 id="president">PRESIDENT JORDAN’S “NEMINISM.”</h2>
<p class="sigright">
<span class="smcap">Office of the President, Leland Stanford Junior University,<br />
<span class="l6">Palo Alto, Cal.</span><br />
<span class="l4">Post Office, Stanford University</span></span>.
</p>
<p class="in0"><span class="smcap">Dear Dr. Youmans</span>:</p>
<p>The inclosed, from an anonymous but appreciative source, may
interest you. It is doubtless true that the philosophy of Neminism
goes back to India, through Hegel and Plato, but the high
priestess does not know this. She made it all out of her own head.</p>
<p class="sigright">
<span class="l4">Truly yours,</span><br />
<span class="smcap">David S. Jordan</span>.
</p>
<p class="sigright">
<span class="l4"><span class="smcap">The University of Mentiphysics</span>,</span><br />
<span class="smcap">Lynn, Mass.</span>, <i>December 6, 1899</i>.
</p>
<p class="hang"><i>President David Starr Jordan, Leland Stanford University, California.</i></p>
<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have before me the last issue of one of our two or three
great scientific magazines, in which Mr. Giddings lays down the
exact method we are to follow in sociology, thereby creating the
pleasing impression that hereafter he intends to stick to it himself.
But, sir, I wish to say, as a student of “Neminism,” as you call it,
that my emotions were far less agreeable on perusing your brilliant
plagiarism, the doctrine of <i>Nihil nemini nocet</i>, an aphorism
which apparently you wish to make rival the <i>Cogito ergo sum</i> of the
Cartesian philosophy. I will concede to you (I being, as it is perhaps
necessary for me to remark, a literary person) the undoubted
right all real literary persons have of appropriating everything of
a literary nature that they can lay their hands upon; but, while we
are in perfect harmony upon this occasion, in regard to that point,
I regret to insist that the thing must be done judiciously—<i>that</i> is
the art. Any mere plebeian can accumulate facts—<i>that</i> is the
<i>raison d’être</i> of the plebeian; his duty is to work—but the real
ethereal literary man, such as the monthly magazines nourish, must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">495</a></span>
disdain facts and theories and the truth, and must float in the pure,
soft twilight of his own imagination while he writes about people
who never existed, in a language which nobody can understand.
Yet, sir, in your unblushing appropriation of the late Professor
Hegel’s dictum of <i>Sein und nicht Sein sind dieselbe</i> (which I presume
you, sir, to exculpate yourself, will swear you do not understand),
and in your changing that immortal antithesis to your <i>Nihil
nemini nocet</i>—in doing all this I declare that you have violated one
of the most sacred principles, in fact, the very essence of Neminism;
for to say, as you have said, that nothing hurts nobody, is to
say a very dull, prosaic, vulgar fact which any fool can understand;
but to say that “to be and not to be are the same” is to
say something that is not only very beautiful, but, what is far more
to the point, is likewise utterly incomprehensible; yet to do this <i>is</i>
the essence of Neminism, as you yourself have shown.</p>
<p>As a confirmed Neminist glorying in his Neminism, as Pascal’s
Father Joseph, the Jesuit, gloried in “interpretation” of the words
“murder” and “charity,” I am, sir (and I hope my frequent use
of this monosyllable will not annoy you, for the first Neminist,
Plato, uses <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">Ω Σωκρατες</span> [Greek: Ô Sôkrates] quite as frequently, though his expression
requires four times as much wind or space as mine), I say, then,
that I am always anxious to be thought well of by people who are
on top or are getting there, in order, to use your own undignified
and cruel metaphor in the Rev. Mr. Lyman Abbott’s journal of news
and Christianity, that I may continue “to hold down” my position
as the janitor and Professor of Leibnitzian Monadology in the
University of Mentiphysics. But there are times, sir, when even
a feminist rises above his interest, and, like Richelieu in the play,
exchanges the lion’s and the fox’s skins. In short, I beg to inform
you that I believe that you, seeing the growing attachment of the
vulgar mob for the <i>Wissenshaftliche Pädagogie</i> of the Robinson
Crusoeans or concentrationists, have had the thought to sap the
foundations of their success by vulgarizing our noble monopoly of
Neministic science, and I should not be at all surprised to see your
name, after a little, as the editor of a “Journal of Psycho-Materno-Kinder
Apperceptics,” or of a strictly American “Great Educator
Series,” beginning with Pontiac and ending with Jim Fiske.</p>
<p>Or perhaps, sir, you are actuated by deeper motives. Our university
has not yet received the complimentary copy of your work
on Imperial Democracy, the Government probably holding it back
until General Young can catch Mr. Aguinaldo, but I see by the
publishers’ lists that it is out. Now, it is easy to see that if Imperial
Democracy gets within a stone’s throw of China it will get <i>into</i>
China, and, with your knowledge of Aristotle’s Politics and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">496</a></span>
Highbinders in Chinatown, you can not have failed to have recognized
that Neminism and Orientalism are very similar. To be or
not to be; to be alive or to be dead; to be drunk or to be sober—’tis
all the same for the people; ’tis <i>Nirvana</i>. You wish to vulgarize
Neminism. What follows your success? Immediately
every State will make it an obligatory study in the public schools,
and when, in the distant future, we meet the Chinamen face to
face, we will be ready to exterminate them or be exterminated by
them; for it is an axiom of sociology, which it is to be hoped Mr.
Giddings will see the value of and will in the next edition of his
Social Euclid make number one, that when two societies completely
differing in origin, history, manners, institutions, and laws come
together they start in the more quickly to cut each other’s throats
when they have a common idea in which they can locate a difference,
and hence find a logical excuse to begin.</p>
<p>I would have preferred that our president had taken up this
unpleasant task of criticising your mischievous efforts to vulgarize
our beautiful science, which, like the true religion of the Egyptians,
should be retained <i>sub rosa</i> in the temples; but she, as you yourself
have said, does not like controversial publicity, and has often
remarked that our science is like the mushroom, for, though it is
the child of darkness and Byzantian filth, it is eminently adapted
to be retained by weak stomachs, while for others it may be nauseating.
I am, sir, very respectfully,</p>
<p class="sigright">
<span class="smcap">Anacharsis Pangloss</span>, <i>M. Plane</i>.
</p>
<p class="p2">Though religiously refraining from introducing my own personality
in the foregoing, it being a cardinal point in our science that
it is good form to appear modest—<i>videri quam esse</i>, as was said of
Cato—I am, nevertheless, obliged to observe that I am not at all
in any way related to the Dr. Pangloss, LL. D., A. S. S., mentioned
in the play of the Heir at Law, nor yet, though perhaps more spiritually
akin, to that other Dr. Pangloss—Dr. Leibnitz Pangloss,
the tutor of Candide mentioned by the late Monsieur Voltaire of
happy memory. Dr. L. Pangloss, a fine old fellow at bottom, was
engaged in showing how, in the best possible words, a cause always
precedes its effect; for instance, Monsieur the Baron Thunder den
Trockendorf has a nose, argues he—it will carry spectacles, hence
the nose was created for spectacles, and spectacles are created. It
is plain that Dr. L. Pangloss was a scientist. Now, I am a sociologist,
and it is the hope of my life to fill the chair of Monadology in
the new American university, where I intend to show that while
the rich are becoming richer the poor will become richer than the
rich in contemplating how much more satisfaction the rich get out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">497</a></span>
of their riches than they, the poor, get out of their poverty. This,
as you will at once recognize, is in the line of what Mr. Lester
Ward calls Dynamic Sociology, and, though it is not the acme of
the application of dynamics such as that which knocked Hebraism
out of Saul of Tarsus, I beg to remind you that, until German science
has made further progress in the application of electricity, we
lack the means of producing the necessary phenomena by which
alone such effects can be secured.</p>
<p class="sigright p0">
A. P.
</p>
<hr />
<h2 title="Correspondence" id="correspondence">Correspondence.</h2>
<h3>FAITH AND KNOWLEDGE.</h3>
<p class="in0"><i>Editor Popular Science Monthly</i>:</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: In your editorial, in the issue of
September, you speak of “faith as the
organ of religious apprehension.” This
suggests some important facts that are
not always apprehended, or are forgotten.
There is no organ for the discovery,
the proof, or the apprehension of
truth but reason, whether facts of Nature
or of religion. “Faith” is not a
sixth sense which we do not use in scientific
pursuits, but which comes to our
help when we seek for religious truth.
Much of the difficulty comes from the
fact that the word “faith” is ambiguous,
having two meanings, which are
not distinguished. It is (1) simply belief
of a fact because of evidence presented
to and apprehended by the reason;
or is it (2) trust, confidence in, belief
in, as in a person, resting on the
belief of that person’s competency and
truthfulness, that belief resting on evidence
apprehended by the reason. Because
of this “faith” in the person we
accept his testimony as to facts beyond
our personal cognizance, we believe them
not because we have discovered them, or
may be are competent to discover them,
but because of our “faith” in a person
whom we have seen reason to believe
is trustworthy—i. e., competent and
truthful.</p>
<p>Now, these two meanings of “faith”
are often confused, interchanged. Hence
the discredit thrown upon belief of religious
truth, because an illegitimate use
is made of the place of “faith” in its
justification. And writers defending religious
belief have been great sinners in
this illegitimate use of “faith.”</p>
<p>The place of “faith” is the same in
science as in religion—i. e., it is the condition
and justification of our acceptance
of truth which is beyond our personal
cognizance. We accept it because
of the testimony of men in whom
we have learned to have faith—e.g.,
How few of us who accept the revelations
of the spectrum analysis as to
the composition of the stars have any
other justification for accepting them
than just this? We believe them simply
because men, whom we, in the exercise
of our reason, have come to believe
competent and truthful, tell us
what they have seen. We believe on
their testimony because we trust them.
Our process involves three steps: (1) Belief
of their competence through appeal
to reason; (2) trust in them because of
this belief; (3) belief of their testimony
because of this trust or “faith” in
them. The only organ we have used is
reason, in its initial act of belief of the
competence and truthfulness of the witnesses.
Error in the use of reason here
vitiates all that follows. Correct use
of reason here gives a legitimate condition
for correct results of the other
steps. But reason must go along with
us and guide us in these, that we may
come to a rationally accepted belief of
the truth.</p>
<p>Here is the place of “faith” in science,
as belief and as trust. By its use
we accept the great issues of scientific
truth which we believe, and do it legitimately.</p>
<p>It is the same in all right acceptance
of religious truth. Here appears a person
in human history claiming to reveal
facts beyond our sphere of cognizance.
Now, the first (1) step is belief in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">498</a></span>
competence and truthfulness as a witness,
just as in cases of science. His only
appeal is to reason, our only organ for
apprehending truth. We, because of the
evidence presented to our reason, believe
him competent and truthful—i. e., trustworthy—and
we take the second step
(2), as in case of search for scientific
truth. We trust him, we have “faith”
in him. Then (3) we believe his testimony
as to facts beyond our cognizance,
as to God, as to the inner world and life,
as to his own person and work, and
his agency in helping us to the true life.
Here are the same three steps as in our
believing the great facts of science, and
they are equally legitimate, and the belief
is equally legitimate, and with the
same use of “faith” in both cases, which
use is legitimate if we have applied our
reason correctly.</p>
<p>It may be said that there is this difference
in the two cases: We are, it
may be, competent with training to perceive
with our reason the facts to which
the scientists witness, whereas in religion
we are not competent by any training,
in our present state, to see what
Jesus Christ testified to; therefore the
believing him is not legitimate.</p>
<p>Space forbids arguing this point, but
the writer is confident it can be shown
that this does not vitiate the process
in the least. The only point now argued
is that reason is the only organ of man
for the apprehension of truth, and that
“faith” acts the same part in scientific
and religious belief.</p>
<p class="sigright b0">
<span class="smcap">John R. Thurston.</span></p>
<p class="p0"><span class="smcap">Whitinsville, Mass.</span>, <i>September 30, 1899</i>.
</p>
<p class="p1">[The point which our correspondent
discusses is one which falls rather within
the province of theology or philosophy
than within that of science. In the article
to which he refers we did not distinctly
say that “faith” was “the organ
of religious apprehension.” What
we said was that <i>granting</i> such was the
case, the question still remained to be
settled where the line should be drawn
between faith and knowledge. We doubt
whether the account which our correspondent
gives of faith would be widely
accepted by those who approach the
subject from the theological side, while
those who approach it from the scientific
side would—at least many of them
would—be disposed to consider the term
one which might better be dispensed
with in favor of the less ambiguous
word “belief.” Belief is the inclination
of the mind toward a proposition for
which absolute or demonstrative proof
is wanting, and it is this condition of
mind, it seems to us, that our correspondent
has in view. Faith in the religious
sense, unless we are mistaken, is
something different. It is an affirmation
made by the human conscience or
consciousness in its own behalf—a certain
instinctive recognition of a presence
and power in the universe which, though
inaccessible to scientific investigation,
sustains an intimate, profound, and all-essential
relation to man’s moral nature.
If trust in an individual ever rises to
the level of faith in this sense, it is because
the influence of the individual
harmonizes with and re-enforces the primal
instinct. That, at least, is how we
view the matter.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p>
<h3>FISKE’S VIEWS COMPARED.</h3>
<p class="in0"><i>Editor Popular Science Monthly</i>:</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: Will you permit me to say a
few words supplementing your review
of Through Nature to God? To those
who have perused Mr. Fiske’s latest
three scientifico-theological booklets,
and also his Cosmic Philosophy, it can
not be new that their author has become
entangled in hopeless contradictions of
himself. The limited space of a letter
does not allow of adducing more than
one remarkable passage from Cosmic
Philosophy, demonstrating the antithesis
between the arguments of this work
and Mr. Fiske’s latest opinions, these
new thoughts having been developed, as
he tells us, by “carrying such a subject
about in his mind for” twenty-five
years. We are told in Through Nature
to God (page 12) that “it has usually
been found necessary to represent the
Creator as finite either in power or in
goodness, although the limitation is seldom
avowed, except by writers who
have a leaning toward atheism and take
a grim pleasure in pointing out flaws in
the constitution of things. Among modern
writers” Comte and Mill are conspicuous
for such a “leaning toward
atheism.” Then we are informed (page
20) that the “shock which such a clear,
bold statement gives to our religious
feelings is no greater than the shock
with which it strikes counter to our
modern scientific philosophy.” And a
little further on we find that “the God
which Mr. Mill offers us, shorn of the
attribute of omnipotence, is no God
at all.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">499</a></span>
If the reader will now open Cosmic
Philosophy, he is told in vigorous language
(vol. ii, p. 405) that “if there
exist a personal Creator of the universe
who is infinitely intelligent and powerful,
he can not be infinitely good; if,
on the other hand, he be infinite in goodness,
then he must be lamentably finite
in power or in intelligence. By this
two-edged difficulty, theology has ever
been foiled.” Then (vol. ii, p. 406) Mr.
Fiske, quoting from Mill, expresses his
entire concurrence with the views of
this eminent thinker, and adds (vol. ii,
p. 407), “With Mr. Mill, therefore, ‘I
will call no being good who is not what
I mean when I apply that epithet to
my fellow-creatures.’ And, going a step
further, I will add that it is impossible
to call that being good who, existing
prior to the phenomenal universe and
creating it out of the plenitude of infinite
power and foreknowledge, endowed
it with such properties that its
material and moral development must
inevitably be attended by the misery of
untold millions of sentient creatures for
whose existence their Creator is ultimately
alone responsible.”</p>
<p>No comment of mine can show more
clearly than the passages cited above
the “conversion” of Mr. Fiske, against
which imputation so much subtle ingenuity
is expended in the preface to
The Idea of God.</p>
<p>That Mr. Fiske is merely reviving
gross anthropocentric views he himself
admits. To him, man is “the goal toward
which Nature’s work has been
tending from the first.” But might not
also some pithecoid ancestors of ours
have deemed themselves the “goal toward
which Nature had been tending
from the first”? What is Nature’s goal
in the endless cycle of evolution in
which life is but an infinitesimal part?
But with Huxley I believe that “it
would be a new thing in history if <i>a
priori</i> philosophers were daunted by a
factious opposition of experience.” Mr.
Fiske’s latest writings, as all theodicies,
bear testimony to the truth of Huxley’s
scathing remark.</p>
<p>But granting, for the sake of the argument,
that “in the deepest sense it is
as true as it ever was held to be, that the
world was made for man,” there is an
objection to be raised on moral grounds
stronger than any that could be founded
on scientific arguments. Had this world
been created for man, entailing, as it
does, the “misery of untold millions of
sentient creatures,” who but the crassest
egotist could worship this Fiskean God
of iniquity?</p>
<p>The careful student of Thomas Huxley’s
works may be surprised to find
Through Nature to God “consecrated”
to the memory of him whose life work
was devoted to “untiring opposition to
that ecclesiastical spirit” that shines
through every page of Mr. Fiske’s latest
writings. I echo Mr. Fiske’s words: “I
can never cease to regret that Huxley
should have passed away without seeing
my [Mr. Fiske’s] arguments and
giving me the benefit of his comments.”
The last stroke of Huxley’s pen was
giving Mr. Balfour “the benefit of his
comments”; would that he could have
given them to the author of the excursion
Through Nature to God!</p>
<p class="sigright b0">
<span class="smcap">B. A. Behrend.</span></p>
<p class="p0"><span class="smcap">Erie, Pa.</span>, <i>December 5, 1899</i>.
</p>
<p class="p2 in0"><i>Editor Popular Science Monthly</i>:</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: Your trenchant criticism of Mr.
John Fiske’s discussion of the mystery
of evil recalls Mr. Spencer’s reminder
that “there is a soul of truth in all
things erroneous.”</p>
<p>Mr. Fiske certainly has not made it
plain that the meaning of the universe
is to be found (exclusively) in the
higher developments of love and self-sacrifice;
but is it not equally a mistake
to say inferentially that “on a broad
view of the world-wide struggle for life
there are no moral elements to be seen”?
If we define morality as the equivalent
merely of love and self-sacrifice, the ever-present
love of mother and, in a degree,
of father for the offspring imperatively
negatives such a conclusion.</p>
<p>But morality is something more than
love and self-sacrifice. Morality is right
conduct, and right conduct in the last
analysis is conformity to the conditions
of existence. The nearer the conformity,
the more complete the life, and life
approaches completeness only as the activities
of men cease to be impeded by
each other’s aggressions, the highest life
being reached when men help to complete
one another’s lives.</p>
<p>Conversely, evil must be defined as
nonconformity to the conditions of existence.
Slowly but surely man is learning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">500</a></span>
these conditions, and as he learns
it is not to be doubted that “evil”
will lessen. If we affirm acquisition
of knowledge by man, we must postulate
a precedent or “necessary” condition
of ignorance. Hence it may be
truthfully said that evil is a necessary
correlative, and in a manner the necessary
condition of good; and also, I
think, that a broad view of the worldwide
struggle for life shows not an absence
of moral elements, but rather that
the ethical is inherent in the very nature
of animate things.</p>
<p>We may not all share Mr. Fiske’s
exuberant optimism, and many can not
accept his teleological implications, but
of the ultimate triumph of good over
evil, of knowledge over ignorance, we
may not doubt.</p>
<p class="sigright b0">
<span class="smcap">Frank M. Loomis.</span></p>
<p class="p0"><span class="smcap">Buffalo</span>, <i>November 10, 1899</i>.
</p>
<h3>THE LOCATION OF VINLAND.</h3>
<p class="in0"><i>Editor Popular Science Monthly</i>:</p>
<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I beg to take exception to the
exploded Boston theory again revived
by Miss Cornelia Horsford in the last
number of your valuable magazine. It
is astonishing to notice how little Prof.
G. Storm’s excellent prize essay and Mr.
Reeve’s careful edition of the text of
sagas seem to have availed against the
misplaced patriotism that persists in
carrying those Norse explorers down to
New England in the face of the numerous
difficulties with which this feat is
associated. If I am not mistaken, not a
single historian or antiquarian of note
has taken Professor Horsford’s extremely
unscientific treatment of the sagas or
his Norse discoveries seriously, and the
sober verdict of Mr. Thorsteinn Erlingsson
and Dr. V. Gudmundsson on the
alleged Norse ruins seems to show that
Miss Cornelia Horsford has met with no
better success. To refute all the philological
curiosities and illogical conclusions
drawn by Professor Horsford in
his ten treatises on the subject would,
however, require a book of at least five
hundred pages, and nobody seems to
think the question important enough to
warrant such an output. The fact that
Mr. A. H. Keane, in his recent work,
Man, Past and Present, takes it for
granted that the Norsemen met with
Eskimos in New England in the year
1000 seems to prove, however, that this
persistence in defending a baseless supposition
is not merely a matter of innocent
patriotism. Fortunately, the current
year, which marks the nine hundredth
anniversary of the discovery, will
be sure to see some valuable new treatises
on the subject, and those who are
sufficiently interested furthermore need
only consult the above-mentioned books
to discover how many serious objections
the New England theory really has to
contend with. Permit me to mention
one of them. Cape Cod has, it is true,
one singular feature that suggests the
Keel Cape of the best version of the Vinland
manuscripts—viz., sandy shores.
As everybody can see for himself, however,
by consulting Mr. Reeve’s book,
the explorers sailed south from Keel
Cape on the eastern shore till the country
became indented with bays. At the
mouth of one of these they established
their first winter quarters (the so-called
Streamfirth), and the next fall proceeded
still farther south for a considerable
time till they came to “Hop,” the true
Wineland. The extraordinary ease with
which Professor Horsford, in his book
Landfall of Leif Ericson, undertakes to
chop up this version, in order to make
the explorers return to Boston from
Cape Cod instead of continuing on their
course, is something remarkable in the
annals of historical research. But even
then his theory fails utterly to satisfy
the critical reader. The trouble with
most of the writers on this subject, not
excluding a professional historian like
Prof. John Fiske, is that they have failed
to sift the material or see the force of
Professor Storm’s criticism of the Flat
Island version. This being done, everything
falls into line for the Nova Scotia
theory, due consideration being given to
the fact that an oral tradition of at
least one hundred years intervened between
the events narrated and the first
somewhat extended written record.</p>
<p>While, therefore, owing to the last-mentioned
fact, it is not altogether impossible
that the Norsemen reached New
England, it should be distinctly understood
that such a conclusion can only
be drawn on archæological lines, the
test of the sagas pointing clearly in the
opposite direction.</p>
<p class="sigright">
<span class="smcap">Juul Dieserud.</span></p>
<p><span class="smcap">Field Columbian Museum, Chicago</span>,<br />
<span class="in4"><i>December 7, 1899</i>.</span>
</p>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">501</a></span></p>
<h2 title="Editor’s Table" id="editor">Editor’s Table.</h2>
<h3><i>THE WAR SPIRIT.</i></h3>
<p class="drop-cap3"><span class="smcap1">It</span> must be a matter of deep regret
to all right-thinking men
that there should have been during
the latter half of the century now
expiring so marked a revival of the
war spirit. In the middle of the
century it was thought by many
that the world had learned wisdom
from the terrible experiences of the
past, and that with the development
of international trade war would
become an outworn mode of settling
international controversies.
How different a turn things were
destined to take need not here be
told. Coming to recent events,
however, we may say that it is lamentable
our own country could not
have won by peaceful means whatever
advantages it has secured by
its recent war with Spain. Equally
lamentable is it that Great Britain,
the other great representative of
Anglo-Saxon civilization, should at
this moment be engaged in a still
bloodier struggle over questions
which it is hard to believe could not
have been settled by negotiation.
“Whence come wars and fightings
among you?” is a question that was
asked very long ago, and we do not
know that it is possible to improve
on the answer then given: “From
your lusts.”</p>
<p>We do not say that a nation
should not resist to the death a distinct
aggression on its liberties or
its independence. We do not say
that when horrors are being enacted
in any part of the world force may
not righteously be employed to arrest
them; but it is clear to our
mind that, in the present age, wars
between civilized countries might be
almost wholly avoided if more reliance
were placed upon moral force
and less rein given to the impulse
to employ physical force. This is
a matter for the people in any state
enjoying free institutions to take
to heart. Let every man in a time
of national difficulty ask himself
this question: “Do I personally
want to have blood shed over this
matter?” Or this one: “Am I personally
indifferent whether or not
this dispute ends in bloodshed?”
If a nation or the majority of a nation
wants to have blood shed over
a dispute with another nation, or is
indifferent as to whether that shall
be the outcome, the discussion will
be carried on in a very different
spirit from what it would be if there
were a pronounced aversion to such
a result. With nations, as with individuals,
everything depends upon
the spirit and ulterior purpose with
which a question is approached.
The cases must be very few in
which a great nation, safe itself
from attack, might not, in any matter
in which minor interests are involved,
resolve within itself that it
will not resort to war—that it will
work, and continue to work, on
moral lines, trusting that, if it has
right on its side, it will in due time
carry its point. If blood cries from
the ground against the slayer, what
must be the responsibility of those
who heedlessly and ruthlessly give
their voices for war, when patience,
moderation, and disinterestedness
would have better accomplished
every legitimate purpose? Slaughter
is slaughter, murder is murder,
however we may seek to weaken
their import by a conventional
treatment. War is mutual murder
carried on professionally and systematically.
Yet the primal command
still makes its solemn appeal
to the human heart and conscience:
“Thou shalt not kill.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">502</a></span>
It is, unfortunately, only too
easy to cultivate the military spirit
in almost any nation, and the military
spirit, it need hardly be said,
is the spirit that seeks quarrels.
To the military man war means
excitement, emulation, reputation,
promotion, subject of course to the
possibility of injury or death. No
one denies that deeds of heroism
and self-devotion are done on the
battlefield; but that men should acquit
themselves nobly in the field is
no compensation for the horrors of
a war brought on by the predominance
of the military spirit.</p>
<div class="poem-container">
<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="iq">“‘Great fame the Duke of Marlborough won,<br /></span>
<span class="i4">And our good Prince Eugene.’—<br /></span>
<span class="i0">‘Oh, ’twas a very wicked thing,’<br /></span>
<span class="i4">Said little Wilhelmine.”<br /></span>
</div></div>
</div>
<p class="in0">And every war is wicked and detestable
that could consistently with
national honor be avoided. When
we say “honor” we do not mean
“reputation.” Reputation depends
on the canons of judgment prevailing
among those who presume to
award it. In a dueling community
a man’s reputation might suffer
by declining a challenge, but his
honor would be intact if he declined
from sincere unwillingness to do a
wrong act. There is much honor
sometimes in sacrificing reputation,
particularly the “bubble reputation”
that is won “in the cannon’s
mouth.” Every appeal to the sword
weakens the reliance placed upon
principles of justice, and thus undoes
a vast amount of the work of
peace. When war is once set on
foot, the national judgment is more
or less blinded. True, it is the action
of a majority of the people
only—admitting that a majority
wanted it—but who is uncompromising
enough, when his country’s
armies are in the field, to proclaim
that they are fighting in a wrong
cause? A few may do it, but they
do it at their peril. In all other
matters a minority may censure
with any degree of severity the policy
of the majority, but not in the
matter of a war once entered on.
Yet how perverting such a situation
is to right judgment, and how injurious
an effect it must have on the
rising generation, are only too apparent.</p>
<p>These reflections may not at
first sight seem to have a very direct
bearing on the interests for
which this magazine is supposed to
stand, but to our mind science, in
the broad sense, has no function so
important as that of settling the
education of the young upon a right
<i>moral</i> basis. No system of education
deserves to be called scientific
that does not place the idea of justice
at the very foundation of human
life. You can not do this, however,
without making it a working
principle, and without inculcating
a belief in it as such. Applying the
principle to national affairs, we see
at once that a strong nation which
desires to be just will take no
advantage of its strength in its
dealings with other nations. If
it has a demand to make, it will
make it simply in the name of justice,
and cast no sidelong glances
at its up-to-date battle ships or
its well-equipped battalions. It
will have unbounded patience with
weaker communities, which, rightly
or wrongly, may seem to think they
have right on their side. It will not
be ashamed to shrink from the shedding
of blood. The “young barbarians”
of our public schools are
always only too ready to exalt might
above right; but the judicious teacher
into whom the true spirit of science
has entered will seize every
favorable opportunity for inculcating
the great lesson that the moral
law has a way of vindicating itself
in the end, and that the inheritance
of the earth has been promised not
to the quarrelsome or the overweening,
but to the meek. A generation
brought up on these principles
would be slow to make war, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">503</a></span>
their influence on the world would
be in every way powerful for good.</p>
<h3><i>LANGUAGE AND LIFE.</i></h3>
<p>The ordinary school education
in language and grammar is doubtless
responsible for the impression
which we find existing in so many
minds that, in all matters of verbal
expression, there is some one absolute
standard of authority to which
it implies simply ignorance not
to bow—some supreme court, as it
were, empowered to decide for us
what words we are to use, how we
are to pronounce them, and what
rules of syntax we are to follow. It
would be difficult, doubtless, to impart
to children or very young people
the wider and more scientific
view of language, inasmuch as they
need, in the first place, clear guidance
as regards usage rather than
correct theory. The idea, therefore,
with which they grow up, if their
school studies take any hold upon
them at all and if no wider culture
comes to change their way of looking
at things, is that some very wise
man made an infallible grammar
and another very wise man an infallible
dictionary, and that no one
need be in doubt in regard to what
is orthodox in language who has access
to these tables of the law. We
have known grown-up persons to
turn away with a very skeptical air,
and a kind of look as if they had
found out a weak spot in your
educational armor, when they were
told that really it was impossible
to say which of two pronunciations
of a word was right and which
was wrong—that either might be
employed without mortal offense
against elegance of speech or good
breeding.</p>
<p>A hidebound view of language
tends so much to narrow thought
on general subjects that it seems
to us of importance that the true
and scientific view of the subject
should be brought forward whenever
opportunity offers. Mr. William
Archer, the well-known English
critic, contributed an article not
long ago to the Pall Mall Magazine
which might be read with much advantage
by pedants and purists, and
all blind followers of authority. He
takes the broad ground that language
is a transcript, as it were, of
life, and that as life widens and becomes
more varied, language must
do the same. It must reflect the
fancy, the imagination, and the humor
of the day, and not merely the
fancy, imagination, and humor of
past generations. If we want a language
that is fixed and unalterable
in its forms we must seek one that
has ceased to be spoken by men.
Even then we can not always get
absolute decisions. Cicero is perhaps
the best standard of Latin prose,
but no competent critic would say
that his writing was flawless. We
know that grammatical questions
were much debated among the ancients,
and we have no doubt that
many such questions were left unsettled.
In a living language there
must be unsettled questions. There
is a constant struggle for life going
on among the words and phrases
with which men endeavor to express
their ideas, and, at a given moment,
it is impossible to say which shall
prosper, this or that. The word or
phrase that prospers—that commends
itself, after adequate trial,
for expressiveness, convenience, or
euphony, or for any combination of
useful qualities—will survive and
become classic; the expression that
has nothing special to commend it,
beyond its novelty and slanginess,
will probably pass, after a brief and
partial currency, into the vast limbo
of the unfit. All we can say of a
word at a given moment is how far
it has actually become current and
what kind of society it keeps. What
its fortune will be we can only
guess. Just as in the financial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">504</a></span>
world great fortunes are sometimes
very suddenly made and names before
obscure spring into world-wide
notoriety, so, in the realm of language,
a word of very uncertain
ancestry and no social repute may
assert its right to recognition and
take its place among the best.</p>
<p>It does not follow from this that
it can ever be a matter of indifference
what words we use or what
tricks we play with language, any
more than it can be a matter of indifference
what personal habits we
adopt. Language is the clothing of
our thoughts, and as such it may
exhibit the same qualities which attach
to the clothing of our bodies.
It may be marked by neatness and
propriety, or by slovenliness and
want of taste. Some men are over-dressed,
and some affect over-fine
language. Some go after the latest
novelties in the tailoring world, and
some after the latest slang, asserting
thereby their resolution to be up
to date. It is needless to draw the
parallel further, but it is evident
that there is wide scope in the
choice of language for the exhibition
of personal preference and personal
character. We think it safe
to say that the interests of a language,
considered as an instrument
of thought, will be best promoted
by those who pay due respect to its
established forms, and only countenance
such neologisms as make good
their claim to acceptance by supplying
a real want. Mr. Archer, in
the article we have referred to,
states, and we do not doubt with
truth, that the English language has
been greatly enriched and strengthened
by the fact that it has been
spoken and written by millions of
people on this side of the Atlantic,
leading an intense and vigorous life
of their own, under conditions very
different in many respects from
those prevailing in the mother country.
The language moves with a
freer step, beats with a stronger
pulse, and assumes a more imperial
bearing from the fact that it expresses
the activity and sums up the
life of the foremost communities
of the human race in both hemispheres.</p>
<p>A great classical scholar not
long ago wrote a letter to an English
weekly newspaper expressing a
very contemptuous estimate of the
French language, as being only a degraded
form of Latin. He thought it
a great disgrace to the language that
it had no better word for “much”
than <i>beaucoup</i>, which, as he learnedly
explained, came from two Latin
words meaning “fine” and “blow.”
The most cursory examination of
any language will show that it
abounds in just such verbal devices.
We do not in English put the words
“great” and “stroke” together,
but, using them separately, we say
“a great stroke” of luck and of
many other things when there is no
question of “striking” at all. In
the same way we would say “a great
hit,” when there is no question of
hitting, except by remote analogy.
Languages grow rich and flexible
precisely by the adoption of such
convenient combinations. What
they may originally have meant becomes
a matter of little moment
when once they have become thoroughly
accepted and thoroughly expressive.
After they have become
welded together, as sometimes happens,
in one word, it is an advantage
rather than otherwise if the separate
meanings of their constituent
parts become lost to all except the
professional etymologist. As long
as the separate parts retain their
separate meaning some sense of incongruity
will sometimes arise in
connection with the use of the term.
Thus to say “a handful of corn” is
all right, but one might feel that it
was not all right to say “a mere
handful of men.” Yet it would be
futile to criticise the expression
which has become idiomatic English.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">505</a></span>
If the word “handful” had
parted with its essential meaning as
completely as say the word “troop”
has, for all but etymologists, there
would be no kind of incongruity in
its employment for any small number
or quantity whatsoever.</p>
<p>The scientific view of language,
then, is that it represents the effort
of mankind to use audible symbols
for the expression of thought; that
it follows the development of man’s
activity and enlarges with his enlarging
knowledge, and comprehension
of things; that while its object
is essentially a practical one it
gathers beauty with use and age,
and begins to react on the minds of
its makers; that its makers are the
people, not the grammarians, these
being merely its policemen, who,
useful in general, are sometimes too
officious; that great writers are the
architects who felicitously arrange
materials which the people have
gathered and shaped, placing the
best of such materials where they
can be seen to best advantage; finally,
that the language of each nation
is its most precious possession, the
record of its civilization, and the
repository of all that is best in its
moral and intellectual life, and that
it is therefore the duty of all who
make any pretensions to liberal
training to watch over their heritage
and, while allowing all reasonable
scope for further development,
to guard it by all means in their
power against degradation and pollution.
A great people will have a
great language: when a language
shows signs of weakness or declension,
there is reason to fear for the
civilization of which it is the expression.</p>
<hr />
<h2 title="Fragments of Science" id="fragments">Fragments of Science.</h2>
<p><b>“Dark Lightning.”</b>—The attention
of meteorologists and photographers has
been engaged to a considerable extent,
within a few months past, with the appearance
on photographs of lightning of
what seemed to be dark flashes as well
as bright ones. In the effort to account
satisfactorily for the phenomenon it has
been referred to photographic reversal,
due to extreme brilliancy; to a predominance
of infra-red radiations; to the
existence of flashes deficient in actinic
rays; to changes in the density of the
air occasioned by the spark, when a
dark line with a light line within it is
shown if the air is compressed, and a
light line inclosing a dark one if it is
rarefied; and to some qualities of the
photographic plate. The first real light
was thrown on the subject by some experiments
described by Mr. A. W. Clayden,
who, having photographed some
electric sparks of different intensities,
before developing the plates exposed
them to the diffused light of a gas flame.
The brilliant sparks then yielded images
which might either be called normal
with a reversed margin, or reversed with
a normal core, while the fainter images
were completely reversed—or, in other
words, came out darker than the background.
The “fogging” of the picture,
to produce this reversal, must be done
after the image of the flash is impressed;
for if it is done before, the image appears
lighter than the background. This
effect, which is called the “Clayden effect,”
is accepted as a satisfactory explanation
of the phenomenon by two of the
authors who have most studied it—Dr.
W. J. S. Lockyer and Prof. R. W. Wood,
of the University of Wisconsin. Professor
Wood, on repeating Mr. Clayden’s experiment,
obtained dark flashes without
any difficulty, but as they failed to appear
when the light of an incandescent
lamp was substituted for the electric
spark, he concludes that there is something
in the spark essential to the reversal.
Dr. Lockyer summarizes his conclusion
by saying that dark-lightning
flashes “do not exist in Nature, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">506</a></span>
their appearances on photographs are
due to some chemical action which
takes place in the gelatin film.”</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>“Warming Up.”</b>—“Warming up”
is the expressive term of general currency,
which Dr. E. G. Lancaster adopts
to denote the process in which one starting
on any work in a little while suffers
a short period of fatigue, from
which he soon recovers, to go on with
new and increased vigor. This occurs
in the course of walks, with students
engaged in earnest reading or in writing,
and in animals, as in dogs on the
chase, the animals pursued, and racehorses.
“It is said of two famous trotters,
each of which has reduced the
world’s record within a few years, that
the period of warming up was very
characteristic.... Athletes, especially
ball players, realize the importance of
practice just before the games, to be
followed by a slight rest. A pitcher
would hardly enter the box till he had
got his arm in working order by a few
minutes’ practice. Orators often are
dull at first, but warm up. It is said
that Wendell Phillips was often hissed
for his slow, uninteresting speech, but
rallied to the occasion at such times
with his masterly oratory.” Dr. Lancaster
has experimented on the phenomena,
using a method like those of Mosso
and of Lombard in the psychological
laboratory at Clark University, and
publishes the results, with details and
curves, in the papers of the Colorado
College Scientific Society. He tried ten
or twelve subjects, experimenting on
the middle finger of the right hand, and
gaining most of his results from four or
five persons. He finds that warming
up is general, but not universal. One
subject always did his best work first.
He likewise showed no warming up in
his mental work. The phenomenon
called “second mind” is closely allied
to warming up, but is not the same.
The author is of the opinion that the
importance of this process is greatly
misunderstood.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>Sixty Years’ Improvements in
Steamships.</b>—A review of what has
been accomplished in sixty years in the
improvement of transatlantic traffic,
given by Sir William H. White in his
address at the British Association on
Steam Navigation at High Speeds,
shows that speed has been increased
from eight and a half to twenty-two and
a half knots an hour, and the time of the
voyage has been brought down to about
thirty-eight per cent of what it was in
1838. Ships have been more than trebled
in length, about doubled in breadth, and
increased tenfold in displacement. The
number of passengers carried by a
steamship has been enlarged from about
one hundred to nearly two thousand.
The engine power has been made forty
times as great. The ratio of horse
power to the weight driven has been
quadrupled. The rate of coal consumption
per horse power per hour is now
only about one third what it was in
1840. Had the old rate of coal consumption
continued, instead of three thousand
tons of coal, nine thousand would
have been required for a voyage at
twenty-two knots. Had the engines
been proportionately as heavy as those
in use sixty years ago, they would have
weighed about fourteen thousand tons.
In other words, machinery, boilers, and
coal would have exceeded the total
weight of the Campania as she floats to-day.
“There could not be a more striking
illustration than this of the close relation
between improvements in marine
engineering at high speed. Equally true
is it that this development could not
have been accomplished but for the use
of improved materials and structural arrangements.”</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>American Advances in Forestry.</b>—The
Department of Agriculture having
determined to prepare a book for
the Paris Exposition, reviewing what
has been accomplished in scientific agriculture
in the United States, the Division
of Forestry will contribute to it a
short history of forestry in the United
States, with an account of the efforts of
private landholders to apply the principles
of forestry. Much more has been
accomplished in the United States in
the way of forestry than has been supposed.
Mr. Pinchot, the forester of the
division, holds that wherever private
owners have made the effort to use the
merchantable timber on their woodland
without injuring its productive power,
and to establish new forests, there has
been the intention of true forestry. The
methods may have been imperfect, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">507</a></span>
they have tended toward economic forest
management so far as their object
was the continued use of the land for
producing woods. Among the measures
looking in this direction Mr. Pinchot
mentions in his circular the practice
which has been adopted “because it
pays,” in some of the spruce lands of the
Northwest, of leaving the small trees
standing, so that the lumbermen can
return for a second crop earlier than
would otherwise be possible; and the
adoption by farmers of methods in getting
their wood, for saving the best
trees and promoting their growth and
that of the new ones; of keeping
sprout lands to be cut over regularly
and systematically, for periodical renewal,
and of tree planting on waste
places, hillsides liable to be washed, and
the banks of streams. Other forms of
planting are the institution of wind
breaks in the treeless West, and special
plantations for fence posts, etc. A kind
of forestry practice is likewise indicated
in the special pains that are taken
by farmers and in lumbering districts
to lessen the danger of fires. Forester
Pinchot desires that all the information
that can be gained be communicated to
him for the proposed article.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>Professor Putnam on the Origins
of the American Races.</b>—In his address
as retiring President of the American
Association, Prof. F. W. Putnam,
after expressing his high opinion of the
late Dr. D. G. Brinton and his scientific
labors, referred to the differences of
opinion that had existed between them
in respect to the origin of the American
peoples, and proceeded to expound his
own views on the subject. He regarded
the term “mound-builders” as comprehensive
enough to include all the
peoples who had left the marks of their
former presence in this country. Even
the shell heaps could not be regarded
as the work of one people. From the
time of the earliest deposits—which
were of great antiquity—to the present,
such refuse piles had been made and
many of the sites reoccupied, sometimes
even by a different people. So with the
mounds of earth and stone; many of
them are of great antiquity, while others
were made within the historic period,
and even during the first half of the
present century. These works were devoted
to a variety of purposes, and there
are many different kinds of them. Besides
the mounds, there are groups of
earthworks of a different order of structure,
that must be considered by themselves—great
embankments, fortifications,
and singular structures on hills
and plateaus that are in marked contrast
to the ordinary conical mounds,
and mounds in the form of animals and
of man. The considerable antiquity of
these older earthworks is proved by the
accumulation of mold and the forest
growth upon them. “If all mounds of
shell, earth, or stone, fortifications on
hills, or places of religious and ceremonial
rites, are classed, irrespective of their
structure, contents, or time of formation,
as the work of one people, and that
people is designated as the ‘American
Indian’ or the ‘American race,’ and considered
the only people ever inhabiting
America north and south, we are simply
... not giving fair consideration
to differences, while overestimating resemblances.”
Citing analogies between
our earthworks and Mexican structures,
and looking upon the Pueblos as a connecting
link, “we must regard the culture
of the builders of the ancient earthworks
as one and the same with that
of ancient Mexico, although modified by
environment. Our northern and eastern
tribes came in contact with this people
when they pushed their way southward
and westward, and many of their arts
and customs still linger among some of
our Indian tribes. It is this absorption
and admixture of the stocks that has
in the course of thousands of years
brought all our peoples into a certain
uniformity. This does not, however,
prove a unity of race.”</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>Heat Insulators.</b>—Mr. C. L. Norton
has made experiments, at the request
of Mr. Edward Atkinson, in order
to determine the relative efficiency of
several kinds of steam-pipe covering
now on the market; to ascertain the fire
risk attendant upon the use of certain
methods and materials employed for insulation
of steam pipes; to show the
gain in economy attendant upon the increase
of thickness of coverings; and to
find the exact financial return that may
be expected from a given outlay for covering
steam pipes. A method of experimentation
was adopted which represented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">508</a></span>
as nearly as practicable the conditions
existing in the actual use of
steam pipes. Of sixteen non-conducting
preparations tried, the most efficient
were found to be those made of cork;
next was a cover composed of an inner
jacket of earthy material and an outer
jacket of wool felt; and next magnesia.
In reference to the last substance it is,
however, observed that, while it is a
most effective non-conductor, the name
has been applied to many compounds of
which the greater part consist of carbonate
of lime or plaster of Paris, materials
which are not good as heat retardents.
Asbestos is merely a non-combustible
material in which air may be
entrapped, but, when non-porous, is a
good conductor of heat. Generally
speaking, a cover saves heat enough to
pay for itself in a little less than a year
at three hundred and ten ten-hour days,
and in about four months at three hundred
and sixty-five twenty-four-hour
days. The decision as to the choice of
cover must, however, come from other
considerations, as well as from that of
non-conductivity. Ability to withstand
the action of heat for a prolonged period
without being destroyed or rendered less
efficient is of vital importance. The
cork coverings were found to respond to
this test extremely well, and there can
be no question respecting magnesia; but
Mr. Norton does not consider it safe to
put upon a steam pipe wool, hair, felt,
or woolen felt in any form, though the
danger is not likely to accrue when an
inch of fireproof material stands between
the felt and the pipe. In general
it may be said that if five years is the
life of a cover, one inch is the most economical
thickness, while a cover which
has a life of ten years may to advantage
be made two inches thick. The method
of judging a pipe cover by the warmth
felt on putting the hand upon it is fallacious;
the sensation depends so much
upon the nature of the surface that it
utterly fails to give any idea of the
actual temperature.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>Effect of Sea Water on Soil.</b>—In
a paper read at the British Association,
1899, on the chemical effect of the salts
of the salt-water flood of November 27,
1897, on the east coast of England,
Messrs. T. S. Dymond and F. Hughes recorded
the remarkable result that, although
the proportion of salt left in the
soil was insufficient to prove injurious
to growing crops, the earthworms were
entirely removed, with the consequence
that very few crops were worth harvesting
the following year. In the next year
nine tenths of the salt at first present
had disappeared from the soil, and
young worms had again made their appearance,
but still the condition of the
soil remained unsatisfactory, the rate
of percolation of water through the
flooded earth being only one half as
rapid as through the unflooded. The
authors ascribe this to the action of the
chlorides of the sea water on the silicates
of the soil with the formation of
silicate of alumina in a gelatinous condition.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>The War against Monopolies.</b>—Mr.
Robert Ewen writes, in the Westminster
Review, demanding free bank
circulation as likely to be a very effective
weapon to be used in “the coming
contest with monopolists.” The subject
seems to have attracted official attention
in England in 1875, when Sir Stafford
Northcote was Chancellor of the
Exchequer. As chairman of the committee
appointed to inquire into the
working of the Bank Acts, he submitted
a memorandum showing that, while certain
items of the monopoly enjoyed by
the Bank of England had been withdrawn,
a residuum of restrictions on
issuing banks still remained unrepealed.
Some other countries have found a way
of giving elasticity to the currency by
buying in and laying aside their bonds,
as the United States has recently been
doing. This can not be done in Great
Britain, because the Bank of England
and the other bank monopolists block
the way. The bank is tied down by
acts of Parliament to buy and sell gold
at a fixed price, and this restriction has
been a cause of panics, whereas had gold
been allowed to rise and fall in price,
according to supply and demand, and
the bank got a free hand in dealing with
that commodity and in issuing legal
notes to supply the circulating medium,
“all would have gone well.” Foreign
protectionists now have the power to
prevent British goods from getting into
their markets by imposing heavy duties
on them, and at the same time forcing
their produce into British markets, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">509</a></span>
English laws allow them to get
gold from the English cheaper than
their goods can be obtained. “Suppose
a merchant in Britain buys £100,000
worth of corn from America and gives a
check on the Bank of England for the
amount of the purchase. The American
draws the £100,000 in gold and takes it
home; he will have to pay no export or
import duty thereon—indeed, the probability
is he may get a premium on the
gold in America. But reverse the transaction:
Suppose the British merchant
sold £100,000 worth of his goods to
America, there would, in the first place,
be the exorbitant duty imposed there
upon our manufactures of from forty to
fifty per cent. Or suppose our merchant
wished to buy corn or any American
produce in exchange for his goods in
place of bringing money, the case would
be different—it would tell against the
American farmer, who would get a less
price for his corn, etc., than he would
have done by free trade.” This instance
is given “to show how free trade in gold
would bring about free trade and reciprocity
between the United States and
Britain, and is applicable to every other
state with which we trade.... There
should be full scope given to all good
banks in the country, large or small, to
carry on banking business in the best
modern manner for the benefit of all
parties, so as to encourage and develop
all trades and industries.”</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>Rats and the Plague.</b>—In his introductory
address at the opening of the
London School of Tropical Medicine, Dr.
Manson preached a war of extermination
against rats with the vigor of Cato
calling for the destruction of Carthage.
“Were I asked,” he said, “how I would
protect a state from plague, I would
certainly answer, Exterminate the rats
as a first and most important measure.”
He added, “At the present juncture,
were I the responsible sanitary head of
any town in Europe, in anticipation of
a possibility compared to which in horror
and in destructiveness a general
European war would be a trifle, I would
do my best to have every rat and, if
possible, every mouse in my district
promptly exterminated.” Dr. Manson
does not reveal his plan of campaign.
Wholesale poisoning of sewers might
have serious disadvantages, and there
would be difficulties about inveigling
the rodent population of these subterranean
health resorts (as some enthusiasts
consider them to be) into a lethal chamber.
Are we to cry havoc and let slip
the <i>cats</i> of war? or to hurl an army of
snakes against the foe? In either case
we might find ourselves in the awkward
position of a king who had called a too
powerful auxiliary to his aid. Already
action is being taken on the rat theory
of plague. The French Government has
ordered that special precautions are to
be taken to prevent the importation
of rats in vessels from plague-stricken
places. It is to be hoped that similar
precautions will be taken in regard to
the transports which convey the Indian
contingent to the Cape, or the situation
there may become complicated by the
intervention of an enemy who will deal
destruction impartially to Boers and to
Britons.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>Forestry in California.</b>—As a remedy
for the devastation of the forest
lands of California, Marsden Manson,
having shown that Government administrations
with politics in them can not
be trusted in the matter, recommends
that all forest reservations and public
lands upon mountain slopes within the
borders of the State be granted to the
University of California in trust, for the
purpose of maintaining, developing, and
extending the water supply of those
regions forever. For this purpose the
regents should be empowered to lease,
under proper control, the timber cutting
and pasturage privileges of those
areas, and to use the resultant fund to
protect the catchment areas, to maintain
a college of practical forestry, to
construct reservoirs at such points as
may be necessary to the industries of
the State, and dispose of the water for
the benefit of the trust, to acquire
mountain lands to be added to the
catchment areas, and to do all such
things as may maintain wise systems
of forest and water conservation and
use. The extent of income-bearing property
which can be made available for
forest preservation and storage of flood
waters, Mr. Manson says, is far beyond
the general idea.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p><b>Another New Element.</b>—The mineral
pitchblende is distinguished for its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">510</a></span>
radio-activity, or the property it has of
emitting the peculiar light-rays which
have recently attracted attention. The
property has been attributed to the
presence of uranium, one of the most
radio-active among the known metals.
About a year ago the chemists M. and
Madame Curie, examining the different
substances in pitchblende, found among
them two new radiant substances, both
more active than uranium, which they
called polonium and radium. Polonium
was found to be closely akin to bismuth,
accompanying that metal in all
its reactions, but separable from it by
fractionation. Radium resembles barium
in its chemical reactions. Recently
M. A. Debierne, examining one of
the products of solution and precipitation
of pitchblende, observed intensified
radio-active properties in a portion containing
titanium, and on further investigation
found still another substance
showing the principal analytical properties
of titanium, but which emitted
extremely active rays. While these
rays were comparable with those observed
from polonium and radium, the
chemical properties are entirely different
from those of these substances. Radium,
however, is spontaneously luminous,
while the new substance is not.</p>
<hr />
<h2 title="MINOR PARAGRAPHS" id="minor">MINOR PARAGRAPHS.</h2>
<p>Some recent experiments were made
by Armand Gautier on the amount of
the chlorides contained in sea air. They
were conducted at the lighthouse at
Rochedouvres, situated about fifty-five
kilometres from the coast, during and
after the long continuance of a good
breeze directly inshore from the Atlantic.
The air was drawn through a long
tube containing glasswork, and this well
then analyzed. He found that in a litre
of air there was only 0.022 of a gramme
of chloride of sodium. Small as this
quantity is, it suffices, perhaps, with the
aid of the traces of sodium present, to
give sea air its tonic qualities.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>The second International Congress
on Hypnotism is to be held in Paris,
August 12 to 16, 1900, Dr. Jules Voisin
presiding. The programme of discussions
includes such topics as the terminology
of hypnotism, its relations to
hysteria, its application to general therapeutics,
the indications of it and suggestions
for the treatment of mental disease
and alcoholism, its application to
general pedagogy and mental orthopædics,
its value as a means of pathological
investigation, its relation to the
practice of medicine and to jurisprudence,
and special responsibilities arising
from the practice of experimental
hypnotism.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>The following is from a recent letter
to Science by Prof. James H. Hyslop, of
Columbia University: “So much has
been published far and wide this last
summer about my intention ‘to scientifically
demonstrate the immortality of
the soul within a year,’ that it is due to
the facts bearing upon the choice between
materialism and spiritism to say
that I have never made any such professions
as have been alleged. I wish
the scientific public that still has the
bad habit of reading and believing the
newspapers to know that I was careful
to deny that I made any such pretensions
as were so generally attributed to
me. More than one half the interviews
alleged to have been held with me were
the fabrications of reporters who never
saw me, and the other half omitted
what I did say and published what I
did not say.”</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>Some novel results have been obtained
by M. Baillaud, of the Toulouse
Observatory, France, from recent observations
of the annular nebula in Lyra
and comparisons with photographs taken
in 1890. Among them are the discovery
of small stars in the central space of
the ring, the existence of bright points
on the ring itself, a more distinct figure
of the central star on the later photographs,
giving it the aspect of a true
star, and greater brightness in the central
space, and certain changes in the
shape of the edge of the ring, which
shows at one point, more distinctly
than in 1890, an eminence indicating a
jet of matter escaping from the ring.
Other nebulæ, especially that called the
Dumb-bell and the nebula in the Crown,
are spoken of as exhibiting similar phenomena.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>The Chicago Manual-Training School,
which is said to be the first independent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">511</a></span>
manual-training school in the United
States, is now in its sixteenth year, having
been founded in 1883 by the Commercial
Club of Chicago. It has been,
since 1897, an integral part of the University
of Chicago. While its peculiar
feature is manual training, it also
furnishes instruction in the essential
studies of a high-school course. The shop
work and drawing are eminently practical.
The making of a machine, such
as a lathe or steam engine, is begun by
the pupils in the drawing room, and is
followed by them through the pattern-making
shop, the foundry, and the forge
room, and is perfected in the machine
shop. The forge tools and engine-lathe
tools are made by pupils. The courses
of the school include a business course,
a technological course, and a college
preparatory course.</p>
<h3>NOTES.</h3>
<p>The Massachusetts Institute of Technology
has received, by the will of Mr.
Edward Austin, deceased at the age of
ninety-four years, a bequest of $400,000,
the interest of which is to be used for
the assistance of needy and meritorious
teachers in prosecuting their studies.
In addition to this bequest, the institute
received, during 1898, an accession
of $928,000 to its general funds, and one
of $46,000 to its scholarship funds.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>At the recent meeting of the Allied
Scientific Societies, at New Haven,
Conn., Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the United
States Geological Survey, was chosen
to act as retiring President of the American
Association for the Advancement
of Science, in place of Prof. Edward
Orton, deceased.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>The meeting of the Allied Scientific
Societies of the United States was held
in New Haven, Conn., during holiday
week. It was much larger than either
of the meetings previously held, and was
attended by nearly five hundred members,
representing ten societies—viz., the
American Society of Naturalists, the
Association of American Anatomists,
the American Morphological, Physiological,
Psychological, and Chemical Societies,
the Society for Plant Morphology
and Physiology, the American Association
for the Advancement of Science,
and the Archæological Association
of America. The discussions were all
interesting.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>The great Roman Catholic Missionary
Society, the Sacred Congregation of
the Propagation of the Faith, is reported
to have sent a circular to all its missionaries
urging them to interest themselves
in the collection of natural-history
specimens for scientific societies
and institutions. This is intended, it is
said, to interest and encourage missionaries
who have a scientific bent, and to
inform the world that the Church is not
hostile to biological research.</p>
<div class="tb">* <span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">* </span><span class="in2">*</span></div>
<p>We have to record, among the later
deaths of men in science, the names of
Francis Guthrie, formerly Professor of
Mathematics in Graaff Reinet College
and afterward in South African College
till 1898, aged sixty-eight years; he was
interested in botany, on which he gave
public lectures, and, with Harry Bolus,
revised the order of Heaths for <i>Flora
capensis</i>; Prof. P. Knuth, botanist and
author of researches on the relations of
insects and flowers and on cross-fertilization,
at Kiel, Germany, aged forty-five
years; he had published two of the
projected three volumes of the <i>Handbuch
der Blüten Biologie</i>; Prof. R. Yatube,
Japanese botanist; Ferdinand Tiemann,
honorary Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Berlin; Alexander
McDougall, inventor, sixty years ago,
of an atmospheric railway, and since of
many useful mechanical and chemical
appliances, at Southport, England; Dr.
Camera Pestana, chief of the Bacteriological
Institute at Lisbon, Portugal, of
plague, which he contracted while experimenting
with it at Oporto; and
Prof. Elliott Coues, an American naturalist,
most distinguished in ornithology,
in Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore,
December 25th, after a surgical operation,
aged sixty-seven years; he had
been a professor in Norwich University,
Vermont, and in the National Medical
College in Washington, and had done
scientific work while in the military
service of the Government, in the Geological
Survey, and in the United States
Northern Boundary Commission; and
was the author of several books on ornithology
and on the Fur-bearing Animals,
besides editing the journals of
Lewis and Clark and other books of
American exploration.</p>
<hr />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">512</a></span></p>
<h2 title="PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED" id="publications">PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.</h2>
<p>Agricultural Experiment Stations.
Bulletins and Reports. Cornell University:
No. 172. The Cherry Fruit-Fly.
A New Cherry Pest. By M. V. Slingerland.
Pp. 20.—Maryland: Twelfth Annual
Report. Pp. 212.—Michigan: Horticultural
Department. No. 176. Strawberry
Notes for 1899. By L. R. Taft
and H. P. Gladden. Pp. 14.—Ohio: Press
Bulletin No. 202. Results of Sugar-Beet
Investigations in 1899, etc. Pp. 2.—United
States Department of Agriculture:
Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks.
By Henry S. Graves. Pp. 84.</p>
<p>American Chemical Society, Journal
of the. Vol. XXI, No. 12. December,
1899.</p>
<p>Blatchley, W. S. Gleanings from
Nature. Indianapolis: The Nature Publishing
Company. Pp. 348.</p>
<p>Capon Springs Conference, The Second,
on Education in the South. 1899.
Proceedings. Pp. 109.</p>
<p>Catlin, Charles A. Baking Powders.
A Treatise on the Character, Methods
for the Determination of the Values,
etc. Providence, R. I.: Rumford Chemical
Works. Pp. 40.</p>
<p>Field Columbian Museum, Chicago.
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of Mammals obtained by Thaddeus Surber,
chiefly in Oklahoma and Indian
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Notes on a Collection of Fishes and Amphibia
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Pp. 6. By S. E. Meek and D. G. Elliot.</p>
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to protect them and attract them to
our Homes. New York: The Macmillan
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<p>Manson, Marsden, San Francisco,
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100.</p>
<p>Morgan, William, 96 Bowery, New
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Correct Reason why the Magnetic Needle
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<div class="newpage p4 transnote">
<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="Transcribers_Notes" id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcribers’ Notes</h2>
<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not
changed.</p>
<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced
quotation marks retained.</p>
<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</p>
<p>Words originally printed in Greek are shown that way in some versions
of this eBook. English transliterations were added to all versions by
the Transcribers and are indicated by [Greek: ].</p>
<p>Page <a href="#Page_467">467</a>: “Magna Charta” was printed that way.</p>
<p>Page <a href="#Page_507">507</a>: Quotation beginning “we must regard” was not ended by a
closing quotation mark. Transcriber added one at the end of the
paragraph, after “prove a unity of race.”</p>
</div>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 47181 ***</div>
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